C HAPTER

8
Attentional Process

8.1 INTRODUCTION
moment of human life is in contact with a va
Human in a vast environment. Every
beings live
to stimulate the sense organs and thus, human
number of stimuli which have the potentiality
information from the environment. This proe
beings are capable of receiving a huge amount of
of receiving information from the vast environment is a sensory process of 'sensing' the environ.
ment. Human beings also organize whatever they sense. This leads to organized experience of the
sensed data--called 'perception'. But, human beings take in and use only a very small portion of
the available stimuli in the environment. This refers to a mechanism that operates in selecting and
processing of stimuli which are of great interest and highly valuable to us for adjustment. This
mechanism is called the attentional process. It is a sort of selective
perception. The present
chapter is devoted to this important mechanism that enables us to selectively perceive the objects,
persons or events from a wide range of stimuli and process the selected stimuli for the sake of
adjustment with the environment.

8.2 NATURE AND DEFINITION

Attention is a very common term of our
our attention to this or that everyday language. We often use the term
thing or situation,
attention from one thing to another etc.
All such
concentrating attention on something,like-giVing
shifting
as a faculty or
power that can be usages of the term lead us to
manipulated in any direction we wish to. think of attenuo
assumption is very simple. Attention indeed
a nower or faculty. Therefore, it
is more
is a However, not
behaviour, an act, a process of attending
Attending is a motivational preferable to call it attending than and
physiological prOcess.
range), We tend to select Out of a wide range of attention.
or interests. For only those stimuli (which ar within
example, when an
individual
which are related to our sent need states
other things placed on his
reading
is
deeply preser
involved in study, he isis not
table or the stimuli not aware o
around him in the a -the
212 reading ro
 Chapter 8
Attentional Process 213
sre.
Iemperatu re, .
different books on the
table, alarm clock,
ding room,
attached to the readir conversations going on by others in a room
furnishings in the room, ctc. Sometimes the acts like somebody' s
to the reading room and placing a
entry cup of tea on the
means that reader is selectively focusing on a reading table also go unnoticed. This
the
single
unding are not being noticed. Thus, the mechanism
surround
activity (reading) and the other stimuli of
of attentional
selective perception which is called attending. process is a process of
What follows from the above description about the nature of the
it selective process of perceiving certain stimuli and either process ofor attending,
a
is that
cognizance (mental awareness) of other ignoring
stimuli present in the environment.
not taking into
process of attendin; may be defined as follows: Accordingly, the
Attention is a term given to a perceptual process that selects certain input for
inclusion into our conscious experience or awareness in a given period of time.

From the above definition, it is obvious that attention is 'to attend' and 'to attend' is a state
of readiness to selectively bring certain stimuli of the environment into the focus of consciousness
or attention. Thus, the attentional process is characterized by:

(a) Attention is to attend: This refers to a process of attentional act and, therefore, it is
not a mental faculty or power.
(b) To attend: This denotes a state of readiness to take in or bring in certain stimuli or
aspects of the environment into one's centre of consciousness or focus of attention.
Thus, the attending person is mentally set to bring into his consciousness-a kind of
inclination to attend.
(c) It is a selective process to take in certain stimuli into one's focus (centre) of conscious-
ness. While attending, we do not respond indiscriminately to every stimuli or aspect of
environment, rather we respond selectively in terms of our need states, interests,
attitudes etc.
(d) The process of attention divides our field of consciousness (or experience) into
focus (centre) and margin. The events that are attended to are clearly perceived
because such events are taken into our focus field of consciousness while others are
either dimly perceived or not perceived at all because these are in the margin or

peripheries of the focal consciousness.

