Chapter 1| Architecture and Sculpture/Art and Architecture in Prehistoric

Times

Index:
Introduction
Evolution of Architecture in India
● Types of Architecture
Conclusion

Introduction

Ancient India consisted of a large area that had present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, Burma, and Indo-
China incorporated into it. With the Himalayas flanking it on the North-East, the Hindukush on the
North-West and the Arabian sea, the Indian ocean and the of around the peninsula. In India, there is
generally seen domination of tropical climate, although there is a great variation from North to South
and East to West. For instance, the stone was the major building material in Indian Architecture. There
is a great variety of stones available, marble and sandstone in Rajasthan and parts of northern India,
with granite availability in the South. Apart from this, the bricks were frequently made with alluvial
soil along the Gangetic plain, which has survived through the vagaries of time. The rock along the
western Ghats provided artists and craftsmen with an opportunity to make beautiful rock-cut temples
during the Buddhist period.

Evolution of Architecture in India

● Apart from indicating prevalent tastes, Architectural styles are also responsible for creating
tastes, popularising styles along with shaping cultural trends. Many Indians came to regard
European styles of architecture as symbols of modernity and civilisation and began adopting
these styles. But this was not the case with all Indians; many rejected European ideals and
tried to retain indigenous styles; others accepted certain Western elements that they saw as
modern and amalgamated them with elements drawn from local traditions.
● From the late nineteenth century onwards, efforts to define regional and national tastes
different from the colonial ideal could be seen.
● As a result, styles evolved and changed through more comprehensive cultural conflicts.
● Indian Architecture can be distinguished by following three distinct periods:
⮚ The architecture of the Indus valley from 2500 BC to the invasion of 1500 BC.
 ⮚ Architecture from invasion to gradual conquest of India by 1200AD.
⮚ Islamic Architecture from 1200 AD to 1800 AD when the Muslims were taken over by the
British.
● The history of India in the middle of the 3rd century BC happens to be one of the seminal
events in the world. Several cities were based on a rectangular grid, oriented to the cardinal
points, with standardised brick being the primary building material. A high proportion of the
population lived in well-drained houses. Most of these cities were walled and dominated by
citadels containing public buildings, including granaries.
⮚ In the 2nd century BC, pastoral people from central Asia called Aryans invaded the Indus
plain, destroying one city after the other.
⮚ After the Aryans subjugated the indigenous Dravidian population of the Indian plain, the
Indus valley civilisation was wiped out, and the Buddhist religion dominated India for most
of the 6th century.
● Harappan cities, which exhibited unique town planning, are among the earliest and most
impressive examples of Indian architecture.
⮚ Architectural styles classified as Hindu, Buddhist and Jain evolved in the post-Harappan
period, while Persian and indigenous architectural styles were synthesised in the medieval
period.
● After that, the colonial period introduced Western influence to Indian architecture. India's
architecture has a unique character as a result of a combination of indigenous and foreign
influences.
● Early cavemen began building their own shelter as soon as they stepped out of the natural
habitat of dense jungles. Architecture is not a modern invention. It dates back to the day when
cavemen began building their own shelters to live in. As he searched for larger and better
shelters, he began to employ his artistic faculties to build shelters that had an aesthetic
quality. Consequently, emergent architecture is a combination of the needs of the owner,
their imagination, their abilities, as well as the workers' skills.
● Architectural study reveals cultural diversity and helps understand the traditional culture of
India. Thus, architecture is a study of the adaptation of local and regional culture, social needs,
economic prosperity, and religious practices over time.
● In different parts and regions of India, Indian architectural styles have evolved at various
times. The evolution of Indian architecture was usually affected by many great and essential
historical developments, as well as these natural and apparent changes from prehistoric and
historical periods.
 ⮚ India's architectural evolution was influenced by the rise and fall of the great empires and
dynasties of the subcontinent.
⮚ External influences have also shaped the landscape of Indian architecture, influencing
different regions of the country.
● However, many of India's monuments have been reduced to dust due to the waves of time.
The availability of architectural edifices depends to a great extent on the material used in
them. Suppose construction is of perishable material like wood. In that case, the chances of
long-term survival are very thin, but if the material used is non-perishable, like stone, it can
last for a longer period. Much has remained despite the temporal erosion, and there is a clear
evolution in the styles over time.
● Architecture in India shows gradual evolution from wooden and simple stone masonry to
more compact and structurally rigid and aesthetic versions. The shift occurs both due to the
advancement of technology and new elements entering from elsewhere in the world. There
has been an amalgamation of the old and the new and the local to the remote at most places.
The story of Indian architecture begins with a grand civilisation that emerged on the plains of
the present-day Indus River and its tributaries.

Paleolithic: Mesolithic: Neolithic: Chalcolithic:

● Mother ● First rock ● Both ● Ahar culture:

Goddess at painting- handmade Southeastern
Locanda Nala Suhagi Ghat in and wheel Rajasthan.
Belan valley Kaimur hills. pottery has ● Ahar pottery is
(Mirzapur). ● Bhimbetka been found. made on wheel

● Grooved rock painting: ● There is an red and

animal tooth Sixteen engraving on whiteware.

at Kurnool. different pottery. ● Terracotta is

● A Circular disc colours can be ● There is one of the

made of identified, but evidence of unique

chalcedony at red and white community features of

 Bhimbetka (in are mainly feasting at Ahar culture.
today's used. Budihal ● Chalcolithic
Madhya ● There are 29 (Gulbarga farmers of
Pradesh). different District of Deccan.
● Ostrich species of today's ● Daimabad
eggshell animals like Karnataka. culture
engraved with tiger leopard, (Ahmednagar,
two panels of panther, Maharashtra).
criss-cross elephant, and ● Bronze objects
design at antelope mainly.
Patne. (most
Inamgaon, Pune: It is
● Bachelor frequent).
characterised by a
(MP): A
large number of bull
roughly
figurines.
circular
platform
made of
sandstone
rubble has
been found

Types of Megaliths:

Menhir: Dolmen: Cist: Cairn Circle:

● This is a
● Large and tall ● There is a
demonstration
memorial set pattern
here that first,
stones were that is
the dead body
erected to followed by
used to be buried
make the graves here.
along with iron
presence of a The dead
implements, clay
grave at that body is first
pots or urns and
place evident. buried,
bones of pets
● Length: One which is
and then
and a half to then
rounded stones
 about five and followed by were fixed all
● Dead bodies were
a half metres. small stones around the
kept on the slab of
● Found: Maski being grave.
stone on a raised
and Gulbarga erected all ● Found:
platform enclosed
regions of around it. Nayakund and
from all the sides
Karnataka. Borgaon
with a flat stone ● Found:
(Maharashtra)
slab. Banda and
and Chingelpur
Mirzapur of
● Originated: (Tamil Nadu).
Uttar
Brahmagiri region
Pradesh.
in Karnataka and
Chingelpur region
of Tamil Nadu.

● In Indian architecture, there are many kinds of expressions that have been shaped over
time and space by the forces of history unique to the particular country. Diversities within
architectural specimens have resulted in an enormous variety of styles, maintaining a
relative degree of continuity through time.
● Each period of Indian history has left its mark on architecture in the nation. Indian
architecture can be traced back to Buddhism in India, but its foundations can be found in
the Indus Valley cities. Buddhist art and architecture arose during this period, and some
of the most outstanding works are the Great Stupa (Sanchi) and rock-cut caves in Ajanta.
● The South Indian school of architecture flourished after the formation of Hindu kingdoms
in South India. Palava rulers were particularly famous for their rock-cut temples of
Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram. Other rulers, such as the Cholas, Hoysalas, and
Vijayanagars, also accomplished remarkable things in architecture. South Indian rulers are
credited with creating the temples at Thanjavur, Belur, and Halebid for their superior
architectural skills.
● The Nagara style architecture developed in North India, which was new and different.
● A magnificent temple complex was built by the Chandela rulers in Khajuraho, a town in
Central India. After the Muslim rulers took control of India, a different architectural style
developed called Indo-Islamic architecture, which was neither strictly Hindu nor strictly
Islamic. Delhi (the Imperial Style) and Mughal Architecture comprise the two main
 categories of medieval architecture.
● There was the development of a new style of architecture that came to be known as Indo-
Saracenic architecture which was the result of the Colonisation of India. This architecture
was an amalgamation of Hindu, European and Islamic architectural styles. Railway
stations, rest houses, post offices and other government buildings and utilitarian civic
buildings were all part of colonial architecture.

Mesolithic rock-cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a
fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. CIn Body, discuss how rock-cut
architecture of the Mesolithic age reflected both cultural and aesthetic sense with their
features. (UPSC 2015)

The Mesolithic Age is the period between the end of the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age.
The Mesolithic Age in India lies roughly between 10,000 – 2,000 BCE. The art and architecture
conceived during this period are referred to as Mesolithic art.

The art during this period mainly depicted man’s immediate surroundings, things on which he
subsisted whereas classical art essentially depicted what man saw and modern art illustrated what
man thought. Some of the Mesolithic sites in India are situated in Uttar Pradesh (e.g., Sarai Nahar
Rai, Morgana Pahar), Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka), Rajasthan (Bogor), Gujarat (Alhaj, Valsana),
Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. Some features of this era are-

● Microliths or small stone tools were used by the people in this Age which were made by
blunting one or more sides with steep retouches. Examples include obliquely truncated
blades, crescents, triangles, and trapezes. The art and architecture were limited to the
rock and cave shelters.

● Rock art is in the form of petroglyphs (rock paintings) and petroglyphs (rock engravings) of
which Bhimbetka is a classic example. The art in these natural cave shelters depicts the
social life in those times especially related to hunting, sexual activities, childbirth, burial,
etc.
 ● People in this age had, thus developed a clear aesthetic sense as most of the paintings
portrayed the nature around them.

The modern paintings on the other hand before the 19th century focused more on ornate
presentations than on capturing the aesthetic value as evident by the bazaar paintings during the
Company rule.

Even contemporary Indian paintings of today exhibit a fine aesthetic sense, as they are mostly
based on European neo-classical traditions. Whereas abstract modern art incidentally lacks the
aesthetics of classical and stone age art and appeals to only a selected class of people.

Types of Architecture

● Ancient Architecture: It has been recognised that Indian architecture is as old as

civilisation itself. The earliest examples of building in India date back to the Indus Valley.
Among the ancient architectural remains of India are temples, stupas, chaityas and
viharas, as well as other religious structures.
● Cave Architecture: The origins of this architecture in India are attributed to the Third
Century BC. Caves in these areas were used by Buddhist and Jain monks to worship and
reside. To begin with, the caves were found in western India, where there are Buddhist
Chaityas and Viharas.
● Rock Cut: Most of the rock-cut structures are associated with various religious
communities and are one of the most magnificent pieces of ancient Indian art. At first,
noteworthy Buddhist and Jain monuments were constructed in areas such as Bihar in the
east and Maharashtra in the west.
● Temple Architecture: Temple architecture of a high standard was developed in almost
every region during the ancient period. The differences in architectural styles were due to
the diversity of geography, climatic conditions, ethnic groups, races, religions, and
languages in different parts of the country. There are different styles of ancient Indian
temples built according to their architectural design.
⮚ On occasion, it becomes very important to remind ourselves that we are from a
civilisation that stretches back at least 4,500 years and has impacted nearly every
aspect of our life and society. UNESCO has listed 1154 World Heritage Sites, including
 40 in India. This is tangible evidence of the creativity and industry of this ancient land
and people and also of the gifts that nature has granted it.
o From Bhimbetka's prehistoric rock art at one end of the peninsula to the countless
palaces, temples, mosques, churches, gurudwaras, and tombs of the region.
o One may observe many beautiful buildings, such as monuments, palaces, temples,
mosques, churches and memorials, while travelling through Delhi, Agra, Jaipur,
Mumbai and Calcutta, among others.
o The architecture that stands tall and mighty as a reminder of the brilliant past we
have shared is the result of many generations' work.
⮚ The architecture and art of India have contributed greatly to the long history of this
country. Throughout its long history, architecture developed many unique features.
● Indo Islamic Architecture: A great deal of innovation occurred in the field of architecture
during the medieval period as Muslims arrived in India and introduced a number of new
building features. Indian Architecture with Islamic Art influences can be called Indo-Islamic
Architecture.
● Colonial Architecture: With colonisation, Indian architecture experienced a new chapter
in its history, as did all other aspects of colonisation. Among the peoples who impacted
architecture were the Dutch, French, and Portuguese, but the English had the most
profound impact.
⮚ The colonisation of India led to the development of a new style of architecture, known
as Indo-Saracenic architecture, it combines parts of Hindu, Islamic, and European
architectural styles. Post offices and railway stations, rest houses and government
buildings were all part of colonial architecture, as well as civic and civic utilitarian
buildings.

Conclusion
The architecture is a mirror of the aesthetic ideals prevalent at a particular time, and along with that,
it also shows the variations within those ideals. Buildings that are constructed demonstrate the vision
of the ones who constructed them. It has been widely known that historically, kings have built
buildings as an expression of their power. Hence a building and its architecture is a glimpse into history
about how power was conceived and also how it was expressed by means of structures and their
attributes- pillars and arches, bricks and stones, soaring domed or vaulted roofs. The architecture is
also symbolic of the variety of forms in which the cultural conflicts unfolded back in the time and of
the political conflicts that were played out between the imperial and the national and also the national
and the regional/local.
 Chapter 2| Classification of Indian Architecture/Evolution of Architecture in
India

Index
Introduction
Ancient India
Harappa Art
Mauryan Art
Post Mauryan Art
Gupta Age Art
South India Architecture (The Pallavas and The Cholas)
Mediaeval India
Delhi Sultanate
Important Monuments of Respective Dynasties
Mughal Period/Architecture
Important Structures by the Rulers
Modern India
Indo-Gothic Style
Neo-Roman Style
Conclusion
Introduction
Architecture is perhaps India’s greatest artistic glory. History, culture, and religion have had a major
influence on Indian architecture. Different eras have influenced the design and perceived value of the
site over time. Colonisation along with discourse with other countries has added additional layers to
Indian architecture. Various civilisations and dynasties have contributed significantly to the evolution
of the Indian architectural style. Outside influences have also been important in shaping the
architectural style. Several parts of the country are still affected by the influence and remnants of
this period.

Ancient India
Harappa Art
● The Harappan civilisation was the first urban civilisation of the Indian subcontinent.
Archaeological discoveries indicate that this culture evolved from the earlier rural
communities. Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, Banawali; about
5000 years ago, many building activities went on in these areas.
⮚ This period saw excellent planning in the town. It was common to use burnt brick,

road widths were large and at right angles to one another, and city sewers were
planned with great forethought and skill. Corbelled arches and baths were also
constructed with great knowledge.
⮚ Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were some of the main sites of the Harappan civilisation.

⮚ Well-planned towns can be seen in some Harappan centres.

⮚ These towns were exemplified by two broad divisions–a citadel on a higher mound

and the lower town.

⮚ Burnt bricks were used for building houses. The towns had a good drainage system.

⮚ Some most important buildings in the Harappan towns were the Great Bath at

Mohenjodaro, a granary at Harappa, and a dockyard at Lothal.

⮚ These people practised agriculture along with pastoralism.

⮚ Although there were skilled craftsmen who worked in copper and other metals, the

stone tools were still in common use. They supplied beads, terracotta figurines,
potteries and seals of various kinds.
⮚ They carried out trade, both internal and external. They had commercial ties with

Mesopotamian cities through Oman and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The merchants
 operated trades in various commodities of import and export. Their society appears
to have been matriarchal in nature.
⮚ They followed different professions, i.e., priests, physicians, warriors, peasants,

traders and artisans. Though they wore simple clothes made of cotton and wool, they
were affectionate about decorating themselves with various ornaments.
⮚ They worshipped the mother goddess, Pashupati (Proto Shiva), trees and animals.

They also observed different kinds of burial practices and rituals associated with them.
⮚ The Harappans were literate, and their script was in the form of ideograms. Still, the

script has not been deciphered so far. Once it is deciphered, we will be able to know
more about Harappan culture.

Figure 2.1: Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro

Figure 2.2: Artistic Representation of Harappa

 Figure 2.3: Drainage System at Lothal

Figure 2.4: Granary at Harappa

Mauryan Art
● It is known that stone masonry and stone carving were imported in Ashoka’s times from
Persia. Similarly, to Persepolis, there are abundant signs of stonemason’s marks. Still, wood
remained the dominant material, and the gradual transition from wood to stone can be seen
in the architectural remains from Ashokan times.
● It has been discovered at Pataliputra that the imperial capital used to be surrounded by a
timber wall, which was clearly described by Megasthanes, who asserted that everything in
India was constructed of timber at the time. Nonetheless, there is one major exception to this,
and that is the rock-cut architecture of India:
⮚ Early cave architecture is the most datable cave, the so-called Lomas Rishi cave

situated in the Barabar Hills (Bihar).

⮚ An inscription confirms that this was excavated for the Ajivika sect during Ashoka’s

reign.
⮚ Symbolically, the entrance represents a hut, with a bent wooden roof supporting cross

beams that protrude at the ends.

⮚ For non-Buddhist monks, Ashoka built these caves cut from solid rock.
 ⮚ Rock edicts carved into these caves are inscribed in local languages and scripts, as well

as inscribed with the cultures of the time. These caves were the start of rock-cut
architecture which got further patronage from later rulers.
⮚ Sculpted elephant friezes are copies of both wood and bamboo trellis work in stone.

⮚ There has been an evolution from previous shapes in timber to stone in this

stunning example.

Figure 2.5: National Emblem

● The Mauryans made a significant contribution to art and architecture. Ashoka constructed
over 84,000 stupas to commemorate Buddha's many life episodes. Pataliputra's magnificence
was regarded by Megasthenes to be comparable with the splendour of Persian cities. Stone
pillars with single polished sandstone columns and caps on top were used to inscribe Ashokan
edicts.
⮚ Laurita Nandangarh in Bihar has the best-preserved Ashokan edict, a 32 feet tall

column that rests atop a 50-ton lion capital, a true engineering feat.
⮚ The bull capital from Rampura has Mauryan sculptures, and one of the most famous

capitals is at Sarnath, which has the Dharmachakra and four lions.

⮚ The Indian Republic has declared it to be its National Emblem.

● The most well-known Mauryan figure is the Yakshi from Didarganj. Other Mauryan figures
along with the pillars have also been discovered.
⮚ Unlike many other figures, these figures seem to be made from a single piece of stone,

which adds to their magnificence.

⮚ The surface polish on these figures (known as Mauryan polish now) is unique.

⮚ Although centuries have passed, this gloss has not diminished in radiance.

● Brahmi script is the earliest known Indian script, and most of these inscriptions contain
Prakrit.
Post Mauryan Art
● The Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners but gradually assimilated into
society. Since they were warriors, they were classed as Kshatriyas by the lawgivers. Only in
the post-Mauryan period, did foreigners in India assimilate on such a large scale. In the period
from approximately 200 BC to approximately the 3rd century A.D., there were significant
changes in economics, politics, and other facets of our cultural life, including growth in
technology, science, and art.
● Art and Sculpture
⮚ Indian art and sculpture developed further as the result of Central Asian

invasions. Contact with the West brought many new forms of art to India.
⮚ Gandhara school of art evolved as the most crucial development.

⮚ Gandhara school images of Buddha from the Kushan period are decorated in the style

of the Greek and Roman art forms; numerous images have Apollonian faces, Greek
and Roman hairstyles, and Roman togas.
⮚ The Kushan rule probably brought together artisans from different cultures trained in

different schools, resulting in such integration of artistic features.

⮚ A number of images from Mathura still exist which show terracotta and red

sandstone with obvious Saka-Kushan influences. Mathura has been called a centre of
indigenous art.
⮚ Mathura is famous for its headless statue of Kanishka.

⮚ The Mathura school was the first to make Buddha statues with faces and

figures, whereas earlier Buddhists only depicted the Buddha with symbols.
⮚ The folklore displays long panels of folklore on rock faces like those of Jatakas.

⮚ Mahavira statues were also produced alongside the images of Buddha.

● Kharavela of Kalinga
⮚ Another kingdom that rose to a position of significance after the Mauryas was Kalinga,

this region included modern Odisha and a small part of northern Andhra.
⮚ The most renowned ruler of the kingdom was Kharavela. The Hathigumpha

Inscription at Udayagiri hills (in a Jain cave) would give a detailed account of his reign,
but sadly, it is not easily decipherable.
⮚ He was known for his achievements as an administrator of his empire, as well as for

his bravery in battle. He constructed roads and gardens and did other good works.
Gupta Age Art
 ● Gupta architecture in stone and brick can be seen in several shrines, rock-cut caves (such as
Ajanta), and temples (such as the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh).
● The poet has drawn an appealing picture of a well-planned town, complete with roads
connecting everywhere, market places, and palaces with terraces reaching to the heavens, in
his writings, which provide a peek at Gupta architecture.
● The palaces had many inner apartment buildings, including a courtyard, prison, a courtroom,
and a sabhagriha.
● A palace adjacent to the pleasure garden contained flowers and trees in various stages of
bloom, and moonbeams lit the verandas on their rooftops at night. The amount of
archaeological evidence for Gupta architecture is limited. Despite this, Gupta shrines have
been discovered in Central India's woods, particularly in Bundelkhand and Kanpur's
Bhitargaon.
● Painting
⮚ The painting was of remarkable excellence throughout the Gupta period. The wall
paintings at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and Bagh caves (near Gwalior) are
important examples.
⮚ Although Ajanta paintings date from the first to the seventh century A.D., the majority
were created during the Gupta period.
⮚ Buddha's life is shown in numerous scenes in these artworks. The artistry with which
the depictions of humans, animals, and plants were made exemplifies Gupta art and
culture's exquisite and sensitive character. The concept of beauty was central to
Gupta art. The importance of artistic expression was emphasised since it was seen as
a means of achieving spiritual bliss.
South India Architecture (The Pallavas and The Cholas)
● During the early centuries of the Christian era, the Pallavas supported the arts and
architecture in the South immensely.
⮚ The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram are fine examples of the ‘Ratha’ style of

temples.
⮚ As well as constructing temples like Kailashnath and Vaikuntha Perumal at

Kanchipuram, they built structural temples.

⮚ As the most important work of art ever undertaken in India, the Kailashnath temple is

a massive complex with thousands of images.

⮚ A set of bas reliefs found at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is credited to the

Pallava period. At Mahabalipuram, there are Pagodas built in the first century A.D.
 ● As early as the Fifth Century A.D., temple building flourished in India. Temples in North
India have shikaras (spiral roofs), garbhagriha (sanctum) and mandapas (pillared
halls) consisting of the Nagara style, while those in the South have Dravida designs.
● After the Pallavas (6th to 8th century A.D.), the Cholas (l0th-12th century A.D.) in the South
developed the tradition of building temples.
⮚ The temple was the central place in the rural areas where the people gathered every

day and discussed all common interests and exchanged ideas. It also served as a
school. They served as a school, as well.
⮚ The temple yard was also the site of dances and dramas on festival days.

⮚ In addition to building great structures, the Cholas were also good builders. Under

the Chola dynasty, temple architecture reached its apogee especially the Dravidian
style of architecture reached its peak.
⮚ The temple of Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara is one of the finest examples of this

style.
● In the field of sculpture, great achievements were also achieved during this period.

Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. (UPSC
2013)

Through the patronage of the Chola kings, the evolution of Dravidian temple architecture was
artistically significant. The Chola temples like Brihadeshwar Temple of Thanjavur, and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram took the Dravidian style of temple architecture to a new height. Some important
features of these temples are:
● Temple is surrounded by a compound wall.
● The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.
● The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises
geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
● The word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is
● usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amlak
and kalasha of North Indian temples.
● At the entrance to the South Indian temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to find
sculptures such as of fierce dvarapalas or the doorkeepers guarding the temple.
 ● It is common to get a large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed within the complex.
● Subsidiary shrines are either combined within the main temple tower or located as distinct,
small shrines beside the main temple.
Temple building was prolific under the Chola regime. Currently, over a hundred important temples
of the Chola period are in a good state of preservation, and many more are still active shrines. Due
to their artistic sophistication, many temples have been globally recognized and have been
designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Medieval India
Delhi Sultanate
● A new architectural technique arrived from Persia, Arabia, and Central Asia with the arrival of
the Turks in the 13th century. The engineering characteristics of these buildings included
domes, arches, and minarets. These aspects were combined with parts of indigenous
architecture in the palaces, mosques, and tombs, resulting in a new architectural synthesis.
● This occurred as a result of the Turkish rulers of Delhi employing local Indian craftsmen who
were highly skilled and had previously built beautiful structures.
● In these constructions, you can observe both the plain Islamic architecture as well as the
ornate sculptures and decorations constructed on indigenous structures. Throughout this
period's architecture, a median path was taken in each design.
● The following are some of the general characteristics of Delhi Sultanate architecture:
⮚ The architecture can be divided into secular and religious structures.
⮚ In addition to secular buildings such as forts, palaces, pillars, and Sarais (artificial
lakes), there are also mosques, mausoleums, dargahs, and madrasas, which belong to
the religious structures.
⮚ The Indian architects, masons, and workers were employed by the Sultans, who also
pioneered Central Asian architectural ideas.
⮚ Initial constructions were built from raw materials and after the destruction of
existing structures, resulting in a combination of Islamic and Indian styles in Sultanate
architecture.
o Qutub-ud-Din Aibak is reported to have built Delhi's Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque
by demolishing a Hindu temple erected above a Jain temple, while Adhai-din-
ka Jhopra, a mosque near Ajmer, was similarly built in two and a half days
over the ruins of an ancient Hindu edifice.
 ⮚ Sultanate kings began building magnificent archways (Mehrab), domes, and minarets.
o A previous indigenous architecture style, called the "Trabeated" style, was
centred around beams and brackets.
o Islamic designs have a specific style known as 'Arcuate,' which uses vaults and
arches to connect the spaces and beautiful domes to replace flat roofs.
⮚ Traditional structures utilised anthropogenic shapes and natural motifs in their décor,
but sultanic designs used floral, geometric, and arabesque forms instead of living
beings.
⮚ Numerous types of coloured stones were used during the Sultanate period. The most
common were red, light black, yellow, and white marbles.
o The buildings were made robust by employing exceptionally high-quality
stone.
o In the latter phase, the lime mortar was also commonly used as a binding
agent.
Important Monuments of Respective Dynasties
Slave dynasty
● The Sultanate period was the first dynasty of the period. In the early years, they built
buildings with false arches and domes, which were not in keeping with Islamic architecture.
● Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and Adhai din ka Jhopra in Mehrauli (Delhi) and Ajmer, respectively,
display influences of both Hindu and Muslim art traditions.
● Qutub Minar
⮚ In honour of Sufi Saint Qutub-Uddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, it is one of the most eminent

structures of the Sultanate period.

⮚ Construction began with Qutub-ud-din Aibak, then it was built by Iltutmish

(subsequent three floors), and Firoz Shah Tughlaq built the final two floors after
lightning struck the top storey.
⮚ This five-storey Minar is 73 meters high. Its designs feature beautiful geometric

shapes and arabesque details.

⮚ Every floor has a balcony that is intricately carved with flowers and geometric designs.

Each balcony extends into the next floor as if it were being held up.
⮚ Red sandstone was used to build the

⮚ On the first three floors, marble was used for the last two.
 Figure 2.6: Qutub Minar
● Balban’s Tomb: This is the first true arch built by Balban on his own tomb.
Khilji Dynasty
● A perfect Islamic viewpoint was used when building the Delhi sultanate's buildings during this
time due to the established strong economic conditions.
● In Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji constructed the Siri city and the Jamat Khana Mosque. He also made
the Alai Darwaza which was the entrance to the Jamat Khana mosque. The building was built
with a horseshoe arch. It had the first scientific dome.
● Alai Darwaja has a domed entrance which is made up of white marble and red sandstone. It’s
carved in both white marble and red sandstone with floral and geometric designs, creating a
stunning polychrome effect. The recessed windows on both sides of the entrances have
perforated latticework window screens (jali). These marble screens break up the monotony
of the calligraphic ornamentation vertical lines.
● Alauddin built Hauz Khas in Delhi. Hauz is a lake that has been artificially created. The city
relied on it for its water supply during Khilji's reign.
● Jamat Khana mosque is the oldest mosque which is still being used. Dargah of Nizamuddin
Auliya and this mosque are located in the same complex.
Tughlaq Dynasty
● Ghayas-ud-din Tughlaq founded Tughlaqabad, a new city. Tughlaqabad Fort was also built
during this time period. It was made of granite because granite was readily available. The
texture of the building was harsh due to the difficulty of polishing granite. Instead of being
straight, its boundary wall is slanted.
Lodhi Dynasty
● Lodhi had a very stable tenure, and hence they got a chance to build.
 ● Buildings were made on a raised platform with gardens around them. This was made to copy
the theme of heaven; later, Mughals used the same concept in their buildings.
● The tombs were made in octagonal shapes. The Mughals also adopted this feature.
● For the first time, a double dome was introduced in the tomb of Sikander Lodhi.
● Hoshang Shah’s tomb, Mandu (Madhya Pradesh)
⮚ It is one of the best examples of Afghan architecture constructed in the 15th century

and is said to be India’s first marble structure.

⮚ It is a magnificent architecture with a stunning dome, marble jail work, courts,

porticos and towers.

⮚ It is thought to be an example of Afghan structure, but its latticework, torrents and

carved brackets provide a softer hue.

Figure 2.7: Hoshang Shah’s Tomb

Regional Kingdoms
● A variety of beautiful buildings with their own distinctive styles were built in Bengal, Gujarat,
and the Deccan during the formation of the regional kingdoms.
● The Jama Masjid, Sadi Saiyyad Mosque, and Ahmedabad's shaking towers are among the best
specimens of this style of architecture.
● The Jama Masjid, Jahaz Mahal, and Hindola Mahal were built in Mandu (central India).
● The Sultans constructed a number of structures in the Deccan.
● Among the famous buildings, Jama Masjid in Gulbarga, madrasa of Mahmud Gawan, Ibrahim
Rauza, Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, as well as fort at Golkonda are some of the examples.
● The world's largest dome is in Gol Gumbaz, and there are many designs and aesthetic
distinctions between these buildings and those in north India.
● The Adina mosque and Jallal-ud-tomb din's at Pandua, the Khil Darwaza and Tantipara
mosque at Gaur, and the Atala mosque built by the Sharqui rulers in Jaunpur had a gigantic
screen covering the dome, whereas Hoshang Shah's tomb at Malwa is entirely made of marble
(yellow and black marble).
 ● In addition, Vijayanagar, an empire founded in this period, had many achievements to its
credit, including building beautiful temples and erecting beautiful buildings. The temples of
Vithalswami and Hazar Rama at Hampi are examples of these types of temples, even though
they are now just ruined.
Bahamani Kingdom
● Bahamani sultans borrowed the architectural styles from Persia, Syria, and Turkey. Quite well
known is the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga. It is the only mosque in India with a covered courtyard
and is covered with numerous domes.

Mughal Period/Architecture
● In architecture, a new era was marked by the coming of the Mughals. A notable feature of the
Mughal Empire was its patronage of arts and culture. This is when the synthesis of style, which
had begun earlier, reached its height. The Mughal style of architecture began under Akbar's
reign.
Salient Features of Mughal Architecture
● Mughal buildings were a mix of Indo – Islamic styles. The Rajput and Buddhist influences are
more noticeable in Indian styles, whereas the Iranian and Central Asian influences are
prevalent in Islamic styles.
● The structures, which are frequently vast and high in design, depict the empire's wealth and
might. Typically, a centralised plan was produced, which artists were not permitted to change
until the design and construction were completed.
● Hence, the king tended to take his own time and put his personal stamp on the design and
construction.
● Each structure had a distinct theme, with domes, pillars, arches, squinches, and plinths as
prominent features. Gardens, geometry, and design symmetry were all given special
attention.
● Red sandstone was used at first because it was readily available. Marble became more popular
over time, and lime was employed to glue the pieces together.
● Precious and semi-precious stones, brought from Iran and Central Asia, were taken for
decoration.
● The use of calligraphy and arabesque on the walls was common. • There were two onion-
shaped twin domes created in the Persian style, one of which was on the Taj Mahal.
Important Structures by the Rulers
● Babur
 ⮚ He did not have much time to build anything in India. At Panipat, Sambhal and

Ayodhya, mosques were constructed during his reign by his men.

⮚ Babur built Aram Bagh, a garden in Agra, after the mosque in Ayodhya was

demolished (now known as Ram bagh). He was buried here at first, but his burial is
currently in Kabul.
⮚ In Agra, Babur built a garden known as Aram Bagh (now Ram Bagh). His grave was

originally at Aram Bagh, but now it is situated in Kabul.

● Humayun
⮚ Humayun’s reign was full of turmoil, where he was dethroned by Sher Shah Suri and
regained it.
⮚ He started building a new city called ‘Din Panah, ’ which Sher Shah later completed. In

modern times, it is known as the Old Fort. Sher Shah Suri constructed a number of
monuments, including the Rohtas Fort (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site located
in Pakistan), the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, several structures in the Rohtasgarh
Fort in Bihar, and the Qila I- Kuhna mosque within the Purana Qila complex in Delhi.
⮚ Humayun’s Tomb
o This was the first major Mughal structure built by Haji Begum (Humayun’s
wife and Akbar’s mother). It is based on the theme of ‘Jannat ul Firdaus’ (the
seventh heaven).

Figure 2.8: Humayun’s Tomb

o The tomb is octagonal and built on a high platform. It is surrounded by
gardens and water channels.
o Trees are planted on the pathways. It appears as if guards are standing to pay
their tribute to the king.
o It is made of red sandstone with a white marble dome.
o It is a world heritage site and known as a prototype of the Taj Mahal.
● Akbar
 ⮚ It is said that Akbar was an ardent patron of arts and architecture. His buildings
showed grandeur and power. Akbar builds Diwan-e-aam in red sandstone. Another
marvel built during his reign was the City of Fatehpur Sikri.
⮚ Jehangir Mahal is based on the Rajput style – it has small doors and his mural

paintings.
⮚ Diwan I Khas: Iranian style – it has a famous pillar with minute crafts of flowers and

geometric design with an aerobridge.

⮚ Jodha Bai’s Palace (Rajput style): It has a large mural of Krishna. The roof is flat with

square pillars. The roof has a ‘Chattri’ that provides shade.

⮚ Mariam Palace (Mariam was Akbar’s Christian wife): It has mural paintings.

⮚ Birbal’s Palace: Based on the design of a Buddhist Vihara.

⮚ Panch Mahal: Multi-storey building. Based on the Buddhist style. It only has pillars

and a roof and no walls.

⮚ Jama Masjid (Fatehpur Sikri): Built towards the west of the Palace. Its southern gate

is called Buland Darwaza, built to commemorate the Gujarat Victory. It is 176 feet tall.
⮚ The tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is inside the mosque.

● Jehangir
⮚ Jehangir was more interested in art and painting rather than buildings. Most of the
time, he added some features to the previous buildings.
⮚ Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah
o Itimad-ud Daulah was the father-in-law of Jehangir and his wazir too.
o For the first time, the Mughals used the Pietra Dura technique. Rajput
previously used Pietra Dura.
⮚ Maximum gardens were made during his reign. The most important of them are the

Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh of Kashmir. It is an Italian technique of stone inlay.
Beautiful shapes and designs were created by cutting precious and semiprecious
stones and embedding them in the base stone.
⮚ Tomb of Akbar (Agra): Finished by Jehangir. Based on the Buddhist style, it does not

have a dome and has four minarets.

● Shah Jahan
⮚ Shahjahan was Mughal architecture's greatest builder. He employed marble
extensively throughout his constructions. Mughal Architecture reached its peak
during his reign. It was because of two significant reasons – his interest and the
relatively peaceful period.
 ⮚ Iranian style was more dominant.
o It included calligraphic work, an Iranian dome (Onion shaped) and marble
screen work.
o Shah Jehan’s buildings, unlike Akbar, instead of Grandeur, showed delicacy
and sophistication. They depicted luxury more than power.
o He used Pietra dura extensively. Also, Gold was used in the ceilings and walls.
⮚ Important works of Shah Jahan Include:
o Shahjahanabad: He built the city of Shahjahanabad (now old Delhi). Three
landmarks are there:
o Red Fort of Delhi: 80% of the building was destroyed by the British during the
revolt of 1857.
o Chandni Chowk Market.
o Jama Masjid, Delhi.
o The most important work and the pride of Mughal Architecture, the Taj
Mahal, was built by Shah Jahan. The Taj commemorates the ultimate
moment in the development of Mughal architecture. The Taj Mahal formed
the stage of the art form where it could only decline. It is the perfect
expression of beauty, and the illusionary effect of the monument adds to its
aesthetics.
● Aurangzeb
⮚ Aurangzeb did not invest too much time and money in construction. So, there are very
few buildings associated with him.
⮚ One of the most famous monuments of his time is ‘Bibi ka Maqbara’ (Tomb of
Aurangzeb’s wife) in Aurangabad. It is a prototype of the Taj Mahal and is not made
of precious stones or expensive building materials.

Modern India
Indo-Gothic Style
● Indo-Gothic architecture (also known as Indo-Saracenic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, and
Hindu-Gothic) was a late-nineteenth-century British architectural style developed in British
India. It consisted of onion domes, spires, cusped arches, vaulted roofs, pillars, minarets,
pillars, and overhanging eaves.
● Neo-Gothic buildings were resurrected in England in the mid-19th century and the Gothic style
was rooted in medieval buildings such as churches built in northern Europe.
● Bombay was building its infrastructure at the period, and this style was embraced.
● Today, structures based on the concepts of this movement can be seen in India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, and England.
● In Victorian England, Gothic Revival and Neoclassical styles of construction had merged with
Mughal architecture (medieval Indian Islamic) and some Hindu structures. Throughout the
subcontinent, it had been displayed in governmental offices, law courts, railway stations, post
offices, palaces for local princes, churches, schools, colleges, town halls, and museums.
● Despite the fact that Indo-Gothic structures were originally created to realise imperial
ambitions, it is hard to ignore or belittle their contribution to the modernisation of South Asia.
As a result, the region has defined administrative spaces, communication networks, and
transportation options. Furthermore, they are tangible evidence of cultural assimilation
attempts.
● With at least a modicum of humility, the colonisers here offered accommodations and did
not “thwart the colonised's identity by forcing on them styles and fashions that were utterly
alien to their aesthetic sensibility”.
● Despite the fact that Indo-Gothic structures were originally created to realise imperial
ambitions, it is hard to ignore or belittle their contribution to the modernisation of South
Asia.
⮚ As a result, the region has defined administrative spaces, communication networks,

and transportation options. Furthermore, they are tangible evidence of cultural

assimilation attempts.
● There are several remarkable structures facing the seafront in this style, including the
Secretariat, University of Bombay, and High Court. Indians also contributed to the
construction of some of these structures.
⮚ The University Hall was constructed with money donated by Sir Cowasjee Jehangir

Readymoney, a rich Parsi merchant.

⮚ The University Library clock tower was funded by the banker Premchand Roychand.

In honour of his mother, the tower is named Rajabai Tower.

● The merchants in India were happy to adopt this style since they believed it would help make
Bombay a more modern city. The Neo-Gothic style was one of many ideas brought by the
English to Bombay.
● However, the Victoria Terminus, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company's station and
offices are one of the best instances of neo-Gothic architecture. Since the British empire was
 successful in constructing an all-India railroad network, a lot of money has been spent on
planning and constructing railway stations in towns.
● The uniform neo-Gothic style of these buildings dominated the scenery of the central part of
Bombay and gave it a unique character.
● By the beginning of the 20th century, a new hybrid architectural style
developed, combining the Indian with the European, i.e., Indo-Saracenic. Here, “Indo” was
shorthand for Hindus, and “Saracen” was a term used to designate Muslims by Europeans.
⮚ The British integrated Indian and European architectural technologies into public

architecture to demonstrate their authority as the legitimate rulers of India and the
central inspiration to be building domes, chhatris, jalis, and arches in the style of
medieval Indian buildings.
⮚ Among the most outstanding examples of this style is the Gateway of India, built-in

1911 (Gujrati style). It was built in such a manner to welcome King George V and
Queen Mary of England to India.
● The Taj Mahal Hotel was built in a similar style by the industrialist Jamsetji Tata. Apart
from being a symbol of Indian enterprise, the Taj Mahal Hotel became a challenge to the
racially exclusive hotels and clubs maintained by the British.
● Chawls, multi-storey single-room flats with long open hallways built around a courtyard, are
a sort of housing unique to Bombay due to the city's lack of space and suffocation. These
structures, which housed a large number of families sharing common areas, aided in the
development of neighbourhood identity and unity.
Neo-Roman Style
● During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Romanesque Revival was popular in Europe, a revival
of earlier classical Roman forms which originated through the style of medieval Europe
(Romanesque). The Romanesque Revival in America is therefore the result of a second
distinctive revival of classical Roman architecture. Edwin Lutyen and Laurie Baker started a
new Roman style. The features include an upturned dome and a hybrid structure with
modernity and simplicity. Examples include the Parliament building and Rashtrapati Bhavan.
● The contributions of Baker can be summarised as follows:
⮚ Architects of the poor.

⮚ Pioneer of sustainable architecture as well as organic architecture.

⮚ Merged building with the environment.

⮚ Ventilation and thermal comfort arrangement.

⮚ Used locally available material.

 ⮚ Introduced pillar slab construction methods to reduce the consumption of steel and

cement.
⮚ Revolutionise mass housing in Kerala.

Conclusion
Indian architecture has been known to absorb the elements of its influencers and create unique
variants. Architectural styles in India are characterized by a variety of expressions across time and
space that have been designed by the forces of history. In India, architecture has evolved through the
centuries due to varying factors such as socio-economics and geography. Through these varying
factors, a wide variety of architectural specimens have developed, showing some continuity over
time.

