Sets & Systems of Numeration

A. Concept of Set: This is an introductory lesson on sets. A clear understanding of the

concepts in this lesson will help you easily grasp number properties and enable you to quickly
identify multiple solutions involving sets of numbers. Objectives: In this lesson, you are expected
to: 1. Describe and illustrate a. well-defined sets; b. subsets; c. universal set, and; d. the null
set. 2. Use Venn Diagrams to represent sets and subsets.
Activity
Below are some objects. Group them as you see fit and label each group.

Answer the following questions:

a. How many groups are there?
b. Does each object belong to a group?
c. Is there an object that belongs to more than one group? Which one?
The groups are called sets for as long as the objects in the group share a characteristic and are
thus, well defined.
Problem: Consider the set consisting of whole numbers from 1 to 200. Let this be set U. Form
smaller sets consisting of elements of U that share a different characteristic. For example, let E
be the set of all even numbers from 1 to 200.
Can you form three more such sets? How many elements are there in each of these sets? Do
any of these sets have any elements in common?
Did you think of a set with no element?
Important Terms to Remember
The following are terms that you must remember from this point on.
1. A set is a well- defined group of objects, called elements that share a common characteristic.
For example, 3 of the objects above belong to the set of head covering or simply hats (ladies
hat, baseball cap, hard hat).
2. The set F is a subset of set A if all elements of F are also elements of A. For example, the
even numbers 2, 4 and 12 all belong to the set of whole numbers. Therefore, the even numbers
2, 4, and 12 form a subset of the set of whole numbers. F is a proper subset of A if F does not
contain all elements of A.
3. The universal set U is the set that contains all objects under consideration.
4. The null set is an empty set. The null set is a subset of any set.
5. The cardinality of a set A is the number of elements contained in A.
Notations and Symbols
In this section, you will learn some of the notations and symbols pertaining to sets.
1. Uppercase letters will be used to name sets and lowercase letters will be used to refer to any
element of a set. For example, let H be the set of all objects on page 1 that cover or protect the
head. We write
H = {ladies hat, baseball cap, hard hat}
This is the listing or roster method of naming the elements of a set.
Another way of writing the elements of a set is with the use of a descriptor. This is the rule
method. For example, H = {x| x covers and protects the head}. This is read as “the set H
contains the element x such that x covers and protects the head.”

2. The symbol ∅ or { } will be used to refer to an empty set.

Venn Diagrams
Sets and subsets may be represented using Venn Diagrams. These are diagrams that make
use of geometric shapes to show relationships between sets.
Consider the Venn diagram below. Let the universal set U be all the elements in sets A, B, C
and D.

Each shape represents a set. Note that although there are no elements shown inside each
shape, we can surmise how the sets are related to each other. Notice that set B is inside set A.
This indicates that all elements in B are contained in A. The same with set C. Set D, however, is
separate from A, B, C. What does it mean?
Draw a Venn diagram to show the relationships between the following pairs or groups of sets:
1. E = {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}

F = {2, 32}
2. V is the set of all odd numbers

W = {5, 15, 25, 35, 45, 55…}

3. R = {x| x is a factor of 24}

S={}
T = {7, 9, 11}
Union and Intersection of Sets
In this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Describe and define
a. union of sets;
b. intersection of sets.
2. Perform the set operations
a. union of sets;
b. intersection of sets.
3. Use Venn diagrams to represent the union and intersection of sets.
1. Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set that contains
those elements that belong to A, B, or to both.
An element x belongs to the union of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to A or x belongs
to B or to both. This tells us that
A  B = { x l x  A or x  B }
Using the Venn diagram, all of the set of A and of B are shaded to show A  B.

2. Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A  B, is the set
containing those elements that belong to both A and B.
An element x belongs to the intersection of the sets A and B if and only if x belongs to A and x
belongs to B. This tells us that
A  B = {x l x  A and  B}
Using the Venn diagram, the set A  B consists of the shared regions of A and B.

Sets whose intersection is an empty set are called disjoint sets.

3. The cardinality of the union of two sets is given by the following equation:
n (A ∩ B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A ∩B ).
Complement of a Set
B. Operation On Sets
I. Activity

Try solving the following problem:

In a class of 40 students, 17 have ridden an airplane, 28 have ridden a

boat. 10 have ridden a train, 12 have ridden both an airplane and a
boat. 3 have ridden a train only and 4 have ridden an airplane only.
Some students in the class have not ridden any of the three modes of
transportation and an equal number have taken all three.
a. How many students have used all three modes of transportation?
b. How many students have taken only the boat?
Venn diagrams can be used to solve word problems involving union and
intersection of sets. Here are some worked out examples:
1. A group of 25 high school students were asked whether they use either
Facebook or Twitter or both. Fifteen of these students use Facebook and
twelve use Twitter.
a. How many use Facebook only?
b. How many use Twitter only?
 c. How many use both social networking sites? Solution:
Let
S1 = set of students who use Facebook only
S2 = set of students who use both social networking sites
S3 = set of students who use Twitter only
The Venn diagram is shown below
Finding the elements in each n(S1) + n( S2) + n(S3) = 25
region: n(S1) + n( S2) + n(S3) = n( S2) + n(S3) = 12
25 _______________________
n(S1) + n( S2) = 15 n(S1) = 13
______________________
n(S3) = 10
But n( S2) + n(S3) = 12
________________
n( S2) = 2
A group of 50 students went in a tour
in Palawan province. Out of the 50
students, 24 joined the trip to Coron; 18 went to Tubbataha Reef; 20 visited El Nido; 12 made a
trip to Coron and Tubbataha Reef; 15 saw Tubbataha Reef and El Nido; 11 made a trip to
Coron and El Nido and 10 saw the three tourist spots.
a. How many of the students went to Coron only?
b. How many of the students went to Tubbataha Reef only?
c. How many joined the El Nido trip only?
d. How many did not go to any of the tourist spots?
Solution:
To solve this problem, let
P1 = students who saw the three tourist spots
P2 = those who visited Coron only
P3 = those who saw Tubbataha Reef only
P4 = those who joined the El Nido trip only
P5 = those who visited Coron and Tubbataha Reef only
P6 = those who joined the Tubbataha Reef and El Nido trip only
P7 = those who saw Coron and El Nido only
P8 = those who did not see any of the three tourist spots.
Draw the Venn diagram as shown below and identify the region where the students went.

Determine the elements in each region starting from P1.

P1 consists of students who went to all 3 tourist spots. Thus, n(P1) = 10.
P1  P5 consists of students who visited Coron and Tubbataha Reef but this set includes those
who also went to El Nido. Therefore, n(P5) = 12 – 10 = 2 students visited Coron and Tubbatha
Reef only.
P1  P6 consists of students who went to El Nido and Tubbataha Reef but this set includes those
who also went to Coron. Therefore, n(P6) = 15 – 10 = 5 students visited El Nido and Tubbataha
Reef only.
P1  P7 consists of students who went to Coron and El Nido but this set includes those who also
went to Tubbataha Reef. Therefore, n(P7) = 11 – 10 = 1 student visited Coron and El Nido only.
From here, it follows that
n(P2) = 24 – n(P1) – n(P5) – n(P7) = 24 – 10 – 2 – 1 = 11 students visited Coron only.
n(P3) = 18 – n(P1) – n(P5) – n(P6) = 18 – 10 – 2 – 5 = 1 student visited Tubbataha Reef only
n(P4) = 20 – n(P1) – n(P6) – n(P7) = 20 – 10 – 5 – 1 = 4 students visited Coron and El Nido only.
Therefore
n(P8) = 50 – n(P1) – n(P2) – n(P3) – n(P4) – n(P5) – n(P6) – n(P7) = 16 students did not visit any
of the three spots.
The number of elements is shown below.

Now, what about the opening problem?