To understand the nature of attentional process, let us describe the process with an analogy
have earlier, the 'windows' to the
our sense organs are
of dish antenna on the roof. As we seen
amount of available information.
external world. These windows are capable of picking up any
blocks out some inputs and allows
But, there is a mechanism of regularity that filters or partially
are like dish antenna on the roof that can
others to get through. In this sense, our sense organs
television system selects only the signal for which
pick up all available signals. But, tuner in our
other signals are filtered out. In the same
it has been tuned by the viewer and the remaining
limit or block out the reception of stimuli in a selective
manner, the 'attentional processes
serves the function of tuning by filtering out the
manner. In this sense, the attentional process
This selective function or filtering function is
information selectively for being processed.
These processes serve various functions in the
governed by the centre (directed by brain).
functions. Some of these functions will be
organization of our perceptions and other cognitive
described in later sections of this chapter.
214 Paychology: The Study of Human
Behaviour

8.3 SOME ASPECTS OF ATTENTION

and have found
attentional process thr
sychologists have attempted to analyse the basic
interrelated aspects of attention. These are as follows:

8.3.1 Attention as a Postural Adjustment

while attending, we usually tend to adjust our body positions and the related sense organe
Such
way as to receive the particular stimuli most readily. In other words, we tend to sel
a of stimuli and situate the same int. the
or valuable stimuli from among a wide range
Significant
focus of attention. For tion of a patient our
ample, a physician in course of clinical examinatio,
stethoscope, we often notice that he bends a little towards the patients heart and chest
with
closes his eyes to shut out other distracting stimuli. This he does with a view to allow eve.often
ven the
faint beats of heart sounds or respiratory irregularities. While taking records of pulse rate, hehe
places the three fingers on the site of pulse beating and watches the wrist watch for a minute
and
mentally counts, judges the number of beats as well as the irregularities. Thus, he makes
possible postural adjustments of his body positions to take in the selected information into Ocus
of attention. Similarly we find athletes taking a particular posture on the starting point ofthe
track to take in the signal to start racing.
race

8.3.2 Attention as a Clearness in Consciousness

While attending the objects which are attended to, are relatively much more vivid or clear tha
those which are not attended to. At any given time, something is filtered out and taken into the
focus or centre of consciousness while others remain in the periphery or margin and, therefore, do
not provide any awareness of their presence or give only a dim or hazy awareness. For example,
when one is grossly involved in reading an interesting novel, the contexts of the novel will be in
his focus while other things such as ticking sounds of watch in the room, soft playing of radio
sounds, though potentially intense, remain in the margin and therefore do not give any vivid or
clear experience.

8.3.3 Attention as a Set Towards Action

Attention is a readiness to respond in a particular way to some stimuli situation. For example, in
military, the order "March' is responded to by armymen in a particular way-either they march
forward or backward-depending upon the prior command to get them ready to march on
command. The leader of the squad gives the
command-'squad forward march to get the
march'. Here the prior command is 'forward march karega'-this command is given karega
squad ready to march in a particular direction and then the final command 'march' is given. The
prior command induces readiness or make the squad mentally set to act upon the final command
without losing any time.
Thus, the attentional process has three interconnected
aspects. All these aspects are the pas
of a single complex act, Attention.
 Chapter 8 Attentional Process
215

OF ATTENTION
8.4 SPAN
ve have seen, of the wide range of stimuli around us, we attend to only a few. We have also
we
As
oted that attention divides our field of conscious experience into 'focus' and 'margin. The
note