Chapter 3| Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization) Art

Index
Introduction
Phases of the Harappan Civilisation
Indian and other Contemporary Civilisation
Harappan Art and Architecture
Seals
Significance of Seals
Sculpture
Lost Wax Technique
Terracotta
Pottery
Iron Age Pottery
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
Beads and Ornaments
Industries and Crafts
Extensive Town Planning
Houses and Settlements
Conclusion
Introduction
Humans throughout history have used various tools and weapons made from different types of
materials including stones and bones. But with time humans have evolved newer techniques of
making tools and weapons by the use of copper, it was the first metal used for making tools and
weapons. With this use of stones and cooper, various other cultures had taken birth on Indian soil in
different parts of India. The age in which copper and stone were used by human societies was known
as the “Chalcolithic” era. In the chalcolithic era the alloy of copper and tin, called ‘bronze’ was also
used for making tools and weapons. A Neolithic settlement has been found at Mehrgarh in
Baluchistan dating back to 7000 BC, indicating that India has a long and continuous history. However,
the first prominent civilisation flourished in India around 2700 BC in the northwestern part of the
Indian subcontinent, over a large area, i.e., the Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation).

Phases of the Harappan Civilisation

● Early Harappan Phase: This phase started between 3500 BC–2600 BC. The key aspects of
town planning were followed: use of elementary crafts, mud structure and finally trade.
● Mature Harappan Phase: This important phase of the Harappan culture started in 2600 BC–
1900 BC. Some of the prominent features of the Mature Harappan period include well-
developed towns, the creation of different varieties of craft, prosperous inland and
international trade.
● Late Harappan Phase: It is believed that Harappan culture started declining from 1900 BC to
1400 BC. In this declining period, Harappan culture experienced the fall and decline of many
cities and the disappearance of trade.

Indian and other Contemporary Civilisation

● Ancient civilisation in the Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia,
and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the
present day.
● The great difference between Indian and other contemporary civilisations was that the
other great civilisations were replaced or perished with the time, but the Indian culture and
civilisation were never forgotten, and they became a part of Indians even in the present day.

● The main feature of Indian culture was the stability it has shown throughout history. The
main thread of continuity is still visible in the present-day despite it having gone through major
changes and influences from other countries.
 ● Since the Harappan civilization flourished in the Indian subcontinent over 4500 years ago, the
subcontinent has come a long way.

● The history of the Indian subcontinent goes beyond the thousands of centuries, much older
than the Harappan civilisation. As per the archaeologists and historians, even the older
cultures than the Harappan civilisation had reached their maturity phase.

● The great impact of the Harappan civilisation can be seen in village homes which show
resemblance to the Harappan culture. But also, the contrast with today’s multi-storey
buildings are found in cities like Mumbai and Delhi as compared to single-storey buildings of
the Harappan civilisation, this shows that the continuation and dynamism are the main souls
of the Indian culture.

● The oldest religious practices are even followed in today’s time period which includes
Pashupati, Mother Goddess (The important elements of the Harappan culture), and important
traditions like Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, etc.

● This great feature of change and continuity along with keeping alive the spirit of Indian culture.
It did not pay attention to what was becoming obsolete in the modern age. There were times
of ups and downs in the long history of India, when movements grew, and reforms were
introduced.

Harappan Art and Architecture

● The first time the great civilisation was discovered was in 1920-22. The very first and
prominent site of this civilisation was Harappa, also known as Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC)
because a number of settlements were found on the banks and tributaries of the Indus
River. The Harappan site was discovered on the bank of the river Ravi and another key site
Mohenjo-Daro was discovered on the Indus Riverbank.
● As per the archaeological evidence the date of the Harappan civilisation was between 2600
BC to 1900 BC. This data reveals that it was one of the oldest civilisations in the world.
● It is thought that the Harappa civilization was the first civilisation in the Indian subcontinent
to be connected to cities, as they built the world's first urban centres with town planning,
sanitation, drainage systems, broad roads, and drainage systems.
⮚ Buildings in the walled cities included buildings such as the Great Bath, Granaries
(where grains were stored) and Assembly Halls. Their houses were constructed with
burnt brick, and each had a bathroom, kitchen, and well.
● They were excellent potters. Various types of utensils, figurines, toys and seals have been
excavated from different sites.
● In addition, they were knowledgeable about metals and alloying processes.
⮚ Harappans' sculptural skills and aesthetic sense are evident in the bronze sculpture of
a dancing girl discovered in Mohenjo-Daro.
● Materials for their crafts and objects included shell, ivory, bone, and faience.
● In addition to the dockyard, Lothal was an important port and outlet of sea trade for western
nations. Lothal was situated in the Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad in Gujarat and had a well-
planned walled city.
⮚ Gujarat also had Dhaulavira and Rajasthan had Kalibangam as its most important
city.
● Plants, animals, and nature were worshipped by the Harrapans. They worshipped a male god
similar to Lord Shiva of later times and a mother goddess, among others. According to
Harrapan belief, life after death is possible, and charms and spells were used.
● All the sites comprised walled cities. The city consisted of an upraised citadel and the lower
part of the city. The western part is believed to house the elite and the important buildings.
● They utilised standardised burnt mud bricks as a building material.
● There’s no hardcore evidence of temples in the Harappan civilisation.
● Evidence of some small one-roomed construction that appears to be working people’s
quarters.
● Great Bath: A public bath was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro, signifying that the Harappan
people were great engineers. It is still operational, with no leakage or cracks in the structure.
The appearance of what appears to be a public bathing area indicates the cultural significance
of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness.
● There is evidence of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities, indicating a fear
of attack.
● At most sites, the main citadel was excavated in the western part of the city containing the
public buildings, including the granaries. The presence of political authority in these cities can
be viewed as evidence of such.
● The remains of a dockyard can also be found in Lothal, Gujarat, suggesting that trade by sea
route was normal at the time.
● The city's residential parts had an effective drainage network, with small drains from the
houses connected to larger ones along the sides of main thoroughfares. The drains were
adequately covered, and loose covers were used to clean them.
● The residential houses were also meticulously planned. Houses were often double-storied,
as evidenced by stair evidence.
 ● Since the Harappan settlements were established along the river’s banks, they were often
devastated by major floods. Despite the disaster, the people of the Indus Valley rebuilt new
settlements on the same sites, as shown by the layers upon layers of settlements and buildings
discovered during the excavations. The turndown and the exact cause of the final destruction
of the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around 1800 BC, remains a puzzle unsolved till the
present day.
Seals
● The Harappans were literate people. Their seals also contain a form of script, indicating that
they knew how to write. As per scholars and historians, the Harappan script has 400 signs
written from the left to right.
● Various signs or characters can be discovered engraved on Harappan seals. It appears they
used ideograms to convey the message directly, even though the script has yet to be
deciphered. It is not known what language they spoke; scholars believe that they said
“Brahui”, a particular dialect spoken and used by the people of Baloch in Pakistan today.
● Seals of Harappa were made in various shapes like square, rectangular, circular or triangular
pieces with engraved pictorial scripts. The materials mainly used were steatite (An easily
carved soft stone that becomes hard after firing), chert, copper, faience, ivory and
terracotta. Copper and gold seals have also been found. The pictographic script remains
undeciphered, which at most places is in boustrophedon (It is a type of bi-directional text
written from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines) style.
● The Harappans were known to have had numerous seals, including ones depicting the one-
horned rhinoceros, leaves of the peepal tree, and a male god that revealed more about their
religion.
● Some of the most noted and significantly famous seals are the Pasupathi seal and the Unicorn
seal. Pashupati Seal is a steatite seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. This uncommon seal
depicts a seated figure in the yogic pose, most likely Shiva (Pasupati). Both sides of the “God”
are animals - an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a man, and a buffalo.
● Elephants, rhinoceros, and humped bulls appear on seals, suggesting they were regarded as
sacred animals. On many seals, the ‘Peepal’ is depicted.
● It seemed that the people knew spinning and weaving as evidenced by the images of men and
women found on various seals discovered in the excavations. They might also have been the
first to cultivate cotton.
● Many Indus seals found in Mesopotamia indicated a possible trade between the Indus valley
and the Mesopotamian civilisation.
Significance of Seals
● These seals were mainly used as units of trade and commerce.
● They were also used as an amulet to ward off evil.
● The seals were also used as an educational tool.
● They threw light on the flora, fauna, social and religious beliefs of those times, with the
motifs, etched on the seals.
● Some historians believe that different classes of people used to wear different specific types
of seals.

Figure 3.1: Pashupati Seal, Mohenjodaro

Figure 3.2: Unicorn Seal

Sculpture
● Three-dimensional statues have been found in the various places of the Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro. In ancient times, the “Lost Wax Technique” was widely used to produce
bronze castings. The bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo-Daro and the bronze bull of Kalibangan
have noted examples. All the cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation had the main characteristic
of bronze casting.
● There is nothing substandard about the bronze bull from Kalibangan and the copper dog and
bird of Lothal, which are in no way inferior to the copper and bronze statues from Harappa
and Mohenjo-Daro.
● The metal casting tradition seems to be a continued tradition from the late Harappan and
chalcolithic periods. A good example is Daimabad in Maharashtra, which produced excellent
examples of metal casting. They largely consist of human and animal figures. It displays how
the tradition of figure sculpture continued down the ages.

Figure 3.3: Dancing girl, Bronze Statue

Lost Wax Technique
● The cire-perdue or ‘lost wax method for casting was learnt and discovered as long ago as the
Indus Valley Civilization.
● It is a technique utilised to make various metal objects, particularly in Himachal Pradesh,
Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. A slightly different method is used in each
region. There are several steps involved in the lost-wax process.
● Wax models of images or sculptures are created by hand, composed of pure beeswax heated
over an open flame, then strained through a fine cloth into a basin of cold water. The wax
then solidifies again.
● In order to create the image, the wax is squeezed into a noodle-like structure using a ‘pharni’
or a ‘pick’, which then wraps around the whole image.
 ● In the meantime, the image is made into a thick paste, which is a paste made up of clay, sand,
and cow dung. A clay pot is placed in one of the openings on one side, into which molten metal
is poured.
● The weight of the metal to be utilised is ten times compared to wax. (The wax is weighed prior
to the start of the entire procedure.) This metal mostly scraps metal from broken pans and
pots. The clay-plastered model is exposed to firing while the hot molten metal is poured into
the clay pot. When the wax inside melts, the metal flows down the channel and takes on the
shape of the wax picture.
● Scrap metal from broken pots and pans makes up the majority of this metal. The clay-
plastered model is exposed to firing, whereas the molten metal is poured into the clay pot.
The metal flows down the channel as the wax inside melts, taking on the shape of the wax
image.
● Two male figures – one a torso in red sandstone at the Harappa and the other a bust of a
bearded man in steatite in Mohenjo-Daro are famous artefacts. The bearded nobleman or
high priest wears a trefoil-patterned shawl. It is strikingly similar to a figure discovered in the
Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa.
● Kalibangan and Daimabad bore excellent examples of metal-cast sculptures. The buffalo
with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are artistic masterpieces
amongst animal figures in bronze.

Figure 3.4: Male Torso at Harappa Figure 3.5: Bearded Man, Mohenjo Daro
Terracotta
● The Terracotta representations look crude when compared to the stone and bronze statues.
In the Harappan civilisation, archaeologists have found some well-known fine examples of
terracotta sculptures like Mother Goddess, Toy carts with wheels, whistles, birds, animals,
etc.
 ● The images found in Indus Valley Civilisation were crude human images when compared with
the stone and bronze statues. The images of mother goddesses discovered from the various
places of IVC are considered the most significant images among the other IVC images. The
naturalistic picture found at Gujarat sites and Kalibangan is more accurate.
● Some figures of bearded males are depicted in terracotta with coiling hair, rigid postures,
similar arms to the sides of the body, and legs slightly apart.
● This is an indication that the figure is a deity as he is repeated in the same position.
● Was also discovered a terracotta mask depicting a horned deity.
● Terracotta-encased toys, including carts with wheels, whistles, birds, animals, rattles,
gamesmen, and discs, were also popular.
● In 2500 BC the most fascinating terracotta figure was discovered during the excavation in
Mohenjo-Daro. This toy has a moveable head, which belongs to the same time, 2500 BC. This
type of toy was made for entertaining children as the head is moving with controlled
movement of the string.

Figure 3.6: Mother Goddess

Key features of the Images

● The Female goddess figure is a primaeval figure of a standing female adorned with
necklaces hanging over prominent breasts.

● She adorns a loincloth and a girdle. This terracotta figure of a large mother goddess comes
from Mohenjo-Daro and is one of the best-preserved.
 ● Mother Goddesses were probably worshipped as the bestower of fertility and prosperity.

● This also suggests that the female deity worship by Indus Valley inhabitants is akin to the
present-day agriculturists who naturally worship gods and goddesses of fertility and
prosperity.

Figure 3.7: Toy animal with movable head, Terracotta,

Mohenjodaro Figure 3.8: Toy representation of a
Bullock Cart

Pottery
● The excavated pottery of different styles and varieties of designs as well as shapes suggest
that various types of pottery were created over a period of time.

● Plain pottery includes wares made from red clay, or red clay and red or grey slip, with rows
of screw-like knobs, and wares made from red clay or red clay and red slip.

● Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. Most of the pottery had geometric shapes
and animals which were painted in the black glossy paint on the black painted ware with a
fine red coloured slip-on coating.

● The polychrome pottery was having small, geometric patterns vasas in red, black, and green
colour, but they are not much found in white or yellow colour. It is rare, too, to find incised
ware, and on the offering stands the incised decoration was limited to the dishes and the
bases of the pans.

● The pottery of the Indus Valley is mainly produced on the wheel, with only a few exceptions
made by hand. The painted pottery had geometrical figures, while some were perforated.

⮚ Perforated pottery was probably used to strain beverages because it contained

holes all over the wall and a large hole at the bottom.
 ● The size and shape of the pottery used for household purposes vary greatly depending on the
purpose like water storage, food grains etc. The miniature vessels, often no higher than a
half-inch, are crafted in a manner that is so marvellously detailed as to arouse admiration.

● Excavations in Harappan sites have uncovered a number of magnificent works of art,

portraying the intricate craftsmanship and artistic ability of the sculptors. The intricate work
of art reveals the long tradition of sculpting in the past.

Iron Age Pottery

● The Black and Red Ware (BRW) pottery gave way to the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) in the
Western Gangetic Plain (Ghaggar- Hakra valley).

● The PGW culture, village and town settlements, ivory-working, domesticated horses, and the
dawn of iron metallurgy were described by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric
patterns in black.

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

● This was an urban Iron Age culture of the Indian subcontinent that became urban in the late
Vedic Period, around 700 BC. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was a magnificent style
of furnished pottery used by elites.

● Delhi (Ancient Indraprastha), Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Kausambi, Sravasti, Varanasi,

Ujjain, Mathura, Ahichatra, Vidisha and Ayodhya are among the famous NBPW sites
associated with the Mahajanapadas.

Figure 3.9: Pottery Artefacts Figure 3.10: Painted Gray Ware

Figure 3.11: Northern Black Polished Ware

Beads and Ornaments

● In the Harappan civilisation men and women were used to wearing ornaments made from
various materials which included various metals, gems, baked clay, etc. The excavation of
these types of jewellery is considered the most famous treasure relics and artefacts found.
There were types of jewellery found including necklaces made from stone, gold earrings, gold
heads, copper, bracelets, faience pendants, and steatite and gemstones beadworks. All
these items were found in jewellery shops of Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal.
● All these discovered ornaments were beautifully crafted. It is also found that this jewellery
was used to bury the dead as one of the cemeteries found in Farman of Haryana explains
about it.
● Another evidence of well-developed beads industries at Chahundaro and Lothal.
● Among the materials used for making beads were carnelian, amethyst, quartz, steatite,
jasper, crystal, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc. A great deal of technical skill was employed in the
manufacture of these beads, which were also made of metals such as copper, bronze, and
gold, and shell, faience, and terracotta or burnt clay.
● Both Chanhudaro and Lothal have been found to have bead makers' shops.
● It has also been discovered that gold and silver beads are used, as well as ivory carvings and
inlays on beads, bracelets, and other accessories. Harappan artisans displayed their mastery
in a range of arts and crafts.
● Necklaces, armlets, and finger rings were worn by both males and females. Earrings and
Girdles were worn by females only. There is evidence of dead bodies buried with ornaments.
People were fashion-conscious, which is reflected in the use of cosmetic products like
Cinnabar, face paint and eyeliner.
 ● Gold jewellery from the Harappan society included bracelets, necklaces, bangles, ear
ornaments, rings, head ornaments, brooches, girdles, etc. Beads were being made here using
simple techniques, so the bead trade was thriving.
● Harappan people used to make well and brilliant models of animals. And these models
include animals like monkeys, and squirrels, and are used as pinheads and beads.
● The evidence of cotton and wool spinning is discovered from the house of the Indus, where
many spindles and spindle whorls were found.
● Spinning can be observed in the discovery of whorls of faience as well as pottery and shells,
which are both economically viable.
● Identical to the dhoti and shawl, men and women both wore separate pieces of clothing.
Covering the left shoulder and passing below the right shoulder, the shawl was worn.
● Different hairstyles were in vogue, and wearing a beard was popular among all.
● In addition to the stone structures found at Dholavira, there are many stone masonry remains
to show how the Harrapans used stone to construct their buildings. There was no shortage of
highly skilled craftsmen who worked in the Indus Valley: artists and craftsmen were highly
skilled in a variety of crafts, including metal casting, stone carving, making and painting
pottery, and making terracotta images of animals, plants and birds with simple motifs.

Figure 3.12: Harappan Precious Gems and Stones

Industries and Crafts

● Craftsmen of the Harappa knew about all the metal but not about the iron. Harappan
craftsmen had access to almost all the metals except iron. They made silver and gold items
such as beads, armlets, needles, and other ornaments. Silver was a more commonly used
 precious metal than gold which was acknowledged from a large number of silver ornaments
and dishes that have been discovered.
● The weapons and tools like knives, spearheads, chisels, saws, axes, and saws were made from
copper.
● There is no indication of swords as well as other offensive weapons produced by the
Harappans.
● Stone tools were also frequently used. Metals such as copper and gold were brought in
primarily from Khetri in Rajasthan, silver from Mesopotamia, and gold possibly from
riverbeds in the Himalayas.
● Among the best-known bronze figurines is the statue of a ‘dancing girl’ found at Mohenjo-
Daro. This stylized statue is a nude female figure with an arm hanging in a dancing pose,
wearing a lot of bangles.
Extensive Town Planning
● The Harappan city or town planning was considered a model of city development. It is a great
example of how to plan a city and is helpful in modern-day city planning. The key characteristic
of Harappan city planning was considerable uniformity, and this uniformity is noticed in the
layout of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc.
● In most major cities including Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan and others, a citadel was
located on the western side of a mound and a lower settlement was located on the eastern
side.
● The two divisions of the town should be explained as the higher or upper part which is
known as the “Citadel”, considered to be used for administrative purposes or maybe for
carrying out rituals and the lower part is probably used by the common citizens which are
having buildings.
● There were several crisscrossed streets that divided the city into several housing blocks.
Narrow lanes connected the main street, where the doors of the houses were unlocked,
instead of the main street.
● In Harappa, there were many types of houses built by common people, ranging from one-
room structures to big structures made from burned bricks.
● There was usually a square courtyard with many rooms, wells, kitchens, and bathing
platforms in the larger houses.
● Archaeologists come to the conclusion that social division might have existed, as smaller
houses were supposed to be used by the poor section and bigger houses were used by the
rich people.
 ● Every house had a well-established network of drainage systems and every house had
outdoor drains like street drains. These drains were constructed in a manner that they can be
cleaned by removing slabs or bricks and manholes, which explains that Harapan people had
very good knowledge and importance of cleaning and sanitation.
● At Mohenjo-Daro, the ‘Great Bath’ is the most important construction of the Indus Valley
Civilisation (IVC). This bath is surrounded by corridors on all sides and is approached by a
flight of steps north and south.
⮚ The 'Great Bath' had a drain to allow water to drain. There were rooms on either side
for changing clothes, suggesting the bath was used for religious rituals. The west part
of this great bath had a structure of multiple rectangular bricks, which is known as the
granary.
⮚ There is also a granary at Harappa that has brick platforms with circular edges that
are used for threshing grains. It can be determined by finding chaffs of wheat and
barley here.
● Lothal was a significant port and trading centre for the Harappan people, as shown by an
ancient brick structure that might have been a dockyard.
Houses and Settlements
● Rural settlements characterised the Chalcolithic cultures. There were rectangular and
circular houses with mud walls and thatched roofs.

● There are more than 200 archaeological sites associated with Jorwe culture (Maharashtra)
that include houses with only one room, but others have two rooms or three rooms. The floors
were made from burnt clay or clay mixed with river gravel. The settlements at Inamgaon
(Jorwe culture) suggest that planning was adopted in laying the settlement.

● One of the most significant features of the Indus Valley Civilization was its city planning. The
excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have shown a lot of evidence of this.

● Wide Range of Urban and Non-Urban Rural Sites: The urban or the ‘mature phase’ of Indus
Valley Civilisation includes a wide range of urban and non-urban rural sites.

⮚ Their size and function varied, but some characteristics are inherently recognizable,
including a defensive wall with gates around the site, a settlement divided into a
number of subdivisions or buildings, brick structures at the site, and brick sizes.
● Town Planning: Having a grid pattern for urban architecture and an advanced drainage
system, the Indus Valley Civilization had a flourishing urban architecture.
⮚ Bricks were standardized into a very close size ratio of 4:2:1. This was certainly the

most significant innovation.

 ⮚ There are monuments like citadels, defence walls, dams, etc., that prove the

existence of monumental architecture.

⮚ Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira were the largest urban centres,

evidently as important political and administrative regional centres.

● Citadel and Lower Town: In the metropolises, there existed an upper section called the
Citadel for the rulers and a lower section called the Lower Town.
● Private Houses and Water Resources: A central space orients the houses. An entrance blocks
the view of an interior from the street, and the houses are accessed from the street.
⮚ Water sources that are discrete and relatively private may be required because of the
number of wells as well as their association with specific neighbourhoods.
● Great Bath and Granaries: The large public structures have open access or provide a street
from one area of the site to another like the “Great Bath” of Mohenjo-Daro and the
“granaries” at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
● Drainage System: It is believed that drainage systems were among the most distinctive
features of the Indus Valley Civilization.
⮚ Bricks lined bathing platforms and wells, and small drains ran from the wells or living
area to larger storm drains.
⮚ It appears that non-liquid waste was collected and dumped outside the settlement
in bins along the street drains, which had sump pits.
● Rectangular Grid Pattern: With an efficient drainage system, the site layout was arranged in
a rectangular grid, consisting of streets and small lanes.
⮚ It is the first example of town planning in the world, owing to the grid-like
arrangement of streets and the stark uniformity of houses.
● The Indus Valley Civilisation indicates a sufficiently advanced urban civilisation, socio-
economic and technological fabric capable of developing a complex urban infrastructure and
political organisation. Traders were the mainstay of the Indus Valley Civilization, which to a
considerable extent led to an urbanized society. The present urbanisation planning in the
Indian Sub-continent can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Conclusion
The sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have now been found in West Pakistan. There have been
approximately one hundred excavations of sites of the Indus Valley culture in India, and some of
those projects have revealed that the culture was spread over a wide area. Being an important
landmark in the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent, the Harappan civilisation offers an excellent
example to the modern world in ways of expertise in town planning, water management and
harvesting systems, and an unparalleled drainage mechanism. The Indus writing system, so far, could
not be translated because of the texts being too short. Indus Script could also not be compared to a
known writing system because no bilingual inscriptions have been found. The Indus Script is also said
to have been used as an administrative tool at the time because ancient writing was generally related
to elites recording and controlling transactions. The Indus Valley's artists and craftsmen were
outstanding at a variety of skills; casting metal, carving stone, making pottery, and carving terracotta
images that featured simplified motifs of animals, plants, and birds, which made the civilization rich.

Chapter 4| Mauryan Art

Index
Introduction
Shramana Tradition
Court Art (State Initiative)
Pillars
Sarnath Lion Capital
Stupas
Some of the Prominent Architectures
Features of Stupa
Popular Art (Individuals Initiative)
Sculpture
Didargunj Yakshini
Pottery [Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)]
Conclusion

Introduction
The Mauryan period marked the beginning of an important period in Indian architecture. The material
fortune of the Mauryans and a new religious consciousness led to triumphs in all fields. During this
period, sculpture and architecture had reached an advanced stage.
● Asokan pillars, along with the animals and objects that ornament them, are mature art forms.
Mauryan stone sculpture is also unique in that it is polished and has a smooth, glassy surface
that is unlike anything else in history.
 ● As well to the animal figures, the most famous example of art can be found in Didarganj,
Patna, with the figure of Yakshini which describes the hairstyles, ornaments, and clothing of
women during the Mauryan period.
● Numerous terracotta figurines have been discovered at Mauryan sites.
⮚ These pieces show that artistic abilities were not limited to the Imperial level.
Terracotta figurines were produced on a significant scale even when the reign of the
Mauryan Empire was declining, and new forms of art were emerging.
● As seen in Pataliputra, excavations have revealed wooden walls and columns from
Chandragupta's wooden palace, according to Megasthenes.
● The accounts of Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang as well as Buddhist literature also mention the
construction of stupas during the Mauryan era.
⮚ During the Mauryan period, stupas were likely originally built in Sanchi, Sarnath,
Taxila, and Bharhut, and then later added to.
● Architecture saw significant advancement in the Mauryan period (322-182 BC), especially
under Ashoka. Mauryan art and architecture illustrated the influence of Persians and Greeks.
During Ashoka’s reign, many monolithic stone pillars were built on which teachings
of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The polished pillars with animal figures beautifying the capitals
(top) are unique and remarkable. In fact, the lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been
adopted as the emblem of the Indian Republic.
Shramana Tradition
● The shaman movement, like Vedic Hinduism in ancient India, was a non-Vedic
movement. Jainism, Buddhism, and Yoga are all descended from this tradition. It was
responsible for the concepts of samsara (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (freedom
from the cycle of life and death).
● The Gangetic plains saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, both shaman traditions, around the
6th century BCE.
● By the 4th century BCE, a large portion of India was under Mauryan control, and by the 3rd
century BCE, Magadha appeared to be a formidable kingdom capable of influencing
neighbouring areas.
● In the 3rd Century BCE, Ashoka, the most powerful king of the Mauryan empire, supported
the shramana practice.
● The shramana movement was a non-Vedic movement, similar to Vedic Hinduism in ancient
India. This tradition is the ancestor of Jainism, Buddhism, and Yoga. It was in charge of the
concepts of sasra (birth and death) and moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
 ● Around the 6th century BCE, the Gangetic plains saw the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism,
both shramana traditions.
● A considerable region of India was under Mauryan influence by the 4th century BCE, and
Magadha appeared to be a formidable state capable of influencing neighbouring countries by
the 3rd century BCE.
● The Mauryan empire's most powerful king, Ashoka, endorsed the shramana practice in the
third century BCE.
● Religious practices were varied and did not adhere to any one form.
⮚ Multiple forms of devotion were performed throughout that time period, including
the worship of Yaksha and mother goddesses.
⮚ Despite this, Buddhism grew in popularity as a social and religious movement. Yaksha
worship grew popular in Buddhism and Jainism both before and after the Buddha's
arrival.

Court Art (State Initiative)

Pillars
● Sarnath Lion Capital
⮚ The Lion Capital at Sarnath, regarded as the most exquisite specimen of Mauryan art
and selected as India's national emblem, is a prime example of Mauryan sculpture.
⮚ With enormous roaring lion statues forcefully standing on a circular abacus carved
with the figures of a horse, a lion, a bull, and an elephant in vigour, the pillar capital
that portrays Dharmachakrapravartana has become a standard for this significant
historical event in Buddhist history.
⮚ The Lion Capital, which was excavated more than a century ago at Sarnath, near
Varanasi, and is considered one of the best specimens of Mauryan sculpture, is known
as the Sarnath Lion Capital.
⮚ Ashoka created the capital, which was initially divided into five pieces, to
commemorate the historical event of the Buddha's first sermon, or
Dharmachakrapravartana, in Sarnath.
o the axis (broken in many parts now),
o a base for a lotus bell,
o a clockwise rotation of four animals on a drum on the bell base,
o four beautiful addorsed lions representations, and
 o Dharmachakra, the pillar's crowning element, was also made up of a large
wheel.
⮚ Despite the broken wheel lying in the Sarnath site museum, the capital has been
selected as the National Emblem of Independent India, with the exception of the
crowning wheel and lotus base. The capital is kept in the archaeological museum in
Sarnath.
⮚ The lion images in the capital have a massive appearance. Their facial muscles are
incredibly strong. In order to achieve a genuine portrayal, the sculptor inverted the
lines of the lips, which resulted in their projection at the end.
o A lion's mane is lined up sharply in accordance with the conventions which
were in practice during the Mauryan period. The lions appear to be inhaling
deeply.
⮚ The surface of the sculpture is highly polished, as was common at the time of the
Mauryans. Their manes curve and have a lot of volumes. The stretched muscles of
each lion's foot plainly show his bodily weight.
⮚ Between each chakra, the abacus depicts a chakra (wheel) with twenty-four spokes in
each direction and intricately carved bulls, horses, elephants, and lions.
o The chakra motif is a prominent symbol of the Dhamma Chakra across
Buddhist art. Each animal form is voluminous, yet sticking to the surface,
and its posture moves the circular abacus.
o A spherical abacus sits above an inverted lotus capital, each petal carved to
maintain the lotus' density. Several curving planes have been meticulously
etched into the lowest part.
⮚ As a pillar image, it was intended to be viewed from all sides, hence there are no fixed
viewing boundaries. Sanchi also has a lion capital, however, it is in poor condition. The
lion-capital-pillar theme continued to emerge in later periods.
 Figure 4.1: Lion Capital, Sarnath
Stupas
● This tradition was adopted by Buddhism, and the structure built over such a site became
known as a stupa, the burial place of important people buried beneath piled earth.
⮚ It is a different type of building with a hemispherical dome, robust construction that
cannot be entered. A stupa is a massive funerary mound that originally housed the
ashes and bones of a saint who was buried there.
● According to Buddhist scriptures, Buddha's body was divided into eight halves and buried
under eight stupas.
⮚ When these were dug and dispersed during Asoka's reign, it led to the construction
of new stupas.
● The ancient stupa at Sanchi was walled in bricks and surrounded by a wooden railing until the
stone railing or fence replaced the wooden fencing. The existing stupa at Sanchi surrounds the
original stupa and has been enlarged.
● The 1st century B.C. had a base, sometimes round, sometimes square, a circumambulatory
walkway, and a stone barrier with four elaborately carved entrances in the four principal
directions for the Stupa, which had a domical structure.
● In Buddhism, the Harmika is a square railing from which rises the shaft that holds the imperial
umbrella, sometimes one, sometimes three, and finally several, their sizes diminishing as they
rise, befitting the fact that the Stupa represented and was built over the ashes of the Lord or
his disciples, a sign of royalty and dignity, the Harmika is a square railing from which rises the
shaft that holds the imperial umbrella, sometimes one, sometimes three, and finally several,
their sizes diminishing as they rise.
● Among the well-known sculptures are those in Sanchi, Bharhut, and Bodh Gaya in the north,
as well as those in Amravati and Nagarjunakonda in the south.
⮚ Indian artists were able to carve domes that were the most finely detailed they had
ever seen using wooden pillars and crossbars.
● Some of the Jataka stories of Buddha's previous lives are carved on these surfaces along with
the popular symbols of Buddhism such as the lotus, elephant, lion, bull, and horse.
● These gateways have one thing in common: they are stone replicas of early wooden
structures, as most early Indian architecture was composed of wood and timber.
● A specific form of architecture was established in order to build Stupas. The final structure
was shaped like a bowl turned upside down.
 ● On the summit of the temple, which used to be its harmonica, the dwelling of the Gods, an
urn containing the remains of the Buddha, or another important personality of Buddhism was
put in a gold or silver casket.
● Three little umbrella-shaped discs sit in the middle of the rod, signifying respect, veneration,
and magnanimity. The bottom of this rod is attached to the Stupa, while the top is attached
to the top of the Stupa.
Some of the Prominent Architectures
● Bodh Gaya (Bihar) Temple: Lord Buddha achieved 'knowledge' (bodhi) about fifteen
kilometres from Gaya.
⮚ At this site, Asoka constructed a ‘Bodhi-Manda’, but there is no trace of the original.
⮚ Stone pillars of the Sunga period have also been found, formed in relief with
sculptures of panels.
o In the Buddhist Jatakas, they illustrate storks.
● Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): Sanchi, India's most famous stupa location, lies 14
kilometres from Vidisha (Bhilsa). There are three stupas here, each with a gateway.
⮚ The Great Stupa is the most well-known, having been erected of brick by Asoka in
approximately 250 B.C.
⮚ A 'Vedika' (circular building) was erected around it during the Sunga period in 150 B.C,
and its circumference was nearly doubled. Four gates were also built to enhance its
beauty during this period.
⮚ Inscriptions carved on its architrave tell how the incision of its southern gate was
completed by ivory craftsmen under the aegis of King Satakarni.
o The northern gate and panels feature stories from the Jatakas.
⮚ Here are some of the most notable elements of Sanchi's reliefs:
o Some of the animals are portrayed with heavy coats and boots, while others,
including lions, elephants, camels, and oxen, are displayed on the walls.
o A quick review of the Buddha's birth, attainment of enlightenment,
dharmachakra-pravartana, and Mahaparinirvana, as well as the four key
events in his life.
o Lotus and wishing vines have been carved into the pillars with exquisite
precision and elegance as adornment.
o Forest animals are solely depicted in a way that implies the animal kingdom
worships the Buddha.
 Figure 4.2: Plan of Stupa at Sanchi
Features of Stupa
● Initially, earthen mounds were used to build the Stupa’s centre. The earthen mound would
eventually be covered in bricks. A stone cover was also overlaid on top of the brick encasing.
● Stupas were usually built on a stone or brick foundation. On top of this base, a hemispheric
dome (Anda) was constructed.
● The drum of the Stupa became longer and higher as time passed.
● A harmonica was placed on the truncated top of the globe, which is surrounded by a railing,
and it came close to taking the shape of a cylindrical vessel.
● The stupa is surrounded by a vedika.
● The vedika at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati was made up of three transverse bars and
upright pillars. In the railing, there are four doorways.
● Within the railing, a ground-level circumambulation route (Pradakshina Path) runs around the
Stupa.
● Toranas, which were ceremonial gateways, surrounded stupas.
● Bharhut Stupa: The main monastery building no longer exists at this site south of Satna in
Madhya Pradesh. The Stupa was situated 21 kilometres south of that city.
⮚ These structures, whose important features still remain, are preserved at the Indian
Museum in Calcutta.
⮚ Stone railings are also imitations of post and rail fences of Bharhut, but they are
topped with a heavily ornamented stone border (coping).
⮚ There are carvings of Yakshas along the uprights of these railings. Yakshas are
associated with Buddhism.
⮚ Some of these divinities contain inscriptions indicating their identifications.
 o As in other Stupa railings, Buddhist themes like Jataka stories are combined
with various natural elements.
● Amaravati Stupa: It was built with white marble and was constructed 46 kilometres from
Guntur. Although the Stupa has completely disappeared, its sculptured panels remain in the
Madras and British Museums.
⮚ Stupa construction was mostly funded by donations from the public and direct help
from the City-Chief.
⮚ A circular prayer path built of stone that was 10 metres high and 42 metres in
diameter ran around the temple. Its height was 29 metres, while its diameter was 42
metres.
⮚ The Vedika pillars are carved with a multitude of gods, the Bodhi Tree, the Bodhi Tree
Stupa, the Dharmachakra and stories from the Jatakas.
⮚ Four lions decorate the Vedika of the Torana, the entrance gate of the Stupa.
⮚ On the pillars, there are also lotuses carved into the surface.
⮚ The Amaravati Stupa also contains several images.
⮚ Buddha's symbolism mainly consisted of symbols, but later Buddha images, along with
their symbolism, began to appear.

Figure 4.3: Amaravati Stupa

● Nagarjunakonda: In contrast to the style of North India, this Stupa was built in a different
manner.
⮚ The circular walls joined by spoke-like walls were each surrounded by mud or small
stones or pieces of brick, while the space in-between was filled with a mixture of the
two.
 ⮚ An outer casing consisting of richly carved marble slabs enclosed the outer drum of
this stupa, whose diameter was 30 meters and height was 18 meters tall.
⮚ There were five columns erected at the corners of the hemispherical drum top, each
supported by a rectangular projection at a cardinal point. The drum was decorated
with lime and mortar work.
⮚ Several beautiful panels depict episodes from the life of Buddha on this stupa.
⮚ The most important scenes are:
o Gods are praying to Bodhisattva to take birth on the earth,
o Buddha’s entry into the womb in the form of a white elephant, and
o Birth of the Buddha under a flowering teak tree, etc.
● Taxila Excavations: There has been extensive excavation at Taxila and nearby places including
Sir John Marshall's excavation of the Chira Tope Stupa. Among the adornments on the drum
casing here are images of Bodhisattvas. There was a Stupa near Peshawar in 1908, erected by
Kanishka, that is mentioned in the accounts of Fa Hien. The sculptures and other artefacts
from this Stupa are Gandharan.
⮚ The ruins at Jhandial contained a stupa built in the Scythia-Parthian style, as well as a
silver casket containing a gold one. The gold casket contained a relic bone.
⮚ Numerous stupas have been discovered throughout India. For example, two of them
have been uncovered in Mathura.
⮚ A period when the development of the Stupas was characterized by a variety of
architectural styles and by the mobility of the artisans who built the Stupas and the
interaction between them, and the artworks associated with them.

Taxila University
● Taxila university was a centre of its own kind, frequently referred to as a seat of higher
learning in Buddhist literature. It is perhaps best known for its association with
Chanakya due to its status as the capital of Gandhara in northwest India.
● Arthashastra, Chanakya's major treatise, is said to have been authored in Taxila. Despite
the fact that Taxila University is one of the world's oldest universities, many people do not
consider it a university in the modern sense. The following are some of the reasons for this:
⮚ According to some researchers, Taxila was not a university town with lecture rooms
and residential quarters like old Nalanda university.
⮚ The preceptor in Taxila provided board and lodging for his students, who paid in
cash, type of service to the teacher, or both.
 ● Students and monks at Taxila University were also catered to by Buddhist monasteries. At
the same time, Nalanda university functioned from the revenue collected from the
surrounding villages.
● In contrast to Nalanda university, the teachers at Taxila university may not have had official
membership in colleges.
● The centralized system of schooling or syllabus in Taxila was absent as compared to
Nalanda university.
● The concept of the examination system and degree certificate was absent at Taxila
University.
● The education system was not as systematic as Nalanda university and was modified
according to a student’s calibre.
● The teachers of Taxila had complete autonomy, and they designed their own school of
learning, rules, and regulation, while at Nalanda University, a well-defined structure of
administration was followed.
Despite this, Taxila University became well-known in ancient India as a centre of learning. The
famed Indian grammarian Panini, a master in language and grammar, was one of its notable
students. He wrote Ashtadhyayi, one of the most important books on grammar. Jivaka, one of
ancient India's most distinguished physicians, studied at Taxila University. Despite the lengthy and
gruelling journey they had to make, students came to Taxila from Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, and other
countries. Even though Taxila university is not seen in the same modern sense as Nalanda
University, its academic contribution cannot be disputed.

Popular Art (Individuals Initiative)

● Following his victory over Dhana Nanda in 321 BC, Chandragupta Maurya established the
Maurya dynasty under Chanakya's guidance. During the Maurya government, the Indian
subcontinent was united for the first time under a single ruler.
● Chandragupta spread the Mauryan empire into Central Asia and Persia under his reign. He is
also credited with spreading Jainism in the southern region of India under his reign.
● The kingdom was expanded by his son Bindusara, except for the Kalinga region of present-
day India, over most of the present-day territory.
● Asoka took over Bhutan's kingdom following his father's death, and during the invasion of
Kalinga, adopted the policy of ahimsa and adopted Buddhist beliefs. He inscribed Buddhist
messages on the rocks and pillars. Rock and pillar edicts are inscriptions on rocks and pillars
(Royal inscriptions).
 ⮚ Emperor Asoka (269-232 BC) was one of the first major patrons of Buddhist art and
these Edicts are some of the earliest historical documents of India. From his time,
approximate dynasty dates became possible.