Solution to the Opening Problem (Activity):
C. Numeration System
– Decimal Number
– Binary Number
– Hexadecimal Numbers
– Octal Number
-Conversion between Number system
-Digital Codes (BCD, Parity, Gray, ASCII)
-Number representations in Digital System
-Arithmethic operations in Digital System
Numbering System
• A number system is the set of symbols used to express
quantities as the basis for counFng, determining order,
comparing amounts, performing calculaFons, and
representing value.
• Examples include the Arabic, Babylonian, Chinese, EgypFan,
Greek, Mayan, and Roman number systems.
• Any positive integer B (B > 1) can be chosen as the base or
radix of a numbering system.
• If base is B, then B digits (0, 1, 2, …, B – 1) are used.
Decimal Number
• The decimal numbering system has 10 digits 0 through 9.
• The decimal numbering system has a base of 10 with each posiFon
weighted by a factor of 10
… 105 104 103 102 101 100. 10‐110‐2 10‐3 10‐4 10‐5…
• Example:
Express decimal 47 as a sum of the values of each digit.
4710 = (4 x 101) + (7 x 100) = 40 + 7
= 47
Binary Number
• The binary numbering system has 2 digits 0 and 1.
• The binary numbering system has a base of 2 with each
position weighted by a factor of 2.
• Example: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, …
1 0 1 1 . 0 1 binary number
23 22 21 20 2‐1 2‐2 place values.
Octal Number
• Uses base 8.
• Includes only the digits 0 through 7.
• Based on the binary system with a 3‐bit boundary.
• The binary numbering system has a base of 8 with each
position weighted by a factor of 8.
• Example: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 20, …
4 5 3 6 0 . 7 2 octal number
84 83 82 81 80 8‐1 8‐2 place values.
 Hexadecimal Number System
• Allows for convenient handling of long binary strings.
• Base 16
– 16 possible symbols
– 0‐9 and A‐F
– (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F )16
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)10
– 0, 1, …, F, 10, 11, 12, …, 1F, 20, 21, …
9 C F 3 . A 1 octal number
163 162 161 160 16‐1 16‐2 place values
 What are codes?
• Code is a rule for converting a piece of
information into another form or
representation, not necessarily of the same
type.
• One reason for coding is to enable
communication in places where ordinary
spoken or writen language is difficult or
impossible.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
BCD is a way to express each of the decimal digits with a binary code.
• There are only 10 code groups in the BCD system, one for every digit
(0000 – 1001)
• Invalid codes are 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111
• Coded values for decimal digit:

Gray Codes
• Designed to prevent false output from electromechanical
switches.
• Are widely used to facilitate error correction in digital
communications such as digital terrestrial television and some
cable TV systems.
• In modern digital communications, Gray codes play an
important role in error correction.
• It is arranged so that every transition from one value to the
next value involves only one bit change.
• Sometimes referred to as reflected binary, because the first
eight values compare with those of the last 8 values, but in
reverse order.
 Parity Code
• Parity bit used for bit error detection
– Even parity – total number of 1s even
– Odd parity – total number of 1s odd
• Parity bit is append to the code at the leftmost position
(MSB).
• Example:

Error Detection by Parity Checking

• Assume that data = 0101
• It uses even parity.
• Therefore the appended parity bit is 0.
• The data with parity bit: 0 0101
• The data is transmitted.
• The data is received as 00001  odd no. of 1, not even!!

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

• It has 128 characters and symbols represented in 7-bit
binary code
• Example :
• A = 10000012
• a = 11000012
• A parity bit is added so that the total number of bits
is 8  a byte.
 NUMBER REPRESENTATION IN DIGITAL SYSTEM
• Unsigned Number representation
• Signed Number representations

Integer Representation
• Numbers can be represented as a
combination of a value, or magnitude and
sign, plus or minus
• Unsigned integer
• Signed integer
Unsigned Integer Representation
• By unsigned integer, it is mean no negaFve values.
– E.g. 0, 1, 2, ..., 254, 255, 256, 257, .... 65535, 65536, 65537, ...,
2000000000, 2000000001, ...
• A bit can store unsigned integers from 0 to 1 .
• A byte of 8 bits can store unsigned integers from 0 to 255
= 28 – 1.
• In binary arithmeFc, if the length of the number is restricted to 8 digits (0s
and 1s), the largest value is 1111 11112 = 255, and the smallest is 0.
• A word of 16 bits can store unsigned integers from 0 to 65535 = 216 – 1.
• In binary arithmeFc, if the length of the number is restricted to 16 digits
(0s and 1s), the largest value is 1111 1111 1111 11112 = 65535, and the
smallest is 0.
Signed Numbers
• Integers that do not have a sign indication are considered as
positive numbers and they are referred to as unsigned numbers.
– 01000, 11101
• However, integers can be positive and negative.
– +01000, +11101, ‐10001, ‐0111001
– Need for a code to represent ‘‐’ and ‘+’.
• Positive and negative integers use a code system to indicate the
sign.
– Signed bit: 0 (+ve) or 1 (‐ve) posiFoned at MSB
– PosiFve numbers  0 01000, 0 11101
– NegaFve numbers  1 10101, 1 0101001
– This is referred as signed numbers.
Signed Numbers Representation
• Three representation:
‐ Sign and magnitude (simple representaFon)
‐ 1’s complement
‐ 2’s complement
Arithmethic Operations
• Integer Numbers
– Unsigned Numbers
– Signed Numbers
• Addition
• Subtraction
 Arithmethic Operation: Addition

Arithmethic Operation: Subtraction

• In digital system, subtraction is performed by using 2’s complement and
addiFon.
• Carry from the MSB (signed bit) is deleted.
• Example:
010011 – 001111 = 010011 + (– 001111)
= 010011 + (110001)
= 000100
C. Bases other than Ten

Changing to base 10 from another base

When we write a normal (base 10) number, like 5763, we mean the value:

5000+700+60+35000+700+60+3

or, to put it in a more revealing form:

5⋅103+7⋅102+6⋅101+3⋅1005⋅103+7⋅102+6⋅101+3⋅100

Notice, the "digits" of our number correspond to the coefficients on the powers of ten that are
added together to obtain the value of our number.

In a similar manner, we can specify numbers in other "bases" (besides 10), using different digits
that correspond to the coefficients on the powers (of the given base) that must be added
together to obtain the value of our number.

For example, the "base 8" (or "octal") number (as indicated by the subscript)

5763(8)5763(8)

equals

5⋅83+7⋅82+6⋅81+3⋅80=30595⋅83+7⋅82+6⋅81+3⋅80=3059

More generally, the "base b" number

dndn−1dn−2…d0(b)dndn−1dn−2…
d0(b)

equals

dn⋅bn+dn−1⋅ bn−1+dn−2⋅bn−2+⋯
+d0⋅b0dn⋅bn+dn−1⋅bn−1+dn−2⋅bn−2+⋯+d0⋅b0

In order that every number have a base b representation, but no number has more than one
such representation, we must only use the digits 0 through (b-1) in any given base b number.

This is consistent with base 10 numbers, where we use digits 0-9.

For smaller bases, we use a subset of these digits. For example, in base 5, we only use digits 0-
4; in base 2 (which is also called binary), we only use the digits 0 and 1.
 For larger bases, we need to have single digits for values past 9. Hexadecimal (base 16)
numbers provide an example of how this can be done. In hexadecimal, we use digits 0-9 and A-
F, where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, and F=15. In this way, we have digits corresponding
to 0-15, which is what we need.

Example

5AF8=5⋅163+10⋅162+15⋅161+8⋅160=232885AF8=5⋅163+10⋅162+15⋅161+8⋅160=23288

(Note: As shown above, the subscript indicating the base to be used is often left off in the case
of hexadecimal and/or binary numbers. In these instances, the context of their use usually
makes the base clear.)

Changing from base 10 to a different base

One (straight-forward, but inefficient) way to convert from base 10 to a different base is to:

1. Determine the higest power of the base that goes into the number a non-zero number of times.
2. Determine how many times this power can be subtracted from the number without the result
being negative (i.e, divide the number by the power). Write this digit down.
3. Redefine the number to be this smallest positive remainder upon division by the power in
question
4. Redefine the power to be the power divided by the base.
5. Go back to step 2, unless the power is now less than one -- in which case, you are done.

For example, to convert 1073 to base 5, we recall that:

50 = 1
51 = 5
52 = 25
53 = 125
54 = 625
55 = 3125

Then we notice that 54 = 625 is the highest power of 5 under 1073.
1073 = 1 * 625 + 448
448 = 3 * 125 + 73
73 = 2 * 25 + 23
23 = 4 * 5 + 3
3=3*1+0

The red digits, 13243, reveal the base 5 representation of 1073.

This process, however, is inefficient in that one must both know and use the various powers of
the desired base.

There is a simpler way!