or events that enter into focus stand out distinctly clear and the rest in
the margin
ahiects, things,
re either out of our consciousness or if at all, they give a very dim or hazy apprehension.
are
can simultaneousiy
At this point, an important question arises as to what number of objects 1n
focus? This question has been subjected to extensive experimental research.
exist in the
exis in a
the research studies have revealed that the capacity of attention is limited. As such,
neral,
gener
different tasks requiring
single act of attention, one can attend to only one object. Therefore, to
attentional resources cannot be simultaneously, because we have limited capacity of
carried out
information. In situations requiring to pay attention on two
different sets
process the incoming to one set
the principle of 'serial processing', i.e. attending
tasks, our attentional process follows listen to music and read
then to another. For example, you can probably not
of input and too
attentional resources for comprehension. Listening
simultaneously because reading requires as well as many
details
attentional resources to comprehend the aesthetic pleasure
requires which is
in music. Thus, both of these tasks require simultaneous or parallel processing'
inherent mechanism or process. However, if
in view of the limited capacity of attentional
not possible different tasks
learned or routinized, then it is possible to attend to two
the task is highly can drive the vehicle and
also talk to
For example, an efficient and perfect driver
simultaneously. in that case, parallel
by his side. This condition is called automacity and
the person sitting
be possible.
processing of attentional process may processing cannot be processed
in parallel
complex
Thus, when the two tasks requiring order one after another. This is
a
Therefore, such tasks are processed in serial attention
(simultaneously).
which is caused by the limits imposed by
central bottleneck in information processing
when the tasks are complex. have made
the of limitations of attentional process, psychologists
In order to ascertain range
attend to at a brief exposure, i.e.
a fraction
the number of objects one can
attempts to investigate is what we call span of attention
or perceptual
/10th of a second). This
of a second (usually observer can
attention refers to the amount of information and
of of stimuli at a single
span. Hence, the span a complex array
attention from among
take into his focus of instrument called Techistoscope.
On
span is by using an
determined
exposure. This varies within the
momentary has reported that our span of attention
the basis of several experiments, Miller is also commonly known as magic
number. It
minus two (7 +2)LThis
limit of seven plus or attend to a set of five to_seven
can simultaneously
means that in a given period of -tme we circumstances. Perhaps this is the
or more under special
numbers that can be
extended to nine number plate that contains only
four to
automobiles are given a
that motorbikes or other six to eight while the
mobile
numbers also range from
reason
numbers. Our landline phone are done keeping
in view the
five digit Such limits of numbering
numbers contain a maximum
of digits.
ten
such numbers more conveniently.
attention so that we may grasp and objective or
imited span of
in accordance with certain subjective
attention varies
However, this span of of the stimulus material, heterogeneity
factors such as organization defects of sensory
internal or external (stimulus) mental fatigue,
knowledge of result,
Or homogeneity of stimulus material,
etc.
Organ, presence of distracting stimuli
 Chapter 8 Attentional Process 217
narately. Thus, attention
attention sepa has the attribute of being divided
simultaneous focus. when two stimuli
This phenomenon is
require
subjected to
experimental studies which reveal mnany interesting facts.

8.7 DISTRACTION OF ATTENTION

The nhenomenon of distraction is ot
considerable interest.
anment which act as
destructor and our attention is distracted.There some stimuli in the
are

aftention has widely been studied experimentally. Studies on Effect of noise as destructor a

nSvchologists working in organizations and industries. distraction is also forimportant

Studies have revealed that distraction of
attention is not only caused
factors but also by individual
(subjective) factors such as lack of ability by environmental
to concentrate,
moivational states, habits etc. impinging

8.8 KINDS OF ATTENTION

Attentional process is classified into three
types-voluntary, involuntary and habitual.

8.8.1 Voluntary Attention

Voluntary attention is of
intended nature. Whenever we intentionally or deliberately look or listen,
the process of attention is voluntary. It involves
conscious effort to select and situate a particular
stimuli into the focus of attention. For example, if someone
says-look here, listen what is being
said, and if we respond to these commands
accordingly,
we are
attending voluntarily.

8.8.2 Involuntary Attention

Sometimes certain stimulus force become so powerful that our attention is drawn to that stimuluus
without any conscious eltort to attend. For
such attention, we are generally not mentally prepared
but our attention is abruptly and
necessarily drawn. For example, a pistol shot, an intense flash
of light, alarming sirer sount, sudten cry of a child etc. have a force in themselves to draw our
attention without any deliberate effort. Since involuntary attention is drawn because of the
Potential force of the stimulus-it is often termed as stimulus based or dominated attention. On
theother hand. the voluntary attention is organism based because it depends upon the conscious
will of the attending person (organism).