Figure 4.4: Ornamented Gate, Lomas Rishi Caves, Bihar

Sculpture
● During this period, a significant advancement in Indian sculpture was made. Guilds (registered
groups) of artisans who aided Asoka in his initiatives are mentioned in period literature.
⮚ In order to express Buddhism in stone, the emperor declares himself the protector
of Dhamma. He issues edicts in Pali and Brahmi.
● In the carvings of the pillars, the 'relief' method has achieved a high watermark in terms of
motifs and designs.
⮚ Fine animal motifs are arranged in a tasteful manner on cave openings.
⮚ On the ring-stones and disc-stones, there are also exquisite carvings.
⮚ With their stone relief method, Mauryan artisans made a significant contribution to
the Indian creative legacy.
● Monumental paintings of Yaksha, Yakhinis, and animals, rock-cut caves, and pillar columns
with capital figures dating from the 3rd Century BCE have been discovered in various parts of
India.
⮚ It portrays the prevalence of Yaksha worship and how it became a figure in Buddhist
and Jaina religious structures. Huge Yakshas and Yakshinis statues can be found in a
number of places, including Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
⮚ It demonstrates the artist's skill in representing the human body. The image has a
gleaming finish. The Yakshi statue is a nice example (Didarganj, Patna). Comparing
Terracotta figurines with sculptures, one can clearly discern that the shape of the
body is very different.
 ⮚ The craftsmanship of figure representation in these rock-cut examples is
outstanding. In Dhauli, Odisha, for example, the Dhauli elephant models in the
round with a linear beat. It also contains an Ashokan rock edict.
● The dazzling polish applied to the stone surface is one of the most distinctive elements of
Mauryan art. The superiority of an average stone is enhanced by its mirror-like shine.
⮚ Due to their massive size, the images appear powerful and divine due to their round,
frontal poses.
⮚ Because of the size and expression of the pillar capitals, the lion's roar may be plainly
heard. The sculptors did an excellent job depicting Asoka's imperial status.
⮚ As a result, Asoka's attitude toward Buddhism is revealed in the work of art, and the
material utilised for the sculptures best conveyed the meaning. The sculptures' forms
and content are characteristic once again.
● In general, Mauryan sculptors were exceptionally skilled at carving relief on the face of stone
and carving excellent figurines with beautiful elements.
⮚ In expressing Asokan pillars and capitals, as well as sculptures like the Didargang
Yakshi, Indian symbolism reached its pinnacle.
Didargunj Yakshini
● A life-size standing portrayal of a Yakshini carrying a chauri (flywhisk) from Didarganj, near-
contemporary Patna, is another fine example of the Mauryan Period's sculptural style. In
Patna Museum, there is a sculpture made of round sandstone with a polished surface and a
right hand filled with chauri and a fractured left hand.
● The use of form and media has a high level of sophistication. It's evident that it's sensitive to
a muscular, round body. The face's big cheeks are complemented by a small neck and well-
defined eyes, nose, and lips. Muscle folds are rendered in an acceptable manner.
⮚ The belly has full circles of beads dangling from it.
⮚ The well-crafted lower garment complements the tight, bulging belly of the garment.
Protruding lines that adhere to the legs in a transparent way emphasise each fold of
the leg garment. A centre band runs all the way down to the garment's feet.
⮚ The torso is heavy, as evidenced by heavy breasts and an equally stunning back. The
bells on the foot are thick. The image is solidly planted on its feet.
⮚ In the back of the head, there is a knotted knot. The rear skin is exposed. The back
drapery spreads over both legs.
 ⮚ In the back of the head, there is a knotted knot. The rear skin is exposed. The back
drapery spreads over both legs. The incised lines that extend from the right hand's fly
whisk continue onto the back picture.

Figure 4.5: Yakshini, Patna Museum

● In the early phases of Buddhism, Buddha is symbolised by footprints, stupas, lotus thrones,
chakras, and other symbols.
⮚ It symbolises a historicization of life events at times, and it also indicates a simple act
of adoration or paying respect at other times. Following that, the story became part
of the Buddhist canon.
⮚ The Jataka stories recounted episodes from the Buddha's life on the stupas' railings
and torans.
⮚ Synoptic narratives, continuous narratives, and episodic narratives are the most
common types of storytelling used in the visual tradition.
Pottery (Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW))
● A form of Mauryan pottery known as NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware).
● These were generally used as luxury items because of their paintings in the black and highly
lustrous finish. NBPW ceramics were produced at Kosambi and Patliputra.

Conclusion
Chunar stone was used for the first time in India to carve relief and circular sculptures during this
exciting period in Indian sculpture's early years. This represented the incredible communication of
Dharma far and wide throughout the Mauryan empire. Stone gradually supplanted wood in the
construction of structural components and the creation of artwork. With the emergence of social
groups that granted substantial patronage for the production of art, the Mauryan period witnessed
the production of splendid examples of art and also new trends. As a result of the Mauryan art, Indian
art history was flooded with an incredible amount of imagination.

Chapter 5| Post-Mauryan Art

Index:

Introduction
Caves Tradition
Chaitya and Viharas
Cave Architecture
Barabar Caves (Located in Present-day Bihar)
Caves (Near Lohagad, Pune)
Karle Caves (Near Pune)
Kanheri Caves
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
Nasik Caves
Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh)
Ajanta Caves (near Aurangabad, Maharashtra)
Ellora Caves (Aurangabad, Maharashtra)
Badami Cave temples
Elephanta Caves
Pottery and Sculpture
Buddhist Architecture
Stupas
The Great Stupa (Sanchi)
Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)
Bharhut Stupa
Amaravati Stupa
Pillars
Palaces
Sculpture/ Schools of Art (Post Mauryan Era)
Gandhara School
 Mathura School
Structure of Mathura School
Amaravati School of Art
Vengi School
Conclusion

Introduction

The Mauryan Empire met its end around 187 BC. From BC 200 and 300 AD, there were political and
cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent from the end of the Maurya to the rise of the Guptas.
In these five hundred years, along with the rise of multiple political powers in different parts of the
subcontinent, there was also the introduction of new features in art, architecture and religion.

Caves Tradition

● According to legend, the Indian tradition of rock-cut dwellings originated in the Barabar hills
during the Mauryan period and then spread widely across the country, resulting in many cave
temples.
● At first, the rock-cut enterprise was nurtured by Buddhists but was later adopted by Brahmins
and Jains as well. Traditionally, the rock-cut enterprise was based on wooden prototypes,
which were cut into stone.
● Researchers have unanimously agreed that the revival of Brahmanic faith began under the
Guptas, as evidenced by the Udayagiri caves near Vidisha. This was the first time the latter
patronized Brahmanical cave excavations.
● Located in the Udayagiri hills, Cave no. 7 (Tawa Cave) is a monolith with a well-finished
chamber and a medallion carved on the ceiling. It is the first cave temple in India to be built
in the Brahmanical style. Compared to the Buddhist rock-cut temples, the rock shrines
belonging to Jainas are not on a large scale.

Chaitya and Viharas

● Chaityas and Viharas are built as sacred sites for Buddhists and Jainas alike.
● Chaityas contain a sacred stupa in the centre, whereas Viharas are mainly stone buildings
made the monks' homes.
● The majority of Chaityas and Viharas were built in the post-Mauryan era in the western and
eastern parts of the country.
● Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Chitaldo, Ajanta, Kanheri, and other places are among them.
These are also built-in Udayagiri in eastern India (Orissa).
● The following are the main characteristics of the Chaityas:

⮚ At the rear of the building is a large rectangular hall that is divided into three sections:
a nave, an apse, and two side aisles.

o Two rows of pillars separate the aisles from the nave, and they surround the votive
stupa located in the centre of the apsidal part of the nave.
o A barrel-vaulted ceiling is found in the hall. A horseshoe-shaped window located in
the facade, also called the chaitya window, hints at the religious significance of the
building.
● The following are the main characteristics of the Viharas:
⮚ Both Buddhism and Jainism build monasteries or viharas in caves for their monks to
utilise.
o An irregular plan is found in the earlier caves of western India, but a regular one
appears in the later ones.
o They usually have a big central hall and are square or oblong in shape. There are
several small square cells, and the monks have benches in most of the cells and
hallways.
⮚ The earliest of the Viharas of western India are situated at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta,
Pitalkhora, Nasik and Karle.
o During the reign of Kharavela, two Jaina Viharas were excavated: Udayagiri and
Khandagiri (Orissa).
o The largest cave in Udayagiri hills is Rani Gumpha cave, with its double-storied
structure.
 Fig. Bhaja caves, Pune
Cave Architecture

● The Chalukyan and other southern cave temples, primarily depicting the sala, Kuta and
panjara, are again presented in the Brahmanical caves around Bombay.
⮚ These caves, however, generally vary in Buddhist examples at Ajanta and Ellora. The
internal unity of Mandapeshwar, Elephanta, Jogeshwari of Bombay, Ramesvara (Ellora)
and Dhumarlena (Ellora) are well known.
⮚ They are different from the Buddhist groups, which, however, have an internal
commonness among themselves. It shows the several stages of development.
● It has to be inferred that pillar and layout details changed quickly within even one decade, as
is sometimes being proclaimed in successive stages of Ajanta and Elephanta-Jogeshwari.
⮚ Brahmanical cave architecture is not a finite evolutionary stage in temple arts but a
prestigious departure from structural erections. The environment around Bombay or
Ellora was yet found conducive.
⮚ It was only given to the Rashtrakutas to visualise and concretise the temple models such
as Ellora monoliths, even in the trapped mass.
● The caves at Elephanta, Jogesvari and Ellora (early phase) were styled for Brahmanical gods
and on Brahmanical temple models.
⮚ It may be presumed that prototypes existed in brick or stone. The architecture of
Elephanta shows development, integration and elaboration over a relatively long and
mutually related period and cannot be under the command of a single king.
⮚ Nor is pasupatism the overwhelming keynote of the cave temples under reference.
● They bring Shiva, Karttikeya, Ganesa, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga, Kalyanasundaram and
Saptamatrikas in an integrated framework that was part of a general hieratic temple formula.
 ⮚ They are the resonant, creative articulations of kings who had a plan and a purpose of
propagating Agamic Brahmanical religious art at its best, of Vaishnava and Shaiva.
● Further, the sculptural forms of Deccan were strongly influenced by the artistic style of the
Pallavas.
⮚ It is characterised by tall and slender figures which could be distinguished easily from their
Orissan or Vindhyan counterparts.
⮚ Female forms are slim, with narrow waists and small shoulders. The breasts are well
rounded but smaller. They wear fewer ornaments and garments.
⮚ The male figures are somewhat heavier, with broad shoulders supported on an elongated
torso. Less attention is given to the expression of emotions through facial movements,
poses and gestures.
⮚ These descriptions apply both to human and divine forms. In fact, this trait has been
carried over for several centuries down South, as evident in the various bronze figures of
later dates.

Barabar Caves (Located in Present-day Bihar)

● They are believed to be India’s oldest example of rock-cut architecture.
● There are four caves in the Barabar Hills built during the Mauryan Period, especially during
the reign of Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha.
● The caves were built initially for the Ajivika sect, but later rock-cut caves were built for
Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical practices.
⮚ The two ancient emperors (Ashoka, Dasaratha), who were Buddhist themselves, took a
policy of toleration toward the many religions (including Buddhism, Jainism, and
Hinduism).

Fig. Ornamented Gate, Lomas Rishi Caves

Karle Caves (Near Pune)
● The Karle caves were built in the 1st Century AD, and their pattern is similar to that of the
Bhaja caves, but they are much larger and more spectacular.
● The Chaitya at Karle is carved 124 feet deep into the rock and is located two miles north of
the Mumbai-Pune highway.
● Great Chaitya is the most well-known cave (Cave no. 8). It is India’s largest rock-cut Chaitya.

Fig. The Great Chaitya at Karle, Pune

Kanheri Caves
● The Kanheri caves are near Bombay, and the Kanheri Chaityas are patterned after the Karle
Chaitya.
● There are 109 caves cut out of basalt rock here. Chaityas were the bigger caves. Even so, the
bulk of the caves were viharas.
● The Mahayana influence is also visible, as images of Buddha adorn the caves’ outer walls.

Fig. Chaitya at Kanheri, note the similarity with Karle Chaitya

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

● The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, near Bhubaneswar, Odisha, were erected in the 2nd
Century BCE during the reign of King Kharavela.
⮚ The caves are supposed to have been utilised as living quarters by Jain monks.
● Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathi Gumpha, and Vyaghra Gumpha are among the 18
caverns of Udayagiri.
● There are 18 caves in Udayagiri, such as Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha, Hathi Gumpha and
Vyaghra Gumpha, among others. Rani Gumpha is the largest cave, whereas Khandagiri has 15
caves that comprise Navagiri, Devsabha and Anant Gumpha etc.
● The Varaha mandapa is an outstanding representation of the asymmetrical arrangement of
carved figures where Vishnu lifts the earth from the cosmic ocean.
⮚ In Mahisha mandapa, the fury and ferocity of the Mahishsura are beautifully represented.
Another impressive panel depicts Vishnu resting on Shesha Naga.

● The Govardhana carried by Krishna is proportionally shown in the Krishna panel in the Panch
Pandav cave.
⮚ A scene of milking cows in Brindavana has been etched beautifully in another panel. It
might, however, be interpreted as a living rock portrayal of the Hindu epics.
⮚ The structural towers appear to be based on Buddhist depictions of the Jatakas seen in
Ajanta and other Indian cave temples.

Fig. Udaygiri Caves

Nasik Caves
● These caves, also known as the ‘Pandavleni’ caves, are a series of 24 caves that date back to
the first century AD.
● They were constructed during the reign of Krishna, the Satavahana king.
 ● Photos of Buddha and Bodhisattvas can be found in the caves.
● As only symbols are used to represent the Buddha, the Pandavleni caves represent Hinayana
influence.

Fig. Pandavleni Caves, Nasik

Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh)
● The Rang Mahal Cave (Cave no. 4) is the most well-known and is found about 100 kilometres
north of Ajanta, Madhya Pradesh. All nine of the caves were carved from rock, and only five
survived.
● Among the caves' mural paintings (Wall paintings) is a procession of elephants and a dance
scene depicting a female musician and dancer.

Fig. Bagh Caves Fig. Painting at Bagh Caves

Ajanta Caves (near Aurangabad, Maharashtra)

● Ajanta contains 29 Buddhist caves. They were found in a horseshoe curve on a hillside dating
to the 2nd century BC. Some of them are from the 7th century AD. The caves of Ajanta may
be divided into two phases: Satavahana and Vakataka.

● During the first phase of development, under the patronage of Satavahana Kings in the
second century BC, Viharas and Chaityas were established as a symbol of Buddha, known as
the Hinayana phase. The stupas were more popular during this period, and the figurative
sculptures were neglected.
● After the completion of the First Phase of construction, the King Vakataka of the Gupta era
and the Vakataka II of Post Gupta era (in the 5th and 6th centuries AD) started the Second
Phase of construction. Since Buddha was depicted as a human during this period, it was also
known as the Mahayana Phase.
● Rock-cut sculptures and mural paintings are found in these caves. The sculptures use a range
of shapes, positions, and gestures to portray diverse emotions. The murals are based on
legends from the Jataka tradition about Buddha's previous lives.
● The fresco technique is used to paint the murals at Ajanta. In this technique, watercolours are
applied to a layer of lime plaster that is wet when painted.
⮚ Among the most famous paintings of Cave 1 is that of Bodhisattva Padmapani.
⮚ Ajanta Cave was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1983; the caves are
considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art and have been influential on
subsequent Indian creations.

Fig. Bodhisattva Padmapani at Cave 1, Ajanta Fig. Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, sculpted at Ajanta
Ellora Caves (Aurangabad, Maharashtra):
● The Ellora caves are a collection of 34 caves built between the 5th and 8th centuries AD by
the Chalukya, Kalachuri, and Rashtrakuta dynasties. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with
cave temples dedicated to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The 17 Hindu (caves 13 to 29,
Caves No. 14 and 15 are famous and are called Ravan Ki Khai and Dasavatar caves
respectively), 12 Buddhist (caves 1 to 12) and 5 Jain (Caves 30 to 34), the religious harmony
that prevailed during this time of Indian history is evidenced by the fact that they were
constructed close together.
● Kailasa Temple: Ellora’s Cave 16 is the world’s largest single monolithic discovery. During the
Rashtrakuta dynasty, Krishna I (757-773), constructed the Kailasanatha temple, which is the
finest example of Rashtrakuta architecture.

Fig. Kailasanath Temple, Ellora Fig. Jain Architecture at Ellora

Fig. Jain Tirthankaras at Ellora

Badami Cave Temples
● Located in Karnataka's Badami town, these cave temples are exceptional examples of
Chalukyan architecture. Featuring ornamented walls, bracketed ceilings, and intricately
carved statues, they date from the 6th century AD. The complex is composed of four rock-
cut cave temples, three of which are Brahmanical temples and one is Jaina. Around a century
after the earlier temple, the Jaina cave temple was built.
● Cave No. 3, which is dedicated to Lord Vishnu, is the largest cave. It is also Badami’s oldest
cave.
● In modern-day Karnataka, the Chalukyas temple-builds are distributed in Aihole, Badami,
Pattadakal, and Mahakuta.

Fig. Badami Cave Temples

Elephanta Caves
● It had been an economic, military, and religious centre for centuries, and vestiges of early
Buddhist culture can still be found there. As a result of the resurgence of the Brahmanical
religion, the large cave was created exclusively for Shiva.
● In this regard, Walter Spink believes that the Kalachuris built this cave building in the mid-sixth
century. As evidenced in the inscriptions, the Kalachuri Kings, particularly Sankaragana and
Krishnaraja, have been fervent worshipers of Maheshvara since their birth.
● Cave cells are arranged around a square court, much like monasteries in Buddhism.
⮚ Mahayana Buddhism promoted the worship of the Buddha, so a shrine was developed to
house its image. Cells at the back wall of the temple were replaced by this shrine.
● It is through these more elaborate monasteries that we get to Elephanta via Ajanta, Ellora and
Aurangabad.
⮚ It is arranged in a square so that you can circumambulate between the columns and the
cell walls through the halls and columns that vary in size.
● The same craftsmen and sculptors appear to have built Buddhist and Brahmanical sanctuaries.
● At Jogeshwari near Bombay, the idea of a square shrine is linked to an earlier structure, the
fifth-century temple at Deogarh.
⮚ This temple is built in the shape of a square and sits on a square terrace. There are three
entrance doors available.
⮚ The priest at Jogeshwari still travels ritually from door to door within the chaturmukha
(four-doored) shrine, chanting and ringing his bell, but the walls at Jogeshwari are solid.
● Elephant's architect was the first to propose that the temple be opened to the outside world
on three sides.
⮚ Transitions between light and dark were permitted and encouraged.
⮚ There is a distinct nature to the experience here, and later at Dumarlena in Ellora, with
the sun coming from so many directions.
⮚ Light shading varies quite a bit within the cave due to the spaces and masses within.
⮚ By replacing the side cells and walls of the monastery with verandas, the architect
preserved the idea of the Buddha shrine in the back wall and the original front veranda.
⮚ Caves are the creation of unknown geniuses, master builders. To sculpt independent
freestanding sculpture and rock-cut architecture, the creator of this cave must have been
a master carver.
● Compositions, iconography, puranic narratives, spatial arrangements, styles, and the use of
mathematically precise measurements for figures and architecture all serve as continuations
from the past.
● With their innovations, the Elephanta artists have transformed architectural tradition in a
way that has never been seen before. This fusion of diversified and mobile forms with new
modes of expression and new metaphysical understandings of deity represents a radical
departure from the past.
 Fig. Elephanta Caves

Buddhist Architecture

● Brick Structures: Early Buddhist structures were built by cutting caves into rocks. With the
introduction of brickworks during the Gupta period, a new chapter in the history of Indian
architecture began. In the Gupta period and post-Gupta era, many Buddhist temples and
monasteries were erected all over India.

● Mahabodhi Temple: One of the oldest brick buildings in eastern India is the Mahabodhi
Temple. Indian brickwork on this building is said to be the finest example in the world, and it
greatly influenced later architectural development.
⮚ As a pilgrimage site, Bodhgaya is renowned for, first and foremost, the Bodhi Tree, which
has intrinsic significance, but also the Mahabodhi Temple, which actually bears witness to
the ancient brickwork of that time.
⮚ A stone railing from all sides encloses the Mahabodhi Temple. This temple has an unusual
design. It is neither a Nagara nor a Dravidian temple. It is small like a Nagara temple, yet
doesn't curve, like a Dravidian temple.
● Nalanda University: This university is a Mahavira as it is a complex of several monasteries of
various sizes. There have been only a few excavations of this ancient learning centre, as most
of it lies buried under contemporary civilisation. This poses a challenge for future excavations.
The majority of the information about Nalanda comes from records left by Xuan Zang.
According to Zhang, Kumargupta I was the one who laid the foundations of a monastery in
the fifth century.
Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds
Buddhist ideals. (UPSC 2016)

The most fundamental of Buddhist architectural monuments, the Buddhist Stupa serves as a
marker for a sacred space, and it is a symbolic representation of the Buddha’s burial mound.
A Stupa is a mound-like structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. They were
built of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. Buddha’s life and
his ideas are depicted on various panels of Stupas. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut Stupas
are the oldest examples of early Buddhist Stupa art.

Buddhist Stupa-art, depicting Buddhist ideals:

● The great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the earliest Stupas which was first constructed by the 3rd-
century-BCE Mauryan ruler Ashoka and later expanded to twice its original size in stone.
● The great Stupa at Sanchi shows Buddha’s birth by motifs of Maya being flanked by two
elephants.
● In Sanchi Stupa, the crossbars, and the intervening square between them are covered
with relief sculptures depicting the events of the Buddha’s life. Here, Buddha is depicted
throughout in symbolic form, by a wheel, an empty throne, or a pair of footprints.
● The hemispherical mound at Stupas represents symbolic association i.e., the mountain home
of the gods at the centre of the universe.
● A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra) represents the three Jewels of
Buddhism, which are the keys to a true perceptive of the faith: (a) Buddha; (b) Dharma
(Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) Sangha (monastic community).
● Most of the relics at Stupas represent Jataka tales narrating the stories and ideals of
Buddhism such as ahimsa or non-violence and nature conservation are also shown through
the animal motifs like a lion, bull, horse, stag etc.
⮚ The carvings portray scenes in which obeisance is being paid, for example, to the
footprints of the Buddha. One scene, considered to depict the Buddha’s departure from
the palace, shows a riderless horse.
⮚ Such works show that early Buddhism prohibited depiction of the Buddha in bodily form
but allowed representation by certain symbols.
● In Bharhut Stupa, the medallions on the railing portray various Jatakas or stories from the life
and conception of the Buddha, and images of devotees and donors along with fertility nymphs
(shalabhanjikas), yakshas, lions, floral motifs and pictures of many personages including what
looks like a Yavana (Greek) warrior.

The early Stupa arts expound on Buddhist ideals, and, in this regard, Art-historian Vidya Dehejia is
of the view that the Buddha’s relics are not intended for public viewing. They are interned in a
Stupa and devotees visit the Stupas to “experience proximity to the Buddha”. The relics are
believed to contain Buddha’s living essence. They are thought to retain and be infused with the
quality that animated and defined the living Buddha.
Stupas
● Among the earliest Buddhist architecture, Stupas hold the most significance. They show the
earliest sculptural depictions of significant events in the Buddha’s life as well as the Jataka
myths.
● A Stupa is a brick dome-shaped holy burial mound used to house Buddha’s artefacts or
commemorate important Buddhist events.
● Buddha stupas were first discovered in the late fourth century BC, based on archaeological
evidence.
⮚ In India, among the oldest stupas known are those at Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati (now
located in Andhra Pradesh), and Bharhut.
● Many of the relics found at a stupa represent Jataka tales narrating Buddhist stories, such as
non-violence and nature conservation, depicted by symbols such as lion, bull, horse, stag and
many others.
⮚ The relics are supposed to contain Buddha’s living essence. They are thought to retain and
be filled with the quality that animated and defined the living Buddha.
● The carvings portray scenes in which obeisance is being paid, for example, to the footprints
of the Buddha. One scene, considered to depict the Buddha’s departure from the palace,
shows a riderless horse.
● Such works show that early Buddhism prohibited depiction of the Buddha in bodily form but
allowed representation by certain symbols.

Characteristics of Stupas
● Initially, earthen mounds were used to build the Stupa’s centre. The earthen mound would
eventually be covered in bricks. A stone cover is also overlaid on top of the brick encasing.
● Stupas usually are constructed on a foundation of stone or bricks. A hemispheric dome (Anda)
was built on top of this base.
● As time passed, the Stupa’s drum became more elongated and raised. It came close to taking
the shape of a cylindrical vessel.
● Harmikas is situated on the truncated tops of hemispheres surrounded by railings.
● Surrounding a stupa is a vedika which can be found at Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati. The
railing has four gates. Vedic vedikas are made with upright pillars and transverse bars.
● Within the railing of the Stupa is a circumambulation trail (Pradakshina Path).
● Surrounding stupas were Toranas, which were ceremonial gates.
The Great Stupa (Sanchi)
● Mud mortar and large burnt bricks were used to build this structure.
● Built by Ashoka and destroyed during the Mauryan Empire’s disintegration. It was fully
restored in the 2nd century BC, under the rule of the Shungas.
● On the pedestal of the Great Stupa stands a triple umbrella, also called a Chattra, surrounded
by a square fence and has a wide hemispherical dome that is flat at the tip.
● Its nucleus was a plain hemispherical brick structure constructed over Buddha’s relics.
● Pradakshina Path or circumambulatory path is provided at both Stupas at Sanchi. It has four
ornately painted toranas depicting different scenes from the Buddha’s life and the Jataka
tales.
● On Sanchi Stupa are motifs depicting Maya flanked by two elephants, marking Buddha's birth.
● In Sanchi Stupa, the crossbars and the intervening square between them are covered
with relief sculptures depicting the events of the Buddha’s life.
⮚ Buddhism is represented here through a wheel, an empty throne, and footprints as
symbols.
● The hemispherical mound at Stupas represents the symbolic association, i.e., the mountain
home of the gods at the centre of the universe.

Fig. Sanchi Stupa

Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)

● A Buddhist stupa, also known as Dhamek Stupa, is located near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh,
India. It is one of the most famous stupas in the world.
● The massive structure, which was built by King Ashoka during his reign in 249 BCE, has been
expanded and added numerous times over the centuries.
 ● At its present position, the cylindrical-shaped stupa is 43.6 m tall and its diameter is 28 m. It
was constructed of red bricks and stones.
● Sacred sites like these may be understood to be the place where Lord Buddha first preached
to his five disciples after attaining enlightenment in Bodh Gaya.
● Tourists and pilgrims alike come to Sarnath to witness Buddhist architecture and culture at
this important centre of Buddhism. Pilgrims come from around the world to circumambulate
the holy stupa and worship Lord Buddha.
● Significance of the Place: The place became significant archaeological when in 1798, Mr J.
Duncan reported a stone box containing a casket of green marble, which was discovered while
the Dharmarajika Stupa was being dismantled by the workers of Jagat Singh, Dewan of King
Chet Singh of Benaras,
⮚ The stupa has undergone many excavations throughout time. One of these early
excavations revealed a stone tablet indicating that this is the Dhamek Stupa, which
historians primarily believe to be a slanted form of Dharma Chakra, which means
‘turning the Wheel of Dharma’.

⮚ There are Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world visiting this stupa, including many
national and international dignitaries.

⮚ It is believed that the stone basement of this temple was raised during the Gupta era, and
it boasts eight projecting faces carved with geometric and floral designs.

Fig. Dhamek Stupa

Bharhut Stupa
● It is believed that Ashoka originally built the Bharhut stupa in the third century BC. The
Shunga period in the 2nd century BC added many works of art, especially the gateway and
railings.
● There are a few railings and entrance gateways that remain at the Indian Museum in Kolkata.
● The central Stupa was encased by a stone railing and four Torana gates in a similar
arrangement to Sanchi.
● Railings of the Stupa are carved and feature many depictions of yakshas and yakshinis.

Amaravati Stupa
● According to ancient inscriptions, the Amaravati stupa was the largest in the Andhra region,
known as Mahachaitya.
● It is a ruined Buddhist monument in Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, most likely constructed in
phases between the 3rd century BC and about 250 CE.
● The Amaravati stupa was initially paved in bricks before being covered in carved limestone
slabs. As in the case of Sanchi, the railing and gateways were constructed around the main
structure over time.
● The Amaravati stupa’s railings, gateways and dome were richly ornamented with exquisite
relief carvings.

Fig. Amaravati Stupa

Pillars
● As a symbol of the state, Ashoka pillars (generally made of chunar sandstone) assumed a great
significance in the entire Mauryan Empire.
● The prime objective of the Ashokan pillars was to spread the Buddhist ideology and court
orders in the entire Mauryan Empire.
● Despite being largely written in Pali or Prakrit, a few Ashoka pillar edicts were also written
in Greek or Aramaic.
● Mauryan pillars mainly consist of four parts:
⮚ Shaft: The base of the pillar was a long shaft made up of a single stone or monolith.
⮚ Capital: On top of the shaft rest the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
⮚ Abacus: The abacus was a circular or rectangular base that was placed above the capital.
⮚ Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usual animals such as a lion, bull or elephant) are
carved standing on a square or circular abacus and are vigorous.
● Ashoka’s 7 Pillar Edicts: These were located at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kaushambi, Rampurva,
Champaran, Mehrauli:
⮚ Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people.
⮚ Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as the minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion,
liberality, truthfulness, and purity.
⮚ Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
⮚ Pillar Edict IV: provides for the duties of Rajukas.
⮚ Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and
another list of animals that should not be killed at all.
⮚ Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy.
⮚ Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma policy.
● Minor Pillar Inscriptions
⮚ Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini and exemption of Lumbini from
tax.
⮚ Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription, Nepal: Asoka increased the height of the Stupa of Buddha
Konagamana to double size.
● Major Pillar Inscriptions
⮚ Sarnath Lion Capital: Located near Varanasi. Ashoka built it in commemoration of
Dharmachakrapravartana or the first sermon of Buddha.
⮚ Vaishali Pillar, Bihar, single lion, with no inscription.
⮚ Sankissa Pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
⮚ Lauriya-Nandangarh, Champaran, Bihar.
⮚ Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar.
⮚ Allahabad Pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
Palaces
The Mauryan established their capital at Pataliputra and had another palace at Kumrahar. The
structures reflected the grandiose of the empire. Ashoka’s palace at Kumrahar was yet another
magnificent structure with high pillars ornamented with carvings and sculptures.

Fig. Remains of Kumrahar Palace

Sculpture/ Schools of Art (Post Mauryan Era)

● Sculptures are inextricably linked to architecture, just as they are to larger structures such as
Stupas or Chaityas.
● Single images are commonly found in Hindu temples or religious sites.
● The development of regional or local styles or schools in sculpture can be seen in this period.
While in the north, the Gandhara and Mathura schools emerged, in the southern Krishna-
Godavari valley, Amaravati was the principal point.
● The post-Mauryan period is thought to have been characterised by a distinct type of art than
the prior period.
● While the art of the Mauryan period is considered palace art, the Sunga-Kanva art had a
broader social base. It also had very different motives, techniques, and significance.
● During this period, Buddhist sculptures and images are mostly found on the railings, gateways,
and plinths of Stupas, as well as on the facades and walls of Viharas and Chaityas. There are
very few Brahmanical sculptures.
● As is the case with all religions, the Brahmanical tradition conceived of images of different
gods and goddesses as well. This was also done with the Buddha's image both in the Mathura
and Gandhara schools.
 ● Many sculptures, including those made in relief on panels, were also sculpted in the round.
These figures are large in size and well-modelled, yet they do not give a true representation
of anatomical proportions, as this was not their intended purpose.
● A nude figure from Lohanipur (Patna) was identified with a Tirthankara whose damaged
torso has been found. Icon or image worship among the Jainas dates back to the Sunga period.
● Images were worshipped by the Jainas of eastern India as far back as pre-Mauryan times,
according to the Hathigumpha inscription.
⮚ Images found in the votive tablets of the Jainas from Mathura that have ashtamangalas
(eight auspicious marks) suggest that image-worship was also becoming common among
the Jainas by the 1st Century AD.
● The Mahayana sect of Buddhism was primarily responsible for propagating image worship,
which included carvings of seated and standing Buddhas at Mathura and Gandhara.
⮚ In the early development of relief carving, we can see the bas reliefs of Sanchi, Bharhut,
and Bodh Gaya.
⮚ Stupa railings consist of medallions or rectangular panels that depict scenes in Buddha's
life and stories from Jataka tales. The imagery depicts the events in a continuous narration
depicting scenes from Buddha's life and Jataka stories.
Gandhara School

● Located in the north-western portion of the Indian subcontinent, Gandhara includes

Peshawar, Svata, Buner, and Bajora. It was ruled by the Achaemenids of Iran in the sixth and
fifth centuries BCE.
● It was also occupied by Greeks, Mauryas, Sakas, Pahlavis and Kusanas, resulting in an
interesting mix of cultures. Although its art was mostly Buddhist, it was deeply influenced by
Hellenistic art.
● One should keep in mind that the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas and the
Kusanas. This explains, for example, why transparent garments draped in Graeco-Roman style
and very curly hair in Buddha idols.
● In addition to Jalalabad and Hadda, Bamaran, Begram, and Taxila are also important art
centres for Gandhara School art.
● Two schools of Gandhara art exist: early and later.
⮚ There were blue-grey schist stone idols made during the early schools, which existed
during the 1st and 2nd Centuries AD.
 ⮚ However, in the later school, mud, lime, pilaster and stucco were used rather than schist
stone, with the idols clearly representing limbs and other sections of the body.
○ Aside from idols and reliefs, you will find carvings depicting Buddha and Bodhisattvas,
the themes of which include Buddha's life and that of Bodhisattvas.
○ Images of Bodhisattvas are placed in niches for worship on the Chira Stupa drum at
Taxila, for example.
○ Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and incidents from their lives are carved into the ramparts of
the Sehribhelol Stupa's small pillars.
○ In addition to the bronze reliquary, Kusama kings and flying geese (symbols for
wandering monks) were painted on the sidewalls of Shah-Ji-Ki Dheri.
● There were also other elements of the Gandhara art. For example, a series of figures were
arranged within an arcade of a gold reliquary discovered at Bimaran.
⮚ There have also been ivory plaques found at Begram.
● The figures sculpted in Gandhara School were more spiritually oriented and were mostly
painted in grey. Gandhara School was heavily influenced by Greek schools and methodologies,
and detail was paid to have the exact depiction of body parts. But, at the same time, this
school is also influenced by Roman techniques to a greater extent.
● The region came under the political influence of a variety of kingdoms like Greek, Mauryan,
Parthian, Kushan, and Synthian and this resulted in the emergence of a mixed school of art,
which borrowed from various traditions of art.
● The Gandhara school drew upon the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religion and
represented the Buddha with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling
those seen on the Roman imperial statues.
● Standing figures of Buddha, deceived the elusive stylistic actions of the Roman sculptor,
seeking to express majesties.
● The drapery was fundamentally Western, the folds and volume of dangling garments were
carved with realness and gusto which earmarked the Gandhara sculpture as based on a
Roman and Greek classical visual impact.
● In Gandhara art, the Hellenistic-Roman elements are proposed to form the basis for the
artist’s conceptions and design.
● The Roman influence is also witnessed in the relief carvings which, both in their artistic style
and in much of their iconographical detail, are widely related to Roman relief sculptures of
imperial times.
 ⮚ The location of the figures, the treatment of the body and the architectural forms used
are all clearly derived from Roman models.

Fig. Buddha, Gandhara School of Art

Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art (UPSC 2019)

Gandhara art flourished from 1st century BCE to 4th century CE in the North west part of India came
under the political influence of the different kingdoms like Greco- Bactrians, Pratihars, Kushanas,
Shakas etc. which resulted in the emergence of a mixed school of arts. It developed in India during
the Kushana period and was one of the major schools of art in the history of ancient India.

Central Asian elements

● The halo behind the head of Buddha was inspired by ancient Persian solar deities.
● The curly hair of Buddha is similar to the Parthian style.
● The drapery in the statue of Buddha was similar to Parthian drapery in Hellenistic cultures.
● The Buddhist inscription in the Kharosthi letters was found in the region.
Greco-Bactrian elements
● Buddha in Gandhara art has a youthful, Apollo (Greek god) like face. Many Buddha
sculptures include the Greek god Hercules as protector.
● Buddha in Gandhara art is dressed like a Roman imperial statue, and for the first time,
Buddha is represented in a human-like figure.
● The decorative motifs like fruit garland, scrolls etc., resemble Greek tradition.
 ● In combining black stone with stucco, a type of plaster, many structures were made within
this artistic style. Among the free-standing structures were many chaityas, Viharas, and
stupas.
● In the Gandhara School, an amazing amount of naturalness and realism is evident.
Though Gandhara art has been influenced by Central Asian and Greco Bactrian elements, it also
emerged as a unique art form in India. Due to its strategic geographical position, the region became
a meeting place for cultures. These techniques were endured till the epoch of Gupta. It is evident
from Gupta's realistic anthropomorphic representation of Buddha that the Gandhara tradition
was influential.

Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to the Greeks. Explain. (UPSC 2014)

Gandhara art, a style, of Greco-Roman origin, seems to have flourished largely during the Kushan
dynasty. Gandhara art presents some of the earliest images of Buddha. The Gandhara school
incorporated many motifs and techniques from Classical Roman and Greek art, including vine
scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands etc. The basic iconography, however, remained Indian.
According to Historian V. A. Smith, “the Gandhara style of art that developed in sculpture was a
fusion of Greco-Roman and Indian styles”.

Roman Influence on Gandhara Sculpture:

● The Gandhara region was open to foreign influences and one such influence from the west
was the Roman and Greek realism in art.
⮚ The region came under the political influence of a variety of kingdoms like Greek,
Mauryan, Parthian, Kushan, and Synthian and this resulted in the emergence of a mixed
school of art, which borrowed from various traditions of art.
● The Gandhara school drew upon the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religion and
represented the Buddha with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling
those seen on the Roman imperial statues.
● Standing figures of Buddha, deceived the elusive stylistic actions of the Roman sculptor,
seeking to express majesties.
 ⮚ The drapery was fundamentally Western, the folds and volume of dangling garments were
carved with realness and gusto which earmarked the Gandhara sculpture as based on a
Roman and Greek classical visual impact.
● In Gandhara art, the Hellenistic-Roman elements are proposed to form the basis for the
artist’s conceptions and design.
● The Roman influence is also seen in the relief carvings which, both in their artistic style and in
much of their iconographical detail, are closely related to Roman relief sculptures of imperial
times.
⮚ The position of the figures, the treatment of the body and the architectural forms used
are all clearly derived from Roman models.

It is said that Gandhara School was heavily influenced by Greek methodologies, the figures were
more spiritual and sculpted mainly in grey, and detail was paid to have the exact depiction of body
parts. But, at the same time, this school is also influenced by the Roman techniques to a greater
extent.

Mathura School
● The beginning of the Mathura art form is traced back to the 2nd Century BC. By the 1st Century
AD, in addition to becoming a major centre of art, this school's art pieces were also sought in
distant areas.
⮚ It produced various artwork for Buddhists, Jainas, and Brahmanical followers over a period
of about four centuries.
● Mathura art is also notable because it produced images of prominent rulers and others in the
Kushana period, much like Afghanistan.
⮚ Mathura artists' paintings reflect their understanding of the diverse forms of art activities
at the period and how they addressed the demands of various social classes of Indian and
non-Indian origin.
● In addition, they created something unique to Mathura, out of local stone.
● Another notable characteristic of this school is that it was created during the Roman period,
in addition to the diverse life patterns represented on the votive pillars.
⮚ Scenes from woodlands show men and women collecting flowers, playing with cranes,
feeding birds, and playing in gardens and water tanks, among other things.
 ● The votive pillars from 'KankaliTala' show how the sculptor has incorporated feminine beauty
into his work.
● The motifs created by Mathura artists are, in fact, elements from nature that the artist chose
to embellish his creativity, as in Sanchi and Bharhut.

Structure of Mathura School

● A thematic study of the sculpture belonging to the Mathura school:

● The Buddha Idols: It's possible that the first images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha were created
in Mathura and sent to other parts of India.

⮚ For example, the Samath image of standing Bodhisattvas installed in the period of
Kanishka-I was made at Mathura.
⮚ There are two basic types of Buddha images - standing and sitting. Katra's idol is among
the oldest sitting images.
⮚ The features of this idol are:
o Buddha in the footprints of a Bodhi tree, with his right hand in the Abhaya mudra,
with tri-Ratna and Dharma chakra chiselled into his palms and his feet, and his head
shaved except for one lock.
⮚ Some of the general characteristics of the Buddha idols of this period include
o They are made of red stone with spots of white.
o Their images started to become round so that they could be seen from all angles.
o A shaved head and face are displayed, the right hand is raised up in Abhaya posture,
and there is no mark on the forehead.
o The dress is always tight to the body, while the left hand holds the frill.
● Jaina Specimens: The city of Mathura was a centre of worship for the Jain faith, as well as
the Buddhist faith. Its inscriptions mention Jain laymen and nuns as well as contributions and
dedications made by the members of these faiths.
⮚ A Jaina Sravaka named Uttaradasaka penned an inscription (pasada-Torana) in the mid-
2nd century BC.
⮚ ‘Kankali Tila’ was the main Jaina site at Mathura. It has yielded an overwhelmingly large
number of Sculptures stone slabs (ayaqapatas) with Jaina figures in the centre and
auspicious marks or with representations of Jaina Stupas (these were objects of worship)
various architectural fragments like pillars, capitals, railing - posts, crossbars etc.
⮚ The Jainas were first depicted during the Kushana period, but regular depictions don't
appear until later.
 ○ Rishabhanatha appears to be wearing rocks of hair, but the other Tirthankara images
are not as easily recognizable. Parsvanatha's canopy of snake hoods makes him easy
to recognize.
● Brahmanical Images: It has been discovered that a few Brahmanical images have been found
in Mathura. Siva, Lakshmi, Surya, and Sankarshana or Balarama are depicted in the oldest
ones.
⮚ Kubera, Kartikeya, Vishnu, Saraswati, and other gods were represented in the sculptures
of this period, as were images of Nagas. These images exhibit some iconographic features
or features characteristic of the various gods.