Consider the remainders seen upon division of the following numbers by 5:

1073 = 214 * 5 + 3
214 = 42 * 5 + 4
42 = 8 * 5 + 2
8=1*5+3
1=0*5+1

Note: the base 5 representation comes from reading off the remainders (in red) from bottom to
top!
In each step above, we are just dividing by 5 and looking at both the quotient and remainder --
no knowledge of higher powers of 5 is necessary!

Wonderfully, this technique works in any base. (Can you explain why?)

So, for example, if we wanted to find the binary (base 2) representation of 1000, we simply
calculate the following:

1000 = 500 * 2 + 0
500 = 250 * 2 + 0
250 = 125 * 2 + 0
125 = 62 * 2 + 1
62 = 31 * 2 + 0
31 = 15 * 2 + 1
15 = 7 * 2 + 1
7=3*2+1
3=1*2+1
1=0*2+1

So 1000 in binary is 1111101000

Counting in another base

Counting in other bases is not too different from counting in base 10. To see the similarities,
let's count to 41 in base 10 and base 3 (as shown in the table below).Pay particular attention to
how "2" in base 3 plays the same role as "9" in base 10. It represents the last digit you can use
before increasing the digit to the immediate left.

Adding in another base

You can add in another base (without converting to

base 10) as long as you remember that you "carry"
when you have a sum that is greater than or equal to your base (instead of greater than or equal
to 10), and that what you "carry" is the number of times you can pull out the base from your
sum.

This is best illustrated by an example. Suppose you wish to add the hexadecimal numbers
4EF5A and 6ACF7:

1111 <---- These are the "carried" digits

4EF5A
+6ACF7
------
B9C51

Let's walk through the example. Notice that

A + 7 = 11 (hexadecimal calculations)
10 + 7 = 17 = 1 * 16 + 1 (decimal calculations)

So we write down a 1 in the "units" column and carry a 1. Then,

1 + 5 + F = 15 (hexadecimal calculations)
1 + 5 + 15 = 21 = 1 * 16 + 5 (decimal calculations)

So we write down a 5 in the "tens/sixteens" column and carry a 1. Then,

1 + F + C = 1C (hexadecimal calculations)
1 + 15 + 12 = 28 = 1 * 16 + 12 (decimal calculations)

So we write down a C in the next column and carry a 1. Then,

1 + E + A = 19 (hexadecimal calculations)
1 + 14 + 10 = 25 = 1 * 16 + 9 (decimal calculations)

So we write down a 9 in the next column and carry a 1. Then,

1+4+6=B (hexadecimal calculations)

1 + 4 + 6 = 11 (decimal calculations)

So we write down a B in the next column, and we are done.

Shortcut for changing between base 2 and base 16

Consider the following conversion from binary to hexadecimal:

100100010101111 (binary) = 0100 1000 1010 1111
4 8 10 15
= 4 8 A F

Hence 10010001010111 (binary) = 48AF (hex)

Amazingly, one can always break a binary number into groups of 4 digits (starting at the right,
and adding leading zeros if one runs out of digits), and then reinterpreting these groups of 4 as
hexadecimal values, arrive at the hexadecimal representation for the original binary number.
(Can you figure out why?)

Reversing the process is just as easy.

Suppose we wish to convert FC7 (hex) to binary form. Note that

F (hex) = 15 = 1111 (binary)

C (hex) = 12 = 1100 (binary)
7 (hex) = 7 = 0111 (binary)

Hence, FC7 (hex) = 111111000111 (binary)

II. Number & Number

A. Real Number System
The real number system evolved over time by expanding the notion of what we mean by the
word “number.” At first, “number” meant something you could count, like how many sheep a
farmer owns. These are called the natural numbers, or sometimes the counting numbers.

Natural Numbers

or “Counting Numbers”

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

 The use of three dots at the end of the list is a common mathematical notation to
indicate that the list keeps going forever.

At some point, the idea of “zero” came to be considered as a number. If the farmer does not
have any sheep, then the number of sheep that the farmer owns is zero. We call the set of
natural numbers plus the number zero the whole numbers.

Whole Numbers

Natural Numbers together with “zero”

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
 Even more abstract than zero is the idea of negative numbers. If, in addition to not
having any sheep, the farmer owes someone 3 sheep, you could say that the number of
sheep that the farmer owns is negative 3. It took longer for the idea of negative numbers
to be accepted, but eventually they came to be seen as something we could call
“numbers.” The expanded set of numbers that we get by including negative versions of
the counting numbers is called the integers.
 Integers

Whole numbers plus negatives

. . . –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .

The next generalization that we can make is to include the idea of fractions. While it is
unlikely that a farmer owns a fractional number of sheep, many other things in real life
are measured in fractions, like a half-cup of sugar. If we add fractions to the set of
integers, we get the set of rational numbers.
 Rational Numbers

All numbers of the form  , where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero)

Rational numbers include what we usually call fractions

 Notice that the word “rational” contains the word “ratio,” which should remind you of
fractions.
 
The bottom of the fraction is called the denominator. Think of it as the denomination—it tells you
what size fraction we are talking about: fourths, fifths, etc.
 
The top of the fraction is called the numerator. It tells you how many fourths, fifths, or whatever.
 
 RESTRICTION: The denominator cannot be zero! (But the numerator can)

If the numerator is zero, then the whole fraction is just equal to zero. If I have zero thirds or zero
fourths, than I don’t have anything. However, it makes no sense at all to talk about a fraction
measured in “zeroths.”

 Fractions can be numbers smaller than 1, like 1/2 or 3/4 (called proper fractions), or they
can be numbers bigger than 1 (called improper fractions), like two-and-a-half, which we
could also write as 5/2
All integers can also be thought of as rational numbers, with a denominator of 1:

This means that all the previous sets of numbers (natural numbers, whole numbers, and
integers) are subsets of the rational numbers.

Now it might seem as though the set of rational numbers would cover every possible case, but
that is not so. There are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction, and these numbers
are called irrational because they are not rational.

Irrational Numbers

 Cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers.

 As decimals they never repeat or terminate (rationals always do one or the other)
 Examples: 

Rational (terminates)

Rational (repeats)

Rational (repeats)

Rational (repeats)

Irrational (never repeats or terminates)

Irrational (never repeats or terminates)

The Real Numbers

 Rationals + Irrationals
 All points on the number line
 Or all possible distances on the number line
When we put the irrational numbers together with the rational numbers, we finally have the
complete set of real numbers. Any number that represents an amount of something, such as a
weight, a volume, or the distance between two points, will always be a real number. The
following diagram illustrates the relationships of the sets that make up the real numbers.

An Ordered Set

The real numbers have the property that they are ordered, which means that given any two
different numbers we can always say that one is greater or less than the other. A more formal
way of saying this is:

For any two real numbers a and b, one and only one of the following three statements is true:

1.      a is less than b, (expressed as a < b)

2.      a is equal to b, (expressed as a = b)
3.      a is greater than b, (expressed as a > b)

The Number Line

The ordered nature of the real numbers lets us arrange them along a line (imagine that the line
is made up of an infinite number of points all packed so closely together that they form a solid
line). The points are ordered so that points to the right are greater than points to the left:
  Every real number corresponds to a distance on the number line, starting at the center
(zero).
 Negative numbers represent distances to the left of zero, and positive numbers are
distances to the right.
 The arrows on the end indicate that it keeps going forever in both directions.

Absolute Value 

When we want to talk about how “large” a number is without regard as to whether it is positive
or negative, we use the absolute value function. The absolute value of a number is the distance
from that number to the origin (zero) on the number line. That distance is always given as a
non-negative number.