8.8.3 Habitual Attention

Most often we attend to those objects more readily for which we have a mental set of habitual
nature For example. a young boy's readiness to not+ce a beautiful girl and a g1rl's readiness to
hotice a handsome boy, our readiness to perceive posiuve aspect in the activities of our friends
and evils in the action of enemies. showing recurring interest in particular kind of food and drink
etc. are indicative of our mental readiness to attend which is almost habitual in nature. Under the
influence of such habitual readiness to attend, our attention is automatically drawn, viz a chain-
8.9.1 Factors of Selective Attention
Several factors influence selective attention. These generally relate to the characteristics of stimuli
and the characteristics of individuals. They are generally classified as external and internal
factors.
External factors: These are related to the featuresof stimuli. Other things held constant.
the size, intensity, and motion of stimuli appear to be important.
These factors lie within the
Internal factors: individual. These may be divided into two
broad categories-motivational factors and cognitive factors. Motivational factors relate to our
biological and social needs. The cognitive Tactors include the factors like interest, attitude, mental
set etc.
All these factors have been described in some detail in a separate section on factors of
attention later in this chapter.
 Chapter 8 AttentlonalProcena
223
These principles govern what will be
perceived
and what will not be
get aguely perceived. Such perceived or will be
dimly or vaguely principles of are
great practical In significance.
e'sforemost task is to win pupil's attention, in advertising or selling. the education,
a
attention of
teacher
teac e buyers need to be attracted before the product is
prospective
sold. Similarly. in meost of our every-
ation, one need to bring into his focus the significant objects.
day situation,

Many factors influence the direction of our altention. These factors are generally classified
and internal factors. External factors are also termed stimulus
as exter as
the internal factors are also termed as subjective (personal) or organismic factors.
or
objective factors
whil

8.11.1 External Factors

Cxtenal or stimulus (objective) factors that govern attention getting may be considered under five
major heads-prepotency, change, size, repetition and movement.

Prepotency
Some stimuli are prepotent, i.e. intense enough to draw our attention more readily than those
which are relatively weak or less potent. For example, a loud sound, brighter light, strong smell
etc. are prepotent over low sound, dimlight, very thin smell etc. Similarly, saturated colours over
pastel shades, deep pressure over smooth pressure are prepotent to draw our attention.
Such prepotencies do not necessarily depend upon relative strength of competing stimulus
nor does it depend upon past experience. Prepotency is a stimulus characteristic.
However, if two stimuli are competing for drawing attention, the one that is more potent,
will draw our attention first than the other.

Change
usually sensitive to change. Change in stimulus may take any form-from one
Living beings are
place to another or one colour to another ro sudden increase or decrease in intensity, atmospheric
and so
changes, appearance to disappearance of the stimuli, high to low or stationary moving
to
on. Such changes in the stimuli attract our attention. For example, if two persons are whispering

together in quiet atmosphere and in the middle, someone suddenly shouts, the shouting man

draws the attention of whisperingg persons and they sit-up to take notice.

Size
is the reason, some
Size of the stimulus too has the potency to draw our attention. This
some other interrelated factors also
advertisers favour full page advertisement. However, there are
which determine attention. Even a full page size may
suffer by its neatness, clumsiness, lack of
stimuli which appeals to the
The main principle is that the size of the
more
dexterity etc.
of colours, are more pronouncing
perceiver's interests and needs or has more striking
use

determinants of attention.

Repetition
of attracting attention. For example, if a misspelled
Repetition is also an important determinant than if it seldom.
Word repeatedly occurs in a page, it is likely
to be noticed more readily occurs
 Behavionr
24 Pavehologv: The Study of Human
time and
again, M .
effective if it is repeated
A weak stimulus also becomes anufact
the attentioCur
so as to catch
politicians repeat their
advertisements again and again tion of
the
timulus
stim
chanyeoype
two ways. Firstly,
the repeated has a
Repetition is advantageous in clter
catching our attention at least once when inattentive.
we are Secondly,
repetition increase
sensitivity alertness to the stimulus.
or
limitations too. Overrepetition someti.
However, repetition has certain with some variations
mes leadst
at regular interval
monotony. But, if the stimulus is repeated or
colour etc., it makes the
style, design,
stimulus more prominent and chvanges n
drawing attention.