⮚ In addition, even though Siva represents the linga form, he also refers to lingas with four
human faces of the Siva on their four sides. This is known as Chaturmukha linga.
⮚ As a charioteer, Surya is shown wearing a thick jacket, a dress on the lower half of the
body similar to a salwar, boots, and a sword held in one hand and a lotus in the other
during this period.
⮚ Saraswati, dressed in simple clothes and with no ornaments, is seated with a manuscript
in her hands. She is accompanied by two figures.
⮚ Balarama has a heavy turban on his head.
⮚ It is believed that Durga in her Mahisha-Mardini form killed buffalo demons. In Mathura,
images of Yaksha and Yakshini have been found and they are associated with Buddhism,
Jainism and Brahmanism.
⮚ Linked to wine and parties where people partake in wine, Kubera is depicted with a
bulging belly. He bears similarities to Bacchus and Oionysius, two Greek and Roman gods
associated with wine.
● The Images of Rulers: A large number of Kushana kings and other notables are depicted in the
Mat village in Mathura, including Kanishka, Wima, and Chastana.
⮚ Probably Central Asia was the first place where portrait statues of rulers and other
dignitaries were deposited. This was done to give divine status to the rulers.
⮚ These discoveries demonstrate that Mathura was one of the major centres of the eastern
Kushan empire. It has also been found to contain many heads of Scythian dignitaries.
⮚ The Mathura art forms eventually influenced Gupta art forms in a meaningful way.
Fig. Mathura School of Art Fig. Lord Vishnu, Mathura School of
Art

Fig. Mathura Buddha

Amaravati School of Art/Vengi School

● In the eastern Deccan, the Amaravati school of art developed during this period in the lower
valleys of the Krishna and Godavari rivers. The Satavahana rulers were the first to endorse it,
followed by the Ikshvaku rulers, officials, merchants, and others.

● Buddha-related themes were developed in Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Goli, Ghantasala,

Jaggayyapeta, etc. The most productive and prosperous period of this art is dated to 150 BC-
350 AD.
● In the reliefs of various stupas, we see a variety of sculptural forms represented by themes
from the Buddha's life and Jataka stories. The railings and plinths of several stupas also depict
sculptural forms.
⮚ The whole story of the Buddha taming an elephant has been portrayed by the sculptor in
relief on a medallion at Amaravati. The sculptor has rendered the whole story in relief on
a medallion by himself.
General features of Amaravati Art:
● White marble is used in carving the figures; though natural forms are depicted, kings, and
princes' palaces feature prominently in the sculptural representations of nature. This art is
distinguished by beauty and sensuality; though nature is depicted, the central characters are
humans.
● Over the course of five hundred years, Amaravati art evolved toward maturity.
⮚ In these examples, one finds isolated units rather than consistent compositions. For
example, the earliest examples from Jaggayyapeta date back to 150 BC.
● However, “one can see here the beginning of that tall and slender human frame which is so
characteristic an ethnic form in the narrative reliefs of the Krishna valley, and later, of Pallava
sculpture”. There are well-shaped and carefully interconnected figures in later narrative
reliefs.
Fig. Amravati School of Art Fig. Amravati Buddha

Fig. Queen Mahamaya’s Dream

Art and Architecture

 ● Despite a very different thematic treatment, there are numerous similarities with Mathura in
some instances. An Amaravati relief panel illustrating six bathing women with pots of water
bears striking similarities to Mathura's depictions.
● Amaravati has sculptures representing kings and princes as themes; Kushana kings are
represented in the form of statues from Mathura.
● Amaravati's statues, however, aren't each individual but rather part of a narrative.
⮚ Reliefs depict the story of King Udayana and his queen. A relief medallion shows the king
receiving gifts from the court. A relief panel shows a palace procession decorated with
elephants, horse riders, and footmen.
● As a result of the patronage of the Satavahana dynasty and the master craftsmen who headed
it, the Amaravati school was responsible for some of the finest art productions of ancient
India.
● Moreover, some regions developed distinctive art forms. These are seen in the schools of
Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati. Although these schools' themes are predominantly
religious, nature and man are also prominent elements.

Conclusion

Artists produced requisite art pieces during this period of maturity in both architecture and sculpture.
The development of art forms and thematic representation was gradual, such as the early creative
expressions like rock paintings, terracotta figurines, etc., it has matured into sculptural shapes A vast
number of stone sculptures were created during this time period. They give us an understanding of
the social and economic life of the time. Indian art during this period was also influenced by other
cultures.

Chapter 6| Gupta Age

Index:

Introduction
Gupta Age Architecture
Gupta Cave Shrines
Gupta Temples: Design, structure and material
 Bhitargaon
Features of Jain Temples
Dilwara Temple
Ranakpur Temple
Jain Idols
Shravanabelagola
Bawangaja
Rock Cut Cave
Ajanta Caves
Fresco Technique
Fresco Mural Painting Inside the Cave
Avalokitesvara
Junagadh Caves (Uparkot)
Nashik Caves
Montpelier/Mandapeshwar Cave
Sculpture
Sarnath School of Sculpture
Temple Architecture of Gupta Age
Five Main Types of The Gupta Temples
Square Building with Flat Roof Shallow Pillared Porch
The Addition of An Ambulatory
The Square Temple with A Low and Squat Tower
Rectangular Temple with An Apsidal Back
Circular Temples with A Shallow Rectangular Projection
Paintings Of the Gupta Period
Literature
Coins
Conclusion

Introduction
In the aftermath of the decline of the Kushanas, northern India witnessed the rise of the Gupta empire.
The rulers of this dynasty carved out a vast empire that encompassed almost the entire northern part
of India. They exploited the ores of central and eastern India, as well as eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar which were very fertile.
 ● During the Gupta Dynasty (fourth-sixth century), they were built as the first purpose-built
Hindu (and also Buddhist) temples. These shrines were often adorned with towers and
elaborate carvings and are often dedicated to all the Hindu gods.
● In terms of style, design, and features, Gupta architecture was very diverse, and their rule
spanned approximately circa AD 550. As a result, many regional kingdoms arose in north India
following their collapse.
● The Chalukyas and the Pallavas, respectively, dominated South India from AD 550 to 750.

Gupta Age Architecture

Temple architecture was exceedingly diversified during the Gupta period. This kind of diversity shows
that the architecture was in its initial stage of development. Therefore, it has not achieved the proper
standard which was later developed. Since the Gupta period was from the 4th century to the 6th
century, a long time has gone, therefore only a few temples of that time have survived. But the
influence of that time on Indian temple architecture has been remarkable.

Gupta Cave Shrines

● The earliest example of religious architecture is found in cave temples. In these, there was
generally one single doorway and also a relief sculpture on the outside. Within the shrine were
ritual sculptures, such as a Shiva linga (phallus).
● Along with these, there were various carvings on the walls which depicted the images from
mythology.
● The finest example of Gupta art can be seen in the Udayagiri cave in Madhya Pradesh. These
caves are dated from 401 CE. Here we find Vishnu as a boar headed Varaha in human form.
⮚ The 7 x 4-metre panel depicts a round figure floating from the cosmic waters after
defeating a snake-like monster and saving Bhudevi (Earth). A famous Hindu story of peace
and protection may be interpreted as an allegory for Gupta kings' protection and peace.
● Ajanta caves from the Waghora riverbed region in northwest Deccan the remarkable example
of Indian wall paintings. Here the wall doesn’t belong to one particular time. These belong to
periods ranging from the 2nd century to the 7th century.
⮚ In these caves, the majority of sculptures depict the Buddha's life.
 ⮚ Sculptures depict scenes from Buddha's life in most caves. Cave 1 has a Guptan shrine
with flat cushion-topped column capitals. Cave 19 also has a Gupta-style chaitya facade
and porch and the aperture above is almost semi-circular and also large.

●
Fig. Udaygiri Caves

Gupta Temples: Structure, Design and Material.

● Gupta was the first who built permanent free-standing temples. In the beginning, the Hindu
temples were not built as a place for worship. In the beginning, they were thought to be
dwelling places (devalaya).
⮚ Along with the priest, private individuals could also make offerings to God. These offerings
are to a relic representative of a specific deity. This deity is located in a space with no
window. This space is known as garbhagriha.
⮚ There is a path around the temple, walking over it is considered an important ritual.
● Gupta period architecture is deeply influenced by Kushan, Mathura and Gandhara. In Gupta's
architecture, we find T shaped doorways, elaborate jambs, and sculpted panels with high-
relief figures.
● If we see the material used, we find that granite and sandstone are used on a large scale.
Along with horseshoe gavakshas arches, we find the curved shikhara which are decorated with
ribbed disks known as amalakas.
● To adorn these buildings in the Gupta time, a large number of figurines and ornate mouldings
are used.
● Temples were designed to carry decorative architectural features from all sides so that they
could be seen from every angle in Gupta architecture.
 ⮚ Square temples with the garbhagriha in the centre are also frequent and are normally
entered through an entry porch placed over a single, lavishly adorned doorway with a
projecting lintel.
⮚ In Madhya Pradesh, flat roofs can still be found in Tigawa and Sanchi. The columns can
support a pot-and-foliage capital.
● Since the various temples of that time were never restored, therefore it is difficult to decide
whether there was a second floor or not. Triangle motifs on doorways along with lion’s heads
which are embedded in stone beams are the other remarkable feature of the Gupta period.
● A second-storey shrine room from the Parvati temple, erected in the late 5th century CE,
survives in Nachana Kuthara.
● One of the best examples of Gupta period temples is the Dashavatara temple. This temple is
built on a platform also known as jagati in the 6th century CE.
⮚ Ramayan epic poems are depicted in the form of scenes on all the sides of the platform.
At the centre of this platform i.e. jagati at Deogarh, a large shrine is built. One important
feature of this is that it has no window. Apart from the main shrine, four less important
temples are also built at each corner of the complex.
● At the time, Hindu temples were not dedicated to just one God, but to a number of them.
Following the same tradition, the Gupta period temples were devoted to many gods.
⮚ Dashavatara temple is the best illustration where several gods appear in scenes of Hindu
mythology and are present in the square sanctuary tower. There we find sculptures of
various Hindu gods including Brahma, Vishnu, Ganga, Yamuna and Indra. Maithunas and
attendants are also depicted there.
⮚ Vishnu Anantasayana, a well-known panel depicting sculpting, is also on display in the
temple. On this panel, Vishnu is shown lying on the head of a serpent with multiple heads.
The serpent is called Ananta and it is drifting in the water of oblivion. From the navel of
Vishnu, a lotus leaf is coming out over which the god of creation i.e. Brahma is sitting.
Fig. Parvati Temple at Nachana Kuthara Fig. Dashavatara temple at Deogarh

Bhitargaon

Though there is only a handful of surviving temples from the Gupta period that are in decent shape,
Bhitargaon is one among them. This temple was built in the late 5th century. One of the unique
qualities is that it is the early Hindu temple which was entirely made up of bricks.
● Though the upper portion is damaged, gavaksha niches and pilasters are kept intact by the
four-sided and curved shikhara. This shikhara decreases in size as the tower goes up toward
the pinnacle. On the ornamented capitals, frames are formed where terracotta panels were
originally existent.
● Though only a few panels are present now, proof from other sites suggests that these panels
depicted the scene from mythology. Grotesque faces, similar to gargoyles of gothic cathedrals,
are present on the panels of the upper tower.
Fig. Bhitargaon

Aspects of Jain temples

The Jain architecture was essentially an outgrowth of Hindu and Buddhist architecture. It will not be
assigned a specific subject. Though there are many Hindu temples, there are just a few Jain temples.
The regional styles of Jain temple architecture are widely distinct in different parts of the world.
● The architecture of early Jain temples was primarily rock-cut, with no use of bricks. As time
went on, brick temples proliferated, and at the same time, they separated from Hindu and
Buddhist sites to construct their own structures.
● In the design of the Jain temple we find three features:
⮚ Image chamber – Garbhagriha
⮚ Hall – Mandapa
⮚ Porch
● Antarala, which is a small vestibule, is also present. This is found between the chamber where
the image is installed and the hall. It is a place where worshippers can stand and participate
in the rituals.
● Temple cities were well-known in Jain tradition as places where Jain temples might be found.
Temples are constructed in enormous complexes here. These complexes of temples are
interwoven in Jain temple architecture.
● There are several Jain temples built on hilltops, such as Palitana Temple in Gujarat, Sonagiri
Temple in Madhya Pradesh, etc. These temple houses have pointed domes and octagon-
shaped chambers within.
 ● Marble and ornamentation are used on a large scale in the Jain temples.
● There are a number of points in front of the domes extending into the sky that give the
building its distinctive appearance. When we compare the top dome of a Jain temple to that
of a Hindu temple, we see that it is smaller.
● The Jain temple is a well-designed construction with pillars that form a square.
● The square that was made created chambers that housed the deity's picture. The temple's top
and pillars are ornately carved and ornamented.
● Furthermore, the Jain vihara cells are modest and straightforward. The reason for that is to
control Jain monks’ strict asceticism. The monks have to bend or crawl to enter these viharas
as the doorways are very narrow.
● The Jagat or Vedi is the platform on which most Jain temples are erected. Platforms can be
found even in cave temples carved out of rock. The temple was built on a platform to elevate
the temple above the surrounding landscape and create a separate sacred place.
● The temple, which is known as Prakara in general, is mostly surrounded by a freestanding
wall.
● The square design of the Jain temple has four cardinal directions of apertures. These openings
could lead to a Tirthankara image.
⮚ Lord Adinath's Chamukh temple in Ranakpur is an example of a four-door temple.
● Ellora and Aihole in the Deccan are two architecturally significant Jain sites.
⮚ The prominent Gomateshwara statue in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka is another
remarkable example of Jain temple architecture.
⮚ Deogarh, Gwalior Khajuraho, and Chanderi are some wonderful examples of Jain
architecture in central India.
⮚ Gujarat and Rajasthan are two states where Jain influence was greater.
o A bronze Jain picture in Akota, Gujarat, is one of the best examples of Jain
architecture.

Some of the most important Jain temples listed:

Dilwara Temple

● In Mount Abu, Rajasthan, stands the Dilwara temple, a Jain temple dedicated to the
Tirthankaras. It was built entirely of pure white marble and bedecked with fine sculptures.
 ● It was constructed with the assistance of Solanki rulers. Sculptural decorations adorn their
lace-like facade, which has deep undercuts.
● Doomed ceilings and exquisite patterns on every ceiling are unique features of this temple.
Dilwara temple is also well-known for its graceful bracket figures.

Fig. Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu (Unsplash)

Ranakpur Temple

● The most remarkable example of Jain architecture is the fifteenth-century Jain temple in
Ranakpur, Rajasthan. This is in honour of the first Tirthankara, Lord Adinath. Because of its
four faces, this temple is also known as Chaumukh.
● A light-coloured marble was employed in the construction of this temple. It even has its own
dome. It rises majestically from a hill's slope. The temple is supported by 1444 marble pillars,
each carved with fine intricacies and unique.
Fig: Ranakpur Jain Temple (Unsplash)

Jain Idols

Shravanabelagola

● Among the many Jain pilgrimages, Shravanabelagola in Karnataka holds special importance.
Lakhs of people visit this place every year. Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri mountains are present
on two sides of this place. There is a 57-foot-high monolithic statue of Lord Gommateshwara,
also known as Lord Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara, Adinath, on the peak of Vindhyagiri.
● This monolithic statue was constructed by Chamundaraya, who was general–in–chief and
prime minister of Ganga king of Mysore. Lord Bahubali is famous for his asceticism in a
standing position. He was standing till ivy-covered his legs apart from anthills built near his
feet.
Fig. Gomateshwara Statue at Shravanabelagola (Unsplash)

Bawangaja

Bawangaja in the Barwani district in Madhya Pradesh is famous for the Jain pilgrimage. At this site,
there is an 84-foot tall lord Adinatha statue. This statue of Adinath is the largest megalithic figurine in
the world. This statue was carved prior to the 12th century out of the mountain.

Fig. Bawangaja
The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early
Indian art and history. (UPSC 2020)

In this type of architecture, the structure is made with the help of carving and cutting of the natural
solid rock. This is found in abundance in the Indian sub-continent than anywhere else in the world.
Most of the rock-cut architectures found in India are religious in nature, but they also give the
economic, societal, political, and educational insights of the past.

Knowledge of Early Indian Art and History from the Rock-Cut Architecture:

Religious: The western Deccan area of India has many caves, which even date to the before Christ era.
Example: Bhaja cave, Kanheri cave, Ajanta Cave. These were identified to be Buddhist caves.

● Ellora cave and Mahabalipuram having temples of Kailashnath and Shore respectively signify
the Hinduism ideology being predominant in the region during the 6th century CE.
● The signs of Jainism can be found in the caves of Udaygiri and Khandagiri in the eastern part
of India. These were built during the 1st century BCE.
● One of the oldest rock-cut architecture was found in the Barabara caves in Bihar, built
around the 3rd century BCE, which depicts the Ajivika sect.

Economic: Commerce and religion complement each other in ancient India. This is further elaborated
by the fact that Bhaja and Karle caves were situated on the busiest trade routes in the Western Ghats.

● This trade route was used to connect the interior parts with the seaports of the western coast.

Educational: The famous Kanheri caves in western India was an educational hub where evidence of
water harvesting can be found.

● Bhaja cave has clusters of Stupas, where the relics of the teachers were obtained.

Political: Many political rulers protected such architectures under their patronage.

● For example, Barabara caves by King Ashoka, Ellora by the Rashtrakuttas, and the Chalukyas
protecting Badami cave temples testify to political patronage in ancient times.

These findings clearly explain how the rock-cut architectures have been an essential source of
information regarding ancient India’s various aspects of life and help us holistically understand their
culture. It also paves way for us to understand how evolution in society has taken place.
Rock Cut Cave
● The Gupta period is the golden age of architecture. Hence it was a time of flourishing
Buddhism. A famous monastery in Ajanta contains beautiful Chaitya halls and many residential
Viharas with beautifully painted murals depicting figures whose lines move elegantly.
● At this time large size stones are used. Stones were carved, and terracotta relief along with
bronze statues was very refined as per the Gupta style. During this time the production of
these was very high.
● After the 7th century, several notable Buddhist works of art were made. Buddhist art grew
significantly under the reigns of the Pala and Sena dynasties (730-1197).
● Gupta style’s focuses on embellishment and fabrication. Most of the architecture of the Gupta
period is of bronze and hard black stone. One of the examples is Nalanda.
● Caves and temples dating from the Gupta dynasty have been preserved. Two Buddhist stupas
are an excellent example of this. The MirpurKhas stupa, built in the 4th century AD, contains
several arches.
⮚ Arch makers of India were aware of arch making even before Muslims came to India. This
is proved by the presence of a curve on MirpurKhas stupa.
● Several brick relics, including the Dhameka Stupa, are representative of Gupta architectural
pattern.
● During the Gupta period, the architecture developed not only in the form of Hindu temples
but also in the form of Buddhist temples. Along with the temple, caves were another major
development in the Gupta time.
● Gupta period cave paintings, such as those at Bagh, Ajanta, and Ellora, depict Buddhist figures
and stories. The Hindu caves, on the other hand, are located in Udayagiri, Bhopal.
● Cave paintings from the Gupta period stand out from the rest because of their artistic
refinement and design.
 Ajanta Caves
● Ajanta Caves are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments that date from the 2nd
century BCE to around 480 or 650 CE, and they seem to be hidden in the hills of northwest
India, some 200 miles away from the bustling streets of Mumbai.
● Among the finest examples of ancient Indian art, the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta
caves exhibit expressive paintings that convey emotion through gesture, pose and form.
● In UNESCO's view, these masterpieces are representative of Buddhist religious art that
influenced India's art in subsequent centuries. Caves were constructed over two waves of
time, with the first settling around the 2nd century BC, and the second settling around 400
to 650 AD, or all within just a few years between 460 to 480 according to Walter M. Spink.
● Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Many of the
fragments of ancient murals preserved from earlier caves (Caves 9 and 11) are unique
examples of ancient Indian painting from this period, and they illustrate how the Indian
artist was capable of mastering an elegant and fluent naturalistic style by Satavahana
times.
● Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which,
states James Harle, “have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist
‘‘and represent “the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art”.
● They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently
later paintings in Caves 1 and 2.
● In contrast, the Ajanta frescoes are classic paintings. They are rich and complex works of
confidence, without cliches. Early Western observers found these caves shockingly out of
place because of the luxurious, sensual, and stunning aesthetic aspects, which were
assumed to be a result of religious worship and ascetic monastic life.
● Among the main colours used were red ochre, yellow ochre, brown ochre, lamp black,
white, and lapis lazuli from the Middle East which were mixed with Indian yellow ochre to
create the green.
● Indian art features vivid and multi-coloured scenes with most characters never being
repeated, a simple and fundamental principle in the art. Ceilings, walls and pilasters are all
covered with overlapping figures, with vivid, contrasting colours.
● While Ajanta's painting techniques are similar to European fresco techniques, it stands out
because the pigment was applied to the layer of dry plaster rather than wet. A rough plaster
of clay, cow dung, and rice husks was first applied to the rough cave walls. This was then
coated with lime juice in order to create a smooth working surface.
Fig. Ajanta Caves
Sculpture

● Relief sculptures: These paintings were made in high relief. Buddha’s halo and other
decorative elements are painted on a large scale and in high relief. Here Buddha motifs are
painted centred on his life incidents. These paintings show how much the artist mastered the
stone carving.
● Bas-Relief: because the images are very large in size therefore the bas- relief technique is
used. Under this sculptor carved the Buddha image and decoration on the stupa on live rock.
Therefore, three-fourths of the image emerge.
● Rounded Sculpture: it was in the Gupta period that Hindu gods were carved in a rounded
shape. Similarly, the Varaha image of Udayagiri is made in deep detail. It is a monolithic image.
Similarly, the rounded full-size Vishnu sculptor is painted in the Dashavatara temple. Stone,
 clay, wood, and bronze are used for making the rounded sculptor. Since these were three
dimensional in the Gupta period therefore they were very expressive.

Sarnath School of Sculpture

● During this period, the Sarnath School of Sculpture was founded. Sandstone in Cream colour
was used for the construction of the school. The Gupta sculptures did not exhibit the
nakedness prevalent earlier. They were properly dressed and covered.
⮚ Halo is more decorative and detailed in these sculptors. For centuries, these have also
often been circularized, and they have influenced Buddhist drawings throughout Asia,
including China and Japan. And even metal sculptures came into being during this period.
⮚ The Sultanganj Buddha is a sculpture of considerable size and importance from this
period. It measures 2.3 meters high and 1 meter wide and weighs more than 500
kilograms.
● During the period of the Guptas, the Gandhara School of art and sculpture had reached a very
high degree of perfection. Other schools developed in Mathura. But the highest degree of
perfection is achieved in the Sarnath school.
● The spiritual and religious characters were a major motif in Gupta painting. They created
depictions of gods such as Shiva, Vishnu, and Buddha as a result of this.
● The Gupta time sculptors were magnificent. Their figure was very proportionate. Detailed
postures and gestures were shown in these images. The sculptors' works were stunning, and
the figures were proportionate and balanced.
● Shiva-Parvati relics in Kosam, Ramayana panels in Deogarh, and bodhisattva images in Sarnath
are examples of Gupta architecture. These were produced by the Mathura school of art, which
was unparalleled during this period.
● Gupta sculptures were renowned for their artistic finesse and brilliance during the Gupta era.
● The magnificent image of Buddha carved out of red sandstone dates from the 5th century AD.
This is a fine example of Gupta architecture from Mathura.
⮚ In all his sublime splendour, the great master stands here holding the hem of his garment
with his left hand and right hand in Abhaya mudra, ensuring his protection.
⮚ Embedded in spiritual ecstasy, the smiling countenance and down-cast eyes are gilded
with intricately designed folds on the robe covering both shoulders.
⮚ An elaborate halo garnished with concentric bands of graceful ornament is the
centrepiece of the head covered with schematic spiral curls and a protuberance in the
middle of the head.
 ⮚ Several countries adopted Buddhism and modified its image and forms to embody the
finished mastery of execution and the majestic serenity of expression found in the
Buddha's image, including Siam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, Central Asia, China, Japan, etc.
● An excellent example of Gupta art in its mature form, the standing Buddha is a softly moulded
figure that appears to be ensuring protection with its right hand. Here the drapery is different
from Mathura because only the edge is visible unlike in Mathura where delicately designed
drapery is visible. The flawless execution, as well as the serene expression of the sublime
being, make this sculpture truly worthy.
● India temple architecture rose to its zenith in the Gupta period. All the specific characteristics
of Indian temples including plastic forms were developed and included elaborately during this
time.
● The carvings from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are very good examples of figure
sculpture in their decorative settings: the temples of Deogarh also have excellent stone
carvings from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta.
⮚ Sheshashayi Vishnu, who is pictured on the serpent Ananta in Deogarh temple, is shown
sleeping awake on the panel, the symbol of eternity, in the interval between the
dissolution of the universe and its new creation, is a magnificent example.
● From the sites of stupa, chaityas, and vihara of the Gupta time, many remains have been
discovered. These all are Buddhist sites. The remains from other sites like Nalanda, Rajgir,
Julian and Mohra maraud and Pushkalavati are also found.

Temple Architecture of Gupta Age

● During the Gupta dynasty, free-standing temples became increasingly popular. During this
time the temples are decorated with ornaments on a very large scale.
● In the Gupta period, the base or the foundation was a permanent material like brick and stone
rather than bamboo and wood.
● During this time the purpose of the temple is to be a place of worship rather than a dwelling
as was the case with the caves.
● As the Gupta period went on, the art gained more richness and details.
● The one prominent feature was the shikhara of the Gupta period. The Gupta time dome, on
the other hand, demonstrates the sculptors' ingenuity. These features make the Gupta temple
different from other periods.
 ⮚ Gupta architecture may be seen in the Shiva temple in Nachana, the Parvati Temple in
Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the Ekkalinga Shiva Temple in Satana, and the Vishnu
Temple in Central Province.
● The Garbhgriha is the locus of the temple where the idol of god is located. This garbhagriha is
connected to the hall by a vestibule. A court is present around the temple. The writing of text
on and around the temple is a prominent feature of Gupta temples.
● There has been a revival of Hindu beliefs during the Gupta period due to the construction of
temples and the placement of images of their devoted gods (ishta-deva).
⮚ The Bhakti ideology and the increasing importance of image worship led to the
construction of free-standing temples containing the image of the deity within a dedicated
chamber called the Garbhagriha. Many of these temples can be found in this period.
⮚ The buildings were constructed from stone or brick and had a roof with spouts for water
drainage. Initially, they were small structures with central shrines.
⮚ Sanchi's Temple No.17 is the earliest Gupta temple that can still be visited today. It is well
designed. There is an enclosed cell with a square chamber and columns in the front.
⮚ In the later Gupta and post-Gupta periods, this design was adopted on a large scale.
● A temple-building activity carried out by the Guptas grew out of the rock-cut shrines of old,
which reached a whole new level in the later stages of the Gupta period. This time marks the
commencement of temple construction in India, and it influenced temple design well into the
medieval period.
● During this era, the ground was prepared for excellent possibilities for the future, leading to
the development of distinctive styles of architecture for Indian temples.
● Creativity and a deep sense of beauty were the central features of Gupta art. The following
surviving examples illustrate these characteristics:
⮚ Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district (UP),
⮚ Bhitargaon temple near Kanpur (UP),
⮚ Vishnu temple at Tigawa (Jabalpur district, MP),
⮚ Shiva temple at Bhumara (Satna district, MP) and Khoh (Bharatpur district, Rajasthan),
⮚ Parvati temple at Nachana-Kuthara (Panna district, MP),
⮚ Temple dedicated to the Sun-God at Ashramaka (Satna district, MP) and Mandsaur (MP),
⮚ Yaksha temple at Padmavati (modern Pawaya) near Gwalior (MP),
⮚ Temple at Bhitari (Ghazipur district, UP) a great temple complex and accompanying
sculptures at Eran (Sagar district, MP) etc.
 Five main types of the Gupta Temples

● Devagrahas of the pre-Christian era were excavated in extremely fragmentary conditions,

perhaps dating back to the second century BC. Buildings in the Gupta era were constructed
with lasting materials, such as dressed stone and brick, but were built of perishable materials,
giving little scope for architectural principles. During the Gupta period, Indian temple
architecture took its first steps. From those experiments, two major styles emerged.

There were five phases to the construction of temples in the Gupta Age.
Paintings of the Gupta Period
● Paintings were more important than buildings and sculptures during the Gupta era. During
the Gupta dynasty, paintings became more secular.
● Gupta paintings were depicted in the cave paintings of Ajanta, Badami, and Bagh.
● The majority of cave paintings reflect Jataka stories and Buddha's life.
● A painting from Ajanta depicts Bodhisattva-Padmapani standing in Tribhanga position with a
white lotus in his right hand and a jewelled crown on his head. His visage is filled with
melancholy and sympathy for his fellow beings as he looks down from heaven.
● Painting throughout the Gupta era took on a new dimension that had never been seen before.
Gupta's painting is unrivalled in ancient Indian history for its magnificence and splendour.
● The Ajanta frescoes (Aurangabad district, Maharashtra) and cave paintings at Bagh (Dhar
district, MP) and Badami/Vatapi (Bagalkot district, Karnataka), as well as faint vestiges at
numerous other locations, are the most well-known examples.
⮚ It appears that visionaries and those who enjoy the beauty of nature chose the Ajanta site.
On a long horse-shaped hill overlooking a deep valley, the Ajanta caves are located. There
are 29 caves total, of which Caves 1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 have survived, allowing us to assess
the exceptional level of painting during the Gupta dynasty.
● Although the frescoes date from the 1st to the 7th centuries CE, the majority of them are from
the Gupta period.
● The Bagh cave paintings are equally impressive, because of their bold execution and range of
artistic elements like patterns and scrolls. They are more secular in nature than their Ajanta
counterparts.
● Because of the art, architecture, and sculpture that reached pinnacle levels during the Gupta
period, it was regarded as India's Golden Age.

Literature
● The Gupta period is considered the Golden Age of art and literature. A huge body of religious
and secular literature was compiled in this period.
● In the 4th century, the two major epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were finally
completed. Both epics' storylines represent the triumph of good over evil. Both Rama and
Krishna were thought to be Vishnu's avatars.
 ● Puranas, or ancient Indian literature, began to be written during the Gupta period. These
books contain anecdotes about Hindu gods as well as instructions on how to satisfy them
through fasting and pilgrimages. The Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, and Matsya Purana are the
three major Puranas written during this time period. Shiv Purana was composed to glorify
Shiva's worship, whilst Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, and Narasimha Purana glorify Vishnu's
numerous incarnations. The common man was supposed to worship them.
● During the Gupta dynasty, some "smritis," or law texts, were compiled. The Narada Smriti, for
example, is a compilation that offers light on social and economic rules and regulations of the
time. This period's literature was written in Sanskrit.
● Kalidasa, who flourished in the court of Chandragupta II in the 5th century AD, was the finest
of all the poets. His works are well-known, and they have been translated into a number of
European languages. Meghadutam, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha,
Kumarasambhava, and Ritusamhara are some of his works. The characters of higher castes
speak in Sanskrit, while those of lower castes and women speak in Prakrit.
● Shudraka, the author of Mrichchhkatikam, and Vishakhadatta, the author of Mudrarakshasa,
are two additional well-known dramatists who flourished at this time.
● Banabhatta, Harsha's court poet, penned Harshacarita in praise of his patron in the 7th
century. It became a model for succeeding writers since it was written in an elaborate style.
This text is used to reconstruct Harsha's early history. Kadambari is another text he wrote.
⮚ Harsha was also regarded as a literary monarch. Priyadarshika, Nagananda, and Ratnavali
are said to be his three plays.
● The Tamil language experienced growth in Bhakti literature from 550 to 750, when songs
were penned by Saiva saints (Nayannaras) and Vaishnava saints (Alvars) in praise of their gods.
⮚ Andal, a woman, was one of the most prominent of the Alvar saints.
⮚ The devotional songs of the Vaisnavas are collected in the work Nalayira Prabandham, while
those of the Saivites are preserved in the text Devarama.

Coins
● Besides being pieces of art, the Gupta gold coins are elegantly designed and meticulously
crafted. They depict the rulers' activities in an extremely pleasing manner. The lyrist type of
gold coin depicts Samudragupta playing the lute. His interest in music can be detected from
this representation. He also issued Ashvamedha type of coins.
● Renowned for their gold coins, the Gupta numismatic art has a plethora of coins in various
designs. They also distributed silver coins. However, coins made of copper, bronze or any
 other alloy metals were limited. This plethora of gold coins from the Gupta era has led some
scholars to regard their reign as the ‘rain of gold.
● The gold coins of the Gupta dynasty are known as Dinars, and they are among the finest
examples of numismatic and artistic perfection.

⮚ The metallurgy and iconography of Gupta coins were at their pinnacle. Because they were
local, they dressed the king, queen, and deities in Indian garb and with great grace.

● Post Gupta age, we find a decline in numismatic art. Coins were rare during the period 900
A.D-1200 AD.

⮚ The level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art declined in later times. Islamic rulers
like the Delhi sultanate and Mughals did not feature on the coins and preferred minting
teachings from the Quran instead.

● It was emphasised that the early Medieval age was inflicted with monetary anaemia, and from
the side of Coinage, it was a dark age.

● Recent Historical research had brought to light that monetisation was never wholly absent in
India & its level was reasonably high during 900 A.D-1200 AD.

● The decline in internal trade and the weakening of a powerful centre also resulted in a broad
scarcity of coinage.

● The rapid deterioration in the number and purity of later Gupta coins was exacerbated by the
emergence of new independent and self-sufficient local entities (Shrenis).

● The Post-Gupta coins became repetitive, with only minor or no inventive alterations.

● In the post-Gupta period, numismatics quality declined due to a reduction in trade and
frequent conflict for power.

How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all
noticeable in later times? (UPSC 2017)

The Gupta dynasty ruled around the early 4th century to 6th century C.E. Renowned for their gold
coins, the Gupta numismatic art has a plethora of coins in an array of designs. They also
distributed silver coins. However, coins made of copper, bronze or any other alloy metals were
limited. This plethora of gold coins from the Gupta era has led some scholars to regard their reign
as the ‘rain of gold.

The excellence of the Gupta Numismatic Art:

● The Gupta gold coins are acknowledged as Dinars, and they are the most extraordinary
examples of numismatic and artistic excellence.

● Gupta coinage attained the height of metallurgy and iconography. Being indigenous, they
portrayed the king, queen, and deities with Indian attire and with lots of grace.

● The coins had the following features and themes:

⮚ Royal themes: Image of king and queen involved in various ceremonies. For example,
coins depicting Chandragupta I and queen Kumaradevi etc.

⮚ Themes depicting valour: Samudragupta carrying an axe, bow and arrow, standing
with a dagger, Skanda Gupta sitting on an elephant and hunting a tiger in one of the
coins.

⮚ Religious themes: Image of a female goddess in almost every coin, an image of the
king holding an animal at the altar for sacrifice, ruler performing Ashwamedha Yajna.

⮚ Cultural themes: King Samudragupta playing the Veena.

Coinage of Post Gupta age:

● Post Gupta age, we find a decline in numismatic art. Coins were rare during the period 900
A.D-1200 A.D.
● It was emphasized that the early Medieval age was inflicted with monetary anaemia, and
from the side of Coinage, it was a dark age.
 ● Recent Historical research had brought to light that monetization was never wholly absent
in India & its level was reasonably high during 900 A.D-1200 A.D.
● There was also a general paucity of Coinage created by the declining internal trade and
weakening of a powerful centre.
● The newly emerging independent and self-sufficient local units (Shrenis) added to the sharp
decline in the number and purity of later Gupta coins.
● The level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art declined in later times. Islamic rulers like
the Delhi sultanate and Mughals did not feature on the coins and preferred minting
teachings from the Quran instead.
● The Post-Gupta coins became monotonous with slight or no creative changes at all.

A general atmosphere of peace and prosperity assisted in creating a civilization conducive to

cultural advent and social growth. The Gupta period is treated as the “Golden Age” of classical
India. The flourishing state of the economy was ascertained by a large number of gold coins
circulated by different Gupta rulers. In the post-Gupta period, numismatics quality declined due to
a reduction in trade and frequent conflict for power.

Conclusion

India was incredibly wealthy during the Gupta dynasty's reign. The Gupta kings outperformed most
Indian dynasties in terms of architecture, sculpture, painting, and other forms of art. During this time,
there was a convergence of past architectural tendencies and styles, as well as a blooming of new
styles and techniques. The human mind's ideas and faculties were free to work, resulting in the
development of numerous literary and creative masterpieces. Temple architecture reached its
pinnacle during this time period as well. It was also during this time that Cave Architecture reached its
pinnacle. While Gupta Architecture began with Hindu art, it went on to contribute to Buddhist and
Jain art in subsequent years.
 Chapter 7| Temple Architecture in South India

Index:

Introduction
Nagara School of Architecture
Three Subtypes of Nagara Temple
Rekha Prasad Or Latina
Phamsana
Vallabhi Type
Three Sub Schools Developed Under Nagara Style
Odisha School
Khajuraho/Chandel School
Solanki School
Dravidian Style
Distinct features of Dravida Style
Four Stages of Temple Architecture in South India
Stage 1 Mahendra Group
Stage 2 Narsimha Group
Stage 3 Rajasimha Group
Stage 4 Nandivarman Group
Chola Sculpture: Natraj
Sub Styles of Dravida Temples
Nayaka Style
Vijayanagar Legacy
Vesara Style
Various Schools of Temple Architecture During Medieval Period
Pala School of Architecture
Khajuraho Temple
Chalukyas School
Rashtrakutas
Pallavas (3rd and 9th Centuries CE)
Hoysalas
Conclusion
Introduction

Hindu temple architecture comes in a variety of styles, but its essential beliefs remain the same. Hindu
temple design shows a blend of Hindu principles, dharma, values, beliefs, and lifestyles. Hindu temples
were built from rock-cut caves that were inspired by early Buddhist formations such as stupas. With
the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th and 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples
with characteristics such as towers and projecting niches were created.

Shilpa Shastra is an Indian text that covers temple building principles and introduces three primary
forms of temple construction: Nagara (northern style), Dravida (southern style), and Vesara (central
style) (the mixed style). The essential features of a Hindu Temple comprise a Garbhagriha (Sanctum
Sanctorum), Mandapa, Shikhara and a Vahana. In the Garbhagriha, the deity resides. The Mandapa is
the entrance path to the temple. Shikhara is a pyramidal curvilinear spire arising over the Garbhagriha.
Vahana is the vehicle of the deity.

Nagara School of Architecture

Nagara is a unique style of temple construction found only in northern India, and all temples in the
region are built on stone platforms with steps going up to them. In contrast to South India, there are
rarely elaborate walls or gateways, and the earliest temples only had one shikhara (tower). Later
temples usually have several towers and the garbhagriha is generally located right under the tallest
tower. The temples built in the Nagara Style architecture did not have a tank. The sculpture was
created in three vertical planes known as 'rathas.' Later styles such as Pancharatha, Saptaratha, and
Navaratha evolved. In northern and central India, these styles were well-established, but not in the
Peninsula.
● Temples of Hinduism follow a synthesis of arts, ideals, beliefs, and values that are cherished
by Hindus. Hindu temple architecture exemplifies the worldview and culture of Hinduism.
 ● Hindu temples were first built inside rock-cut caves, influenced by Buddhist structures, such
as stupas. Following the introduction of Gupta architecture during the 4th to 5th century CE,
the first freestanding Hindu temples with towers and niches were constructed.
● A Hindu temple's basic elements are a Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa,
Shikhara, and Vahana. In the Garbhagriha, the deity resides. The Mandapa is the entrance
path to the temple. Shikhara is a pyramidal curvilinear spire arising over the Garbhagriha.
Vahana is the vehicle of the deity.

Five major stages of temple development and important features:

● Stage 1: Flat roof temples, Shallow pillared approach at the front, Square temples and low
platforms. Example: Sanchi and Kankali Temple, Tigwa.
● Stage 2: Continued the flat roof temples and square pillared approach (not shallow), high or
lifted platforms, covered ambulatory around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for believers to do a
parikrama, and sometimes two-storied temples. Example: Parvati Temple, Nachna Kuthara,
Madhya Pradesh.
● Stage 3: Most of the characteristics of stage 2 are carried forward; the flat roof evolved into a
curvilinear roof (shikhara), the Beginning of the Panchayatana style of temple making.
Example: Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh).
● Stage 4: Most of the important elements of the 3rd stage are carried forward, with a
noticeable transformation from the square to the rectangular shape of the main shrine.
● Stage 5: Most of the significant characteristics of stage 3 are carried forward. It has the
beginning of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections.
Three subtypes of Nagara temple
There are many sections of nagara temples, depending on the shape of their shikhara. The various
portions of the temple are given distinct names in different parts of India.
Three sub-schools developed under the Nagara style
Nagara style was built regionally, with each region having its own distinct characteristics. Three sub-
schools have adopted the Nagara Style: Odisha School, Khajuraho School, and Solanki School.