In short:

 If a number is positive (or zero), the absolute value function does nothing to it: 

 If a number is negative, the absolute value function makes it positive: 

WARNING: If there is arithmetic to do inside the absolute value sign, you must do it before
taking the absolute value—the absolute value function acts on the result of whatever is inside it.
For example, a common error is

   (WRONG)

The correct result is

B. Properties of Real Numbers

The properties of the Real Number System will prove useful when working with
equations, functions and formulas in Algebra, as they allow for the creation of equivalent
expressions which will often aid in solving problems. In addition, they can be used to help
explain or justify solutions.
1. Distributive Property "multiplication distributes across
3 • (4 + 5) = 3 • 4 + 3 • 5
a • (b + c) = a • b + a • c addition"
2. Commutative Property of
Addition
a+b=b+a
3. Commutative Property of
Multiplication
a•b=b•a
4. Associative Property of Addition
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
5. Associative Property of
Multiplication
a • (b • c) = (a • b) • c
6. Additive Identity Property
a + 0 = a
7. Multiplicative Identity Property
a • 1 = a
8. Additive Inverse Property
a + (-a) = 0
9. Multiplicative Inverse Property
10 Zero Property of Multiplication
. a • 0 = 0
11 Closure Property of Addition
. a + b is a real number
12 Closure Property of
. Multiplication
a • b is a real number
13 Addition Property of Equality
. If a = b, then a + c = b + c.
"commute = to get up and move to
3+4=4+3 a new location : switch places"
"commute = to get up and move to
3•4=4•3 a new location: switch places"
"regroup - elements do not
3 + (4 + 5) = (3 + 4) + 5 physically move, they simply group
with a new friend."
"regroup - elements do not
3 • (4 • 5) = (3 • 4) • 5 physically move, they simply group
with a new friend."
"the value that returns the input
4+0=4 unchanged"
"the value that returns the input
4•1=4 unchanged"
"the value that brings you back to
4 + (-4) = 0 the identity element under
addition"
"the value that brings you back to
the identity element under
multiplication"
4•0=0 "zero times any value is 0"
10 + 5 = 15 (a real "the sum of any two real numbers 
number) is another real number"
"the product of any two real
10 • 5 = 50 (a real number) numbers is another real number"
"adding the same value to both
If x = 10,  sides of an equation will not
then x + 3 = 10 + 3 change the truth value of the
equation."
14 Subtraction Property of Equality "subtracting the same value from
. If a = b, then a - c = b - c. If x = 10,  both sides of an equation will not
then x - 3 = 10 - 3 change the truth value of the
equation."

15 Multiplication Property of "multiplying both sides of an

. Equality  If x = 10,  equation by the same value will not
If a = b, then a • c = b • c. then x • 3 = 10 • 3 change the truth value of the
equation."

16 Division Property of Equality "dividing both sides of an equation

If x = 10, 
. If a = b, then a / c = b / by the same non-zero value will not
c,assuming c ≠ 0. then x / 3 = 10 / 3 change truth value of the equation."

17 Substitution Property
If x = 5, and x + y = z, "a value may be substituted for its
. If a = b, then a may be substituted
for b, or conversely. then 5 + y = z. equal."

18 Reflexive (or Identity) Property of

"a real number is always 
. Equality 12 = 12 equal to itself"
a=a
19 Symmetric Property of Equality "quantities that are equal can be
. If a = b, then b = a. read forward or backward"

20 Transitive Property of Equality "if two numbers are equal to the

If 2a = 10 and 10 = 4b, 
. If a = b and b = c, same number, then the two
then a = c. then 2a = 4b. numbers are equal to each other"

21 Law of Trichotomy "for two real numbers a and b, a is

If 8 > 6, then 8   6 and 
. Exactly ONE of the following either equal to b, greater than b, or
holds: a < b, a = b, a > b 8 is not < 6. less than b." (common sense)

C. Arithmetic of Whole Number

The natural numbers are the counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... . The dots indicate that
the sequence is infinite – counting can go on forever, since you can always get the next
number by simply adding 1 to the previous number. In order to write numbers efficiently,
and for other reasons, we also need the number 0. Later on, we will need the sequence
of negative numbers −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, ... . Taken together, all these numbers are
 called the integers. It helps to visualize the
integers laid out on a number line, with 0 in
the middle, and the natural numbers
increasing to the right. There are numbers
between any two integers on the number
line. In fact, every location on the line
represents some number. Some locations
represent fractions such as one-half (between
0 and 1) or four- thirds (between 1 and 2).
Other locations represent numbers which
cannot be expressed as fractions,
such as π. (π is located between 3 and 4 and expresses the ratio of the circumference to
the diameter of any circle.)

For now, we concentrate on the non-negative integers (including 0), which we call whole
numbers. We need only ten symbols to write any whole number. These symbols are the
digits

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
We write larger whole numbers using a place-value system. The digit in the right-most
place indicates how many ones the number contains, the digit in the second-from-right
place indicates how many tens the number contains, the digit in the third-from-right place
indicates how many hundreds the number contains, etc.

Notice that when you move left,

the place value increases ten-fold. So if a number has five digits,the fifth-from-right place
indicates how many ten-thousands the number contains. (Ten-thousand is ten times a
thousand.)
 Adding Whole Numbers
When we add two or more integers, the result is called the sum. We assume you know the
sums of
single-digit numbers. For practice, do the following example.
Example 2. Fill in the missing squares in the digit-addition table below. For example, the number
in the row labelled 3 and the column labelled 4 is the sum 3 + 4 = 7.
Commutativity, Associativity, Identity
The first question leads us to an important property of addition, namely, that for any two
numbers x
and y,

x + y = y + x.

In other words, the order in which two numbers are added does not effect the sum. This
property of
addition is called commutativity.
The last two questions lead us to an important property of 0, namely, for any number x,
x + 0 = x = 0 + x.
In other words, when 0 is added to any number, x, you get the identical number, x, again.
Because of
this property, 0 is called the additive identity.
One final property of addition is expressed in the following equation
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z),
which says that if three numbers are added, it doesn’t matter how you “associate” the additions:
you
can add the first two numbers first, and then add the third to that, or, you could add the second
two
numbers first, and then add the first to that. This property of addition is called associativity.
Example 3. Find the sum of 2, 3, and 5 by associating in two different ways.
Solution. Associating 2 and 3, we calculate
(2 + 3) + 5 = 5 + 5 = 10.
On the other hand, associating 3 and 5, we calculate
2 + (3 + 5) = 2 + 8 = 10.

The sum is the same in both cases.

Multi-digit addition
To add numbers with more than one digit, we line up the numbers vertically so that the ones
places
(right-most) are directly on top of each other, and all other places are similarly arranged. Then
we add
the digits in each place to obtain the sum.
Example 4. Find the sum of 25 and 134.
Solution. We line up the numbers vertically so that the 5 in the ones place of 25 is over the 4 in
the
ones place of 134. If we do this carefully, all the other places line up vertically, too. So there is a
“ones”column, a “tens” column to the left of it, and a “hundreds” column to the left of that:
25
134
Then we draw a line and add the digits in each column to get the sum:
25
+134

159

Sometimes we need to “carry” a digit from one place to the next higher place. For example,
when
adding 38 + 47, we first add the ones places, 8 + 7 = 15. But 15 has two digits: it stands for 1
ten
+ 5 ones. We “put down” the 5 in the ones place, and “carry” the 1 (standing for a ten) to the
tens column. So we have:
Find the sum
38
+47
Solution. Put down the 5 in the ones place:
38
+47
5
and carry the 1 to the top of the tens column:
{1}
38
+47

and finish the job by adding up the tens column, including the carried one:
{1}
38
+47
85

The sum is 85.

Subtracting Whole Numbers

Another way to say that 5 + 2 = 7 is to say that 5 = 7 − 2. In words, “5 is the difference of 7 and
2,”or “5 is the result of taking away 2 from 7.” The operation of taking away one number from
another, or finding their difference, is called subtraction. For now, we have to be careful that the
number we take away is no larger than the number we start with: we cannot have 3 marbles and
take 7 of them away! Later on, when we introduce negative numbers, we won’t have to worry
about this. We assume you remember the differences of single-digit numbers. Just to make
sure, do the following example.
Fill in the missing squares in the digit-subtraction table below. Here’s a start: the number
in the row labelled 7 and the column labelled 2 is the difference 7−2 = 5. The digit in the row
labeled 3 and the column labelled 3 is the difference 3−3 = 0. (Squares that have an asterisk (#)
will be filled in later with negative numbers.)

Commutativity, Associativity, Identity

When we study negative numbers, we will see that subtraction is not commutative. We can see
by a simple example that subtraction is also not associative.

Verify that (7 − 4) − 2 is not equal to 7 − (4 − 2).