Movement
Living beings are also sensitive to movement or motion and as such moving object ac
are involuntarily attracted S the
property of catching our attention. Our visual mechanisms m
objects. It is the movement of their enemies that catches the attention of our soldiers duria
night patrolling but it becomes difficult for them if the enemies are stationary or not makin
movement.
1aking any
In the field of advertising, the most effective signs are those that involve movemen
ent.

8.11.2 Internal Organismic Subjective

or or
Determinants
Besides external or stimulus factors, internal factors too are equally and in some cases
even m
important determinants of attention. These factors are cognitive factors that include motive more
interest, set or expectancy etc. tives,

Motives and interests

Motives and interests
important factors in attracting attention. Motives and interests
are most
predispose person not only to be attracted to but in holding the
a
object. It is usually observed
that when a teacher announces that he is
now going to discuss sex
society, even the sleepiest student in the class becomes alert to listen practices in our Indian
the lecture because it
appeals to the sex drive which despite being a dominant need
traditionally suppressed. Advertisers use shapely girls in among the adolescents remain
advertised product such as cigar, two wheelers bathing suits as models even
though the
etc. are nowhere related to
basic needs or motives, them. Not only the
any of the great variety of human
directing our attention, viz. an unemployed motives and interests are important in
vacancies appear. A person interested in youth first opens the page of newspaper where
where sport event news sports events, selectively pays his attention on the pag*
appear.

Set or expectancY
Set or
expectancy also
plays an important role in
anxiously waiting mother get atracted to determining the direction of attention. A
the sound of
arrival of her son. A doctor is
usually found to hear the footsteps of passers-by, presum1ug
a
patient, inging telephone during night
of sounding of bell expecting the
arrTiva
! of
his baby. A zoologist if knows expecting call but he may fail to hear the of
before hand that
a

while walking, he would be he would be asked sou life.

attentively gathering information
some on questions bira
about birds. When the as
draw
 Chapter Attentional Proees 225

shown below i8 included in a series of 1wo digit numbers, subjects may report to have seen

number 13. If the same drawing is exposed to the subject with a series of alphabets, ubjects may
report to have seen letter B. In the former case, the subject has the set or expectancy of numbers
while in the latter case, subject has a set of letters (see Figure 8.2).

FIGURE 8.2 What a person sees depends upon what he is set to see.

Social suggestion
others. This is so
In general, tend to attend what is pointed out directly and indirectly by the
we
avoided discomforts or injuries in the past
because we have had enjoyed many satisfactions and
and watch
suggestions by the others. For example, if you go to a shop to buy something
acting on
the item you intended to buy and has asked
to
that another person has just rejected a piece of
salesman to do the same and reject the piece that
was
show him different piece, you too ask the
the action of the previous customer contains implicit
already rejected by the other buyer. Here reaction to
suggestion and accordingly determines your perceive the piece rejectable.
factors.
determined by several external and internal
Thus, we find that our attention is factors because
are perhaps the most important psychological
Among these the set and expectancy succession of
individual concerned that direct and order the
these are the cognitive factors of the
our perceptual experience.

HYPER-ACTIVITY
8.12 ATTENTION DEFICIT
DISORDER (ADHD)
of the
that selects some input for the conscious experience
Attentional process denotes the process
for observing our world in an orderly
manner
world around. This process occupies significance environment and
and then to action, i.e. to respond to the
that leads to the perceptual organization mechanism of
Hence, for adequate and healthy adjustive responses, the
demands.
adjust with its causing
in certain cases the mechanisms get dysfunctional
attentional process is important. But,
behavioural disorder.
behavioural disorders found among
children of primary school
One of the most common
Disorder (ADHD). It is characterized by impassivity,
age is Attention Deficit Hyper-activity to this than the
to attend. The boys are found
more prone
excessive motor activity and inability