UNIT I

Homeostasis and
Feedback Mechanism
• A feedback mechanism is a process of nervous and
hormonal regulation by which the body maintains
levels. It is done to either increase or dampen the
change in the system.

Negative feedback is the process when the receptor

detect change and initiate response that will go
against the change

Positive feedback is the process by which stimulus

causes a response which will increase the stimulation
Example of Negative Feedback
- Blood glucose rise after sugar meal

Example of Positive feedback

- The contraction of uterine during childbirth
Components of Feedback Loops

1. Stimulus –it is something in the environment

that causes change

2. Receptor – it is a cells or tissues that receives

stimulus

3. Relay - it is a transmitter of message via

nerves or hormones or both to the effector
• The state of balance in the body is known as
homeostasis. The three components interact
namely; the receptor such as free nerve ending
in the skin, the integrator such as the brain,
and the effector such as a muscle or a gland.
UNIT II

Tissues
 tissues

• Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a

definite function. In animals, there are four
major types of tissues; epithelial, connective,
muscular, and nervous.
 Epithelial tissue

This tissue lines outer and inner surfaces of the body. In

most types of epithelial tissue, the cells are compactly
arranged and rest on a basement membrane.

A. FUNCTIONS

1. Protection
2. Absorption
3. Sensation
4. Reproduction
 TYPES of epithelial tissues
1. The number of cell layers

a. Simple epithelium – made up of one layer of cells

Source: tunica mucosa of the digestive tube lining of the glands

b. Pseudo stratified – made up of one layer of cells but of different

heights, thus showing a stratified appearance.

Source: inner lining of trachea

c. Stratified – made up of more than two layers of cells

Source: epidermis
TYPES of epithelial tissues

2. Based on the shape of the cell

a. Squamous epithelium

Source: outermost layer of the skin

DESCRIPTION: Thin, scaly-look like, flattened on the

surface, fried-egg appearance with rounded nucleus.
TYPES of epithelial tissues

b. Cuboidal epithelium

Source: lining of kidney tubules

DESCRIPTION: Dice shape, square-like shape with

large and spherical nuclei.
TYPES of epithelial tissues

c. Columnar epithelium

Source: inner lining of the digestive tube

DESCRIPTION: Taller rather than wide column in

shape, long and rectangular shape with oblong nuclei or
elongated nucleus contain goblet cells.
TYPES of epithelial tissues

3. Based on function
a. Sensory epithelium – specialized for reception of stimulus

Source: tongue, eye, skin

b. Glandular epithelium – specialized for secretion

Source: glands
c. Germinal epithelium – specialized for production of germ
cells

Source: gonads (ovary and testis)

 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• This type of tissue all develop from the mesenchyme

found in the embryo. The cells are loosely arranged
and are supported by a solid or liquid matrix. The solid
matrix may contain other cells or fibers produced by
the connective tissue cells.
A. FUNCTIONS:
1.Connects one part of another part
2. Support
3. Binds parts together
4. Transports substances
5. Fills spaces within or between organs
Types of CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. Loose Connective Tissue- fibers in the matrix are
loosely arranged

B. Dense Connective Tissue – fibers in the matrix are

compactly arranged
Types of CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Specialized Connective Tissue

1. Cartilage – Cells are called chondrocytes and lie
within a space called lacuna

- Matrix contain fibers

Types of CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. Bone or Osseous Tissue – cells are called bone cells or

osteocytes, each located in a space called lacuna

- Lacunae arranged around a cavity called Haversian

canal and communicates with one another through
canaliculi

- Unit structure is the Haversian system composed of the

Haversian canal and all the lacunae with bone cells
surrounding it.

Source: bone
Types of CONNECTIVE TISSUE

3. Hemopoeitic Tissue – involved in formation and

maturation of blood cells

4. Blood – specialized connective tissue which transports

substances.
 Muscular tissue

• This tissue is specialized for contraction. The cell are

called muscle cells or muscle fibers, and are enclosed
by the sarcolemma. The sarcoplasm contains contractile
fibrils called myofibrils. Muscle fiber contraction
involves interaction between filaments of myosin and
actin.
 THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE CELLS IN THE
MUSCLE TISSUES

CELL TYPE: Striated/voluntary/skeletal muscle

cells

CELL DESCRIPTION: Long cylindrical shape,

Bundle forms, many nucleus ,many striations

LOCATION: Skeletal muscles

 THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE CELLS IN THE
MUSCLE TISSUES

CELL TYPE: Striated/

involuntary/cardiac muscle cells

CELL DESCRIPTION: Short branching

shape Have few striations, single nucleus
/two nucleus

LOCATION: Heart /cardiac muscle

 THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE CELLS IN THE
MUSCLE TISSUES

CELL TYPE: Non-

striated/involuntary/smooth muscle cells

CELL DESCRIPTION: Spindle in shape of

cells, one nucleus located at the center, absent
of striations

LOCATION: Visceral/smooth muscle tissue

 NERVOUS tissue

• This tissue is specialized for the reception of stimuli

and transmission of impulses. Majority of the neural
tissue in the body is concentrated in the brain and
spinal cord (Central Nervous System).
 NERVOUS tissue

Neural tissue has 2 Basic types of cells:

1. Neurons or nerve cells which transmit signals

2. Neuroglia or supporting cells which has the following

functions: provide a supporting framework for neural
tissue, act as phagocytes, thus defending the neural tissue
from pathogens, and help in the repair of injuries,
regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid and
isolate and protect the cell membranes of the neurons.
 NERVOUS tissue
A. PARTS OF A NERVE CELL:

1. Soma or cell body containing the nucleus

2. Protoplasmic processes in the for it:
a. Dendrite–transmit impulses towards the soma
b. Axon – transmits impulses from soma to synapse
*Synapse is a specialized intercellular junction where the
axon ends.