Solution. Associating the 7 and 4, we get
(7 − 4) − 2 = 3 − 2 = 1,
but associating the 4 and the 2, we get
7 − (4 − 2) = 7 − 2 = 5,
a different answer. Until we establish an order of operations, we will avoid examples like this!
It is true that
x−0=x
for any number x. However, 0 is not an identity for subtraction, since 0 − x is not equal to 0
(unlessx = 0). To make sense of 0 − x, we will need negative numbers.
Multi-digit subtractions
To perform subtractions of multi-digit numbers, we need to distinguish the number “being
diminished” from the number which is “doing the diminishing” (being taken away). The latter
number is called the subtrahend, and the former, the minuend. For now, we take care that the
subtrahend is no larger than
the minuend.
To set up the subtraction, we line the numbers up vertically, with the minuend over the
subtrahend, and the ones places lined up on the right.
Multiplying Whole Numbers
Multiplication is really just repeated addition. When we say “4 times 3 equals 12,” we can think
of it as starting at 0 and adding 3 four times over:
0 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12.
We can leave out the 0, since 0 is the additive identity ( 0+3 = 3). Using the symbol × for
multiplication,
we write
3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 4 × 3 = 12.
The result of multiplying two or more numbers is called the product of the numbers. Instead of
the × symbol, we often use a central dot (·) to indicate a product. Thus, for example, instead of
2 × 4 = 8, we can write
2 · 4 = 8.
We assume you remember the products of small whole numbers, so it should be easy for
you to reproduce the partial multiplication table below. For example, the number in the row
labelled 7 and the column labelled 5 is the product 7 · 5 = 35.
Powers of Whole Numbers
If we start with 1 and repeatedly multiply by 3, 4 times over, we get a number that is called the
4th power of 3, written

34 = 1 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3.

The factor of 1 is understood and usually omitted. Instead we simply write

34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3.

In the expression 34, 3 is called the base, and 4 the exponent (or power).

The 5th power of 2, or 25, is the product

2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32.

The 3rd power of 4, or 43, is the product

4 × 4 × 4 = 64.

We make the following definition in the cases where the exponent is 0.

Division of Whole Numbers
How many times does 23 “go into” 100? Put another way, starting with 100, how many times
can we subtract 23 without obtaining a negative number? The answer is easily seen to be 4.
Moreover, it is easy to see that there is something “left over,” namely, 8. Here are the
computations:

This operation (repeated subtraction) is called division. The number we start with (100 in the
example)
is called the dividend, and the number we repeatedly subtract (23 in the example) is called the
divisor.
We use the symbol ÷, and note that the dividend is written first:
dividend ÷ divisor.
Quotient and Remainder
Unlike the other three operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication), the result of a division of
whole numbers consists of not one but two whole numbers: the number of subtractions
performed (4 in the example), and the number left over (8 in the example). These two numbers
are called the quotient and the remainder, respectively.
Whole number divisions with remainder 0 are called exact. For example, 48÷6 has quotient 8
and remainder 0, so the division is exact and we can write

48 ÷ 6 = 8,

with the understanding that the remainder is 0. Exact divisions can be restated in terms of
multiplication.
Subtracting 6 (8 times) from 48 yields exactly 0. On the other hand, starting at 0 and adding 6 (8
times) returns 48. Recalling that multiplication is a shorthand for this kind of repeated addition,
we see
that the two statements
48 ÷ 6 = 8 and 48 = 6 · 8
say exactly the same thing. In general,
a ÷ b = c and a = b · c are equivalent statements.
Express the statement
72 = 8 · 9 as an exact division in two ways.
Solution. We can get to 0 by starting at 72 and repeatedly subtracting 8 (9 times), or by
repeatedly
subtracting 8 (9 times). So, using the division symbol, we can write
72 ÷ 8 = 9 or 72 ÷ 9 = 8.
The division 63 ÷ 7 is exact. Express this fact using an appropriate multiplication.
Solution. Since the quotient is 9 and the remainder is 0, we can write
63 ÷ 7 = 9 or 63 = 9 · 7.
Long Division
Divisions with multi-digit divisors and/or dividends can get complicated, so we remind you of a
standard
way (long division) of organizing the computations. Here is what it looks like:

The horizontal lines indicate subtractions of intermediate numbers; there is one subtraction for
each digit in the quotient. For example, the fact that the division 100 ÷ 23 has quotient 4 and
remainder 8 is expressed in the long division form as follows:

The 4 repeated subtractions of 23 are summarized as the single subtraction of 4 · 23 = 92.

In long division, we try to estimate the number of repeated subtractions that will be needed,
multiply this estimate by the divisor, and hope for a number that is close to, but not greater than,
the dividend.It will be easy to see when our estimate is too large, and to adjust it downward. If it
is too small, the result of the subtraction will be too big – there was actually “room” for further
subtraction. Going back to our example, 100÷23, it is more or less clear that we will need more
than 2 subtractions, since 23 × 2 = 46, which leaves a big remainder of 54 (bigger than the
divisor, 23). 23 × 3 = 69, which also leaves a remainder that is too big. Since 23×5 = 115, which
is bigger than the dividend, 100, we know that the best estimate for the quotient is 4. Now 23 ×
4 = 92. We subtract 92 from 100, leaving the remainder 8, which is less than the divisor, as it
should be. To check our calculations, we verify that 23 × 4 + 8 = 100. (In this check, the
multiplication is done before the addition – this is the standard order of operations, which we will
say more about later.)
Let’s try another simple division problem.
Find the quotient and remainder of the division 162 ÷ 42.
Solution. Putting the dividend and divisor into the long division form, we have

Let’s estimate the number of subtractions that we’ll need to perform. 40 goes into 160 four
times, so, perhaps four is a good guess. But 4 × 42 = 168, which is too big (bigger than the
dividend). So we lower our estimate by 1. We get 3 × 42 = 126, which is less than the dividend,
so this must be the right choice.
Subtracting, we obtain the remainder

which is less than the divisor, as it should be. Thus, the quotient is 3 and the remainder is 36.
As a check, we verify that 3 × 42 + 36 = 162. (Multiplication before addition.)
When the dividend is large, estimating the quotient is not so easy. The next example shows how
to
break the problem down by considering related, but smaller dividends.

D. Exponents

Exponents are shorthand for repeated multiplication of the same thing by itself. For instance, the
shorthand for multiplying three copies of the number 5 is shown on the right-hand side of the
"equals" sign in (5)(5)(5) = 53. The "exponent", being 3 in this example, stands for however
many times the value is being multiplied. The thing that's being multiplied, being5 in this
example, is called the "base".

This process of using exponents is called "raising to a power", where the exponent is the
"power". The expression "53" is pronounced as "five, raised to the third power" or "five to the
third". There are two specially-named powers: "to the second power" is generally pronounced as
"squared", and "to the third power" is generally pronounced as "cubed". So "53" is commonly
pronounced as "five cubed".

Exponents are also called Powers or Indices.

Example: 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125

 In words: 53 could be called "5 to the third power", "5 to the power 3" or simply "5 cubed"

Example: 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16

 In words: 24 could be called "2 to the fourth power" or "2 to the power 4" or simply "2 to the
4th"

Other Way of Writing It

Example: 2^4 is the same as 24

 2^4 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16
Negative Exponents

Negative? What could be the opposite of multiplying?

Dividing!

A negative exponent means how many times to divide one by the number.

Example: 8-1 = 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125

You can have many divides:

Example: 5-3 = 1 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 ÷ 5 = 0.008

But that can be done an easier way:

5-3 could also be calculated like:

1 ÷ (5 × 5 × 5) = 1/53 = 1/125 = 0.008

In General

That last example showed an easier way to handle negative exponents:

 Calculate the positive exponent (an)

 Then take the Reciprocal (i.e. 1/an)
Using the Laws of Exponents

 Multiplying Powers with the Same Base

 Power of a Power Property

 Power of a Product Property
 E Least Common Factor & Greatest Common Factor
Least Common Multiple
The smallest positive number that is a multiple of two or more numbers.

Let's start with an Example ... 

Least Common Multiple of 3 and 5:

List the Multiples of each number,

The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, ... etc

The multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ... etc

Find the first Common (same) value:

The Least Common Multiple of 3 and 5 is 15

( 15 is a common multiple of 3 and 5, and is the smallest, or least, common multiple )

So ... what is a "Multiple" ?

We get a multiple of a number when we multiply it by another number. Such as multiplying

by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc, but not zero. Just like the multiplication table. 

Here are some examples:

The multiples of 4 are: 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44,...

The multiples of 5 are: 5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,...

What is a "Common Multiple" ?

Say we have listed the first few multiples of 4 and 5: the common multiples are those that are
found in both lists:

The multiples of 4 are:

4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44,...

The multiples of 5 are: 5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,...

Notice that 20 and 40 appear in both lists? 