Odisha School
● The major architectural elements of Odisha temples are grouped in three orders, i.e.,
rekhapida, pida deul and khakra. The majority of the great temple sites are in ancient Kalinga.
The majority of the main sites are located in the current Puri District, which includes
Bhubaneswar, or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, as well as Puri and Konark.
● Odisha's temples reflect a distinct subtype of the nagara style of temple architecture.
⮚ In general, the shikhara, also known as deul in Odisha, is virtually vertical until it turns
significantly inwards towards the top.
⮚ Deul is preceded, as is customary in Odisha, by mandapas known as Jagamohana.
● Odisha's largest temples almost always have a square ground layout, but the crowning
mastaka becomes circular in the superstructure's upper reaches. This creates the spire almost
cylindrical in appearance and length.
● Exterior walls are intricately carved, and interior walls bare an important feature of this
school.
● By the middle of the 9th Century AD, a school of sculpture had grown in Odisha, which took
lavish pride in the lovely forms of women, among other items.
⮚ On the face of the walls, there are many sculptures of beautiful female figures.
● Young and lovely animals with tempting smiles and lustrous hair full of gems are frequently
found in Odisha's Nayika temples.
● The lower upright portion is known as “Bada”. The tall middle portion is known as “Chapra”,
over which is a flat fluted disk known as “Amla”. Shikara is known as “Duel”.
● Mandapa is known as “Jagmohan”. Narasimhavarman built the well-known temple at
Konarak in the middle of the 12th century and dedicated it to the Sun god.
⮚ It was envisioned as a gigantic stone chariot pulled by seven rearing horses with large
wheels.
⮚ Its presiding deity, the Sun god, is pictured here, dressed in traditional north Indian garb,
wearing chainmail armour and clutching a lotus in each hand. He is being dragged along
by a chariot drawn by seven horses.
Fig. Nagara Style of Architecture, Odisha School

Khajuraho/Chandel school
This style was created by the Chandela Rulers. This temple's interior and façade are both beautifully
ornamented with elaborate carvings. The temples had erotic-themed sculptures, but there were no
border walls. Shikaras could be found on subsidiary shrines, and temples in these designs were placed
on high platforms. This style has three distinctive traits: Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico
(Veranda surrounded by pillars)

Fig. Khajuraho Temple Architecture

Solanki School
Located in Gujarat under the Solanki Rulers, this school was based on temples built on steps of a
massive rectangular step tank. The temple's primary shrine, facing east, was devoid of carvings. As a
result, at the Equinox, the sun shines directly on the Central Shrine every year. On the balconies of the
temple's west, north, and south sites, purna-kalasha columns and deep frame structures are common.
The temple's main entrance is normally on the east side.
● Western India and Rajasthan had beautiful sculptures, with the Jain Dilwara temples of
Mount Abu achieving a high level of architectural excellence in stone. They were created by
the Solanki emperors.
⮚ The Dilwara temples in Mount Abu are excellent examples of the western school of the
Jain tradition.
o Rather than being architectural monuments, they are sculptural masterpieces. In
terms of complex sculptural carvings, the Dilwara temple's roof is a piece of art.
 ● The enormous number of elaborately carved sculptures that adorn the Jain temples at Mount
Abu, Palitana, and Girnar is evidence of Gujarat's marble sculpture practices. Since the 13th
century AD, people have been customising the image of Vishnu, the Hindu god of
preservation.
● Example- Sun temple at Modhera, Dilwara temple at Mount Abu, Bemala temple at Mount
Abu.

Sun temple at Modhera:

● It was built around 1026 by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in the early eleventh
century. The Solanki dynasty was a later Chalukya branch.
● In front of it stands the Surya Kund,' a massive rectangular stepping tank.
● By the early 11th century, water sources such as tanks, rivers, or ponds had become integral
parts of many temples, because they were so close to sacred architecture. Perhaps the
grandest temple tank in India is this 100 square meters rectangular pond.
● There are 108 small shrines carved between the stairwells within the tank.
● Visitors to the sabha mandapa (assembly hall) are greeted by a great ornate arch-Torana,
which is accessible from all sides, as was the case in western and central Indian temples.

Dravidian Style
● This Dravidian style was seen during the Pallava Period and can be divided into four stages.
Shikara (tower) is the crowning element on the top of the temple, like Amalak and Kailash of
Nagara Style. The entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas. It has only one vimana. These temples
functioned as religious centres, administrative centres and centres of education and revenue.
● In South India, temple buildings in the Dravida style became prominent. Although the Dravida
temple design altered over time, the primary elements of these temples remained intact.
Fig. Schematic of a Dravidian Style Temple

Distinct features of Dravida Style

● The Dravida temple is encircled by a compound wall, with an entrance gateway in the centre
known as a gopuram.
● In contrast to north India's curving shikhara, the major temple tower, Vimana, is geometrically
shaped.
● The word shikhara is used for the crowning element for the top of the temple, which
corresponds to the amalaka and kalasha of North Indian temples.
● There are sculptural representations of ferocious dvarapalas or temple Doorkeepers.
⮚ Subsidiary shrines are either built into the main temple tower or stand alongside it as
lesser shrines.
● In a strategy different from the Nagara style, one of the smallest towers can be found in the
main temple of some of the most sacred temples in South India.
● A large water reservoir (temple tank) is commonly found inside the complex, which was
generally not associated with the Nagara style.
● Some examples include Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur), Shore Temple
(Mahabalipuram), and Meenakshi Temple (Madurai). Sub-divisions of Dravida temples based
on shapes.
● There are mainly five different shapes:
⮚ Square, generally called caturasra or Kuta
⮚ Rectangular or ayatasra or shala
⮚ Vrittayata or elliptical also called elephant backed or Gaja-prishta
 ⮚ Circular or vritta
⮚ Octagonal or ashtasra.
● This is, however, a reduced division of subdivisions. Several different forms can be blended at
various times and in various locations to create a unique design.

Fig. Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur

Four stages of temple architecture in South India

Stage–1 Mahendra Group
● Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches, and Mandapa were included in the first stage.
● Rock-cut architecture is exhibited.
● The word mandapa is used instead of the temple.

Stage-II–Narsimha Group
● The Second Stage included the Narasimha Groups, and Mandap became Rathas.
⮚ There is a decoration in rock-cut caves.
⮚ Biggest rath – Dharmaraja Ratha
⮚ Smallest – Draupadi Ratha
⮚ Dravidian Style – Dharmaraj rath was a precursor.

Stage–III–Rajasimha Group
● The third stage is evidenced by the Raja Simha Group's building of true structural temples
including the coast temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram.
● Development of real structural temples was seen.
● Shore temple and Kailash Nath temple.
Stage IV – Nandivarman Group
● The construction of tiny temples and the Dravidian architecture continued into the fourth
stage under the Nandi Varman Group.
● Development of small temples was seen.
● Dravidian style continued.
 Chola Sculpture: NATRAJ
● From the 9th to 13th centuries, the Cholas succeeded the Pallavas and built the
great temples at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur, and Darasuram, which are
a veritable treasure house of their art
● At the Brihadeswara temple at Thanjavur, the most mature and royal of the Chola
temples, the sculpture has achieved a new maturity which is understandable in the
gracefully modelled contours of the figures, their flexed poses, pleasing faces,
fragile ornamentation, and freshness, all of which contributes to the work’s charm.
● Gajsurasamaharamurti is a fine example of Chola craftsmanship from the 11th
century. It portrays the vigorous dance of the irate god after he killed the elephant
– demon. Stone and metal sculptures are noticed in plenty in Chola temples.
⮚ They depict the socio-religious ideas of the Chola period. The Nataraja
sculpture is world-famous not only for its beauty but also for its spiritual
meaning.

● Fig. Bronze Sculpture of Nataraj

Features of Nataraj
● Deity: Natarajan a representation of the Hindu God Shiva as the cosmic dancer. He
performs the divine dance to demolish a weary universe and prepare for the god
Brahma to start the process of creation.
● The picture of “the Lord as the Cosmic Dancer” is exhibited at the Chidambaram
temple in Tamil Nadu.
● He dances within an arch of flames. The surrounding flames symbolise the manifest
Universe.
⮚ A snake encircles his waist, and he has four hands.
 ⮚ The upper left hand contains fire or Agni which represents destruction.
⮚ The second left hand, which points to the raised foot, represents upliftment
and liberation.
⮚ The upper right hand contains Damaru.
⮚ The second right-hand suggests the Abhaya mudra.
● The demon Apasmara is the dwarf on which Nataraja dances.
As the Nataraja performs the tandava, the dance creates, maintains, and dissolves the
Universe.

Sub Styles of Dravida Temples

Nayaka Style
● Following the downfall of the Vijayanagar Empire in 1565, when the Nayak military governors
proclaimed independence, the Nayak dynasties arose in South India.
● Architecturally, it was similar to a Dravidian school, but with a few additions: The gopurams
built here were the world’s largest.
● The best example of the Nayaka style of temple architecture is the world-famous Meenakshi
temple at Madurai, which has the world’s tallest gopuram.
● Some of the other important features are the presence of huge corridors around the
Garbhagriha, and the structure of the temple was covered with intricate carvings.

Vijayanagar Legacy
Slight variations are noticed in the temple architectures. The Gopurams had grown in size, high
compound walls had been discovered, additional embellishment had been added, and the Motif
sculpture of a magical horse had become more visible. Secular structures were also noted. This style
is exemplified by the Lotus Mahal.
● Vijayanagar was South India’s last great Hindu kingdom. Several beautiful temples were
founded during the reign of the Vijayanagar empire in places like Kanchipuram, Hampi and
others.
● The Vijayanagar emperors caused outstanding portraits to be carved by the sculptors to
immortalise them in the vicinity of their favourite deities.
⮚ The sculptures of Krishnadevaraya at Gopura near Chidambaram are a great example of
this.
 ⮚ During this period, illustrations in the Ramayana and Krishna narrative forms, Bal Lila
became favourite themes.
● They have huge gopurams in their temple structures, known as “Raya gopurams”. Along with
this, the Kalyana mandapa was added to perform marriage ceremonies of gods and
goddesses.
● Vijayanagar's architecture combines the Dravida temple style with influences from the Islamic
sultanates that surround it.
⮚ Their sculpture, too, reveals the presence of foreigners on occasion, despite being
essentially derived from and consciously trying to revive Chola ideals.
● Vasanta mandapa was added for the gathering of devotees, and a hall of dance at Lepakshi
was added.
● The site in Hampi has been declared a World Heritage by UNESCO.
● Example- Hazara Rama temple at Hampi, Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Veerabhadreshwara
temple at Lepakshi.

Fig. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal Fig. Hazara Ram Temple, Hampi

Fig. Virupaksha Temple at Hampi Fig. Monolithic Nandi at Lepakshi

Vesara Style
The Vesara style is a hybrid of Dravidian and Nagara styles, with finely carved pillars, doorways, and
ceilings. The Vimana and Mandapa are the two most important elements of this style.
● In the mid-seventh century, a distinct type of temple construction arose in the Karnataka
region under the patronage of Chalukya rulers. The temples in this area follow a hybridised
style that incorporates both Nagara and Dravida elements.
● Vesara is a distinct Indian Hindu temple architecture tradition used in Deccan central India
between Vindhya and river Krishna.
● Both the Dravida and Nagara styles are represented in the Vesara style.
⮚ For example, Nagara and Dravida temples are raised side by side in Badami.
● It is described as “Karnataka style” or “Chalukya style” of temple architecture.
⮚ The Rashtrakuta and Hoysala dynasties further managed it.
● In comparison to their Nagara and Dravida predecessors, the height of these temples was
reduced.
⮚ The temple tower over the sanctum is typically shorter than the Vimanas in Dravida
temples. Miniature Vimanas are what they are called. In profile, these towers had a
pyramidal shape.
● A circular shikhara above the neck crowned Vimana.
● Durga Temple (Aihole), Badami temple, Keshava Temple (Somnathpur), and Virupaksha
Temple (Pattadakal) are some examples.

Fig. Vesara Fig. Keshava Temple at Belur

Various Schools of Temple Architecture during the Medieval Period
Pala school of Architecture
● Sculptures produced in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar between the 9th and 11th
centuries are known as Pala. This style was developed by the ruling dynasty at that time.
However, architectural styles of the mid-11th century to the mid-13th century are named
after the Sena kings.
● While many Buddhist temples are built in the Vanga style in honour of the Palas, the Palas are
considered patrons of many Buddhist monasteries.
⮚ The Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar, Burdwan District, for example, features
an early Palla style roof topped by a large amalaka and was built in the 9th century.
● There are many temples in the Purulia District from the ninth to the twelfth century that were
submerged when dams were built in the area. It is similar to contemporary Odisha temples.
● Nonetheless, numerous temples from this time can still be found in Purulia District. The black
to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars influenced the early constructions of the Bengal
Sultanate at Gaur and Pandua.
⮚ Many local vernacular building practices affected the architecture of temples in Bengal.
● The most prominent aspect of a Bengali hut's bamboo roof was its curved or sloping side. This
feature was subsequently used in Mughal constructions, and it is currently known in North
India as the Bangla roof.

Khajuraho Temple
● It was built in the 10th century and demonstrates how the structure, design, and style of
nagara temple architecture changed and progressed considerably.
⮚ This temple architecture is a UNESCO world heritage site.
● These temples were supported by the Chandela dynasty. At Khajuraho, there are numerous
different types of temples, with the most temples dedicated to Hindu gods. There are a few
Jain temples as well.
● The Lakshmana temple, dedicated to Vishnu and built in 954 by Chandela king Dhana, is the
most important temple in Khajuraho.
⮚ A lofty platform attached to a stairway can be seen in Nagara temples. Four tiny temples
can also be seen in the corners.
⮚ Towers called shikharas rise in a curved pyramidal pattern, emphasizing the temple's
vertical thrust. They lead to a horizontal fluted disc called an amalak crowned by a vase
called a Kalash.
 ● The temples of Khajuraho are also known for their enormous erotic sculptures and statues;
erotic expression is given equal weight in the human experience as a spiritual pursuit, and it
is seen as a part of a wider cosmic whole.

Chalukyas School
● Early Chalukyan activity took the shape of rock-cut caves, whereas later Chalukyan activity
took the form of structural temples. The distinguished temples built by Chalukyas are the
Vishnu temples at Badami and Aihole and the Virupaksha Shiva Temple at Pattadakal. The
cave temples, mainly those at Badami, include fine sculptures of Vishnu.
● The Ravana Phadi cave in Aihole is thought to be the first example of Chalukyan art.
⮚ It is the Nataraja sculpture that is one of the most impressive on the site, surrounded by
six larger-than-life-size representations of the saptamatrikas: three on Shiva's left and four
on his right.
● The Chalukyan figures are distinguishable from contemporary western Deccan or Vakataka
styles by their thin bodies and beautiful long, oval faces.

Fig. Ravana Phadi Cave At Aihole

Rashtrakutas

● Rashtrakutas created a monolithic rock-cut architecture in their Kailash temple at Ellora, one
of the greatest wonders of medieval Indian art. The Rashtrakuta style of tall, firmly shaped
figures symbolising spiritual and physical composure is depicted in this temple's bold and
stunning carving.
● Ellora’s Rashtrakuta-period sculpture is complex and different from contemporary regional
styles. Its figures are often larger than life-size, infused with unparalleled grandeur and the
most overpowering energy.
 ⮚ An example of this is the well-known Nandi Shrine in the Kailash temple.
● A panel representing Ravana shaking Mount Kailash is another remarkable sculpture at
Ellora.
⮚ In this extraordinary scene, the trembling of the mountain could be felt, and Parvati is
displayed as greatly agitated, turning to Siva, and grabbing his hand in fear.
● Elephanta’s cave shrine, which includes the famous Maheshmurti (three-faced Shiva), is
another great Rashtrakuta monument.

Fig. Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash Fig. Maheshmurti at Elephanta

Pallavas (3rd and 9th centuries CE)

● The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent statues and temples, laid the groundwork for
medieval South Indian architecture. A great creative movement flourished during the Pallava
kings of Kanchi, and they are attributed to the construction of Mahabalipuram's seven
monolithic pagodas, known as the Rathas.
⮚ The excavated pillared chambers and monolithic shrines known as Rathas may be
discovered in Mahabalipuram. Pallava architecture demonstrates the shift from rock-cut
to stone-built temples.
● Some of the terrific sculptures recognised for their patronage are the Mahishasuramardini,
Giri Govardhan panel, Trivikrama Vishnu Arjuna’s penance or the Descent of the Ganga,
Gajalakshmi and Anatasayanam.
Fig. Arjuna’s Penance

The three stages of Pallava architecture are:

Hoysalas
● The Hoysalas were a South Indian dynasty that emerged around the beginning of the 12th
century.
⮚ Hoysala is in South Karnataka in the Mysore Region.
● The central chamber is surrounded by a number of shrines. It adheres to the Stellate Plan,
which consists of shrines in the shape of stars.
● This style has softsoap stone temples, and both the exterior and the interior of the temple
have carvings.
● The Shikara in each inner chamber is radially arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings which
revolve in an orderly succession.
● An upraised platform or a Jagati and a star and zig-zag design are seen among these temples.
 ● They designed temples at Halebid and Belur that resemble lacework in stone.
⮚ Most of these sculptures were made out of soapstone, allowing the artists to create
intricate carvings.
⮚ The plan of the temple was star-shaped (stellate). The temple walls show in a zig-zag
design.
⮚ Mandakini figures at the ceilings etc.
● The god's jewellery, which can be seen on the temple wall, is an example of this style of
craftsmanship. The ornamentation is intricate, focusing on embellishment rather than
movement or the human body's elegance.
● Hoysala sculptures are squat and short, heavily embellished, or almost overloaded with
ornamentation, but they are pleasing to look at.
● Example- Keshava temple at Belur, Hoysaleshwar temple at Halebidu, and Natraja sculpture.

Conclusion
By studying these artworks, one can learn much about the kind of society that made these objects.
Through them, one can surmise what their buildings were like, what types of clothes they wore, and
above all, the art material could be used to reconstruct the history of their religions. Religions were
numerous and varied, and they were always evolving. There are many gods and goddesses in
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and this was the time when bhakti and tantra, two key
breakthroughs, influenced them. Many other art forms, such as music and dance, were performed in
temples during the ancient and medieval centuries.

Chapter 8| Architecture in Medieval India

Index:

Introduction

Indo-Islamic Style

Trabeate Method and Arcuate Method of Architecture

The Tomb Architecture

 Arabesque Method

Imperial Style

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

Tughlaqs

Sayyid Period

Lodi's Style

Provincial Style

Bengal School of Architecture

Malwa School of Architecture

Jaunpur School of Architecture

Bijapur School

Kashmir Style

Rajput Architecture

Sikh Style of Architecture

Mughal Period

Mughal Empire and The Rulers

Babar And Humayun

Akbar And Jahangir

Shah Jahan

Deccan Style (Bijapur, Golconda)

Conclusion
Introduction

Art and architecture are authentic reflections of society as expressions of its ideals and methods. It is
in these works that a period's culture finds its expression. The medieval period witnessed a
remarkable growth in the development of regional art and architecture. Each region developed its
own style of architecture and sculpture under the patronage of different political dynasties in different
parts of India. Once there was contact between the Perso-Turks and the Hindus, first on the
battlefield and then in the bazaars of cities, they could not but be impregnated by each other in their
culture and their ideas which are so visibly enshrined in medieval architecture, art and literature.

Indo-Islamic Style

Architectural components were accepted, rejected, or changed over time, resulting in a combination
of structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface adornment. The architectural units displaying
numerous styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.

Islam came to India in the seventh century, bringing with it a variety of architectural characteristics
that affected Indian architecture. This hybrid feature in the Indian subcontinent is known as Indo-
Islamic Architecture. This feature can be widely seen in Modern Indian, Pakistan, and Bangladeshi
architecture. Persian, Arabic, Indian, and Turkish components combine to form Indo-Islamic
architecture found in secular and religious structures.

Trabeate Method and Arcuate Method of Architecture

 ● India was already familiar with monumental constructions in grand settings by the twelfth
century, which was added to buildings between the seventh and tenth centuries.
● Roofs, doors, and windows were still spanned between two vertical columns, a style known
as "trabeate" or "corbelled" architecture.
⮚ Certain decorative techniques and embellishments were prevalent in Roman
architecture, such as trabeation (pillars, brackets and lintels) for supporting a flat roof
or a shallow dome.
⮚ Wooden and stone arches stood, but the weight of the top construction was too
much for them to hold. Buildings related to stepped-wells (baolis) were built in the
trabeate style as early as the eighth century and as late as the thirteenth century.
● The arcuate structure, which can support the domes' weight, was gradually incorporated.
These arches were built with interlocking bricks and keystones on top.
● Architectural support like squinches and pendentives were introduced because of which the
need for pillars was done away with, and the interiors of domes could cover large regions of
the building.
● Muslim conquests and migrations brought their Local cultural components and customs to
the Indian subcontinent, and its influence can be seen in their building practices.

Fig. Trabeate Style Fig. Arcuate Style

Important features of Indo-Islamic Architecture:

● Unlike the Ancient Indian style known as "Trabeate", where beams, lintels, and pillars were
widely used, Indo-Islamic Architecture featured arches, beams and Minarets that surrounded
mosques and mausoleums.
● Mortar is a cementing substance used in the construction of their structures.
 ● Natural figurines were incorporated into the design. Animal and human figures are not
included.
● For decorating, calligraphy was used, as well as the arabesque technique, which featured the
use of geometrical ornamentation. The ornaments were also put in a symmetrical pattern.
● The Jaali work is a feature that allows light to enter the constructions.
● Pools of water were used for ornamental, cooling, and religious purposes throughout the
building.
● Surface embellishment included tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura, particularly in
the wall panels.
● False arches and domes were used in early Slave dynasty structures, which did not follow
authentic Islamic architectural forms.
● Alai Darwaja, a site near Qutub Minar, contains the earliest instances of genuine arches and
domes.
● The practice of burying the deceased has led to the development of tomb architecture, which
is another hallmark of Islamic architecture. Qutub Minar is one example.

Fig. The Art of Pietra Dura

The Tomb Architecture

● The practice of erecting monuments over the graves of monarchs was common. Ghyasuddin
Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, and Akbar and Itmad Ud Daulah in Agra
are some of the most famous instances of such graves.
● Dedicated believers on the Day of Judgement were rewarded by building a tomb. The tomb's
imagery is set in a utopian setting.
● Charbagh Style was employed in the building of Humayun's tomb and the Taj Mahal. These
places are associated with burials. Further, there are gardens, water bodies and Quranic verses
placed on the walls.
 ● The prime purpose of large organised and ornamental buildings was to convey the majesty,
grandeur and might of the buried person there. It also gives tranquillity and contentment.

Arabesque Method

● The arabesque style is defined by interwoven plants and abstract curvilinear shapes.
⮚ The arabesque, which was created by Hellenistic craftsmen in Asia Minor, originally
included birds in a highly realistic setting.
⮚ Due to religious reasons, birds, human shapes and monsters were not depicted by
Muslim painters, and painting was more formalised in nature.
⮚ The arabesque was an important decorative feature in Islamic culture and has been
employed widely in Europe for a long time since the renaissance to decorate
manuscripts, furniture, wall and pottery.
⮚ Twined and scrolled branches and leaves inspired by natural settings were profusely
used in these kinds of designs.
⮚ In 16th-century France, the word simply meant "Arabic," but in a dictionary published
in 1611, it was defined as "arabesque labour, a small and distinctive blooming."
● One of the three primary branches of Islamic art is biomorphic art, often known as islimi,
nebati, or arabesque (the other two being Calligraphy and Geometry).
● Islimi patterns are biomorphic floral patterns that symbolise nature's fundamental order and
oneness, and they can be seen in artwork from Morocco to Malaysia.
● There are many different types of Islimi within Islamic art, yet they all follow the same core
principles.
⮚ These concepts apply to biomorphic decorative arts from all around the world, including
Celtic, Norse, and Aboriginal cultures.
● Surprisingly, it was antique Roman Stucchi, or plaster models discovered in Roman cemeteries,
that first influenced Italian painters' early Renaissance work.
● The Vatican's lobbies were embellished with arabesque stonework by the mid-fifteenth
century, and paintings in the style of Giulio Romano and Raphael's students were completed.
Italian painters had drawn inspiration from these plaster models.
● The themes were also used in the decoration of majolica, armour, tapestry, and illuminated
manuscripts at Mantua, and they started to emerge in the decoration of majolica, armour,
tapestry and illuminated manuscripts at Mantua.
Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)

Some of the general characteristics of Delhi Sultanate architecture are as follows:

● The two types of architecture that can be found are secular and religious constructions.
● Castles, palaces, pillars, saris, Hauz (made lakes), and mosques are among the attractions.
Mausoleums, mosques, Dargahs, and madrasas can all be found in this area.

● The Sultans used Indian architects, masons, and labourers for building purposes. As a result,
Sultanate architecture incorporated elements of both Indian and Islamic architectural forms.
They also helped to popularise Central Asian architectural ideas.
 ● Raw materials from previous builds were used in the new structures built during this period. It
was believed that there was a Hindu temple earlier, which was replaced by the construction of
the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque. Similarly, at Ajmer, the mosque 'Adhai-din-ka Jhopra' was built over
the ruins of a Hindu structure in just 12 days.
● Minarets, domes, and archways were erected by Sultanate kings (Mehrab). The ancient
indigenous architecture, known as the 'Trabeated' style, was made out of beams and brackets.
Islamic architecture, on the other hand, was 'Arcuate,' which means it employed arches and
vaults to connect components and allowed for the production of beautiful domes rather than
flat roofs.
● The Indigenous architecture was replete with anthropogenic images and natural figures, but the
same features were foregone by the Sultanate style. In their place, Arabesque, Geometric
designs and floral patterns were introduced.
⮚ High-quality stones of red, light black, yellow colour and white marbles were used to
make the structures more robust. Lime mortar was used as a building ingredient in the
last stages of construction.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

● Islamic principles were not followed while building structures during the first dynasty of the
Sultanate. There was a mere presence of imaginary domes and arches.
● The 'Quwat ul Islam' (Mehrauli) mosque in Delhi and the 'Adhai din ka Jhopra' mosque in Ajmer
both display Hindu and Muslim art influences.
⮚ The magnificent structure of Qutub Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint Qutub-Uddin
Bakhtiyar.
⮚ Patron: After the top level was wrecked by lightning, Firoz Shah Tughlaq repaired the
final two stories after Qutub-ud-din-Aibak began work, and subsequently Iltutmish
completed the next three floors.
⮚ Minar is 73 metres tall and contains five stories. They are arabesque and have wonderful
geometric motifs.
⮚ Floral and geometric motifs are intricately carved onto the balconies on each storey.
They're also designed to appear to be supporting the next storey. The first three levels
are constructed of red sandstone, while the latter two are constructed of marble.
⮚ The Mausoleum of Balban: According to mythology, Balban constructed his own
mausoleum, which is said to be the world's first true arch.
 Fig. Quwwat Ul Islam Mosque

Fig. Qutub Minar, New Delhi Fig. Qutub Minar, New Delhi

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

● By this period, the Sultanate of Delhi had been established and had a prosperous economy. Their
structures were built with a flawless Islamic perspective in mind.
● Alauddin Khilji: He founded the city of Siri in Delhi, as well as the Jamat Khana Mosque.
 ⮚ The Alai Darwaza was also constructed by him. The Ali Darwaza, which was created with
a horseshoe arch, is located inside the Jamat Khana mosque. The dome is the world's
first scientific dome.
⮚ Alai Darwaja's key characteristics include: White marble and red sandstone combine to
form a domed entrance. It has floral and geometric shapes carved in both white marble
and red sandstone, giving it a striking polychrome look. On both sides of the entrances,
perforated latticework window screens line the recessed windows (jali). These marble
screens break up the monotony of the vertical lines of the calligraphic design.
⮚ In Delhi, Alauddin built Hauz Khas. The term "hauz" refers to a man-made lake. It was
the city's principal supply of water during the period of Khilji. The area's tourism industry
is still thriving.
● The oldest mosque still in operation is the Jamat Khana mosque, which is located in the same
courtyard as the Nizamuddin Auliya Dargah.

Fig. Nizamuddin Dargah

Tughlaqs

● The town of Tughlaqabad was built by Ghayasuddin Tughlaq. The buildings of Tughlaq were
sturdy buildings having bastions, thick and sloping walls and a fortified fortress at the centre,
which makes it difficult to be intercepted them.
● Its plain grey stone elevations, cross arches above hallways, large battered walls, secret
passages, and hidden escapes are all designed to convey the feeling of defence.
 ● The fort of Tughlaqabad is fashioned of granite because it is readily accessible. Because polishing
granite is difficult, the texture of the construction is rough, and the fort's boundary walls slant
rather than remain straight.
● Domes style, which belonged to Byzantine and Syria, was employed to build structures during
the Tughlaq period. False arches and ancient India's trabeated style could also be seen.

Fig. Daulatabad Fort

Sayyid Period (1414-1444)

● The Timurid monarchs revolutionised Islamic architecture in the 14th century.

● Narrow horseshoe arches were used until the genuine arch, a Persia-inspired design was
constructed. The Indian masons, on the other hand, raised concerns about the structure's
stability.
● As a result, wooden beams were popular as a means of supporting an arch, while four-centred
arches without beams became fashionable later.
● Under the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, about fifty tombs of varying sizes were built.
● The tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD) and Muhammad Sayyid (1444 AD) are both octagonal.
● Mubarak Sayyid Tomb is an octagonal structure with an octagonal dome in the centre and eight
octagonal roof kiosks (chhatri) on each side.
● The roof kiosks are positioned in the middle of the sides, with stone buttresses at the structure's
empty corners.
● As a result of its design, the tomb takes on a pyramidal look.
● The funerary mosque lies next to the tomb, and it is thought that the tomb and mosque
previously shared the same precinct. The Sayyids erected only this mosque.

Lodi's Style
Lodhi's had a very stable tenure, and hence they got a chance to build. The important features include:

● Buildings were made on a raised platform with gardens around them. This was made to copy the
theme of heaven, later, Mughals used the same concept in their buildings.
● The tombs were made in octagonal shapes. This feature was also adopted by the Mughals.
● For the first time, a double dome was introduced in the tomb of Sikander Lodhi.
● Hoshang Shah's mausoleum in Mandu (Madhya Pradesh) is said to be India's earliest marble
monument and one of the finest examples of 15th-century Afghan architecture.
⮚ It has a spectacular dome, marble prison work, courts, porticos, and towers.
⮚ It's thought to be an Afghan construction, but the latticework, toranas, and carved
brackets give it a softer look.

Fig. The Tomb of Sikander Lodhi

Provincial Style

Bengal, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Golconda, Malwa, and the Deccan temporary kingdoms all developed Indo-
Islamic architecture in this manner.

Bengal School of Architecture

● The Indo-Turkic Ilyas Shahi dynasty ruled Bengal for fifteen decades after Ilyas Shah created
it.
● Iliyaz Shahi Minars are smaller than the main structure in this type of architecture. The
emphasis was placed on the huge structure rather than the adornment. Bricks and black
marble were used in the construction. Adina mosque, for example.
 ● In terms of construction and layout, Bengal's Islamic monuments are unlike any other, yet they
are defined by the use of unique building materials and the infusion of local customs-inspired
qualities.
● Muslims adopted the sloping cornices of the "Bengal" roof, which originated in bamboo
buildings and quickly spread throughout the world.
● From ancient times, the alluvial plains of Bengal were largely composed of brick, with the
majority of the stone originating from damaged temples that were mostly used as pillars.
● Decorative features like bricks, covered bricks, and glazed tiles are frequently employed in
trabeated construction.
● Even when formed of bricks, Bengali pillars are frequently small and square, with precise holes.
● Barbak Shah (1959-74) erected the Dakhil Darwaja at Gaur as a ceremonial doorway in front of
the castle, displaying his construction style and ornate skills.
● It has an especially threatening look due to the tall arch between the pylons on either side and
the corner towers.
● The walls of Ahmedabad's Sidi Sayed Mosque, which was erected in 1572, are covered in
perforated screens. The "palm and parasite" theme is depicted on some of the perforated
screens in Bengal's Darasbari Masjid. These screens have a fairly subtle filigree design.

Fig. Adina Mosque

Malwa School of Architecture

● Malwa was influenced by Delhi's early Tughlaq style. Malwa lacked significant native customs
and had a strained relationship with Gujarat, both of which contributed to the situation.
● Dhar and Mandu are the most well-known examples of the type.
● Minars aren't found in Malwa architecture.
● Many Rajput traits are featured, such as pavilions.
● A combination of Arch, Lintel, and Bracket, as well as boat keel domes, are just a few of the
significant elements.
● It has the most inventive use of arches, pillars, and beams of any structure.
● Buildings are built on high plinths with long, magnificent staircases leading up to them.
● There is the use of a lot of colours in the decoration. The materials included marbles of various
colours, semi-precious stones, and glazed tiles. Malwa's artisans use a unique technique for
creating turquoise blue.
● Such constructions include Jahaz Mahal, Rani Rupmati pavilion, and Hindola Mahal.
● This style has three stages:
⮚ First phase: Temples are demolished, and mosques are built in their place. Kamal
Maula Masjid (Dhar), Lat Masjid (Dhar), and Malik Mughis Masjid are the main
structures of the first phase (Mandu),
⮚ Monuments with original characters in the second (Classical) phase were elegant and
sober. A more official and substantial arrangement has been established. Jami Masjid
in Mandu, Ashrafi Mahal, Hushang Shah's Tomb, Hindola Mahal, and Jahaaz Mahal are
the main structures of the second (classical) phase.
⮚ Third Phase: Structures that are less austere and more fantastical, reflecting a more
relaxed and luxurious lifestyle. Pavilions, loggias, kiosks, terraces, and other similar
structures are some of the most common examples. Baz Bahadur's Palace, Kushk
Mahal (Chanderi), and Jami Masjid at Chanderi are the three main structures of the
third phase.

Fig. Jahaz Mahal Fig. Hindola Mahal

Jaunpur School of Architecture (A.D. 1360- A.D. 1480)

● Sharqi School is another name for it. Minars are noticeably absent, and the huge structure
takes precedence. For instance, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi constructed the Atala mosque.
● The Tughlaq king in Delhi bestowed the title of "Malik-ush-Sharq" (King of the East) upon the
Governor of Jaunpur, the Sultanate's eastern region.
● The dynasty was given the name Sharqi as a result of this.
● Jaunpur, also known as 'Shiraz-i-Hind' after the Iranian city of Shiraz, became a well-known
centre of Islamic art, architecture, and learning during the Sharqi dynasty.
● The majority of the style's structures were demolished when Delhi's Sikander Lodi reclaimed
Jaunpur, leaving only five mosques remaining.
● Sultan Shamsuddin Ibrahim was a major influence on the style (1402- 36).
● The following are some of the most important characteristics:
⮚ Pylons, which are used to highlight entrances and other features on the façade, are a
typical sight.
⮚ Arches with 'Fleur-de-Lys' fringes are of the 'depressed four centred' or 'Tudor' kind.
⮚ The arches' curves and shapes, which swayed weakly in the larger instances, were
never certain to the builders.
⮚ The pillar, beam, and bracket (trabeate) form of construction, which was widely
utilised, was more familiar to the largely Hindu masons and artisans.
⮚ Square monolithic shafts with bands running across the middle characterise the pillars.
Bracket clusters emerge from the same bands as above. They have a clumsy
appearance to them.
● Main Buildings: Atala Masjid, Khalis Mukhlis Masjid, Jhangiri Masjid, Lal Darwaza Masjid, Jami
Masjid at Jaunpur.
 Fig. Atala Mosque, Jaunpur

Bijapur School

● The Gol Gumbad of Bijapur, which houses Muhammad Adil Shah's mausoleum, is the world's
largest dome cubicle, at over 1600 square metres.
● It is simple in form, with a subterranean and above-ground burial chamber split into four
square portions, a massive hemispheric dome, and seven levels of octagonal towers at each
corner.
● Each of the exterior walls includes a 3.4-meter-wide gallery at the level of the drum.
● A running bracket supports the cornice of the panelled central arch. The whispering gallery is
a large hemispherical dome with petals at the base that resonate even at whispering volume.

Fig. Gol Gumbaz

Kashmir Style

● It has a resemblance to wooden architecture and Buddhist influence.

● A square hall primordial roof crowned with a long slender spire.
● Example: Khanqah mosque.
● Open verandas, opulent colonnades, tall, narrow windows, cornices, jaalis (circular stone
apertures), chhajjas (broad roof overhangs), and chhatris (free-standing pavilions) were all
used as decorative features from traditional Indian architecture at the same time.
● Lutyen designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, which was once the Viceroy's home. It's built of
sandstone and has Rajasthani design features like canopies and jaali.
● Lutyen also designed several additional monuments in Delhi, in addition to India Gate. In
recognition of his efforts, New Delhi has been dubbed Lutyens Delhi.

Fig. Khanqah Mosque

Rajput Architecture

Rajputs, the native of Rajasthan, are famous for their strong, glorious forts and luxurious palaces.

Unique style of the Rajputs:

● Tall walls were made of strong granite, and they were very thick to avoid invasion.
● Kumbhalgarh Fort is famous for its wall. It is the second-longest wall after the Great Wall of
China.
● Forts and palaces were usually built on hilltops for security purposes. A higher vantage point
gave a better view and range to attack.
 ● They used beam and pillar structures to support the buildings.
● The pillars were square with intricate carvings, unlike Mughal pillars, which were cylindrical.
● They used Chattri in their structures. It is an outer protruding slab moving away from the
window.
● They took care of the ventilation. Even though the temperature outside gets high during
summer, the air inside the palace remains cool and moving.
● Later part of Rajput Architecture had a strong Mughal influence, and they started building
domes and arches.

Fig. Kumbhalgarh Fort

Sikh Style of Architecture

● It was mainly religious and witnessed the construction of Gurudwaras and other monuments.
It was highly influenced by the Mughal style and Rajput styles of Architecture.
● Structures are devoid of any sculptor and images in and around gurudwaras.
● The monument has entrances from all four sides and a large empty space. They have a common
kitchen, a dining hall, and a pond.
● There is a central dome that has a closed petal shape rather than a smooth round shape. It
springs out from a floral base. It is usually white or gold plated.
● Apart from the central dome, there are four cupolas in the corner.
● Prominent examples are Harminder Sahib or Golden Temple, Nankana Sahib etc.
 Fig. The Golden Temple at Amritsar

Mughal Period (Delhi, Agra, Lahore)

In a way, the Mughals introduced a new bloodline to Indo-Muslim architecture since its activity had
declined significantly during the Lodhis' reign. A lasting Mughal empire in India could only be
established if the princes took the Indians into their fold, mixed with the locals and mingled with each
other, especially the Rajput princess.

Mughals were art and culture benefactors who created spectacular monuments. The following are
some of the most notable elements of Mughal architecture:

● The Mughals' architecture was a mix of Indo-Islamic and European elements. In Indian designs,
Rajput and Buddhist influences are more prominent.
⮚ Iran and Central Asia have the most significant Islamic fashion designs, with buildings
that are generally massive and lofty, showcasing the empire's riches and might.
● The king used to pay meticulous attention to detail in everything he did, from planning to
construction.
● As a result, a centralised plan was usually established, with artists being prohibited from
altering their minds during the process.
● Pillars, a dome, arches, squinches, and a plinth were among the most prominent features.
● A distinct motif can be found in every construction. Special emphasis was placed on gardens,
geometry, and design symmetry.
● It was decided to use red sandstone because it is readily available. Later, marble became very
popular. A binding agent was used, and it was lime.
● Precious and semi-precious stones were used to decorate the garments. They'd travelled all
the way from Iran and Central Asia.
● Calligraphy and arabesque were prominently featured on the walls. The Taj Mahal has the most
well-known of these.
● The double onion-shaped domes were fashioned in Persian style.
 Fig. Double Dome

Mughal Empire and the Rulers:

Emperor Babur formed the Mughal Empire in 1526, and because of the empire's riches and political
stability, as well as the emperors' artistic taste, Islamic architecture in India reached its apex during
this time. In the early years of the monarchy, the architectural style of the empire flourished under
Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. The style declined after Aurangzeb's rule.

● The most prolific architects of the dynasty were Akbar (1556-1605) and his grandson Shah
Jahan (1627-1658), with a transitional phase under Jahangir (1605-1627).
● The style may be divided into two periods: one during Akbar's reign, when most of the
structures were made of red sandstone, and another during Shah Jahan's reign when most
of the structures were made of marble.
● Due to the empire's centralised political framework, the Mughal style of architecture did not
have provincial or regional manifestations but rather was a style heavily influenced by
imperial policies.
● The Mughal style combines Persian elements with Gujarati and Rajasthani elements.

