Fundamentals of heat transfer

Heat flux, heat transfer coefficient, heat resistances

Heat conduction: steady state 1D problem

Heat conduction: first Fourier law

Heat conduction: time-dependent 1D problem

Heat conduction: second Fourier law

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 Fundamentals of heat transfer

T1 T0T2 A
T1 T2

« thermal contact » between blocks

2 isothermal blocks maintained at T1 and T2
Heat transfer from 1 to 2
through green layer
to fix ideas, T1 > T2 distributed over the contact surface

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 Fundamentals of heat transfer

Assumption: isothermal blocks maintained at T1 and T2

S: area of the thermal
contact surface

Transferred thermal power: heat flow rate Φ

Units: Φ (Watt = J ∙ s −1 = N ∙ m ∙ s −1 )
Dimensions: Φ = M ∙ L ∙ T −2 ∙ L ∙ T −1 = M ∙ L2 ∙ T −3

T1 T0T2 A Power is proportional to area S: Φ  S

Φ
Heat flux:  φ= (Watt ∙ m−2 )
S

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 Fundamentals of heat transfer

Thermics-electricity analogy
R
V1 V2
V1 −V2
I Electrical resistance R: I=
R

K
T1 −T2
Thermal resistance Rth: Φ=
Rth
W KW-1

Φ T1 − T2 K
Thermal surface φ= =
resistance RthS: S R th S
Wm-2 Km2W-1

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 Fundamentals of heat transfer

Heat transfer coefficient h

1
Heat flow rate: Φ=S×φ=S× S
× T1 − T2
R th
h
Wm-2K-1

φ = h × T1 − T2

Heat flux through Heat transfer coefficient

exchange surface of exchange surface

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 Heat conduction Steady-state 1D plane problem

For heat conduction:

The layer through which heat is transferred is a solid or a stagnant fluid

T2
For a 1D plane geometry:
zoom on a small
zone of the The layer through which heat is transferred is actually a plane layer of thickness e
transfer layer

z: direction perpendicular to the exchange surface

Dimension of blocks >> e: T=T(z) (1D plane symmetry)

T1
T(z) Blocks maintained at T1 and T2 : steady-state regime

T2
T independent of time

0 e z T(z) linear function (only for the plane problem)

boundary conditions T(z=0)=T1 T(z=e)=T2

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 Heat conduction Steady-state 1D plane problem
λ
h=
e
The thermal resistance increases with the thickness

T2
S e
 One defines a quantity  such as: R th =
λ

e RthS  j 
 : thermal conductivity of the material of the layer

h
λ
Heat flux: φ = × T1 − T2
e
T2
𝛗/𝟐

λ Wm-1K-1
λ Wm-2K-1 h=
h=
2e
e

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 Heat conductivities of various materials

//
Typical values of  at 25°C

(expansé)

//

Eau 0.6


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 Heat conduction First Fourier law

0 0
𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐 The heat flow rate and
𝛗=𝛌× Φ= 0 φ= 0
𝐞 the heat flux are vectors: φ
Φ
T1
T(z) here, Φ and φ are in the z direction
T2

Temperature gradient along z: T2 − T1 dT
=
0 e z e dz
𝜕T
𝜕x 0
𝜕T 0
The temperature gradient is also a vector: 𝛻T = here: 𝛻T = T2 − T1
𝜕y
𝜕T e
𝜕T dT
Remark: when T is only a function of z = 𝜕z
𝜕z dz

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 Heat conduction First Fourier law

T(z) is linear:
Steady-state
plane geometry dT T2 − T1
= = Cst
dz e

T1 − T2 𝐝𝐓
Problem of sign: φ =λ× =−
e 𝐝𝐳

𝚽
First Fourier law (between vectors): 𝛗 = = −𝛌 × 𝛁𝐓
𝐒
The heat flux is opposed to the temperature gradient.

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 Heat conduction Time-dependent 1D plane problem

In transient (time-dependent) regime: T=T(z,t)

First Fourier law still verified: φ = −λ × 𝛻T

T2 Projection along z: φ = −λ ×
𝜕T
𝜕z
t z

Layer initially at T2
𝜕T 𝜕T T2 − T1
But  and are now functions of z and t: ≠
𝜕z 𝜕z e

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 Heat conduction Time-dependent 1D plane problem

Consider a layer of
infinitesimal thickness dz:
Energy balance for this layer (first principle)
Assumption : pressure P=Cst
𝚽(z)=(z)S 𝚽(z+dz)=(z+dz)S

Φ z dt − Φ z + dz dt = dH = CP dT

Amount of heat inlet Variation of

Amount of heat outlet
T2 during time dt temperature of layer
during time dt
during time dt