So, the common multiples of 4 and 5 are: 20, 40, (and 60, 80, etc ..., too)

What is the "Least Common Multiple" ?

It is simply the smallest of the common multiples.

In our previous example, the smallest of the common multiples is 20 ...

... so the Least Common Multiple of 4 and 5 is 20.

Finding the Least Common Multiple

List the multiples of the numbers until we get our first match.

Example: Find the least common multiple of 4 and 10:

The multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, ...

and the multiples of 10 are: 10, 20, ...

Aha! there is a match at 20. It looks like this:

So the least common multiple of 4 and 10 is 20

Example: Find the least common multiple of 6 and 15:

The multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, ...

and the multiples of 15 are: 15, 30, ...

There is a match at 30

So the least common multiple of 6 and 15 is 30

More than 2 Numbers

We can also find the least common multiple of three (or more) numbers.

Example: Find the least common multiple of 4, 6, and 8

Multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, ...

Multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, ...
Multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, ....

So 24 is the least common multiple (I can't find a smaller one !)

Hint: You can have smaller lists for the bigger numbers.

The GCF
The highest number that divides exactly into two or more numbers. 
It is the "greatest" thing for simplifying fractions

Greatest Common Factor of 12 and 16

 Find all the Factors of each number,

 Circle the Common factors,
 Choose the Greatest of those

So ... what is a "Factor" ?

Factors are the numbers we multiply together to get another number:

A number can have many factors:

Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 ...

... because 2 × 6 = 12, or 4 × 3 = 12, or 1 × 12 = 12.

What is a "Common Factor" ?

Say we have worked out the factors of two numbers:

Example: Factors of 12 and 30

Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12

 Factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30

Then the  common  factors are those that are found in both lists:

 Notice that 1, 2, 3 and 6 appear in both lists?

 So, the common factors of 12 and 30 are: 1, 2, 3 and 6

It is a common factor when it is a factor of two or more numbers.

Here is another example with three numbers:

Example: The common factors of 15, 30 and 105

Factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5, and 15

Factors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15 and 30

Factors of 105 are 1, 3, 5, 7, 15, 21, 35 and 105

The factors that are common to all three numbers are 1, 3, 5 and 15

In other words, the common factors of 15, 30 and 105 are 1, 3, 5 and 15

Why is this Useful?

One of the most useful things is when we want to simplify a fraction:

Example: How could we simplify 1230 ?

Earlier we found that the Common Factors of 12 and 30 are 1, 2, 3 and 6, and so the Greatest
Common Factor is 6.

So the largest number we can divide both 12 and 30 evenly by is 6, like this:

÷6
 123
 = 25
0

÷6

The Greatest Common Factor of 12 and 30 is 6.

And so 1230 can be simplified to 25

Finding the Greatest Common Factor

Here are three ways:

1. We can:

 find all factors of both numbers (use the All Factors Calculator),

 then find the ones that are common to both, and
 then choose the greatest.
Example:

Two Greatest Example Simplified

Factors Common Factors
Numbers Common Factor Fraction

 9: 1,3,9
9 and 12 1,3 3 912 = 34
12: 1,2,3,4,6,12

And another example:

Two Greatest Example Simplified

Factors Common Factors
Numbers Common Factor Fraction

 6: 1,2,3,6
6 and 18 1,2,3,6 6 618 = 13
18: 1,2,3,6,9,18

2. We can find the  prime factors  and combine the common ones together:

Two Greatest Example Simplified

Thinking ...
Numbers Common Factor Fraction

2 × 2 × 2 × 3 = 24, and

24 and 108 2 × 2 × 3 = 12 24108 = 29
2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 108

3. And sometimes we can just play around with the factors until we discover it:

Two Greatest Example Simplified

Thinking ...
Numbers Common Factor Fraction

9 and 12 3 × 3 = 9 and 3 × 4 = 12 3 912 = 34

But in that case we must check that we have found the greatest common factor.

Greatest Common Factor Calculator

There is another easy method, we can use the  Greatest Common Factor Calculator  to find it
automatically.

Other Names

The "Greatest Common Factor" is often abbreviated to "GCF", and is also known as:

 the "Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)", or

 the "Highest Common Factor (HCF)

What is the "Greatest Common Factor" ?

It is simply the largest of the common factors.

In our previous example, the largest of the common factors is 15, so the Greatest Common
Factor of 15, 30 and 105 is 15

F. Prime Factorization
Prime Numbers

A  Prime Number  can be divided evenly only by 1 or itself.

And it must be a whole number greater than 1.

The first few prime numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, and 17 ..., and we have a  prime number
chart if you need more.

Factors

"Factors" are the numbers you multiply together to get another number:
Prime Factorization

"Prime Factorization" is finding which prime numbers multiply together to make the original

number.

Here are some examples:

Example 1: What are the prime factors of 12 ?

It is best to start working from the smallest prime number, which is 2, so let's check:

12 ÷ 2 = 6

Yes, it divided evenly by 2. We have taken the first step!

But 6 is not a prime number, so we need to go further. Let's try 2 again:

6÷2=3

Yes, that worked also. And 3 is a prime number, so we have the answer:

12 = 2 × 2 × 3

 As you can see, every factor is a prime number, so the answer must be right.

 Note: 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 can also be written using  exponents  as 12 = 22 × 3

Example 2: What is the prime factorization of 147 ?

Can we divide 147 evenly by 2?

147 ÷ 2 = 73½
No it can't. The answer should be a whole number, and 73½ is not.

Let's try the next prime number, 3:

147 ÷ 3 = 49

That worked, now we try factoring 49, and find that 7 is the smallest prime number that works:

49 ÷ 7 = 7

And that is as far as we need to go, because all the factors are prime numbers.

147 = 3 × 7 × 7

(or 147 = 3 × 72 using exponents)

Example 3: What is the prime factorization of 17 ?

Hang on ... 17 is a Prime Number.

So that is as far as we can go.

17 = 17

Another Method

We showed you how to do the factorization by starting at the smallest prime and working
upwards.

But sometimes it is easier to break a number down into any factors you can ... then work those
factor down to primes.

Example: What are the prime factors of 90 ?

Break 90 into 9 × 10
 The prime factors of 9 are 3 and 3
 The prime factors of 10 are 2 and 5

So the prime factors of 90 are 3, 3, 2 and 5

Factor Tree

And a "Factor Tree" can help: find any factors of the number, then the factors of those
numbers, etc, until we can't factor any more.

Example: 48

48 = 8 × 6, so we write down "8" and "6" below 48

Now we continue and factor 8 into 4 × 2

Then 4 into 2 × 2

And lastly 6 into 3 × 2

 We can't factor any more, so we have found the prime factors.

Which reveals that 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3

(or 48 = 24 × 3 using exponents)

Why find Prime Factors?

A prime number can only be divided by 1 or itself, so it cannot be factored any further!

Every other whole number can be broken down into prime number factors.

It is like the Prime Numbers are the basic building blocks of all numbers.

This can be very useful when working with big numbers, such as in Cryptography.

Cryptography

Cryptography is the study of secret codes. Prime Factorization is very important to people who
try to make (or break) secret codes based on numbers.

That is because factoring very large numbers is very hard, and can take computers a long time
to do.

If you want to know more, the subject is "encryption" or "cryptography".

Unique

And here is another thing:

There is only one (unique!) set of prime factors for any number.

Example The prime factors of 330 are 2, 3, 5 and 11:

330 = 2 × 3 × 5 × 11

There is no other possible set of prime numbers that can be multiplied to make 330.
G. Divisibility

Divisible By

"Divisible By" means "when you divide one number by another the result is a  whole number "

Examples:

14 is divisible by 7, because 14 ÷ 7 = 2 exactly

15 is not divisible by 7, because 15 ÷ 7 = 2 17 (the result is not a whole number)

0 is divisible by 7, because 0 ÷ 7 = 0 exactly (0 is a whole number)

"Divisible by" and "can be evenly divided by" mean the same thing

Number
Characteristic of number divisible
by:
Last digit is even 2
The sum of the digits is divisible by 3 3
The last two digits form a number divisible by 4 4
The last digit is 0 or 5 5
The number is divisible by both 2 and 3. 6
To find out if a number is divisible by seven, take the last 7
digit, double it, and subtract it from the rest of the
number.