Babar and Humayun

● Babar, the creator of the Mughal emperors, was a well-educated man with a keen artistic
sense. He was also a sharp thinker with a diverse set of abilities. He ruled India for four years,
most of which he spent fighting. He's also recognised for his passion for formal gardens, which
 he frequently creates himself. Only a few mosques and works of modest art were built during
his rule.
● Sher Shah Suri forcibly expelled Babar's son, Humayun, from India, and Humayun recaptured
the throne. After defeat by Sikander Shah Sur, Humayun went to Iran.
⮚ Surs built the tombs in Bihar, including Sher Shah's, an octagonal structure
surrounded by arches and topped by a massive, wide dome. The red and dark grey
stone lattice screens had turrets, painted ceilings, and coloured tiles, among other
features.
⮚ Sher Shah Suri also created the Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid. The Purana
Quila's walls are built of massive half-fashioned stones with minimal adornment or
patterns that are sturdy and substantial.
● Begha Begum, Humayun's widow, constructed his mausoleum in Delhi, which is the oldest
known example of genuine Mughal architecture inspired by Persian architecture.
⮚ A detailed investigation of this tomb is required to comprehend the evolution of
following Mughal architecture. Designers of the Jahangir Mausoleum in Shahdara,
Lahore, and the Taj Mahal in Agra used it as a model.
● We are captivated by Humayun's tomb despite the fact that Sikander Lodi's garden tomb was
India's first garden tomb. The tomb is built in the centre of a square garden, on a wide
platform separated into four halves by Charbagh Style that carries small water channels.
● The mausoleum's two-storey square red sandstone structure sits atop a high square terrace
with a series of compartments that resemble a musical arrangement.
● The octagon-shaped tomb is located in the centre chamber. It was inspired by Syrian and
earlier Islamic styles.
● For the first time, Spectacular results can be seen with a good blend of Pink sandstone. Doors
and windows are highlighted underlined with flawless white colour.
⮚ The tomb is a substantial and large work of art made for a great emperor, an
adventurous warrior, and a powerful man by a loyal wife.
Fig. Humayun's Tomb, New Delhi

Akbar and Jahangir

● Akbar's capital was Agra, where he began and completed his red sandstone palace on the banks
of the Yamuna River, which he began in 1565 and finished in 1574. The ramparts were built
using depressed stone for the first time.
● The fort at Agra created a pattern in the construction of royal citadels that became a model for
others, with its towering walls of perfect sandstone facing the gates, flanked by bastions, large
halls, palaces, mosques, bazaars, spas, gardens, and homes for courtiers and noblemen.
● The Akbari Mahal and its structures, as well as Fatehpur Sikri's vast and ancient city, are built
of red sandstone with trabeated architecture and sparse ornamentation. Sculpted jambs,
brackets, corbels, and lintels, as well as a Chajja above them, adorn the Jahangiri Mahal's doors.
● Established as a unified administrative body, Fatehpur Sikri existed alongside government
offices and private residences. Sheikh Salim Chisty predicted that Akbar would have three sons
after many children died in infancy, and his vision was rewarded in the city of Fatehpur Sikri.
⮚ Construction of the city began in 1569 and was completed in 1574, the same year as the
construction of Agra Fort. The city is a small and compact community, with buildings such
as halls, palaces, offices, gardens, amusement parks, spas, mosques and tombs adding to
the nobility of the city. Almost all structures contain profiled materials.
⮚ The Panchmahal, commonly known as a five-storey palace, is the city's most well-known
and easily recognised monument. It is the city's tallest and most visible structure. Except
for the greatest dome-shaped pavilion, which was purposely extruded from the centre of
the entire building and the tower, it is built on a Hindu trabeated construction consisting
of columns, architrave, and brackets.
⮚ The Diwan-i-Khas, also known as the Private Audience Hall, is a one-of-a-kind structure. It's
a square chamber with three openings on each side and a magnificent flower-shaped
capping supported by a finely carved column in the centre. In addition, each wall has four
perforated windows opposite one another to provide enough ventilation. On the first floor
level, a magnificent balcony has been constructed, which runs the length of the hall and
extends around all four corners, supported by brackets. The Emperor's throne is thought
to have been in the centre, with the Emperor's Ministers positioned in the corners or along
the periphery.
 ⮚ A tiny chamber separates the Turkish Sultana's apartment from the rest of the house,
which is surrounded by a verandah. The huge dado, which is expertly carved on both the
exterior and inside and shows jungle settings with animals, birds, and plants, stands out.
⮚ The Buland Darwaja, a towering entryway erected after Akbar's Deccan conquest, may be
seen on the south side of Fatehpur Sikri's Jama Masjid. It is India's highest and most
spectacular doorway, with a semi-octagonal projection and a towering arched alcove.
● Sheikh Salim Chisti, Akbar's spiritual preceptor, had Fatehpur Sikri built with white marble. The
structure is stunning, with spacious rooms and verandas, as well as high-quality latticework.
● Nur Jahan, Jahangir's queen, completed Akbar's tomb at Sikandra and built the Musamman
Burj, a double-storeyed pavilion on the Agra fort with beautiful inlay, in addition to finishing
Akbar's tomb at Sikandra and building the Musamman Burj, a double-storeyed pavilion on the
Agra fort with beautiful inlay.
⮚ A square building with a grave chamber surrounded by verandahs sits within a garden.
⮚ A pavilion with a rectangular dome and screens that cover Itmad-ud-Daulah's false
tombs can be found on the second storey. The white marble structure is adorned with
intricate inlay work and paintings depicting classic Persian motifs such as cypress trees,
vases, fruits, and wine glasses, among other things.
⮚ The elaborate latticework, traceries, and inlay, as well as the four corner minarets, are
forerunners of similar decorations that would eventually be developed and used in a
variety of ways in the Taj Mahal.

Fig. Tomb of Akbar (Agra)

Shah Jahan
● Shahjahan was the Mughal Empire's chief builder, and he had a lifetime passion for
construction.
● He thought white marble was the ideal building material for a Hindustan monarch since it was
both rich and lovely. By this time, the Mughal artistic legacy had matured significantly.
● The biggest boom of Mughal architecture in India occurred under Shahjahan's reign.
● Shahjahan's architecture is more sensual, delicate, and feminine than Akbar's.
● Instead of the previous relief work in red sandstone utilised by Akbar, Shah Jahan's structures
are embellished with magnificent marble sculptures that resemble filigree and inlay work in
pietra dura.
● Shahjahan was an outstanding builder of the Mughal period, and he had a lifetime interest in
architecture. The arch was foliated, and the pillars were elevated with shaft capitals. The dome
was bulbous and had a tight neck.
● Even the Agra Fort was renovated by him, with sections of Akbar's basic red sandstone
defences demolished and replaced with more spectacular marble buildings.
● Shahjahan built the Taj Mahal, as well as the Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, and Jama
Masjid in Delhi, as well as the mausoleum of his adored wife, AIjumand Bano Begum, known
as Mumtaz Mahal.
⮚ The Taj Mahal is a square tomb on a high terrace with imposing tall minarets on each
end. It represents the pinnacle of the garden tomb era, which began with Humayun's
tomb in Delhi and continues to this day. The tomb chamber is octagonal in plan, with
auxiliary rooms at each corner, and it is topped by a magnificent double dome
comparable to Humayun's.
⮚ Although the doorway is narrower and higher, the dome is larger. A lotus pattern has
been added to the bottom of the dome beneath the finial.
⮚ The Taj Mahal is known for its dreamy lightness, lovely proportions, and a harmonious
blend of architecture and ornamentation.
⮚ In the floral and arabesque pattern, there is a lot of carving and superb inlay work, with
rich multi-colour stones, frame borders, inscriptions in black marble, delicate traceries
and trellis work on a white marble background.
⮚ The feminine character is obvious in its dreamlike airy lightness and delicate inlay work,
just like the great lady in whose memory it was made, gentle, lovely, and yielding.
⮚ It was built in the centre of a char bagh, or flower-filled garden with water channels,
just like Humayun's tomb.
 ● In 1638, Shahjahan relocated his capital from Agra to Delhi, laying the groundwork for
Shahjahanabad, Delhi's Seventh City, which contains his iconic fortress, the Red Fort, which
was begun in 1639 and finished nine years later.
● The Red Fort is an irregular octagon with well-planned red sandstone walls, gates, and a few
other structures, as well as marble palaces.
⮚ It includes a Diwan-i-Am, which houses the marble canopy with magnificent pietra dura
panels displaying a few paintings.
⮚ The Diwan-i-Khas is a pillared hall with ornate ceilings and a flat roof supported by
carved arches.
⮚ The pillars are decorated with pietra dura and were formerly plated and painted in the
upper part.
⮚ The legendary Peacock Throne is said to have formerly been positioned on the marble
dais of the Peacock Throne.

Fig. Red fort of Delhi

Deccan Style (Bijapur, Golconda)

● Bijapur was known as Vijayapura in ancient Hindu times, and it was the capital of the Adil
Shahi Dynasty, which was founded by Yusuf Adil Khan and was the first of the Five Deccan
 Kingdoms, which included Bijapur, Berar, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Golconda when they broke
away from the Bahmani Dynasty in the 15th-16th centuries.
● Bijapur prospered for two centuries before being overthrown by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
in 1688.
● The Adil Shahi dynasty in Bijapur developed about the same time as the Golconda Sultanate.
Unlike the Qutub Shahi emperors, who supported a wide range of scholarly activities, the Adil
Shahi rulers were primarily interested in architecture.
⮚ The Jami Masjid in Bijapur, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz, and the Mihtar Mahal are
just a few of the great buildings that have been built in the style that developed in
Bijapur.
● Some of the features include Three arch facades, the introduction of bulbous doors, and the
used minars as a part of the main structure which was also rich in stone carvings.
● The dome of Gol Gumbaz is the world's second-largest.

Golconda school: Hindu influence observed in motifs.

● Their facades were beautifully carved.

● For example, Charminar.

Fig. Charminar

Conclusion

The surviving remnants of buildings are the most important source for studying architecture. They
do not, however, provide insight into other aspects of architecture, such as the role of architects and
the drawings, estimates, and reports of the constructions, despite the fact that they provide insight
into the styles and procedures specific to our century. The introduction of Turkish control in India, on
the other hand, is significant in more ways than one. It not only brought about a new socio-political
system but also a new aesthetic expression.

Chapter 9| Modern India and European Influence

Index:

Introduction
The Portuguese style of Architecture
French Architecture
Indo-British style of Architecture/ Colonial Architecture
Victorian Architecture
Palladian Style of Architecture
Victorian Gothic Revival Architecture
The Indo-Saracenic Revival/Indo-Gothic/Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal
Difference between Portuguese and British Style
Some Famous Architects of Modern India
Laurie Baker
Karl Heinz
Le-Corbusier
Charles-Correa
Sir Edwin Lutyens
Conclusion

Introduction
'India' is a word that invokes a host of clichés: a timeless civilisation of living traditions, great spiritual
wisdom and artistic riches; a subcontinent of astonishingly diverse yet harmonious regional, religious
and linguistic differences; a crucible of cultural synthesis. Apart from factories and certain European-
style homes, Europeans established settlements in India in various areas. As their grasp grew firmer,
they erected more durable structures such as robust fortifications and lofty churches. Throughout
colonial control in Europe, architecture became a symbol of authority to promote the occupying state.
Many European countries invaded India and developed architectural styles rooted in their origins and
adopted homelands. European colonisers constructed architecture that reflected their conquest
mission and was dedicated to the state or religion.
The Portuguese Style of Architecture

● The Portuguese landed in India in 1498 predominantly as merchants and eventually gained
control over Goa, where they ruled for over four centuries. Portuguese rule in the enclaves of
India ended after around 450 years in 1961 when the Indian Armed Forces seized Goa, Daman
and Diu, resulting in their annexation to the Indian Union.
● On the other hand, Portuguese cultural influences may still be observed in many places of
Goa, particularly in Margao, the ancient capital.
● Portuguese colonists' missionary zeal resulted in the construction of churches, cathedrals,
seminaries, and basilicas in Goa that combined Indian, Islamic, and Portuguese architectural
forms.
● In addition to their religious and historical significance, the Portuguese era marvels that
eventually became popular tourist attractions in Goa include
 ⮚ Two World Heritage Sites are located in Old Goa, namely 'churches and convents of Old
Goa' and 'Basilica of Bom Jesus'.
⮚ 'Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz' in Sancoale;
⮚ 'Convent of Santa Monica and 'The Chapel of The Weeping Cross' in Velha Goa;
⮚ 'Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception Church' in Panjim;
⮚ 'Fort Aguada' over the Sinquerim beach.
⮚ 'Reis Magos Fort' on the northern bank of the Mandovi River and
⮚ 'Church of St. Francis of Assisi' in Old Goa, among several others.
● Among the many sites of Goa, the 'Basilica of Bom Jesus' or 'Borea Jezuchi Bajilika' holds a
special significance not only as an architectural wonder displaying one of the finest examples
of the baroque style of architecture but also as a landmark in the history of Christianity.
⮚ This Renaissance-style church constructed with plaster and laterite comprising three
storeys consecrated in May 1605 houses a decorated silver casket holding the mortal
remains of St. Francis Xavier, who founded the 'Society of Jesus' with St. Ignatius Loyola.
⮚ The basilica is an architectural gem, the interior of which showcases Mosaic-Corinthian
style consisting of white marble flooring with inlaid gem, highly embellished gilded altars
and paintings depicting scenes from the life of St. Francis Xavier.
● With the exception of Hindu homes, many Goan homes feature stunning Portuguese
architecture.
⮚ Distinct features of these Portuguese – Large buildings with a vibrantly painted exterior
were common among Catholic houses facing the street in order to be easily recognized
by sailors. The windows that open to verandas were decorated, verandas and porches
covered, false wood ceilings above the timber floors, vibrantly coloured interior walls
contrasted against earthy furniture, and fences and gate posts were intricately carved.
 Fig. The Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa (Unsplash)

French Architecture
● The French occupations in different enclaves in the Indian subcontinent occurred with the
arrival of the 'French East India Company' founded as a commercial enterprise in 1664 and
saw its successful establishment by 1719.
● The de facto incorporation of these enclaves into the Union of India later took place in 1950
and 1954.
● 'French establishments in India' located in the Indian peninsula are Pondicherry and its
territory including districts of Pondicherry, Bahour and Villenour, and Karaikal with its
dependent districts on the Coromandel coast; the 'Calicut Lodge' and Mahé and its territory
on the Malabar coast; Surat factory in Gujarat; Yangon and its territory including dependent
villages and the 'Masulipatam Lodge' on the Odisha (Orissa) coast; and Chandernagore on the
bank of river Hoogly including its territory and five lodges in Patna, Balasore, Dacca, Jugdia
and Cossimbazar in Bengal.
● After 1816, French India contained lodges in towns of little commercial significance, in
addition to lodges in many other locations, while the towns linked with such lodges fell under
British administration.
● In the French colonies, especially Pondicherry, a town that has become synonymous with the
rich French legacy in India, the echoes of French India and its heritage, such as French style,
culture, and architecture, can still be discerned.
● Originally a fishing village in Tamil Nadu, the French colonized and converted it into a blooming
port town that remained under their control till 1954.
⮚ French grid patterns, distinct parts, and perpendicular streets are three distinguishing
aspects of the town layout.
● The French Quarter, also known as 'Ville Blanche' or 'White Town,' and the Indian Quarter,
also known as 'Ville Noire' or 'Black Town,' are two different areas.
⮚ The 'Ville Blanche' houses have verandas and are ornamented with massive French doors
and grills, whereas the 'Ville Noire' houses have verandas and are adorned with big French
doors and grills.
⮚ Historic villas, both French and Indian, are protected by the non-profit INTACH (Indian
National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage), which must be notified before any original
infrastructure displaying French architecture is dismantled.
● The imprint of the French style of architecture can be clearly distinguished in different
infrastructures of the region including Pondicherry International Port, police stations and
banks.
● Many of Pondicherry's streets have French names, while menus and signs are written in
French.
● The Joan of Arc statue on Dumas Street, 'Le Café,' the Mairie building, which now houses the
Puducherry Municipality, the French consulate building, 'Le Foyer du Soldat,' a legion hall for
veteran soldiers who fought in French wars, and the 'Lycée Français de Pondichéry,' the oldest
French international school on the Asian continent,' are just a few of the notable buildings
and monuments in the French style.
⮚ 'Our Lady of Angels Church,' also known as Karaikal Church, is a Neo-Gothic structure in
Karaikal; 'Sacred Heart Church of Chandannagar' (l'Église du Sacré Cur); and 'St. Ann's
Catholic Church,' in Yangon, are some of the other notable structures established during
the French colonial period.

Fig. Statue of Joan of Arc, Puducherry

 Fig. Le Foyer du Soldat, Puducherry

Indo-British style of Architecture

The colonial architecture straddling about 150 to 200 years under the British Empire attained its
golden age in the second half of the 19th century, representing an important phase in the
modernization of the country, alteration of a stark medieval lifestyle got to ultimately become a
democratic one at the dawn of Independence in 1947.

● In India, the colonial architecture reflects the penetration of colonial ideals and practises, as
well as their impact on local institutions, modes of life, and construction processes, resulting
in situations of conflict between foreign and indigenous values.
● From 1615 to 1947, India was under British colonial authority for three centuries. Many huge
and impressive buildings and infrastructures, as well as their particular architectural styles,
exist as vestiges of the British legacy in their former colonies.
● British-influenced cities include Agra, Bankipore, Bhopal, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Hyderabad,
Karachi, Madras, and Nagpur.
● Beginning with traditional British architectural precedents, British colonial rule witnessed the
emergence of a new architectural style known as Indo-Saracenic Revival, also known as Indo-
Gothic, Neo-Mughal, Mughal-Gothic, and Hindu-Gothic architecture.
● It was a combination of the Gothic revival style with that of the Neoclassical, Indo-Islamic
and Indian architectural styles initiated by the British architects in British India during the late
19th century and soon became a favoured style.
● Over time, many buildings and infrastructures, such as institutions, government buildings,
railway stations, post offices, and rest rooms, began to be constructed in this design.
● From the mid-nineteenth century, the Anglo-Indian church builders started following the
layouts of different combinations of architectural styles suggested by the revivers, including
the application of even heavier styles.
● The first Indo-Saracenic structure was the Chepauk Palace in Chennai (formerly Madras).
⮚ Many additional buildings in Chennai that portray this architecture are now listed as
heritage structures, including the 'Madras High Court,' 'Chennai Central Station,' and the
'Victoria Public Hall,' among others.
● This unique design may be seen in the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel in Mumbai, the 'Mysore Palace'
in Mysore, the 'Victoria Memorial' in Calcutta, the 'Khalsa College' in Amritsar, and the
'Mumbai GPO' in Mumbai, to name a few.
● The second half of the 19th century saw significant advancement in colonial architecture
including the development of infrastructures like the 'Rajabai Clock Tower' (modelled on 'Big
Ben' in London), the 'University Senate Hall' and the 'University Library' within the premises
of 'Bombay University' by prominent Gothic revival architect Sir Gilbert Scott; 'Victoria
Terminus' by English architectural engineer Frederick William Stevens; 'Bombay High Court'
by British engineer Col. James A. Fuller; and 'Crawford Market' by British architect William
Emerson among others.
● The 'Victoria Terminus' (VT), now known as the 'Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus'
(CSMT), at Bori Bunder, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), is a beautiful masterpiece combining
Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival architecture with traditional Mughal style.
● One of India's oldest railway stations, it was once the headquarters of the 'Great Indian
Peninsular Railway' and was rebuilt to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. It is
now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and India's busiest railway station. This royal and
spectacular structure was built with cutting-edge technology and is considered a fantastic
blend of Gothic Revival and previous architectural styles.
● One of the most revered and recognised chef d'oeuvres of the British colonial era is the vast
and elegant 'Victoria Memorial,' dedicated to Queen Victoria's memory and located in Kolkata
(formerly Calcutta).

⮚ This monument made of white marble epitomising beauty and elegance was designed by
William Emerson and showcased the Saracenic revivalist style of architecture comprising
 a fine blend of British architectural style with that of Deccani, Egyptian, Venetian, Mughal
and other Islamic styles.

Fig. Chepauk Palace, Chennai

Fig. Victoria Memorial, Kolkata(Unsplash)

Characteristics of Colonial Architecture:

● The British saw themselves as Mughal successors and exploited architectural style as a power
symbol.
● The structures they built in India were a direct mirror of their architectural triumphs in the
United States.
 ● Under the British administration, the purpose of colonial architecture was to build structures
to house their people and organisations in order to maintain control over the Indian empire.
● As a result of colonial architecture, new residential districts such as Civil Lines and
Cantonments formed in cities. Another element of Colonial architectural design in British India
was the sparse use of stone, notably marble.
● Brick eventually took the place of stone as the most common building material in Britain. Slate,
machine-made tiles, and steel girders became popular in India, and galvanised iron
revolutionised the Anglo-Indian roof.

Neo-classical Style
● This architectural style can be seen in British India's late-nineteenth-century structures.
● It's a re-creation of the classical Greco-Roman style of architecture.
● The Mediterranean roots of this style were thought to be ideal for India's tropical climate.
● It featured recreation, revival, and adaptation of ancient Greek and Roman building
architecture.
● The construction of geometrical constructions with tall pillars in front of them characterised
it.
● Bombay's Town Hall is an early example of this style.

Fig. Town Hall, Bombay (Unsplash)

Neo-Gothic Style
● It was a revival of the early Gothic architectural style, which had its origins in northern
European buildings, especially churches, during the medieval era.
● High-pitched roofs pointed arches, and intricate decoration was used to describe it.
 ● This style was modified for building infrastructure in Bombay.
● The seafront of Bombay is dominated by several beautiful buildings of this style. These include
the Secretariat, University of Bombay, and High Court.
● Many Indian merchants gave money for a few of these buildings. They were excited to use the
neo-Gothic theme because they thought it was progressive and would help to make Bombay
a modern city.
● The British put a lot of money into the design and construction of railway stations in this style,
with the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai serving as an example.

Fig. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Mumbai (Unsplash)

Victorian Architecture
● Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of the British on the Indian soil, was, from the
social point of view, the creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone.
● Architectural material was stone, tools, chisel and hammer, and the aim was glorification. In
contrast, the everyday needs of a common man were ruthlessly neglected.
● Then the British arrived, and India had its first introduction to modern building construction
and planning through them.

⮚ Their aim, however, was to house their organisations, their people and whatever was
necessary to control an empire as big as India.
⮚ Apart from self-serving military cantonments and civil lines, they also left the basic
problems well alone.
 ⮚ It was no intention of the British to educate Indians in the art and science of architecture.
Thus, during the reign of the British, Indian minds were out of touch with the progressive
thinking taking place elsewhere in the world.
● The construction of Imperial Delhi was the most significant architectural development in this
country throughout the first part of the twentieth century.
⮚ This was an anachronism of the highest order because, while at that time contemporary
Europeans were engaged in the most progressive thinking in architecture, Sir Edward
Lutyens’ work was a masterpiece in high renaissance architecture, the result of a way of
thinking typical of the early nineteenth century in Europe.
● It's worth noting that, at the same time as Delhi was being built, Europe was experiencing a
"heroic phase of modern architecture" in schools of thought like "Bauhaus."
Palladian Style of Architecture
● In the 18th century, some British officers attempted to introduce the Palladian architectural
style to India. Constantia, erected by General Martin in Lucknow, is the most notable example
in India. This style is characterised by a large central tower rising from a series of terraced
roofs.
● In the second half of the 19th century, some European builders in India tried their best to
combine elements and features from Indian and Western architecture. The pioneer of this
movement was a civil servant, F. S. Browse.
⮚ This architectural style can also be seen in Jaipur's Museum and Madras's Moor Market
(now Chennai).
⮚ The Central Museum and Senate House in Lahore were designed by Sardar Ram Singh, a
notable Punjabi builder (Pakistan). G. Wittet designed the Gateway of India in Mumbai
with elements derived from the Mughal style.

⮚
 Fig. Moor Market in Madras

Fig. Constantia, Lucknow (Unsplash)

Victorian Gothic Revival Architecture

● The Victoria Terminus Station in Mumbai (formerly known as the Chhatrapati Shivaji Station)
is a magnificent example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, combining Indian
traditional architecture with Victorian Gothic Revival themes.
● Thanks to the design of F. W. Stevens became the symbol of Bombay, India's 'Gothic City' and
major international mercantile port, in the mid-nineteenth century. The terminal was
constructed over a ten-year period, beginning in 1878, in the High Victorian Gothic style,
based on late medieval Italian models.
● Traditional Indian palace architecture can be seen in the stone dome, turrets, pointed arches,
and distinctive ground plan. By blending Indian architectural traditions and idioms with British
design, British architects created a new Mumbai (now Bombay) style.
● Victorian structures include the churches of Kolkata and Chennai, the cathedrals of Simla and
Lahore, the Lahore High Court, and the Calcutta High Court. However, none of these can be
considered notable architectural works.

The Indo-Saracenic Revival/Indo-Gothic/Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal

The colonisation of India ushered in a new era in Indian architecture. While the Dutch, Portuguese,
and French erected structures in India, the English left an indelible mark on the country's architecture.
At the commencement of a colonial government, there were attempts to establish power using
classical models. Colonial architecture evolved into Indo-Saracenic architecture during the colonial
period, which is a blend of Hindu, Islamic, and western elements.
● "Indo" was shorthand for Hindus, and "Saracen" was a term Europeans used to assign
Muslims.
● Native Indo-Islamic architecture was combined with Victorian Britain's Neo-Classical forms to
create Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. This style was inspired by Indian medieval
architecture, which had domes, chhatris, jalis, and arches, among other elements.
● Institutional, civic, and utilitarian facilities such as post offices, railway stations, rest rooms,
and government buildings characterised Colonial architecture. This architectural style began
to appear in considerable numbers throughout the empire. Colonial architecture in India
followed developments from metropolises and took inspiration from existing architecture in
India.
● From the mid-nineteenth century onwards, it became customary for Anglo-Indian church
architects to emulate the revivalists of England's many Gothic art combinations. Rather than
following the principles of practicality, imperialism influenced many buildings. Heavy styles
other than Gothic were often used, such as the Mutiny Memorial Church at Kanpur and the
last garrison church in New Delhi.
● The Italian Gothic architecture style was chosen for Bombay University because it was thought
to be more appropriate for India's climate. Sir Gilbert Scott's architectural style gave colonial
structures an 'Indian' appearance. There's little doubt that this was the start of an imperial
style that would culminate in New Delhi.
● In the late 19th century, British architects constructed buildings in the Indo-Saracenic Revival
style (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, and Hindu-Gothic), where
public and government buildings were often rendered on an intentionally grand scale.
● It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture and combined them with
Gothic revival and Neoclassical styles favoured in Britain.
● Public and government buildings, such as clock towers, courthouses, municipal buildings,
colleges, and town halls, were often rendered on an intentionally grand scale, reflecting and
promoting a notion of an invincible British Empire.
● Infrastructure was composed of iron, steel, and poured concrete and included domes,
overhanging eaves, pointed arches, vaulted roofs, pinnacles, open pavilions, and pierced open
arcading.
 ● 'Chepauk Palace', located in Chennai (erstwhile Madras), was the first Indo- Saracenic revival
building.
● The Gateway of India is the most celebrated example of this style.

Fig. Chepauk Palace

Art-Deco Style

● In India (and particularly in Mumbai), Art Deco evolved into a distinct style known as Deco-
Saracenic.
● It was essentially a fusion of Islamic and Hindu architectural forms.
● Mumbai and its suburbs are home to some of the most prominent Art Deco buildings in the
world, though Mumbai and its suburbs are one of the least observed architectural styles.
● Floors, wood panelling, railings, weather shades, verandahs, balconies, and facades that are
very airy and built-in stepped-back design, etc. are all deco elements.
● The interiors have Victorian influences, whereas the exterior was Indian.
● Art Deco architecture first appeared in Mumbai in the 1930s, with angular-shaped structures
with facades.
● The Art Deco style is prevalent in many cinema halls that sprang up in the early to mid-
twentieth centuries, such as Metro Cinema, Eros Cinema, and others.
● In 2018, the UNESCO World Heritage Committee officially recognised an ensemble of such
buildings as a World Heritage site.
● Regal Cinema, The Mahalakshmi Temple, and The High Court building in Mumbai are a few
examples.
 Fig. Bombay High Court

Some Famous Architects of Modern India

Laurie Baker
He was responsible for the mass housing notion in Kerala. The structures were environment-friendly
and made of locally available material. The Filler slab construction was used to diminish the
consumption of steel and cement. Highlighting on ventilation and thermal comfort were very high.
 Fig. Laurie Baker Homes
Karl Heinz
● The year 1935 was a watershed moment for revolutionary ideals, as colonial imperialism was
called into question and national movements grew in strength. Many Indian educational
establishments were founded during this period in response to Mahatma Gandhi's appeal to
boycott all British institutions.
● Jamia Millia Islamia was able to acquire funds for a school facility in its current Jamia Nagar
location in 1935, after operating out of improvised quarters in Karol Bagh.
● In keeping with the anti-imperialist stance that the founders of Jamia espoused, the German
architect Karl Heinz was commissioned for this project with precise instructions that he could
not incorporate any elements of British or Mughal architecture in any form.
● In keeping with their liberal and revolutionary views, the Jamia founders also intended to
move away from the traditional image of Muslim architecture.
● Heinz employed locally available materials like red sandstone and lime, but the floorwork was
in poor condition and had to be rebuilt with fresh Kota sandstones.

Le-Corbusier
He worked as an architect in France. He developed Chandigarh on the pattern of a well-ordered
matrix, bringing the idea of a planned city with him. In India, he pioneered the concept of sectors. A
self-sufficient green belt was one of the sectors. For quick traffic, there was a regular grid in place.
Charles-Correa
Charles Mark Correa (1 September 1930 – 16 June 2015), who was credited with the creation of
modern architecture in post-Independent India, was an Indian architect and urban planner. He was
remembered for his sensitivity to the needs of the urban poor and for his use of traditional methods
and materials. His significant projects were: Mahatma Gandhi Sangrahalaya (Mahatma Gandhi
Memorial) at Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly in Bhopal and
British Council Building.

Sir Edwin Lutyens

● The British government, experiencing a sense of predicament due to rising anti-imperialist
waves in India, declared Delhi to be its new capital in 1911.
● The architects planned a monumental urban street complex that was very alien to Indian
cities.
● Their architectural style entailed a fusion of Indian elements and classical European.
● Open verandas, lavish colonnades, tall, slender windows, cornices jaalis (circular stone
apertures), chhajjas (wide roof overhangs) and chhatris (free-standing pavilions) were utilised
at the same time as decorative elements from typical historic Indian architecture.
● Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy's home, was designed by Lutyen. It is made of
sandstone and features Rajasthani design elements such as canopies and jaali.
● In addition to India Gate, Lutyen designed a variety of other monuments in Delhi. As a result
of his contributions, New Delhi is called Lutyens Delhi.

Fig. Rashtrapati Bhawan

Conclusion

The establishment of the British Empire in the 18th century, as well as the subsequent westernisation
of India, paved the way for a fundamental shift in aesthetic taste, resulting in the birth of a new style
of art and architecture. In general, the entrance of the Europeans is defined by a jaded attitude toward
indigenous art traditions, with erstwhile Indian patrons of the arts becoming less affluent and
influential, and Western art becoming more widespread. During this period, architectural styles
emerged as a result of the fusion of Indian culture with European design; similarly, to the Mughals,
architecture under the European colonial administration became a symbol of power to support the
invading force. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, rising nationalism attempted a purposeful
revival of Indian art.

Chapter 10| Indian Dance, Theatre and Music

Index:

Introduction
Indian Classical Dance
Components of Classical Dance
Classical Dances of India
Bharatnatyam
Kathak
Kathakali
Kuchipudi
Odissi
Manipuri
Sattriya
Mohiniyattam
Folk Dances
Chhau
Kalbelia
Bihu
Bhangra
Ghoomar
Dollu Kunitha
 Rouff
Kolattam
Gidha
Garba
Padayani
Pata Kunitha
Raslila
Jhoomar
Kummi
Changu
Therukoothu
Mayilattam
Kavadiyattam
Dandiya Raas
Yakshagana
Bamboo Dance
Theatre forms of India
Bhand Pather (Jashin) – Kashmir
Swang - Haryana
Nautanki - Uttar Pradesh
Raasleela
Bhavai – Gujarat
Jatra – Bengal
Bhaona (Ankia Naat) - Assam
Maach - Madhya Pradesh
Tamasha - Maharashtra
Dashavatar - Konkan and Goa
Krishnattam –Kerala
Mudiyettu – –Kerala
Theyyam - –Kerala
Koodiyattam –Kerala
Karyali Himachal Pradesh
Indian Music
Hindustani Music
 Styles in the Hindustani Music
Dhrupad
Khayal
Tarana
Thumri
Tappa
Ghazal
Dadra
Dhamar-Hori
Ragasagar
Carnatic Music
Evolution Of Carnatic Music
Styles of Carnatic Music
Folk Music
Music Instruments of India
Conclusion

Introduction

A human's life cannot be fully understood without music. It plays an integral part in man's religious,
social, and artistic engagements. Music is as old in the history of civilisation as human speech, and it
forms an integral part of man's life. Also, the tradition of writing and enacting plays has been there in
India for a long time, along with plays, the theatre had also developed.

Indian Classical Dance

The roots of rich Indian dance traditions are deep and very old. Various sources, including historical
(like chronicles, genealogies of kings and artists) as well as archaeological (like excavations,
inscriptions, sculptures, and paintings of different periods), offer us an insight into its visible existence.
It played an important role in the social as well as religious lives of many people in India. The Indian
Classical dance traces its roots in 'Natya Shastra' written by Bharat Muni, and six major classical dance
schools emerged as part of religious ritual. Here the dancers did worship Gods by way of narrating
their life stories. He traces its source to Lord Brahma, who created a fifth Veda called 'Natyaveda',
representing the essence of four existing Vedas.
Components of Classical Dance

Two Aspects of Dance:

● Tandava: this masculine form indicates movement, rhythm, and heroism.
● Lasya: this feminine form is soft, lyrical, and graceful and indicates grace, and 'abhinaya', '

Tandava dance is recorded in the early Indian inscriptions. (UPSC 2013)

Tandava dance has been described in the fourth chapter of Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra. Natya
Shastra is known as Fifth Veda. It has been recorded as the cosmic dance.

Natya Shastra talks about Tandava and Lasya. Tandava is the expression of lord shiva’s eternal
dance. According to Natya Shastra, Shiva was very much fond of dancing, and he adopted the dance
form Tandava which has several specific characteristics, such as:

● The portrayal of power and force.

● It represents the angry mood of Shiva.
● It signifies destruction.
 ● It symbolises five main divine actions, known, as Shristi, Sthati, Samhar, Tirobhava, and
Anugraha.

Through Tandava Shiva terrifies all other gods who plead for Shiva’s mercy. It symbolises the idea
that Shiva is the ‘Destroyer’ among the trinity (Brahma and Vishnu being the others).

Rasanubhuti: The 9 Rasas

The Rasanubhuti is the pinnacle of these dance forms. The Natya Shastra talks about nine Rasas. They
are as follows:

Classical Dances of India

In India, there are presently eight classical dance forms, which are as follows:
Bharatnatyam
● Place- Tamil Nadu.
● Origin- Devadasi's tradition.
● Themes- Ramayana, Mahabharata, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism.
● Both Lasya and Tandav predominate
Features:
● Bharat Natyam is also called Sadir.
 ● In India, Bharatanatyam is the oldest classical form of dance.
● Its existence was mentioned in Silappatikaram, an ancient Tamil epic.
● Its origins can be traced back to an ancient Sanskrit text, which was written by Bharata Muni
named "Natya Shastra".
● It is very well recognised for its fixed upper torso, legs bent/knees flexed out, and spectacular
footwork. It is also a sophisticated vocabulary of sign language based on the hand, eye, as well
as facial muscle gestures.
● The body's weight is placed down the centre of the body with the emphasis on striking the
floor with feet and jumps known as "Bhramaris".
● It is very much symbolic in terms of its abhinaya (i.e. in acting) as well as its goals. The roots
of abhinaya were found in the Natyashastra text.
● In its standard form, the dance is generally sub-divided into 7 major parts:

● Both Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale were quite instrumental in regaining the
organisation's fallen popularity as well as its position.

Kathak
● Place: Uttar Pradesh (UP) & Central India.
● Origin: Devadasis in Mughal court.
● Theme: Radha-Krishna but later secular themes.
● Lasya predominates.
● Music: Hindustani music
Features:
● The Kathak form of dance is attributed to the ancient northern Indian travelling minstrels
recognised as Kathakars or even as storytellers. The term "Kathak" is derived from the Vedic
Sanskrit word Katha, which signifies "storey," and also from Kathaka, which means "one who
tells a storey" or "having something to do with stories."
● It narrates stories from the great epics and ancient mythology by performing a dance,
displaying hand movements and footwork, facial expressions, singing songs, and playing
music.
● Kathak evolved during the Bhakti movement. It comprises the stories from Lord Krishna's
childhood. It is found in 3 distinct forms, which are known as Gharanas (branches from where
Kathak dance evolved). There are mainly three such types of Gharanas: Banaras, Lucknow,
and Jaipur.
● This particular style of dance mainly emphasises rhythmic foot movements adorned with
the Ghungroo (i.e. small bells) and also movements that are in perfect sync with the music.
The legs and torso are generally kept straight. The story is told through a developed
vocabulary based on the gestures of arms and through the movement of the upper body,
stage movements, facial expressions, bends and turns.
● The dance mainly focuses on the eyes and the foot movements.
● Lady Leela Sokhey (also known as Menaka) brought new life into Kathak's classical style. Birju
Maharaj (who died recently) and Sitara Devi have been among the prominent dancers of this
style.

Fig: Kathak
Kathakali
● Place: Kerala
● Origin: Ramanattam village
● Theme: Ramayana and Mahabharata
● Tandav: Predominates.
● Music: Carnatic music
Features:
● Dance in the open air after dawn in front of a brass lamp known as "Nilavillaku".
● Kathakali has had a major impact on its form and technique from the ritual performing arts of
Kerala known as Chakiarkoothu, Krishnattam, Koodiyattam and Ramanathan.
● Kathakali is a combination of dance, music, as well as acting, which also dramatises stories
based on the Indian epics such as the Mahabharata.
● They use bulky make-up as well as stunning costumes in this particular dance form, along with
elaborate masks, large headdresses, and also huge skirts. Kathakali's form of dance is
distinguished by the reddish-white portion of the eye.
● This particular style of dance is performed by dancers dressed as Gods, kings, demons, and so
on. Vocalists, along with percussion performers, do the narration part with the help of musical
instruments.
● Different facial colour combinations depict different mental stages of a person and also reflect
his/her character. Where black represents wickedness, green represents nobility, red patches
combine royalty and evil.
● Various types of facial expressions, hand gestures, as well as eye movements are also quite
significant.
● The person's (i.e. dancer's) body weight is supported by the outer edges of the feet (which are
curved and it is also slightly bent).
● Vallathol Narayana Menon founded the Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930 and is credited with
revitalising the classical Keralite dance form Kathakali.
● Its renowned artists include Ramankutty Nair and Kalamandalam Gopi.
 Fig. Kathakali

Kuchipudi
● Place: Andhra Pradesh.
● Origin: Bhagavathulu dances in the temple.
● Theme: Bhagavata Purana.
● Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
● Music: Carnatic music.
Features:
● Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. This village has
had a long-held tradition of dance & drama. It was popular as Yakshagana.
● The Kuchipudi style of Yakshagana was promulgated by Siddhendra Yogi in the 17th century,
who, as per literary Yakshagana tradition, was sheared and guided by his guru Theertha
Naaraayana Yogi. His guru is known to have compiled a Sanskrit Kavya- the Krishna-
Leelatarangini.
● This dance is performed both in dance and drama. It is performed in groups as well as in solo
items.
● There is a key role played by ornaments, costumes, and jewellery in this dance form.
 ● The Balagopala Taranga, in which dance is done on the edges of a brass plate with a pitcher
full of water on the head. Manduka Shabdam, which is a story of a frog maiden and the Tala
Chitra Nritya, which includes drawing pictures with dancing toes, are some famous solo items.
● Vedantam Lakshminarayana Sastri (1886–1956) was a prominent figure who led various
efforts to revive, protect and reconstruct the classical Kuchipudi dance form.
● Some renowned dancers of this form include Yamini Krishnamurthy and Raja Reddy.

Fig. Kuchipudi

Odissi
● Place: Odisha.
● Origin: Mahari, Nartaki, Gotipua, devadasi tradition.
● Theme: Purana stories.
● Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
● Music: Hindustani music.
Features:
● The name 'Odissi' finds its genesis in 'Odra Nritya', which is mentioned in Natya Shastra of
Bharat Muni, and some early examples of Odissi dance are visible in Khandagiri-Udayagiri
caves.
● This particular dance form was popularised by the Jain King Kharavela and also was primarily
performed by the Maharis.
● The Odissi dance form was given a new lease of life by Kabichanda Kallicharan Patnaik, and
later, the efforts of Indrani Rehman and Charles Fabri brought International acclaim to it.
● Its postures (Mudras) to express emotions are identical to that of the Bharatanatyam.
● Tribhanga posture: The posture signifies a key feature of Odissi dance is the tribhanga, or
three-bent form.
● Natya's Odissi dance performance combines the best of acting as well as dancing.
● It also possesses a great deal of grace, sensuality, and also beauty.
● The dancer's body creates geometrical shapes and patterns and is hence called 'Mobile
Sculpture' with 'Chauka' posture imitating a Square.
● Elements of Odissi include

● The Odissi dance form also represents water.

● Some of the renowned artists of this form include Guru Pankaj Charan Das and Guru Kelu
Charan Mohapatra.
 Fig: Odissi

Manipuri
● Place- Manipur.
● Origin- socio-cultural ceremony.
● Theme- Rasleela.
● Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
● Music- Manipuri music.
Features:
● The Manipuri dance traces its genesis as the mythological celestial dance of Shiva and Parvati,
along with the 'Gandharva' in Manipur's valley.
● This form of dance rose to prominence with the upsurge of Vaishnavism.
● This dance was introduced in Shantiniketan by none other than Rabindra Nath Tagore, and it
brought it back to new life in modern times.
● Manipuri lays stress on devotion and includes both Tandava and Lasya. Major emphasis is
given to Lasya here.
● Nagabandha Mudra forms a key feature of this dance form. The body in this form of dance is
linked in this by curves in the form of an '8.'
 ● 'Ras Leela' (i.e. related to Lord Krishna) is a popular subject in the Manipuri dance
form recitals.
● Following are the major instruments used in Manipuri dance: Drums, Flute, Horns, Tamboura,
Esraj, Cymbals, and Mridang.
● Some of its famous performers include the Jhaveri sisters and Guru Bipin Singh.

Fig. Manipuri

Sattriya
● Place-Assam.
● Origin- Shankardeva- Sattaras.
● Theme- Devotion to Vishnu and Krishna.
● Both Lasya and Tandav predominate.
● Music- local Assamese music.
Features:
● The name "Sattriya" is derived from the Vaishnava Monasteries, which are often recognised
as "Sattras".
● The devotional/spiritual aspect of this particular dance form is more emphasised. Also, the
dance form tells the mythological stories of Vishnu.
● This form of dance is a group ritual performed by the 'Bhokots' (i.e. male monks) as a part of
their day-to-day rituals.
● The main instruments of this form of dance are the khol and the flute.
● The main instruments of this form of dance are the khol and the flute. This dance also places
a high value on rhythmic syllables, dance postures, as well as on footwork.
● The Sattriya dance also has strict and unyielding guidelines for footwork as well as for hand
gestures.
● Its two offshoots of modern times include Gayan-Bhayanar Nach and Kharmanar Nach.
● The dance form has its source of origin in the 'Sattras', which were set up by Mahapurush
Srimanta Sankardev in the 15th and 16th centuries.
● Later prominent personalities and reformers such as Late Maniram Dutta Muktiyar Barbayan,
Late Dr Maheswar Neog and Late Roseshwar Saikia Barbayan etc., contributed to developing
and bringing the classical Sattriya dance to the outer world.