Volume m3
z+dz
z
Heat capacity of
this layer:
CP = ρ × Sdz × CP
Specific Specific heat
mass capacity
kgm-3 Jkg-1 K-1

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 Heat conduction Time-dependent 1D plane problem

𝚽(z) 𝚽(z+dz) S × φ(z) dt − S × φ(z + dz) dt = ρ × Sdz × CP × dT

φ z + d𝑧 − φ z 𝜕T
− = ρCP ×
d𝑧 𝜕t
Gradient of heat flux Rate of variation of
T2 at time t temperature at position x

𝜕φ 𝜕T
z+dz T = T 𝑧, t → − = ρCP ×
z
𝜕z 𝜕t

𝜕 𝜕T 𝜕T Heat equation or
𝜕T
φ = −λ × λ = ρCP × 2nd Fourier law
𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕t
(1D plane problem)

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 Heat conduction Time-dependent 1D plane problem

𝜕T 1 𝜕 𝜕T
= × λ
𝜕t ρCP 𝜕z 𝜕z

m2s-1

Additional assumption: =Cst 𝜕T λ 𝜕2T

( independent of T) = × 2
𝜕t ρCP 𝜕z

Thermal
diffusivity 

General case Φ 𝜕T
(arbitrary geometry with constant ): φ = = −λ × 𝛻T → = α × 𝛻2T
S 𝜕t

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 Heat conduction Heat equation
𝜕T
= α × 𝛻 2T
𝜕t
Problem described in 𝜕T 𝜕2T 𝜕2T 𝜕2T
Cartesian coordinates: =α× 2
+ 2+ 2
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

1D steady state d2 T
=0 Linear variation of T with z is found
problem: dz 2

𝜕T
Cylindrical 1D problem
−λ 𝜕T 𝜕 2 T 1 𝜕T 𝟏 𝛛 𝛛𝐓
φ= 𝜕r =α× + = 𝛂 × 𝐫
T=T(r,t): 0 𝜕t 𝜕r 2 r 𝜕r 𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝛛𝐫
0

𝜕T
Spherical 1D problem
−λ 𝜕T 𝜕 2 T 2 𝜕T 𝟏 𝛛 𝟐 𝛛𝐓
φ= 𝜕r =α× + = 𝛂 × 𝐫
T=T(r,t): 0 𝜕t 𝜕r 2 r 𝜕r 𝟐
𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝛛𝐫
0

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 Typical values of thermal diffusivity for different materials

The thermal diffusivity  characterizes the

rate at which heat penetrates into a material

Temperature change in
the wall thickness: a time-
dependent problem

T=T(x,t) solution of:

𝜕T
= α × 𝛻2T
𝜕t
x x

Polyethylene 0,1310-6
A wall at initial The temperature at the
Polystyrene 0,06510-6
temperature T0 outer surfaces is set at T1
at initial time

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 Time-dependent heat conduction

e = half-thickness of wall
Curves for different values of:
Final temperature
𝛂 (a dimensionless number:
Initial wall surface temperature

Initial wall surface temperature

×𝐭
𝟏 𝐞𝟐 the Fourier number))

𝟎, 𝟔 α
Small values of ×t
e2
𝟎, 𝟒
𝛂 T close to initial wall temperature
× 𝐭 = 𝟎, 𝟐
𝐞𝟐

𝟎, 𝟎𝟒 α
High values of ×t
𝟎, 𝟏 𝟎, 𝟎𝟏 e2
T close to final wall temperature
Initial wall temperature

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 Time-dependent heat conduction

e = half-thickness of wall
Example : a concrete wall of total
thickness 20 cm initially at 0°C
100°C
Example

𝟏
The temperature of the outer surfaces
𝟎, 𝟔 is set at 100°C
Example

𝟎, 𝟒
Estimate the temperature at the center
T  40°C
a of the wall after 1 hour
Example

𝟎, 𝟐
𝟎, 𝟎𝟒
𝟎, 𝟏 𝟎, 𝟎𝟏 𝛂 𝟎, 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
×𝐭= × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝟐𝟕
0°C 𝐞𝟐 𝟎, 𝟏𝟐
𝛂
× 𝐭 = 𝟎, 𝟐𝟕
𝐞𝟐

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 Time-dependent heat conduction

Different wall surface Adiabatic wall

temperatures Half thickness initially at
Wall initially at T2
Example
different temperatures
Example

Fourier 0,0001
0,001 Fourier
number 0,01
number
𝛂 0,05
×𝐭 𝛂
𝐞𝟐 0,1
×𝐭
1 𝐞𝟐
0,1
1

0,01

0,001

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