If you get an answer divisible by 7 (including zero), then

the original number is divisible by seven. If you don't
know the new number's divisibility, you can apply the
rule again.
Example:  Check to see if 203 is divisible by 7.

 double the last digit: 3 x 2 = 6

 subtract that from the rest of the number: 20 - 6 =
14.
 check to see if the difference is divisible by 7: 14
is divisible by 7, therefore 203 is also divisible by
 7.

The last three digits form a number divisible by 8 8

The sum of the digits is divisible by 9 9
The numeral ends in 0 10
The (sum of the odd numbered digits) - (sum of the even
numbered digits) is divisible by 11.

Example:
11
34871903
3+8+1+0=12
4+7+9+3=23
23-12=11
Is divisible by 11
The number is divisible by both 3 and 4. 12
Delete the last digit from the number, then subtract 9
times the deleted digit from the remaining number. If
13
what is left is divisible by 13, then so is the original
number.
The last four digits form a number divisible by 16 16
TEST TIP:    If a number is divisible by two different prime
numbers, then it is divisible by the products of those two numbers. 
Since 36, is divisible by both 2 and 3, it is also divisible by 6.

H. Fraction, Decimals & Percent

 Fractions

A fraction is a part of a whole

Slice a pizza, and we get fractions:

1 1 3
/2 /4 /8

(One-Half) (One-Quarter) (Three-Eighths)

The top number says how many slices we have. 

The bottom number says how many equal slices it was cut into.

Have a try yourself:

Total slices:

"One Eighth"

Equivalent Fractions

Some fractions may look different, but are really the same, for example: 

4
/8 = 2
/4 = 1
/2
 (Four-Eighths) Two-Quarters) (One-Half)

= =

It is usually best to show an answer using the simplest fraction ( 1/2 in this case ). That is called
Simplifying, or Reducing the Fraction

Numerator / Denominator

We call the top number the Numerator, it is the number of parts we have.

We call the bottom number the Denominator, it is the number of parts the whole is divided into.

Numerator

Denominator

You just have to remember those names! (If you forget just think "Down"-ominator)

Adding Fractions

It is easy to add fractions with the same denominator (same bottom number):

1 1 2 1
/4 + /4 = /4 = /2

(One-Quarter) (One-Quarter) (Two-Quarters) (One-Half)

 + = =

Another example:

5 1 6 3
/8 + /8 = /8 = /4

+ = =

Adding Fractions with Different Denominators

But what about when the denominators (the bottom numbers) are not the same? 

3
/8 + 1
/4 = ?

+ =

We must somehow make the denominators the same.

In this case it is easy, because we know that 1/4 is the same as 2/8 :

 3
/8 + 2
/8 = 5
/8

+ =

But when it is hard to make the denominators the same, use one of these methods (they both
work, use the one you prefer):

 Least Common Denominator, or

 Common Denominator

Decimals

A Decimal Number (based on the number 10) contains a Decimal Point.

First, let's have an example:

Here is the number "forty-five and six-tenths" written as a decimal number:

The decimal point goes between Ones and Tenths.

 
45.6 has 4 Tens, 5 Ones and 6 Tenths, like this:

Now, let's discover how it all works ...

Place Value

It is all about  Place Value  !

When we write numbers, the position (or "place") of each digit

is important.

In the number 327:

 the "7" is in the Ones position, meaning 7 ones (which is 7),

 the "2" is in the Tens position meaning 2 tens (which is twenty),
 and the "3" is in the Hundreds position, meaning 3 hundreds.

"Three Hundred Twenty Seven"

 As we move left, each position is 10 times bigger!

Tens are 10 times bigger than Ones

Hundreds are 10 times bigger than Tens

... and ...

As we move right, each position is 10 times smaller.

From Hundreds, to Tens, to Ones

But what if we continue past Ones?

What is 10 times smaller than Ones?

110ths (Tenths) are!

But we must first put a decimal point,

so we know exactly where the Ones position is:

"three hundred twenty seven and four tenths"

but we usually just say "three hundred twenty seven point four"

And that is a Decimal Number!

We can continue with smaller and smaller values, from tenths, to hundredths, and so on, like
in this example:
Have a play with decimal numbers yourself:

3.1416

Three Point One Four One Six

© 2015 MathsIsFun.com v 0.81

Large and Small

17 591

On the left of the decimal point is a

whole number (such as 17)

As we move further left, 

every place gets 10 times bigger.

The first digit on the right means

tenths (1/10).

As we move further right, 

every place gets 10 times smaller 
(one tenth as big).

So, our Decimal System lets us write numbers as large or as small as we want, using the
decimal point. Digits can be placed to the left or right of a decimal point, to show values greater
than one or less than one.
The decimal point is the most important part of a Decimal Number. Without it we are lost, and
don't know what each position means.

Zoom into decimals ...

See decimals on the  Zoomable Number Line

Definition of Decimal

The word "Decimal" really means "based on 10" (From Latin decima: a tenth part).

We sometimes say "decimal" when we mean anything to do with our numbering system, but a
"Decimal Number" usually means there is a Decimal Point.

Ways to think about Decimal Numbers ...

... as a Whole Number Plus Tenths, Hundredths, etc

We can think of a decimal number as a whole number plus tenths, hundredths, etc:

Example 1: What is 2.3 ?

 On the left side is "2", that is the whole number part.

 The 3 is in the "tenths" position, meaning "3 tenths", or 3/10
 So, 2.3 is "2 and 3 tenths"

Example 2: What is 13.76 ?

 On the left side is "13", that is the whole number part.

 There are two digits on the right side, the 7 is in the "tenths" position, and the 6 is the
"hundredths" position
 So, 13.76 is "13 and 7 tenths and 6 hundredths"

... as a Decimal Fraction

Or we can think of a decimal number as a Decimal Fraction.

A Decimal Fraction is a fraction where the denominator (the bottom number) is a number such
as 10, 100, 1000, etc (in other words a  power of ten )

So "2.3" looks like: 2310

And "13.76" looks

1376100
like:

 ... as a Whole Number and Decimal Fraction

Or we can think of a decimal number as a Whole Number plus a Decimal Fraction.

So "2.3" looks like: 2 and 310

And "13.76" looks

13 and 76100
like:

Percentages (%)

When we say "Percent" we are really saying "per 100"

One percent (1%) means 1 per 100.

1% of this line is shaded green: it is very small isn't it?

 
 50% means 50 per 100
(50% of this box is green)

25% means 25 per 100

(25% of this box is green)

Examples:

100% means all.

Example:

100
100% of 80 is  × 80 = 80
100

50% means half.

Example:

50
50% of 80 is  × 80 = 40
100
 5% means 5/100ths.

Example:

5
5% of 80 is  × 80 = 4
100

Using Percent

When 100% =

80

then:

75% = 60

Use the slider and try some different numbers

(What is 40% of 80? What is 10% of 200? What is 90% of 10?)

Because "Percent" means "per 100" think:

"this should be divided by 100"

So 75% really means 75/100

And 100% is 100/100, or exactly 1 (100% of any number is just the number, unchanged)

And 200% is 200/100, or exactly 2 (200% of any number is twice the number)

A Percent can also be expressed as a Decimal or a Fraction

 A Half can be written...

As a percentage: 50%

As a decimal: 0.5

1
As a fraction: /2

Read more about this at  Decimals, Fractions and Percentages .

Some Worked Examples

Example: Calculate 25% of 80

25
25% =
100

25
And  × 80 = 20
100

So 25% of 80 is 20

Example: 15% of 200 apples are bad. How many apples are bad?

15
15% =
100

15 200
And  × 200  =  15 ×   =  15 × 2  =  30 apples
100 100

30 apples are bad

Example: if only 10 of the 200 apples are bad, what percent is that?

As a fraction, 10/200 = 0.05

As a percentage it is: (10/200) x 100 = 5%

5% of those apples are bad

Example: A Skateboard is reduced 25% in price in a sale. 

The old price was $120. 
Find the new price.

First, find 25% of $120:

25
25% =
100

25
And  × $120 = $30
100

25% of $120 is $30

So the reduction is $30

Take the reduction from the original price

$120 - $30 = $90

The Price of the Skateboard in the sale is $90

The Word
"Percent" comes from the latin Per Centum. The latin word Centum means 100, for example a
Century is 100 years.

Percent vs Percentage

My Dictionary says "Percentage" is the "result obtained by multiplying a quantity by a percent".

So 10 percent of 50 apples is 5 apples: the 5 apples is the percentage.

But in practice people use both words the same way.