Fig. Sattriya
Mohiniyattam
● Place: Kerala.
● Origin: Bhasmasur story.
● Theme: Devotion towards Vishnu and to Lord Krishna.
● Lasya predominates.
● Music: Carnatic music
Features:
● Mohiniyattam finds mentioned in texts like Vyavaharamala of Mazhamagalam Narayanan
Namputiri (written in 1709) and Ghoshayatra of renowned poet Kunjan Nambiar.
● Maharaja of Travancore Kartika Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal (18th- 19th
century) structured it on the lines of contemporary classical form.
● Most girls render their solo performances and use circular movements, subtle expressions,
and delicate footsteps.
● Mohiniyattam borrows its movements from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances the
Tiruvatirakali and Kaikottikali.
● This retains elements of Bharatanatyam (grace and elegance) and Kathakali (vigour) but
simultaneously exhibits more erotic, delicate, and lyrical qualities.
● It uses realistic make-up and simple dressing (in Kasavu saree of Kerala).
● Its lyrics are written in Manipravalam, which is a medieval south Indian language that
combines Sanskrit, Tamil, and Malayalam together.
● Some renowned artists include Sunanda Nair and Pallavi Krishnan.

Folk Dances
The Indian folk dances aid in the exploration of its cultural landscape. The Indian folk dances vary by
state or particular region and are based on the local myths and also on legends. These dances are the
ideal blend of sophisticated art. The Indian folk dances also differ from that classical dances in that
they have been quite spontaneous and are performed by the locals without any formal training.
These forms of dance grow and prosper only among a specific group of people or in a specific location.
The knowledge is passed down from one generation to that of the other generation.
Chhau
● The Chhau dance form (which is derived from the word 'Chhaya,' which implies shadow) is
practised by tribals as a martial art. The dance form is mainly performed in the states of West
Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
● It is a form of mask dance in which martial movements are often used to show mythological
stories.
● Various natural themes, such as Sarpa Nirtya as well as Mayur Nritya, are also used in this
particular form of dance.
● Saraikela Chhau of Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj of Odisha (in this form of dance, no mask is used
here), along with Purulia Chhau of West Bengal are the three important methods of Chhau
dance.
● In the year 2011, UNESCO inscribed the Chhau dance on its Representative List of Humanity's
Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Fig. Chhau

Kalbelia
● Women from the Rajasthan's Kalbelia community used to practice this form of folk dance.
● The dance movements, as well as costumes in this dance form, are reminiscent of serpents.
 ● The most adorable musical instrument of this form of dance is the 'Been' (it is a wind
instrument played with the help of a snake chain).
● The Kalbelia dance form was added to the UNESCO's Representative List of Humanity's
Intangible Cultural Heritage in the year 2011.

Fig. Kalbelia

Bihu
● A fashionable dance form of Assam, Bihu, is performed in a group by both men and women.
● The dancers in this form of dance are dressed in colourful traditional garb displaying a fair bit
of pomp and show.
● The rapid hand movement, along with group formation, as well as brisk footstep, are all
important aspects of this particular form of dance.
 Fig. Bihu

Bhangra
● Bhangra, a very well-known Punjabi folk dance, is practised during all festive seasons.
● The dancers in this particular form of dance begin with as many new entrants as time, as well
as circumstance, allow, establishing large circles.
● The drummer (are those who sit in the centre of the circle) in this dance form controls the
dancers' speed and also its movement.
● It ultimately results in the dancers' rhythmic cry or joy.
 Fig. Bhangra
Ghoomar
● The Ghoomar dance form is Rajasthan's most popular folk dance form.
● This particular dance form is performed by the veiled women dressed in a 'Ghagra' (which is
a type of flowing dress).
● This form of dance incorporates any song that depicts love, glory, or defeat.
● Ghoomar is performed throughout the year.
● The dance form is also presented by men.
● In a circle, men and women dance in equal numbers.
● This form of dance also incorporates both instrumental as well as vocal music.
 Fig. Ghoomar

Dollu Kunitha
● The Dollu Kunitha dance form is a unique and dynamic Karnataka folk art.
● This particular dance form is only open to male dancers with a good physique.
● The dancer/performer in this dance wears a hollow drum around his waist.
● Kurubas (they are the devotees of Beere Devaru) are the ones who usually carry out this
religious and cultural ritual.
● As the drumbeat begins, the dancers/performers in a circle begin to move.
 Fig. Dollu Kunitha

Rouff
● During the harvest season, the women of Jammu and Kashmir perform Rouff, a regional folk
dance.
● In this dance form, two rows are formed, and then a sort of chain is formed on their arms
across each other's back.
● The main costumes of this dance form are bright skirts as well as draperies with silver
ornaments.
● The dancers/performers smile & exude ebullience, exuding heavenly charm & glee.

Fig. Rouff
Kolattam
● This Tamil Nadu folk dance form is well-known throughout India.
● The term 'Kolattam' is a portmanteau formed by combining the words 'Kol' (stick) and 'Aatam'
(meaning dance).
● This form of dance commemorates the birth anniversary of God Rama and is
performed/danced by the young girls holding small sticks.
● Pinnal Kolattam is a hybrid form of Kolattam dance (wherein the songs or choruses related
to the trapping of sticks in rhythm are used).

Fig. Kolattam

Gidha
● Giddha is a popular Punjabi folk dance that is mostly performed by women.
● To begin performing this particular dance form, girls or women form a circle.
● They all clap their hands and sing small, humorous couplets in the Punjabi language.
● Then two or three of them make their way to the centre and perform the dance.
● Except for the occasional Dholak, no musical instruments are normally escorted by giddha.
 Fig. Gidha

Garba
● This dance style is mostly found in Gujarat.
● It is traditionally performed during the nine-day Hindu festival of Navratri.
● The lamp (that represents the Garba Deep) or an image of the Goddess Durga is placed in the
centre of concentric rings, and also the people dance around it, bending sideways at every
step, their arms making sweeping gestures, and each movement ends with a clap.
 Fig. Garba

Padayani
● The Padayani dance form is a martial folk dance that is mostly performed in the state of Kerala.
● The word 'Padayani' means "infantry line," which is a very rich and colourful dance form.
● The dancers/performers in this dance form, known as 'Kolams,' awear enormous masks.
● This dance form also tells stories that are both divine & semi-divine.
● Bhairavi, Kalan, Yakshi, and other recurring characters appear in this dance form.
 Fig. Padayani

Pata Kunitha
● The Karnataka state is well-known for its folk dance (more specifically, the region of Mysore).
● This particular dance form is a religious dance performed primarily by men.
● The long bamboo poles, which are decorated with colourful ribbons (also known as Pata), are
used by the dancers/performers.
● The dance form is extremely popular among people of all faiths.
● Puja Kunitha is a variation of Pata Kunitha, which is very popular in the regions of Bengaluru
and Mandya.
 Fig. Pata Kunitha

Raslila
● This dance form is popular in the Mathura and Vrindavan region of Uttar Pradesh.
● The dance form illustrates Radha & Krishna's love stories.
● The dance movements used in this dance form resemble those of Kathak.
● This presents forth full charm and freshness.

Fig. Raslila
Jhoomar
● Jhoomar is a Punjabi folk dance performed during the harvesting season.
● This form of folk dance is a slower and also more rhythmic bhangra figure.
● The composition of these songs varies, and also they are generally fond of emotional songs as
well.
● This particular dance form is a joyous dance. It is performed in a circle and is practised on
the music of emotional songs.

Fig. Jhoomar

Kummi
● Kummi is a popular form of folk dance performed in the state of Tamil Nadu.
● The dance is carried out by women.
● In this particular form of dance, the women form a circle and also clap their hands
rhythmically as they dance.
● One among the women (i.e. a woman from a circle) leads the singing with a positive song,
while the others sing the refrain.
● This form of dance is typically performed at temple festivals, Pongal, and family gatherings.
 Fig. Kummi

Changu
● Changu dance is a popular folk dance form practised in Orissa.
● It gets its name from a type of drum named "Changu", which is invariably used in the dance.
● Women are the only ones who can perform this particular form of dance.
● Men just sing songs, perform the Changu, as well as move-in simple steps with the
women dancers.
● The women participants/dancers performed in a half-sitting position, swaying as well as
occasionally jerking their bodies.

Fig. Changu

Therukoothu
● The Therukoothu is a widely known folk dance in the state of Tamil Nadu.
 ● The dance form usually occurs during the village festivities and has become the focal point of
all entertainment, frolic, and folk awareness.
● This particular dance form has carried out the villages' injunctions.
● Only men can take part in this form of folk dance, and the men even play female roles.

Fig: Therukoothu
Mayilattam
● Mayilattom is an imaginative & religious form of folk dance that is only performed in the Hindu
temples and performed in the state of Tamil Nadu.
● Dancers in this particular form of dance dress up as peacocks, with beaks that can be opened
as well as closed with a thread.
● The dancers also perform some specific dance movements.
● The dancers in this form of dance do not dance barefoot but rather on a tall piece of wood
tied to the ends of their feet.
 Fig: Maliyattam
Kavadiyattam
● During the Murugan's (i.e. the Tamil God of war) ceremonial worship,
devotees/worshipers perform this particular form of folk dance.
● The dancers/performers use Kavadi (it is a physical burden) in order to seek assistance from
the God Murugan.
 Fig. Kavadiyattam

Dandiya Raas
● Raas or Dandiya Raas is a traditional form of folk dance form of Gujarat, India.
● The performance of this particular dance form depicts scenes from Holi and Krishna as well as
Radha's Lila.
● The dance is performed on the evenings of Navratri.

Yakshagana
● Yakshagana is a famous music dance-drama practised in the state of Karnataka.
● The dance performance of Yakshagana begins an hour before the 'actors' take the stage in the
twilight hours with the beating of various fixed compositions on the drums.
● In general, a performance of Yakshagana depicts a story from the Indian epics & Puranas.
● A narrator in this dance form either sings the story or sings the pre-written dialogues of
characters, and he is accompanied by the musicians who perform traditional musical
instruments, whereas the actors dance to the music.
 Fig. Yakshagana

Bamboo Dance
● Nagaland's bamboo dance is a tribal folk dance.
● This form of dance style is only performed by females.
● The dancers, in the form of dance, gently jump over the bamboo sticks that have been placed
horizontally in parallel spacing over through the bamboo sticks, which have been placed
vertically to form an interlace.
● Two women, sitting on the opposite sides of the floor, slide the sticks over the bamboo sticks
that are vertically positioned.
● This form of dance is accompanied by rhythmic music that the performers/dancers adjust
their steps to.

Theatre Forms of India

● Living traditions play a significant role in India's social system. The traditions are prevalent
throughout every living culture.
● The traditional art forms, without a doubt, portray the ideals of the society in question. It also
depicts its determination to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow feelings, and so on.
● Drama is a complete form or package of art that includes acting, poetry, dialogue music, and
so on.
● The art of singing has a distinct significance in any community.
● Songs and also the art of singing play a key role in all traditional theatre styles.
● The traditional music of the theatre represents a community's mindset.
Bhand Pather (Jashin) – Kashmir

Swang - Haryana

Fig. Swang
Nautanki - Uttar Pradesh

Fig. Nautanki
Raasleela
 Fig. Raasleela

Bhavai – Gujarat

Fig. Bhavai
Jatra – Bengal

Fig. Jatra
Bhaona (Ankia Naat) - Assam
 Fig. Bhaona (Ankia Naat)

Maach - Madhya Pradesh

Fig. Maach
Tamasha - Maharashtra

Fig. Tamasha
Dashavatar - Konkan and Goa
 Fig. Dashavatar

Krishnattam –Kerala
 Fig. Krishnattam
Mudiyettu – –Kerala
 Fig. Mudiyettu

Theyyam - –Kerala
 Fig. Theyyam

Koodiyattam –Kerala
 Fig. Koodiyattam

Karyali- Himachal Pradesh

 Fig. Karyali

Indian Music

● India's ancient literature (including Vedas, Agamas, Upanishad, Vayu Purana, Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Brihaddharma Purana and Shiksha granthas etc.) has priceless
references to the basic principles of classical music like including 7 swaras, 3 gramas, 3 layers
(speeds), 9 rasas, 21 murchanas, 3 sthayis (octaves) and srutis etc.
● Vedas are like a treasure house of all ancient Indian knowledge and culture. Sama Veda is
primarily considered the originator of Indian music.
● Bharata Muni's Natyashastra was the first-ever comprehensive work that clearly stated as well
as consisted of detailed musicology. The book recognised 22 keys related to the octave; these
22 keys were later known as shrutis or srutis. The classic text in the field of music, the Sangeet
Ratnakara, was written by Sarangdeva (a 13th-century musicologist). Sangeet Ratnakara
recognised and described the various microtones and classified them into different categories.
● Matanga's Brihaddeshi centred on the definition of the word 'raga'. Sangeeta Makaranda,
supported by Nanda, enumerated 93 ragas and categorised them as feminine or masculine.
Another important book on musicology was Chaturdandiprakssika. This 17th Century book
was written by Venkatamakhi.
● Ramamatya printed Swaramela-Kalanidhi in the 16th century. The seven notes that make the
basic scale in music are sa (sadja), re (rsabha), ga(Gandhara), ma (madhyama), pa (panchama),
 dha (dhaivata) and ni (nisada). Besides the scale, there is the fundamental classification of the
ragas (the tunes), which is a series of five or more notes that create a perfect melody. There
are six basic ragas: Bhairava, Kaushika, Deepaka, Hindola, Sriraga and Megha. Others are
called raginis (the wives of the ragas, which are known as masculine). The ragas are
categorised depending on the meticulous time of the day or the night when they are used.
● The tala (i.e. a rhythm) is still an essential thing in the line of melody. Raga can be classified
into different categories based on the number of notes in the raga: Audav or Odava Raga,
Shadava Raga, and Sampurna Raga.
● Raga Bhed or Raga is categorised into three types: Shudha Raag, Chayalag Raag, and
Sankeerna Raga. Shuddha Raag's nature and form do not vary; the nature and form of
Chhayalag Raag change while Sankeerna Raag combines together two or more ragas.
● Audav Raga is a 'pentatonic' raga, which consists of five notes; Shadava Raga is a 'hexatonic'
raga, which consists of six notes; and Sampurna Raga is a 'heptatonic' raga, which consists
of seven notes.
● It is deemed to have more than 100 talas, but only 30 talas are currently known to us, and
only 10 to 12 talas are used today. Dadra, ektal, rupak, jhaptal, teen-tal, as well as Adha-
chautal are some of the numerous different talas that are used & recognised.

Hindustani Music
● Hindustani music (one among the two distinct schools of Indian Classical Music) is primarily
practised in the Northern regions of India.

● Carnatic music is another school of Indian classical music, which is mostly practised in the
regions of southern India.

● The historical roots of both forms of music styles can be found in the Bharata Muni's
Natyasastra, even though they diverged after the fourteenth century.

⮚ Hindustani music puts more emphasis on the musical structure as well as the possibilities
for improvisation.

● Hindustani music adopted the Shudha Swara Saptaka scale, furthermore known as the 'Octave
of Natural Notes.'

● Hindustani music incorporates an ancient form of Hindu tradition, and also Vedic philosophy,
as well as Persian tradition. Different elements like Arab, Afghan, and Persian impacted it as
well, giving the Hindustani music a new dimension.

● In ancient times, the Guru-Shishya Parampara did serve as its conduit, and it was then passed
down through generations.

● Some of the most important musical instruments used in Hindustani music are the tabla,
sarangi, sitar, santoor, flute, and violin.

● It is completely centred on the Raga system (i.e. a melodic scale encompassing basic 7 notes)
of music.

● Hindustani music focuses on the voice.

⮚ The khayal, dhrupad, ghazal, dhammar, thumri, and tarana are the main vocal forms
associated with Hindustani classical music.

● The ten major styles of singing in Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Tappa, Khayal, Tarana,
Sargam, Chaturanga, Thumri and Ragasagar, Hori, and Dhamar.
Various Styles in Hindustani Music

Dhrupad
● Dhrupad is the earliest and most stunning style of Hindustani vocal music.
 ● It is primarily a form of poetry that is included in an extended presentation style, and also it
denotes an accurate & orderly expansion of a raga.
● Alap is the illustrative example that comes before the composed verses and also is usually the
longest part of the act.
● Since the 18th century, Dhrupad has been decadent.

Khayal
● Khayal translates as 'a stray thought,' 'a lyric,' and 'an imagination.'
● It's also the most important genre of Hindustani vocal music as well as it depicts a romantic
singing style.
● Khayal is reliant on the performer's imagination and improvisations.
● Khayal is written in a specific raga & tala and also has a brief text.
● The Khayal texts range from the king or season praise to the season descriptions to that
of Lord Krishna's pranks, divine love, and separation sorrow.
● Delhi, Patiala, Agra, Gwalior, Kirana, and Atrauli-Jaipur are the six major khayal gharanas.
● Because it is the oldest, the Gwalior Gharana is deemed as the mother of all the other
gharanas.

Taranga
● The importance of rhythm in this style cannot be overstated.
● The melody is also included in the structure.
● It includes a lot of words that are sung quickly.
● Because of the rhythmic emphasis, singers must be skilled in rhythmic manipulation and also
have received special training in this area.
● Pt. Rattan Mohan Sharma of the Mewati Gharana is the world's fastest Tarana Singer at the
moment.

Thumri
● It first appeared in the eighteenth century in the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh (mainly in
regions of Lucknow & Benares).
● It is a romantic & erotic singing style known as 'the lyric of Indian classical music.'
● Love, separation, and devotion continue to be central themes in its compositions.
● The subjects (i.e. mostly erotic) are drawn from Lord Krishna and Radha's lives and are usually
portrayed in an interesting way.
 ● Brij Bhasha lyrics are typically romantic and religious.
● Thumri is typically performed as the final item in a Khayal concert.
● Thumri has three major gharanas: Benaras, Lucknow, and Patiala.
● Begum Akhtar is a well-known Thumri singer.

Tappa
● This particular style of music emphasises rhythm, and its compositions are based on fast,
subtle, and also on knotty constructions.
● It evolved from the folk songs of camel riders in the North-West region of India in the late
1800s AD.
● This style of music also makes excellent use of quick-expression changes.
● Some of its well-known performers usually involve Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao of Gwalior,
and Shanno Khurana.

Ghazal
● This style of music includes poetic expressions of both the pain of loss as well as separation
and also the beauty of love in the face of that pain.
● It all started in Iran in the 10th century AD.
● It never exceeds 12 ashaar or couplets.
● It extended to South Asia in the 12th century as a result of the influence of Sufi mystics and
also the courts of the new Islamic Sultanate.
● The style of music was at its peak during the Mughal period.
● Amir Khusrau was among the first to expound on the art of writing Ghazals.
● The famous Ghazal writers include Mirza Ghalib, Muhammad Iqbal, Hafez (of 14th century),
Rumi (of 13th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam, and others.
Dadra
● This form of music has a striking resemblance to Thumri.
● The texts of Dadra are as passionate as Thumris'.
● The main distinction is that Dadras have more than one Antara, and the Dadra tala singers
typically sing a Dadra after a Thumri.

Dhamar-Hori
● These are Dhrupad-like compositions, which are mostly associated with the Hindu Holi
festival.
 ● Compositions in this particular form praise Lord Krishna.
● Music is performed in the dhamar tala and is primarily used during festivals such as
Janmashthami, Ramnavami, along with Holi.
● In this, compositions depict the spring season.
● The compositions are based largely on the Radha-love Krishna's pranks.

Ragasagar
● Ragasagar is a song composed of various musical passages from various ragas.
● The compositions of this song contain 8 to 12 different ragas, with lyrics indicating the raga
change.
● The elegance of changing musical passages, as well as the change of ragas, contribute to the
uniqueness of this style.

Carnatic Music
● Carnatic music gets its name from the Sanskrit word Karnâtaka Sangîtam, which also translates
loosely as "traditional" or "codified" music.
● It is made up of a Ragam (means Raga) and Thalam (means Tala) system and has a long and
distinguished history.
● The states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are some of the southern
Indian states where the Carnatic Sangeet has evolved.
● These particular states are well-known for their extensive production of Dravidian culture.

Evolution Of Carnatic Music

● Throughout the evolution of Indian music, two distinct subsystems widely recognised as
Hindustani & Carnatic music emerged.
● Both these terms first appeared in Haripala's "Sangeeta Sudhakara" (which was written in the
14th Century AD).
● These two particular styles of music (i.e. Hindustani & Carnatic music) became very
much popular following the arrival of Muslims (more specifically during the reign of Mughal
Emperors).
● Purandardas (during 1484-1564), a prolific poet-composer as well as a mystic from
Vijayanagar, is regarded as the father (or Pitamaha) of Carnatic music.
● Venkatamakhi is regarded as Carnatic music's grand theorist.
● In the 17th century AD, he devised "Melakarta" (it is the system for categorising South Indian
ragas). There are presently 72 Melakartas.
● Tyagaraja (during 1767-1847), his contemporaries Syama Sastri, and Muttusvami Dikshitar
comprise the "Trinity" of Carnatic music.
Different Styles of Carnatic Music
● Gitam: This is the most basic composition style. This particular style of music is taught to
beginning musicians, and also its structure is very simple, with an easy & melodious rhythm
of the music.
● Suladi: It is the musical structure & arrangement are very similar to that of gitam,
however they adhere to a higher standard than gitam.
● Varnam: It is a remarkable work of musical craftsmanship of the highest calibre that integrates
all of the character traits of the raga in which it is written. The singing practice in this music
style improves a musician's presentation skills as well as gives him command of raga, tala, and
bhava.
● Svarajati: This form of music learned after taking a gitams course. It is more enigmatic than
the gitas, and it also serves as the foundation for learning the Varnams. The premise of this
form of music can be devotional, heroic, or romantic.
● Jatisvaram: The musical structure of this form of music is similar to svarajati, but it contains
no Sahitya or words. This is sung entirely in solfa syllables.
● Kirtanam: This style of music first appeared in the second half of the fourteenth century. The
devotional content of the Sahitya garners praise. It utilises simple music as well as contains a
lot of Bhakti bhava. It is relevant for both the congregational singing and also focuses
on individual presentation.
● Kriti: It is a highly developed musical form or style that evolved from Kirtana. People strive for
the highest level of aesthetic excellence in the case of Kriti composition. The Theraga bhava
manifests in all of its rich and varied colours in this style of music.
● Pada: Padas are intellectual compositions written in Telugu & Tamil languages. They are
primarily composed as dance forms, but due to their musical excellence as well as aesthetic
appeal, they are also sung in concerts. The music involved in Pada is slow and dignified.
● Javali: It is a type of light classical music. This form of music is sung in both concert
programmes as well as in dance concerts and also is praised for the attractive melodies where
it is written. In contrast to that padas, which mainly reveal divine love, javalis are sensual
songs in concept as well as in spirit.
● Thillana: The Thillana is a short as well as a crisp variety that corresponds to the Tarana style of
Hindustani music. It is mainly a dance form, and because of its brisk & appealing music, this
style of music is occasionally performed as a concluding piece at the time of music concerts.
● Pallavi: It is a creative music branch of manodharma Sangeeta. This style of music allows a
musician to demonstrate his/her creative abilities, along with imaginative vision and musical
intelligence.
● Tanam: In Madhyamakala, this is a division of raga alapana, or avg. speed. The Tanam singing
is a captivating part of raga exposition because of its discernible rhythm as well as the
rhythmical flow of music, and elegant & fascinating patterns.
Folk Music

Baul, Wanawan, Pandwani, Alha, Paani Hari, Ovi, Pari Song, Lavani, Maand, Dandiya, Powada,
Khongjom Parva are some of the popular folk music of India.
● Baul is both a religious sect and a folk music tradition.
● Wanawan is folk music that is sung at wedding ceremonies in Kashmir.
● Pandwani is based on the religious scripture Mahabharata.
● Alha is widely known in Madhya Pradesh state and is sung in several languages, such as Braj,
Awadhi, and even Bhojpuri.
● Paani Hari is Rajasthani folk music about those women who go and get water from the nearby
well and carry it back to their homes.
● Ovi, too, is the song of women and originated in the states of Maharashtra and Goa.
● Pari Songs are mostly from Madhya Pradesh.
● The Bhagwati, or emotional songs, are very prevalent among a huge number of people in the
states of Karnataka & Maharashtra.
● Sugam Sangeet, which brings classical and folk together, has various subcategories. Major
subcategories are Bhajan, Shabad and Qawwali.
● Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir were the major exponents of Bhajan. Musical instruments
used in Bhajan comprise chimta, dholak, dhapli, and manjira.
● Shabad is the devotional song sung in Gurdwaras in honour of the Sikh religious Gurus.
● Qawwali is a style of devotional music in which the lyrics praise Almighty 'Allah', the Prophet
Muhammad, or any other substantial Sufi or Islamic saint.

Music Instruments of India

The Natya Shastra of Bharat Muni divides musical instruments into 4 main categories which are based
on the way they produce sound.
Sitar
● It is one of the most famous musical instruments of North India and has a long neck with 20
metal frets and 6 to 7 key cords. Below the frets of the sitar, there are 13 sympathetic strings
in the sitar that are tuned to the Raga's notes.
● A gourd remains at the lower end of the sitar's neck, serving as a resonator for the strings.
● In order to regulate the notes, the frets in the sitar are moved up and down.
 ● Some of the notable Sitar players include Ustad Vilayat Khan, Ustad Imrat Khan, Pandit
Ravishankar, Ustad Rais Khan, Ustad Abdul Halim Zaffar Khan, and Pandit Debu Chowdhury.

Fig. Sitar

Sarod
● The Sarod has a steel-covered fingerboard as well as a small wooden body wrapped in skin.
● It has no frets, and 25 strings, 15 of which are sympathetic strings.
● In Sarod, a metal gourd serves as a resonator.
● The triangular plectrum in Sarod is used to pluck the strings.
● Some well-known Sitarists include Ustad Amjad Ali Khan, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Pt. Buddhadev
Das Gupta, Zarin Daruwalla, and Brij Narayan.
Sarangi
● This particular instrument is one of India's most well-known and oldest bowed instruments.
● The hollow body of Sarangi is made up of teak wood and also is decorated with ivory inlays.
● The instrument is made up of 40 strings, 37 of which are sympathetic.
● The Sarangi is held vertically and also is played with a bow.
 ● To perform with the Sarangi, the left hand's fingernails of the individual must be pressed
against the strings.
● Some prominent Sarangi players include Rehman Bakhs, Ghulam Sabir, Pandit Ram Narayan,
and Ustad Sultan Khan.

Fig. Sarangi

Flute
● The flute is a simple cylindrical tube with a uniform bore that has been associated with
that Indian music since ancient times.
● Flutes come in a variety of sizes.
● When playing the flute, it must be held horizontally as well as angled downwards.
● To produce sound or melody, the finger holes are wrapped with the fingers of both left & right
hands.
● The pitch changes in the flute are produced by varying the effective length of the air column.
● Some prominent Flute players include Pandit Pannalal Ghosh and Pandit Hari Prashad
Chaurasia.
 Fig. Flute

Shehnai
● The Shehnai is a traditional style of musical instrument that is played at any auspicious
occasions such as weddings & temple processions.
● The Shehnai is a double-reed musical instrument with a tapering bore, which gradually
increases towards the bottom.
● The Shehnai consists of finger holes for creating semi-tones, quarter-tones, and micro-tones.
● Ustad Bismillah Khan was Shehnai's unrivalled genius.
 Fig. Shehnai

Tabla
● The tabla is a very well musical instrument in the Northern region of India.
● The tabla includes two drums and the Bayan.
● The tabla is made of wood, and also the head is made of animal skin.
● The tabla tuning is improved by striking the rim of the instrument with a small hammer.
● The Bayan of Tabla is the bass drum, which is typically made from metal, and it also has a
stretched skinhead.
● The manganese or iron dust is used to create the black spot in the centre of the drums of
tabla.
 Fig. Tabla

Pakhawaj

● The tabla is thought to have evolved from the Pakhawaj.

● The Pakhawaj is a musical instrument that is typically used to accompany Dhrupad-style
singing.
● The Pakhawaj is a barrel-shaped drum with two layers of skin on the head.
● The leather straps that run along the sides of Pakhawaj's body over the small cylindrical
wooden blocks used for tuning enlarge the heads of Pakhawaj.

Harmonium

● The Harmonium is a traditional and very well Indian musical instrument.

● The Harmonium consists of a keyboard with over two and also half-octaves, and it operates
via bellows.
● The right hand of a person is used to play the keyboard, while the person's left-hand controls
the bellows.
● In Northern parts of India, Harmonium is more well-known compared to Southern India.
 Fig. Harmonium

Jalatharangam

● Jaltarangam has a collection of eighteen porcelain cups in various sizes.

● In the decreasing order of size, the cups are positioned in a semi-circle in front of the
performer.
● The largest cup among all other cups is still on the performer's left, whereas the smallest is on
his right.
● The cups are filled with water, and also the pitch is distorted by ranging the amount of water
in the cup.
● The two thin bamboo sticks are often used to strike the cups of Jaltarangam.

Mridangam

● The Mridangam is a famous classical instrument in Southern India.

● The instrument is used to accompany vocal, instrumental, as well as dance routines.
● The present Mridangam instrument is made from a single block of wood.
 ● The body of Mridangam has a barrel-shaped double-headed drum with a smaller right head
than compared to a larger left head.
● The two heads of the instrument have finished skin layers.

Fig. Mridangam

Ghatam
● The Ghatam is a classical musical instrument, which is one of Southern India's oldest
drumming instruments.
● The shape of Ghatam has a mud pan with a small mouth.
● From its mouth, it slopes upwards to form a ridge.
● The instrument is primarily made of clay baked with that of the brass or copper filings as well
as a trace of iron filings.
● The Ghatam generates a rapid rhythmic pattern.
● This particular instrument is typically used as a secondary percussion instrument in order to
accompany the persons' who play Mridangam.
 Fig. Ghatam

Conclusion
India has a rich culture of music, theatre and dance. The government comes up with schemes and
initiatives to preserve and enhance and promote the rich culture of arts. India is faring well in
propagating this art in the whole world by having people of diaspora take the lead.

Chapter 11| Indian Paintings and Murals

Index:

Introduction
Types of Paintings
'Six Limbs' of Indian Painting
Rupabheda
Pramanam
 Bhava
Lavanya Yojanam
Sadrisyam
Varnika Bhanga
Prehistoric Paintings
Wall Paintings or Mural Paintings
Nayaka Murals
Ajanta Cave Paintings
Ellora Cave Paintings
Bagh Cave Paintings
Sittanavasal Caves
Lepakshi Paintings
Ravan Chhaya Paintings
Badami Mural Paintings
Miniature Paintings
Eastern India: The Pala School (11th – 12th Century)
Western Indian School of Painting
Delhi Sultanate Period (13th – 16th AD)
Deccan School
Western Indian School of Painting
Apabhramsa School
Mughal Painting
Babur
Humayun
Akbar
Shahjahan
Malwa Paintings (17th century)
Rajput Painting (16th – 19th Century)
Kishangarh Paintings (18th century)
Mewar (Udaipur) Paintings (17th –18th century)
Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings
Bundi Paintings (Late 17th century)
Kota Paintings (18th – 19th century)
The Pahari Schools (17th – 19th century)
 Basohli Paintings (17th – 18th century)
Guler Painting (Jammu)
Kangra Painting (Late 18th Century)
Kullu-Mandi Painting
Miniature Paintings in South India
Tanjore Painting
Mysore Painting
Folk Paintings
Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19th century)
Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar)
Phad Paintings (Bhilwara, Rajasthan)
Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)
Warli Painting
Modern Painting
Bengal School of Painting/Renaissance School/the Revivalist School
Rabindranath Tagore
The major characteristic of contemporary Indian Painting (1947) onwards
Conclusion
Introduction
Painting is a form of art that gives the painter a way to express his emotions and thoughts through
line and colour. This makes it one of the most distinctly human artwork. Thousands of years before, a
cave-dwelling man painted his rock shelters to meet his sense of aesthetics and creative urge. This
reflects the love for painting and design that has been deeply ingrained in us from time immemorial.
From the prehistoric period, painting has been practised in India. The painting history has begun with
rock paintings and carried through pottery, textiles, miniature paintings and finally ends up with
modern paintings. The range in the style of paintings is very diverse in parts of the country, indicating
the diversity in culture and livelihood being the themes of paintings and later dominated by
spirituality. In India, two of the main influences have been roots in history, culture, and foreign races.
There are four major religions, namely Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Jainism. In India, paintings
portray the spiritual essence, the highest ideals, and universal values.
Types of Paintings
'Six Limbs' of Indian Painting
● The word 'Sadanga' consists of two words; 'shad' means six, and the other is 'anga', which
means part. In the 1st century BC, the Indian culture became famous for the "Sadanga" or the
"Six Limbs" of art, still considered to be the prime principles of the craft.

“Roopabhedah pramanani bhava-lavanya-yojanam.

Sadrishyam varnakabhangam iti chitram shadakam.”

The Sadanga translated means:

Every great Indian masterpiece is a result of the six Sadanga principles. From Ajanta Rock paintings to
the modern paintings of Raja Ravi Verma and Hussain, all noteworthy artists have made use of the six
principles. A true artist is one who understands these prime principles holistically.
Rupabheda
● Roopbheda refers to the knowledge of appearances. The term 'Roopa' means the exterior or
external appearance of a subject.
● Visual and mental perceptions combine to form the term 'Bheda.' In order to create a painting,
an artist should have a deep understanding of the diverse forms that exist. It is important to
understand how one form of life differs from another. Their sublimity and distinct features
are both equally compelling.
Pramanam
● Pramanani denotes the precision of measurement and structure. One can prove the accuracy
of our experience and circumscription through the application of certain laws.
● 'Pramamani' measures the exact distance, proportion and measure of each subject as well as
provide an overview of the structural anatomy of objects.
Bhava
● Bhava refers to an emotion, an idea, or an intention. An artist depicts this feature of art
through the feeling of the subject. Any painting from an online Indian art gallery is incomplete
without a bhava.
Lavanya Yojanam
● Lavanya Yojanam is a combination of grace and artistic expression. Pramanani is about
proportions, while Bhava is about feelings. Lavanya Yojanamon on the other hand aims to
control both; it is all about giving rise to beauty with a dignified and systematic approach.
Sadrisyam
● Among all, this form of painting is the most difficult to make. Sadrisyam means resemblance,
it helps in the understanding the extent to which a depiction is close to an artist's vision.
Varnaka Bhanga
● Varnakabhangam refers to methods in which a subject is drawn and coloured using brushes
and pigments. The term means that pigments and brushes are used to finish the work. This
principle stresses the ways in which strokes are applied to a canvas and the artist's experience
with different colours.
Prehistoric Paintings
● The categorisation of drawings and paintings has been done broadly into the following
periods: Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Chalcolithic.
⮚ Art of the Prehistoric Era consists of the art of the Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and
Chalcolithic Age (mostly rock art).
● In terms of prehistoric human evolution, the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic period is generally
known.
⮚ Until prehistoric sites began to be excavated, scholars had difficulty imagining how
Prehistoric people lived.
● Painting and drawing were the earliest art forms used by humans to express themselves with
cave walls as their canvas.
● The Paleolithic period is divided into three phases:
⮚ Lower Palaeolithic
⮚ Middle Palaeolithic
⮚ Upper Palaeolithic
● There have been no paintings found from the lower or middle Palaeolithic period yet, but in
the Upper Palaeolithic period, there have been a number of artistic manifestations. Early
works focus on simplistic human features, their daily activities, generic and crude geometric
shapes, and symbols.
● Remnants of rock paintings in India have been found on the walls of caves situated in the
northern states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand and the southern state
of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
● Some examples of early rock painting sites are Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand, Piklihal and
Tekkalkotta in Karnataka, Kupgallu in Telangana Bhimbetka and Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh
etc.
 ⮚ Paintings found here are divided into three categories: man, animal, and geometric
symbols.
● The two magnificent sites of prehistoric paintings in India:
⮚ Bhimbetka Caves is located in the Foothills of Vindhya, Madhya Pradesh.
⮚ Jogimara caves in Amarnath, Madhya Pradesh.
⮚ In Bhimbetka, 20 layers of paintings are found, one on top of another.
● General features of Prehistoric paintings (from the study of Bhimbetka paintings):
⮚ Used various colours, including white, yellow, brown, orange, red ochre, purple, green and
black.
⮚ But white and red seemed to be the favourite.
⮚ The paints were made by grinding various coloured rocks.
⮚ Red colour extracted from hematite (Geru in India).
⮚ Brushes are made from plant fibre.
Wall Paintings or Mural Paintings
● The mural is derived from the Latin word 'Murus', which means wall. Murals are noteworthy
as they bring art into a large public sphere because they are put up on a large wall and, thus,
an effective tool for social emancipation. Murals could add to the scenic beauty of a place
where they are painted.
● Mural Painting in India began from around the 2nd Century BC to the 10th Century AD. They
were rock-cut chambers; they also originated in natural caves. Examples of mural paintings
include Ajanta caves, Jogimara Caves etc. In India, they are of steep size, found in Ajanta,
Ellora, caves, temple walls, etc.
Nayaka Murals
● South Indian paintings of the last three centuries have survived to a certain. Both Madurai
and Thanjavur have paintings of the Nayak phase that are equally precious as the paintings of
the Vijayanagara era. Apart from Vijayanagara paintings, traces of Nayaka paintings can be
found at Thiruparuthikundram. The majority of the Nayaka paintings date from the 16th
century, and a few others are from the 17th century.
● Depiction in Nayaka Paintings: Nayaka paintings depict scenes from the life of Rishabhadeva,
the first Tirthankara of Vardhamana, of Krishna, Neminatha's cousin, and Neminatha himself.
The paintings in Chidambaram are a graphical presentation in a long series with minute labels
in Tamil that have details regarding each painting. Labels like these can be seen in Tiruvallur
paintings, and similar labels can be found in Chidambaram paintings.
Ajanta Cave Paintings
● It dates to the 4th Century BC and was rediscovered in 1819 in Aurangabad.
● They are horseshoe-shaped caves.
● Theme: They are basically Buddhist in theme and carved on a perpendicular cliff.
● Composition: There are 4 Chaityas and 25 Viharas. Hence in Ajanta, there are a total of 29
caves.
● It signifies the social fabric along with costumes and ornaments.
● Birds and animal figures can be found here in these paintings.
● Female figures had distinctive hairstyles.
● Red ochre was in outline, whereas the contours had brown, black etc.
● The Bodhisattvas are painted upon the walls of Ajanta.
● An ancient tradition of painting is recognised as the Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara
Purana.

Fig. Padmapani, Ajanta Caves Fig. King Janaka and his Wife
Ellora Cave Paintings

● These are the largest rock-cut paintings with 34

caves.
● It has inclinations toward Buddhism, Hinduism,
and Jainism.
● There are five caves in total.
● Kailash temples are one of them.
● Shiva is depicted in many forms.
● Vishnu, Laxmi, Garuda are found too.
Bagh Cave Paintings
● It is an extension of Ajanta school, found mainly in Madhya Pradesh.
● There are nine rock-cut caves.
● These are more earthly, humane, and tightly modelled.
● These are worldly paintings more willingly than any spiritual or religious theme.
● Reddish-brown gritty and thick mud and plaster are found in these paintings.
● Lime priming is also found.
● Buddhist paintings and jataka tales are also found.
● Paintings are both secular and religious.
 Fig. Bodhisattva, Bagh Caves

Fig: Other Cave paintings of Bagh Caves

Sittanavasal Caves
● These are found in Tamil Nadu.
● Jain Temples are the main features here.
● Vegetable and mineral dyes are used.
● Caves were found during the Pallava period.

Fig. Sittanavasal Cave Painting, Tamil Nadu

Lepakshi Paintings
● Found in Karnataka.
● These paintings belonged to the Vijayanagara period and are the largest in Asia.
● The absence of the primary colours can be seen here.
● Black outlined costumes were used.
 Fig. Lepakshi Paintings

Ravan Chhaya Paintings

● Found in Odisha.
● Shadow of Ravana is made here.
● Half opened umbrella shapes can be found.
● A royal hunting lodge can be seen.
● It was done during the Chola period.
● The Royal procession can be found here.

Badami Mural Paintings

● A cave site in Karnataka.
● Patronised by the Chalukya king, Manglesha.
● Because of its Vaishnava affiliation, the cave is known as the Vishnu cave.

Miniature Paintings
● Miniature paintings are described as small and detailed paintings. These paintings are
handmade, small-sized, very colourful paintings. The primary characteristic of these Miniature
paintings is that they incorporate complex and gentle brushwork, which gives them a unique
character.
● A variety of colours were used in different characters, and a variety of paint bases were used,
including paper, cloth, palm leaves, etc., on which the human figures were painted.
 ● The tradition of Indian miniature painting can be traced to the palm-leaf manuscript of the
9th- 10th century in the Buddhist Pala period in eastern India and western India in the Jaina
palm-leaf manuscript. Miniature painting was greatly influenced by the entrance of Muslims.
⮚ Key characteristics of miniature paintings vary from region to region, but they all exhibit
earth tones, the absence of primary colours, and detached appearances.
⮚ Sultanate bourgeois school of manuscripts emerged during the Lodi period (1451- 1526
AD). An illustrated manuscript representing the Sultanate style can be found in the
manuscript. The Mughal era (1526- 1757 AD) witnessed the gradual evolution of miniature
paintings when studios were established at the Imperial court.