I. Ratio & Proportion

Ratios

A ratio compares values.

A ratio says how much of one thing there is compared to another thing.
 There are 3 blue squares to 1 yellow square

Ratios can be shown in different ways:

Using the ":" to separate the values: 3:1

Instead of the ":" we can use the word

3 to 1
"to":

Or write it like a fraction: 31

A ratio can be scaled up:

Here the ratio is also 3 blue squares to 1 yellow square,

even though there are more squares.

Using Ratios

The trick with ratios is to always multiply or divide the numbers by the same value.

Example:

4 : 5 is the same as 4×2 : 5×2 = 8 : 10

Recipes

Example: A Recipe for pancakes uses 3 cups of flour and 2 cups of milk.

So the ratio of flour to milk is 3 : 2

To make pancakes for a LOT of people we might need 4 times the quantity, so we multiply the
numbers by 4:

3×4 : 2×4 = 12 : 8

In other words, 12 cups of flour and 8 cups of milk.

The ratio is still the same, so the pancakes should be just as yummy.

"Part-to-Part" and "Part-to-Whole" Ratios

The examples so far have been "part-to-part" (comparing one part to another part).

But a ratio can also show a part compared to the whole lot.

Example: There are 5 pups, 2 are boys, and 3 are girls

Part-to-Part:

The ratio of boys to girls is 2:3 or 2/3

The ratio of girls to boys is 3:2 or 3/2

Part-to-Whole:
 The ratio of boys to all pups is 2:5 or 2/5

The ratio of girls to all pups is 3:5 or 3/5

Try It Yourself

What is the ratio of oranges to strawberries?     :   

What is the ratio of strawberries to oranges?     :   

What is the ratio of oranges to total fruit?     :   

What is the ratio of strawberries to total fruit?     :   

Scaling

We can use ratios to scale drawings up or down (by multiplying or dividing).

The height to width ratio of the Indian Flag is 2:3

 So for every 2 (inches, meters, whatever) of height 
there should be 3 of width.

If we made the flag 20 inches high, it should be 30 inches wide.

If we made the flag 40 cm high, it should be 60 cm wide (which is still in the ratio
2:3)

Example: 
To draw a horse at 1/10th normal size, multiply all sizes by 1/10th

This horse in real life is 1500mm high and 2000 mm long, so the ratio of its height to length is

1500 : 2000

What is that ratio when we draw it at 1/10th normal size?

 
Answer: 1500 : 2000 = 1500×1/10 : 2000×1/10 = 150 : 200

We can make any reduction/enlargement we want that way.

Big Foot?

Allie measured her foot and it was 21cm long, and then she
measured her Mother's foot, and it was 24cm long.

"I must have big feet, my foot is nearly as long as my Mom's!"

But then she thought to measure heights, and found she is 133cm tall, and her Mom is 152cm
tall.

In a table this is:

Allie Mom

Length of Foot: 21cm 24cm

Height: 133cm 152cm

The "foot-to-height" ratio in fraction style is:

Allie
21133 Mom: 24152
:

So the ratio for Allie is 21 : 133

By dividing both values by 7 we get 21/7 : 133/7 = 3 : 19

And the ratio for Mom is 24 : 152

By dividing both values by 8 we get 24/8 : 152/8 = 3 : 19

The simplified "foot-to-height" ratios are now:

Allie Mom
319 319
: :

"Oh!" she said, "the Ratios are the same".

"So my foot is only as big as it should be for my height, and is not really too big."

 Proportions

Proportion says that two  ratios  (or fractions) are equal.

Example:

So 1-out-of-3 is equal to 2-out-of-6

The ratios are the same, so they are in proportion.

Example: Rope

A ropes length and weight are in proportion.
When 20m of rope weighs 1kg, then:

 40m of that rope weighs 2kg

 200m of that rope weighs 10kg
 etc.

So:

201 = 402

Sizes

When shapes are "in proportion" their relative sizes are the same.

Here we see that the ratios of head length to body

length are the same in both drawings.

So they are proportional.

Making the head too long or short would look bad!

Working With Proportions

NOW, how do we use this?

Example: you want to draw the dog's head, and would like to know how long it should be:

Let us write the proportion with the help of the 10/20 ratio from above:

?42 = 1020

Now we solve it using a special method:

Multiply across the known corners,

then divide by the third number

And we get this:

? = (42 × 10) / 20 = 420 / 20 = 21

So you should draw the head 21 long.

Using Proportions to Solve Percents

A percent is actually a ratio! Saying "25%" is actually saying "25 per 100":

25% = 25100
We can use proportions to solve questions involving percents.

First, put what we know into this form:

PartWhole = Percent100

Example: what is 25% of 160 ?

The percent is 25, the whole is 160, and we want to find the "part":

Part160 = 25100

Find the Part:

Example: what is 25% of 160 (continued) ?

Part160 = 25100

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number:

Part = (160 × 25) / 100 = 4000 / 100 = 40

Answer: 25% of 160 is 40.

Note: we could have also solved this by doing the divide first, like this:

Part = 160 × (25 / 100) = 160 × 0.25 = 40

Either method works fine.

We can also find a Percent:

Example: what is $12 as a percent of $80 ?

Fill in what we know:

$12$80 = Percent100

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number. This time the known corners
are top left and bottom right:

Percent = ($12 × 100) / $80 = 1200 / 80 = 15%

Answer: $12 is 15% of $80

Or find the Whole:

Example: The sale price of a phone was $150, which was only 80% of normal price. What was
the normal price?

Fill in what we know:

$150Whole = 80100

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number:

Whole = ($150 × 100) / 80 = 15000 / 80 = 187.50

Answer: the phone's normal price was $187.50

Using Proportions to Solve Triangles

We can use proportions to solve similar triangles.

Example: How tall is the Tree?

Sam tried using a ladder, tape measure, ropes and various other things, but still couldn't work
out how tall the tree was.

But then Sam has a clever idea ... similar triangles!

Sam measures a stick and its shadow (in meters), and also the shadow of the tree, and this is
what he gets:

Now Sam makes a sketch of the triangles, and writes down the "Height to Length" ratio for both
triangles:

Height:Shadow Length:     h2.9 m = 2.4 m1.3 m

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number:
 h = (2.9 × 2.4) / 1.3 = 6.96 / 1.3 = 5.4 m (to nearest 0.1)

Answer: the tree is 5.4 m tall.

And he didn't even need a ladder!

The "Height" could have been at the bottom, so long as it was on the bottom for BOTH ratios,
like this:

Let us try the ratio of "Shadow Length to Height":

Shadow Length:Height:     2.9 mh = 1.3 m2.4 m

Multiply across the known corners, then divide by the third number:

h = (2.9 × 2.4) / 1.3 = 6.96 / 1.3 = 5.4 m (to nearest 0.1)

It is the same calculation as before.

A "Concrete" Example

Ratios can have more than two numbers!

For example concrete is made by mixing cement, sand, stones and water.
A typical mix of cement, sand and stones is written as a ratio, such as 1:2:6.

We can multiply all values by the same amount and still have the same ratio.

10:20:60 is the same as 1:2:6

So when we use 10 buckets of cement, we should use 20 of sand and 60 of stones.

Example: you have just put 12 buckets of stones into a mixer, how much cement and how much
sand should you add to make a 1:2:6 mix?

Let us lay it out in a table to make it clearer:

Cement Sand Stones

Ratio Needed: 1 2 6

You Have: 12

You have 12 buckets of stones but the ratio says 6.

That is OK, you simply have twice as many stones as the number in the ratio ... so you need
twice as much of everything to keep the ratio.

Here is the solution:

Cement Sand Stones

Ratio Needed: 1 2 6
 You Have: 2 4 12

And the ratio 2:4:12 is the same as 1:2:6 (because they show the same relative sizes)

So the answer is: add 2 buckets of Cement and 4 buckets of Sand. (You will also need water
and a lot of stirring....)

Why are they the same ratio? Well, the 1:2:6 ratio says to have:

 twice as much Sand as Cement ( 1 : 2 :6)

 6 times as much Stones as Cement ( 1 :2: 6 )

In our mix we have:

 twice as much Sand as Cement ( 2 : 4 :12)

 6 times as much Stones as Cement ( 2 :4: 12 )

So it should be just right!

That is the good thing about ratios. You can make the amounts bigger or smaller and so long as
therelative sizes are the same then the ratio is the same.