Eastern India: The Pala School (11th – 12th Century)

The Pala School (11th – 12th century)

● The Palas of Bengal were the founders of miniature paintings in India.
● It exists in the form of designs to religious texts on Buddhism executed under the rule of Palas
of Eastern India and the Jains texts executed in Western India.
● The Buddhist monasteries of Odantapuri, Vikramshila, Nalanda, and Somarupa were great
Buddhist learning and art hubs.
● This region's Buddhist centres produced a large number of palm-leaf manuscripts focused on
Buddhist themes.
● There are sinuous lines in the Pala painting, and the colours are muted.

Fig. The Green Tara, Pala School

Western Indian School of Painting
● Also known as Jaina Painting, it primarily relates to Jaina religious texts of the 12th–16th
century.
● Important sites of this school are present in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa.
● Some of the important features of this school are a solid, angular drawing, simple, bright
colours, and highly conventionalised figures.

Fig: Jaina Paintings From Western India

Apabhramsa School
● This school of painting was in Gujarat and Mewar Region during the 11th to 15th centuries.
● Initially, the painting was done on Palm leaves, but it shifted to paper after some time.
● The lack of natural scenes, angular faces, bulging eyes and margins are important elements of
this school of painting.

Delhi Sultanate Period (13th – 16th AD)

● Despite Islamic injunctions against anthropomorphic figures, Delhi Sultanate patronised
artistic work and painting. We see the fusion of Indigenous and Persian elements in this
period.
 ⮚ Delhi Sultanate paintings are inspired by Indian traditions: groups of people standing in
rows and identical poses, narrow bands of decoration running across the width of the
painting, and bright and unusual colours.
● Examples can be found as early as the 15th century, including a copy of the Shahnama or Book
of Kings, produced by Lodi rulers. The images in this work of art are remarkably similar to
contemporary Jain paintings. Additionally, the Khamseh ("Quintet") of Amir Khosrow of Delhi,
the Bostan painted in Mandu, and the Ne'mat-nameh manuscript commissioned by a sultan
of Malwa in the 16th century deserve great attention. The drawings of the Ne'matnameh
manuscript are rooted in the Turkmen style of Shiraz but show clear Indian features adapted
from the local design of the western Indian style.

Deccan School
● The Deccani Paintings emerged with the main centres at Ahmednagar, Golkonda, Bijapur, and
subsequently Hyderabad. It evolved in the second half of the 16th century.
⮚ Most painters working at these courts came from Anatolia (Turkey), Persia and Europe.
The Deccani artists introduced art styles and skills that their lands had acquired by then.
Because of this, Deccani art developed into a mature form, refined in subtlety, and of
comparable merit to Mughal art.
● Bijapur was the major centre of the school, which rose to prominence under Ibrahim Adil
Shah. Although contemporary to the Mughal Style, this painting style continued to grow
independently in the beginning.
⮚ Primary patrons of this school were Ahmednagar Bijapur Golconda Qutb Shahi rulers. To
name, 'Lady with the Myna bird' and the 'Lady smoking Hookah' are some important works
from this school.
⮚ Gold colour used generously
Mughal Paintings (16th – 19th century)

As the nomenclature suggests, Mughal paintings developed during the Mughal Empire (16th - 19th
centuries) purely as Court Art. Its growth was affected due to the patronship and enthusiasm of the
ruler.

Babur
● Babur set up a tradition of keeping memoirs, and the variety of albums and books created in
the royal ateliers were calligraphed and painted.
● Among the artists mentioned in Babur's memoirs is Bihzad (master artist from the Persian
school of painting). Bihzad's art was dainty; however, he did not draw the faces properly; he
used to lengthen the double chin (ghab-ghab) considerably; and drew bearded faces
admirably. Along with Bihzad, the name Shah Muzaffar also finds mention as a great painter,
who Babur thought excelled and did very well in the depiction of hairstyle.

Humanyun
● During his exile in Shah Tahmasp's (Safavid Persian ruler) Court, Humanyun experienced the
superb artistic tradition of Miniature Paintings and Manuscripts.
● When Humayun re-captured his throne by defeating the Suri ruler, he brought two great
artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. These two great artists, with their great learnings from
the Persian court, were responsible for establishing the first workshop of painting in India.
 ● He established the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop), which was also an element of his library.
Not much is known related to the composition and size and composition of Humayun's
workshop in India.
● Open-air paintings along with trees and blossoms and royal merrymaking, which depicts the
ancestral representatives of the Mughal Empire, were major themes during Humayun's reign.
The essential features such as figures, format, colour palette and theme are remarkably
Persian.

Akbar
● A combination of Persian, Indian, and European art was born in 1556 with Akbar's arrival in
his father's footsteps. Workshops (Karkahnas) were set as collaborative enterprises
comprising papermakers, calligraphers, illuminators, gilders, illustrators, and binders. These
were supervised by a master.
● Many painting projects were commissioned by Akbar from 1560 to 1580. Tutinama, which
means 'Tales of a Parrot,' is a 52-part episodic Persian short story. It was commissioned by
Akbar as one of his first projects. "Hamzanama," which Akbar commissioned as his second
major project (continuation of his father's creative and artistic legacy of Hamza Nama)
narrated the legend of Amir Hamza. They were painted on cloth, and were large, measuring
20" x 27", with dominant colours of red, blue, and green.
● Akbar's other famous paintings include 'Gulistan', 'Darab Nama', 'Khamsa of Nizami',
'Baharistan', etc. The famous work 'Gulistan', the masterpiece of Saadi Shirazi, was created
at Fatehpur Sikri.
● Sayyid Ali, Khwaja Abdus Samad, Baswan and Daswanth were the most prominent artists.
 Fig. Mughal painting under Akbar

Jahangir
● During the reign of Jahangir, the Mughal painting reached its pinnacle. He himself was a well-
known painter. He always encouraged painters, especially in the area of portraits and durbar
scenes.
⮚ Since Jahangir was highly influenced by European painting, painters were generally
instructed to follow the single point perspective used by European artists.
⮚ 'Jahangirnama', an autobiography of Jahangir, consists of several paintings. It included
some unusual themes, such as fights between spiders.
● Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a renowned Iranian painter and his son Abul Hasan to attain
unmatched elegance in the painting.
● The Muraqqas individual paintings to be displayed in albums became popular under the
patronage of Jahangir.
 Fig. Mughal painting under Jahangir

Shah Jahan (1627–1658)

● Shahjahan continued the legacy of Jahangir and patronised painting. During his reign, the
aesthetics of Mughal painting was the prime focus, which greatly contributed to the
development of Mughal paintings. However, the paintings suffered due to Aurangzeb's
distaste for fine arts.

Malwa Paintings (17th century)

● These paintings are mainly centred in Malwa and Bundelkhand regions.
● It is sometimes referred to as a Central Indian painting due to its geographical distribution.
● Figures are displayed on solid colour patches with black and chocolate-brown backgrounds
and lively architecture.
● This school's most attractive features are its primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.

Rajput Painting (16th – 19th Century)

● This is the art of the Hindu feudal states of India.
 ● Rajput art relates to traditional Indian painting, unlike Mughal art, which relates to modern
style. Rajput painting is further separated into Rajasthani painting and Pahari painting (the art
of the Himalayan kingdoms).
● These take inspiration from the Indian tradition of Puranas, epics, songs and folklore.
● Mughal artists of lower merit with less utility to the Mughal court migrated to Rajasthan.
Kishangarh Paintings (18th century)
● Individualism and religious intensity separate it from other groups.
● In the 1748-1757 AD period, it was commissioned by Raja Savant Singh by Nihal Chand, a
master artist.
● Synthesis of Mughal and local style.
● The Kishangarh school is known for its Bani Thani paintings.

Fig. Bani Thani, Kishangarh School

Mewar (Udaipur) Paintings (17th –18th century)

● The design is well known for its bold, contrasting colours and emotional appeal.
● An earliest dated instance of a set of Ragmala (musical modes) paintings dating back to 1605.
It contains portraits and details of the ruler's life as well as religious themes.
 Fig. Ragamala, Asawari Ragini

Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings

● Performed in a primitive and energetic folk style.
● They are not influenced by the Mughal style of paintings.
● It primarily portrays court scenes and also a series of Ragamala and Baramasa.

Bundi Paintings (Late 17th century)

● The style of this painting was very similar to that of the Mewar's, but it was much better in
quality.
● This painting is distinguished by its vibrant, rich colours, a golden sun rising, a crimson-red
horizon, and a brilliant red border (in the Rasikapriya series).
 ● Examples include Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad Museum), a manuscript of Bhagavata Purana
illustrated with colour (Kota Museum) and the Rasikapriya series (National Museum, New
Delhi).

Fig: Bundi School of Paintings

Kota Paintings (18th – 19th century)

● Very similar to the Bundi style of paintings.
● A tiger and a bear are prominent themes in this painting.
● The hilly jungle occupies much of the painting's space.

Fig. Maharana Ram Singh II playing Holi, Rajput miniature, Kota

The Pahari Schools (17th – 19th century)
● The paintings in the region of sub- Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir, which were in the patronage of Mughals, are called the Pahari Paintings. Because of
the family relations of the Rajput kings of Rajasthan with the Pahari Rajas, these paintings
were deeply influenced by the Rajput style of paintings.
● It flourished in the 17th and 19th centuries, and paintings that were associated with it can be
divided into two major categories, those that reflect the Basholi and Kullu style and those that
reflect the Guler and Kangra style.

Basohli Paintings (17th – 18th century)

● It is known for its courageous vitality of colour, lines and red borders.
● Emotional scenes from a text known as "Rasamanjari" Krishna legend.
● In the nice oblong format, there's usually some architectural detail separate from the picture
space, often breaking through the typical red border.
● The large, intense eyes dominate the stylised facial type, shown in the profile.

Fig: Basohli Paintings

Guler Painting (Jammu)

● It mainly consists of portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota (Jammu) designed by Nainsukh.
● In contrast to Basohli school, these colours are cool and soothing.
● Naturalistic paintings of the Mughals may have influenced the style.
 Fig: Guller Paintings

Kangra Painting (Late 18th Century)

● The Kangra style is expanded out of the Guler style and possesses its main characteristics, like
the delicacy of drawing and naturalism.
● There are various places where the Kangra style thrives, such as Kangra, Guler, Basohli,
Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur and Garhwal etc.
● Still named Kangra style, they are identical to the portraits of the Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra.
● Women in profile have a narrow chin, long and narrow eyes, and a nose nearly in line with the
forehead.
● The hair is only represented as a flat mass since no figures are modelled.
● Nainsukh is mainly responsible for the Kangra style of painting.
Kullu-Mandi Painting
● Folk paintings in the Kulu-Mandi area are predominantly coloured in dark, dull tones and are
often influenced by local tradition. They are usually boldly drawn and feature dark and dull
tones.

Fig. Kullu-Mandi Painting

Miniature Paintings in South India

Tanjore Painting
● A style of painting emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries with characteristics such as
bold drawing, shading, and the use of bright colours thrived at Tanjore. A typical example of
this painting style lies in the collections of the National Museum in which the coronation of
Rama is shown. Rama and Sita are sitting on the throne, listened to by his brothers, rishis,
princes, courtiers, along with Hanuman and Sugriva, who is being honoured.
● Tanjore miniature paintings are often characterised by a conical crown.
● The paintings are exclusive because they are generated on glass and board, unlike cloth and
vellum in North India.
● There is still such a school of painting in operation today.
 Fig: Tanjore Painting
Mysore Painting
● It was supported by the rulers of Mysore and continued in British India also, and the main
themes include the depiction of Hindu God and Goddesses.
● Styles characterised by delicate lines, the use of subtle colours, graceful delineations, luscious
gold leaf, and complicated brushstrokes are typical for this style.
● Many literary pieces were organised, and the most famous was Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous
1500-page work.
● These paintings were made in a diverse style using gesso paste, which used to be prepared by
mixing Zinc Oxide with the Arabic Gum.

Folk Paintings
● A common element of folk art is the use of vibrant colours and natural materials.
● They have existed since ancient times, and the styles and patterns have a vast diversity in
various regions of the country.
● Most folk paintings are symbolic representations, and the subject varies from region to natural
things and day-to-day activities.

Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19th century)

 ● Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and
goddesses in the early 19th century.
● The artists came up with a quick way to paint on mill-made paper.
● The lampblack was used to paint with brush and ink.

Fig. Kalighat Paintings

Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar)

● These colourful images on the interior walls of homes on rituals and festivity are painted by
women.
● This ancient custom has continued till today.
● It is used to paint the walls of a room where the newlywed couple first meets, called KOHBAR
GHAR.
● Very theoretical; first, the painter thinks and then "draws her thought."
 Fig Madhubani Paintings
Phad Paintings (Bhilwara, Rajasthan)
● Phad Paintings (Bhilwara, Rajasthan).
● The Phad represents stories about local deities and legendaries of epic dimensions.
● These scrolls are transmitted on the shoulders of Bhopas (local priests) from village to village
as part of a performance.
● A moving shrine is regarded as an object of worship and is a representation of the deity.
● Most recognised and largest Phad – local deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji.

Fig. Phad Paintings

Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)
● The literal meaning is painting done by kalam (pen), mostly in Andhra Pradesh (developed
under Vijayanagara rulers).
● There are narratives that are common to the epics, i.e., the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
Puranas.
● Each scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns in order to decorate the temple
interiors.
● Two distinct styles of Kalamkari design in India:
⮚ The Masulipatnam style of Kalamkari painting is influenced and inspired by Persian art.
The various motifs utilised are flowers, trees and leaf patterns printed using blocks.
⮚ The Srikalahasti style Kalamkari painting flourished and grew around temples with Hindu
patronage; therefore, it has an almost religious identity. The pen (kalam) is utilised for
freehand drawing, and filling in the colours is finished by hand.

Fig. Kalamkari Paintings

Warli Painting

● Performed in tribal regions of Maharashtra with subjects predominantly secular.

● An intricate, central motif is surrounded by images of hunting, farming, fishing, festivals,
dances, trees, flora, and fauna scenes depicting the activities, events, and objects of their
everyday lives.
● They are used to decorate the walls and floors of homes, churches and temples belonging to
the 'Gond' and 'Kol' tribes.
● They are modelled by geometric shapes like triangles, squares, and circles.
● Unlike other tribal art forms, this painting does not occupy religious iconography and is more
secular.

Fig. Warli Painting

● Pattachitra: It is practised in Odisha. Painting is done on canvas.

● Thangka
⮚ Location: Sikkim.
⮚ Cotton canvas as the base.
⮚ Influence of Buddhism.
⮚ Use of different colours for different scenes.
⮚ Noticeable by rich, colourful motifs and designs.
⮚ Frequently mythological depiction.
● Kalamezhuthu
⮚ Practised in Kerala.
⮚ Kerala features groves and temples that practice ritualistic art.
⮚ It is upon the floor that deities like Kali and Lord Ayyappa demonstrate their power.
● Manjusha
⮚ Location: Bihar.
⮚ Also called Snake painting (use of snake motifs).
⮚ Paintings were performed on jute and paper.
 Fig. Manjusha Paintings

Modern Painting
Bengal School of Painting/Renaissance School/the Revivalist School

● The Bengal School of Painting was founded by Abanindranath Tagore and Havell with the main
purpose of reviving lost values, which were contrary to the authority of western art.
● Based on limited Indian tradition.
● It broke away from the Raja Ravi Verma art of paintings as it was made in western styles.
● Based on historical and religious subjects, social and daily life scenes.
● The shades were light in colour.
● Ajanta pictures were depicted elegantly here.
● It had an influence on Mughal and Rajasthani schools.
● Arabian Nights series of Abanindranath Tagore (1930) are among his renowned works.
● Other well-known painters such as Nandlal Bose, Jamini Roy, Sarada Charan Ukil, Devi Prasad
Roy, and Asit Kumar Haldar also belonged to this school.
● The abstract movement is characterised by painters like V. S. Gaitonde, Balraj Khanna and J.
Swaminathan.
● Other big names in India's contemporary art scene include Gulam Muhammed Sheikh (The
Figure with Bird), Tyeb Mehta (St Francis and the Wolf), and Akbar Padamsee (The Woman).
● The names of Arpana Caur, B. Prabha, Kamala Das, Anjolie Ela Menon, and Lalitha Lajmi may
be mentioned among the fashionable modernist women painters of India.
● South India saw the propagation of good painters like K. C. S. Pannikker, K. Madhava Menon,
L. Narasimhamurty, etc.
 Fig. Bengal School of Painting

Rabindranath Tagore
● Graphic paintings were his main themes.
● Paintings made by him were small.
● Simple and bold forms can be witnessed in his paintings.
● Landscape subjects were used.
● Highly imaginative and creative works.
● Paintings directly linked with his writings.
● Black ink was used for paintings.

Fig. Paintings by Rabindranath Tagore

The major characteristic of contemporary Indian Painting (1947) onwards

● Bengal School of Art: This art school, toward the end of the 19th century, helped reconnect
Indian artists with their heritage and helped to pave the path for the modernist movement.
⮚ At the end of the 19th century, traditional Indian paintings were replaced by Western and
colonial influences until the Bengal School of Art, founded by E. B. Havell and
Abanindranath Tagore.
⮚ This school did a great deal to pave the way for the future modernist movement to
reshape contemporary taste by drawing inspiration from the past and carrying awareness
of the heritage of Indian artists.

● Post-Independence Indian Art: The Progressive Artists Group was formed in 1947, shortly
after India gained independence, which profoundly altered Indian art.
⮚ India had a number of schools of art by the time it gained independence in 1947, which
had introduced the country to modern techniques and ideas.
⮚ The same year a group of six artists (K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, M. F. Husain, H. A. Gade, S. H.
Raza, and F. N. Souza) founded the Progressive Artists Group.
⮚ Despite the group's dissolution in 1956, it had a great influence on changing the Indian art
culture. It sought to establish new ways of expressing Indian art in the post-colonial era.
⮚ While Indian themes and images are predominant in modern Indian art, there are often
influences from Western styles, as well.
● After India's economic liberalisation in the 1990s, new concepts were introduced by artists
outside of previous academic traditions. A new genre of art called Pseudorealism was
introduced by artist Devajyoti Ray, in which there was a use of offbeat colours and abstract
shapes to create imagery depicting regular scenes of Indian life.
 Fig. F. N. Souza – Balzac etcetera, 1971: Artist Souza uses an expressionistic style to capture
aspects of Indian life in his paintings.

Conclusion

From the 1990s onward, there was an increase in the number of forms used by the Indian Artists in
their work. The economic liberalisation of the country during that decade resulted in the introduction
of new concepts from Indian Art. This led to both work within previous academic traditions as well as
work outside of them.

Chapter 12| Religions in India

Index
Introduction
Hinduism
Four Sects under Hinduism
Prominent Sects under Vaishnavism
Prominent Sects under Shaivism
Islam
Christianity
Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
Conclusion
Introduction
Religion is generally understood as a socio-cultural system of certain practices, behaviour, morals,
beliefs, worldviews, texts along with transcendental and spiritual elements. One of the important
sources of morality and ethics is religion. In India faith has been a decisive role in people's lives.
Religion has also been a dynamic concept which has evolved a lot since its conception. In India, faith
was never a static entity but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.

Hinduism
● It is the world's third-largest religion with over 1.2 billion followers. In India, approximately
79.8% of people follow Hinduism. Hinduism is not only a religion but also a way of life.
Hinduism consists of many philosophies, cults and sects. People of the Indus River region were
referred to by the word “Hindu”. Its fundamental philosophy and concepts are based on the
teaching of the four Vedas.
Four Sects of Hinduism
● Vaishnavism: Vaishnavites worship Lord Vishnu and his incarnations, especially Krishna and
Rama. They lead a way of life promoting differentiated monotheism. Upanishad is at the core
of its belief, practices, and concept of bhakti and bhakti-yoga. These things are also associated
with puranic texts, Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavat Purana. Bhagavatism, also known as
Krishnaism, can be traced back to the first millennium BC. There are various sampradayas,
or sub-schools, within the Vaishnava tradition.
● Shaivism: Shaivism reveres the God Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva
is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.
Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools,
including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda)
perspectives. Vedic God Rudra can be considered at the root of Shaivism. It is believed to have
existed before Vaishnavism.
● Shaktism: Their core belief is in the supremacy of goddesses also known as Devi. Within
Shaktism, there is little emphasis on doctrinal sampradayas, and much ideology comes from
Shaivism. Tantra sub-traditions are present in many major religions practised in India.
● Smartism: Smartism is a liberal or non-sectarian denomination of the Vedic Hindu religion
which accepts all the major Hindu deities as forms of the one Brahman. Five deities: Shiva,
Shakti, Ganesh, Vishnu, and Surya are at the core of this tradition, under which these deities
are worshipped domestically. Their system is based on Puranas' teachings. They believe in
both forms of Brahman i.e., Sagun Brahman and Nirguna Brahman.
Prominent Sects under Vaishnavism
● Varkari Sampradaya or Varkari Panth: Vithoba, a form of Vishnu, is worshipped by this
denomination (sect). Their worship is based on Vithoba’s temple in Pandharpur, Maharashtra.
Cigarettes and alcohol are strictly prohibited in the sect. Vari is their annual pilgrimage.
During this pilgrimage, exciting activities are conducted. Namdev (1270- 1350), Jnaneshwar
(1275-1296), Tukaram (1598-1650) and Eknath (1533-1599) are a few prominent personalities
under this sect.
● Ramanandi Sampradaya: Advaita scholar Ramananda’s teachings are the foundation of this
sect. Within Hinduism, this is the largest monastic order, and these Vaishnava monks are
described as Vairagis, Ramanandis or Bairagis. They worship Rama, one of Vishnu’s ten
incarnations. These ascetics meditate and conform to strict ascetic rituals. On the other hand,
they still believe that only by God’s grace one can get salvation. The major region where this
sect is present is the Gangetic plains. This sect is further classified into Tyagi and nagas.
● Brahma Sampradaya: Under this sect, the core belief is that Vishnu is the ultimate creator,
who is also known as param-Brahma. Therefore, Vishnu is worshipped here. According to
historic belief, the founder of this belief was Madhvacharya. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s
Gaudiya Vaishnavism is associated with the Brahma Sampradaya.
● Pushti Marg Sampradaya: Vallabhacharya established the Vaishnava sect around 1500 AD.
The ultimate truth, according to their philosophy, is one and only one Brahm. In this
denomination, Lord Krishna is worshipped by the followers. Here he is worshipped on the
basis of the concept of pure love. Under this, the practice of all devotees performing Seva for
their personal idol of Krishna is very prominent.
● Nimbarka Sampradaya: The followers of the Kumara Sampradaya or Hamsa Sampradaya or
Nimbarka Sampradaya worship the deities of Krishna and Radha.
Prominent Sects under Shaivism
● Nathpanthi: Under this, the teachings of Gorakhnath and Matsyendranath are followed. The
followers of this sect are called by a special name i.e., Siddha Siddhanta. Followers of this sect
worship Adinatha which is a form of Shiva. They focus on transforming one’s body into a state
of fully awakened self-identity with utter truth which they achieve through Hatha Yoga. Monks
under these sects wander from one place to another rarely halting at one place for long. They
wear dhoti and loincloths, the body is covered with ashes, hair is tied up in dreadlocks, and
when they stop walking, they keep a sacred fire called dhuni.
● Lingayatism: Lingayatism is a Shaivite denomination which beliefs in monotheism. Shiva in the
form of linga is worshipped here. Lingayatism is also known as Veershaivism. Under this sect,
 both authority of the Veda and the caste system are denied. Basava developed this practice
in the 12th Century AD (a Kannada poet).
● Dashanami Sanyasis: Advait Vedantic philosopher, Adi Shankracharya’s teachings are
followed under this sect. They are also known as “Dash Nam Sanyasi'' because they are
divided into ten classes.
● Aghoris: They believe in salvation from the cycle of birth and death through sadhana on the
cremation ground. Therefore, they believe in Bhairava. They also believe in the elimination
of bonds from their lives such as sensual gratification, rage, greed, obsession, fear, and hatred.
They participate in tamasic ritual activities to the extreme.
● Siddhars or Siddhas: Siddhars were Tamil Nadu saints, physicians, and mystics. For achieving
spiritual perfection, they perform rasayanas in a hidden form to perfect their bodies, so that
they are able to meditate for long periods. They also perform pranayama which remarkably
decreases the number of breaths. They possess many unique abilities. Varmam, which is a
martial art and medical treatment, was founded by them.

Figure 12.1: Varanasi

Figure 12.2: Rameshwaram

Figure 12.3: Puri

 Figure 12.4: Rishikesh

Figure 12.5: Tirupati Temple

Figure 12.6: Amarnath Caves

 Figure 12.7: Badrinath Temple

Islam
● Muslims pray to Allah as the only God and reject the presence of another god. They also
follow the teaching of the prophet Muhammad. The core concept of Islam is ‘submission to
god’. Muslims believe Mohammed was the last and most important in a series of prophets,
including Abraham, Moses and Jesus.
⮚ Muslims consider Abraham as their ancestor. It is believed that Allah revealed himself
to Prophet Mohammad and then he started preaching and reciting the message of
Allah or God to the Muslim community. This revelation, he attained on a mountain
through an angel.
⮚ At the beginning of his journey, Prophet Muhammad preached in Mecca. But there,
he faced lots of difficulties due to which he had to leave for Medina. But when things
improved, he went back to Mecca. This journey from Medina to Mecca is considered
a holy pilgrimage. Also known as Hajj by the Muslim communities. Out of the various
core practices, Hajj is considered mandatory for Muslims. Every Muslim is expected
to do Hajj at least once in his or her lifetime.
● Apart from Quran, Hadith is another holy book of Islam. Hadith contains the teachings
(sayings) and activities of Prophet Mohammad which were collected by his followers.
⮚ The Quran was compiled and confirmed twice by the Prophet before his death. 136
Sharia or Islamic rules are based on this book and Sunnah.
● Prophet Mohammad is taken as the last and final messenger by the Muslim community. A
Muslim follower is required to do Hajj in his lifetime, similarly, he is expected to do namaz five
times a day.
⮚ In Islam, there is a concept of judgement day. On the judgement day, the deeds of an
individual will be taken stock off and depending on how many good deeds or bad
deeds one has committed the individual is sent to either hell or heaven.
⮚ Jumma Namaz, held in groups in mosques, is also a very important practice. It is a
Friday prayer. Muslims fast in the month of Ramadan which ends with Eid
celebrations.
⮚ Another important tenet is the Zakat. It is the charity that one has to do. Under this
one has to give a portion of his income to the poor or needy.
● While Islam is divided into several sects, there are two main sub-divisions: Shia and Sunni.
⮚ Shia is those who believe in Ali and Sunni are those who believe in Sunnah.
⮚ These two sects differ in various beliefs and rituals, but the core difference is on the issue
that who should succeed the prophet, Muhammad.
⮚ According to Sunnis Abu Bakr who was the blood the closest to Prophet Muhammad is a
rightful successor. Whereas Shia accepted Prophet’s son-in-law Ali as the rightful
successor of Prophet Muhammad because he was the blood relative of Muhammad.
⮚ Sunni Muslims constitute 85-90% of the total Muslim population in India.
⮚ Islam in the Indian subcontinent has been a very dynamic religion. It has evolved and
changed. In the long history of Islam in India, there were many occasions where Islam has
been moulded to suit the demand of the time.
Figure 12.8: Dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer Dargah Sharif)

Figure 12.9: Haji Ali Dargah, Mumbai

 Figure 12.10: Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia Dargah, Delhi

Christianity
● There is no consensus on the question of how Christianity gained ground in India. Few
historians support that St. Thomas worked a lot for the spread of Christianity when he came
to India in 52 AD. On the other hand, some believe Christianity spread under a Syrian
merchant, Thomas of Cana, who came to Travancore in Kerala. In Kerala, he established a
Christian colony. Thomas Didymus had visited India twice.
⮚ He reached to Parthian empire in Kandahar which is in modern Afghanistan for his
first pursuit. King Gundapar of India gave permission to Thomas to preach the Gospel
in his kingdom.
⮚ When he came again in 52 AD, Musiris (Cranganore) in Kerala was his focus area. In
Cranganore, Palayur and Quilon, he converted some Jews and Hindus to Christianity.
⮚ From there he shifted his focus to the east coast, after that he went to China. When
he returned to India, he shifted his base to Madras. Even after their ardent efforts of
Thomas, people had not welcomed the new religion. This was the reason why Thomas
was tortured and killed in a cave which got known to be called St. Thomas in 72 AD.
● In the Indian religious profile, Christianity is the third-largest religion after Hinduism and Islam.
As per the census of 2011 Christian constitute approximately 2.3% of the Indian population.
Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ in Jerusalem. Christianity has begun to gain followers
on a large scale after the world has seen the resurrection of Jesus.
⮚ With time Christianity has spread to Europe and became the official religion of the
Roman Empire. If we see it on a global scale, then Vatican City is the pivot of the
Christian world.
 ⮚ Over a while, many Christian reform movements emerged, and sects such as
Protestants, Methodists, and others grew popular.
● Monotheism is the core teaching of Christianity. According to them, there is only one God.
The universe is created by that one God. Like Islam, Christianity also believes that God sends
his messenger to the world. Therefore, Jesus Christ is considered a messenger to help people
in discovering the truth and save the people from ignorance and evil. Jesus was the saviour.
⮚ The concept of the Holy Trinity in Christian worship is the central idea of Christianity.
According to them Father (God), Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit are the Holy Trinity
and God’s influence on this world is continued after Jesus’ death is maintained
through the Holy Spirit.
⮚ The Bible is considered by Christian as the holy book. It has both the old testament
and the new testament. The new teaching of the Roman Catholic Church was included
along with the Jewish old testament.
⮚ Christians have many rituals like Baptism, through which a minor joins the Church’s
services. Apart from this, they assemble in Church to celebrate Christ's birth in the
form of Christmas.
⮚ Another rite is Eucharist, which involves breaking bread and wine with God to
symbolise peace with the Universe.
● The Christian community in India is divided on the basis of caste which a person held during
their conversion.
● They are not present at any one location but dispersed throughout India.
⮚ In the Indian Christian community, people of different castes are allowed to worship
and eat together but inter-caste marriage is not acceptable in the community.
● Indian Christians as only 37% of Indian Christians identify as Catholic while various other
denominations are present in India. Hence, no clear majority denomination.
⮚ For example, 13% of Indian Christians are Baptists, 7% identify with the Church of
North India, and 7% identify with the Church of South India.

Sikhism
● Sikhism, literally meaning learner, also known as Gurmat was founded in the 15th century by
Guru Nanak and subsequently evolved under the teaching of 9 other gurus. Guru Nanak’s
teaching has been the core of Sikhism and his nonconformist view influenced the
development of Sikhism. It was his systematic struggle which has ensured the separate
development of Sikhism from Hinduism.
 ⮚ He was a strong critic of Punjab’s lifestyle at that time. He has not only criticised but
also provided an alternative way for social and religious organisations.
⮚ His idea of congregational worship was his way of governing his follower’s life. He
devised community dining (Langar) to bring people together.
● He was not only a blind critic of the prevailing social order. He has provided an alternative
way of life. According to him, human redemption is the final goal of humans, which one can
achieve by stopping the endless cycle of birth and rebirth.
⮚ According to him, only through Guru’s teaching and direction about the correct belief,
worship and action, one can achieve redemption. He believed that the redemption
path is open to all regardless of religion, race, or caste. New modes of worship like
community kitchens also known as langar were devised by him. He has rejected the
method of redemption mediated by pandits and maulvis.
● He has rejected the extreme means of salvation such as asceticism and renunciation of the
household. He believed that a practical way is a more appropriate way for salvation.
⮚ He has a belief that salvation can be achieved by a person who lives a life like an
ideal person, who runs his home with his own hands, who attends the community
gathering also known as Sangat and who attends kirtan in gurudwara.
● Nanak said that one has to come closer to God along with maintaining his household and
livelihood. As per him, a person who eats the fruits of their labour is one who is on the right
path.
● The factor which created the divide between Mughals and Sikhs was the murder of guru
Arjan Dev by the Jahangir. Before this incident, the relationship was cordial between the two.
The murder of guru Arjan dev is considered by many as the “First Martyrdom of the Sikhs”.
⮚ Militancy culture in Sikhism started with the formation of the army at Ramdaspur by
Guru Har Gobind (1595-1644). It was created to fight the East India Company. The
Guru converted the Sikh cult into the Sikh CORPS, in which the followers would serve
as “saint warriors” or “soldier saints” who would eventually enter heaven.
● Aurangzeb’s relations with Sikhs were not cordial. He has imprisoned two Sikh gurus i.e., Guru
Har Rai and Guru Har Krishan. Due to this act of Aurangzeb, the relationship between
Mughals and Sikhs deteriorated further.
⮚ The first sovereign and supreme authority of Sikh was established by Guru Tegh
Bahadur. His relationship with the Aurangzeb was always sour and therefore
executed in Delhi in 1675.
 ⮚ The last guru in the physical form was Guru Gobind Singh. It is believed that after the
death of Guru Gobind Singh the eternal spirit was transformed into the Guru Granth
Sahib also known as Adi Granth. Therefore, the system of personal Guruship came to
an end. Now the authority resides in Guru Granth and Guru Panth.
● During the time of Guru Gobind Singh, there was continuous fighting between Mughals and
hill chiefs. In these fighting, he lost his four sons. Therefore, this is considered an important
reason for the end of the institution of personal Guruship.
● Before his death, he gave the Guru Granth Sahib/Adi Granth, which was the Bani of the Sikh
Saints and thus had their spiritual help, the authority to make decisions for the Sikhs.
● Another major contribution of Guru Gobind Singh was the creation of the Khalsa institution
which is the warrior community. They are distinct from non-Khalsa Sikhs also known as
Sahajdhari Sikhs. They included the Nanak Panthis and Udasis.
● In Sikhism also there is a system of baptism. Male baptised are called ‘Singh’, whereas
women baptised are called ‘Kaur’. They have adopted uniforms so as to make the appearance
similar for everyone. It is mandatory for a Sikh to wear the five K’s i.e., Kachcha, Kesh, Kangha,
Kirpan, Kara. A Khalsa Sikh cannot get his hair cut as this is strictly prohibited in their belief.
Due to these physical distinctions Sikhs got uniformity in their followers and distinguished
themselves from others.

Figure 12.11: Golden Temple, Amritsar

Zoroastrianism
● Zoroastrian believe in monotheism i.e., there is only one supreme deity known as Ahura
Mazda. Ahura Mazda personifies justice and goodness. This religion was founded by Prophet
 Zarathustra in Persia around the 7th century BC. According to their belief, Angra Mainyu i.e.,
a spirit of evil and bad conduct exists.
● Both evil and good will keep on fighting in an everlasting battle. But the ultimate winner would
be “good” and according to Zoroastrian belief that will be the last day as well.
● In Iran, there was an invasion by Islam around the 8th-10th centuries AD, because of which
they had to flee from Iran and came to India.
⮚ In India, they constitute a small part of the population, which is also decreasing day
by day. Here they are called by different names like Parsis and Iranis. Currently, they
are living mostly in urban areas like Goa, Mumbai and Ahmedabad.
⮚ If we consider the date of arrival, then Parsis came before Iranis in India and Iranis
are smaller in number than Parsis in India.
● Zend Avesta, which is written in old Avestan is the sacred text of Zoroastrians which includes
17 sacred songs along with Athena Vairyo. According to some beliefs, this is written by
Zarathustra himself.
⮚ Zend applies to the translations of these texts as well as the collected glossaries.
● According to their belief fire and earth are sacred features that’s why they worship fire.
● They have a cultural practice of conducting the last ritual of the dead body by leaving them
outside in open for vultures to eat because they have the belief that dead matter is
corrupted.
⮚ The place where these dead bodies are kept for vultures to eat is known as Dakhma
or Silent Tower. They also call the vulture by the name of Dakhma Nashini.
⮚ The Silent Tower in Mumbai city is one of the famous ones. Now due to the dwindling
number of vulture population, the practice of keeping the body open for a vulture is
decreasing and people are adopting alternatives such as; burying the dead for or her
last rites.
 Figure 12.12: Iranshah Atash Behram (Iranshah Fire Temple), Udvada, Gujarat

[Note: Buddhism and Jainism are discussed in detail in the Ancient History text.]

Conclusion
Indian society has been influenced by religion on a political, cultural and economic level. Religion, in
India, is more publicly visible than it is in most English-speaking Western countries. There is a sense of
pride correlated with the country’s rich religious history as the traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism,
Sikhism and Jainism all emerged in India. There is a sense of inclusiveness and diversity when it comes
to religions in India. But we have a long way to go to embrace all that this culture has to offer. There
are shortcomings in the name of religious disparities, riots in its name, and discrimination that needs
to be taken care of on both individual and societal level.

Chapter 13| Indian Literature and Schools of Philosophy

Index
Introduction
Indian Literature
Vedic Literature
Vedas
Aranyaka
Puranas
Sanskrit Literature
Accounts of Important Foreign Visitors to India
 Megasthenes
Fa-Hien
Huen Tsang
Al-Biruni
Ibn Battuta
Abdur Razzaq
François Bernier
Bhakti Literature
Bhakti and Sufi Movement
Hindi Literature
Prithviraj Raso
Padmavat
Other Regional Languages
Modern History Literature
Miscellaneous Work
Economic Critique
Contribution by Others
Mahatma Gandhi
Aurobindo Ghosh
Sarojini Naidu
Jawaharlal Nehru
Bhagat Singh
Mulk Raj Anand
R.K. Narayan
Classical Languages in India
Schools of Philosophy
Orthodox School
Samkhya School
Yoga School
Nyaya School
Vaisheshika School
Mimamsa School
Vedanta School
Shankaracharya’s View
 Ramanujan’s View
Heterodox School
Lokayata Philosophy or Charvaka School
Buddhism Philosophy
Jainism Philosophy
Conclusion
Introduction
The human wish to express and influence has taken a variety of forms. The most sophisticated kind of
such expression is through writing. Ever Since human beings have invented scripts, writing has
reflected the various important aspects such as culture, lifestyle, and the polity of the society. In the
process, each culture evolved its own literature, language, and philosophies. While literature in India
may be both religious and secular, in most cases, the subject is a didactic one, urging readers to walk
the righteous path for a joyful life. The story of Indian literature starts with the Vedas; the oral
preservation of which for many years has been unprecedented.
Indian Literature
Vedic Literature
● Veda has the meaning of 'superior knowledge' due to its roots in the word 'vid,' which means
to know.
● Vedic literature is defined as “literature based on, or they are obtained from Vedas”. Vedic
literature contains two significant elements, and these are known as “Srutis” and “Smriti”.
 ⮚ The important Srutis are Sama, Rig, Atharva, Yajur and Upanishads.
⮚ Important Smritis are Puranas; Mahabharata including Bhagavad Gita.
● Even Vedic literature is divided into 3 periods and these periods include:
⮚ During the “Mantra Period,” the ‘Samhitas’ were collected.
⮚ At the time of the “Brahman Period”, ‘Aranyakas’, ‘Brahmans’, and ‘Upanishads’ were
composed.
⮚ And the last period was the “Sutra Period”.
● The texts that constitute the Vedic literature are:
⮚ The four Vedas i.e., Samhitas
o The Brahmanas connected to each of the Samhitas
⮚ The Aranyakas
⮚ The Upanishads
Vedas
● The Vedas are most likely the earliest documents of the human mind and have divine
revelation. They are divided into:
● Rig Veda: It is known as one of the most sacred texts or books in Hindu philosophy. It has been
engrossing to historians and scholars for centuries because of its collection of ancient Vedic
Sanskrit hymns.
⮚ As a collection of 1,028 hymns and a collection of 10,600 verses, the Rigveda is
divided into ten parts called Mandalas. Rig Veda is considered the oldest text of the
Indo-European language.
⮚ It can be traced back to 1700 BCE-1100 BCE; the Rishi family composed 35% of them,
and the Kanva family composed 25%. According to the Rig Vedic hymns, the universe
originated from 'Prajapati' (the initial God, comparable to Zeus in Greek mythology).
This is the origin of everything in the universe.
⮚ Generally, during rituals ‘Suktas’ or ‘Hymns’ were sung.
⮚ ‘Indra’ also known as “King of Heavens”, was an important deity worshipped during
the Rigvedic period, as his name came in Rigvedic hymns multiple times. Along with
Indra other important gods were worshipped and mentioned in Rigvedic hymns were
God of Fire Agni, Sun God Surya, God of Sky Varuna, etc.
⮚ The explanation regarding the caste system was given in the famous ‘Purusha Sukta’
which is known as an important part of the Rigveda. The Purusha Sukta talked about
4 varnas, which include Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra, and all these
varnas were taken from the mouth, arms, belly, and legs of the Creator respectively.
 Later on, this became the important source of the caste system, which is still present
in modern-day Hinduism, with slight modifications.
● Sama Veda: Sama Veda is also called the book of prayers or “storehouse of knowledge of
chants”. It is a combination of poetry and verse.
⮚ It is considered the source of origin of the music and dance in India.
⮚ There are around 1549 verses (except for 75 verses, everything has been taken from
Rigveda). These hymns are chanted at the Soma Sacrifice by a specific category of
Brahmins known as Udgatris.
● Yajur Veda
⮚ The 4 Vedas primarily reflect the Vedic sacrifice in its full rituality and scope, and the
yajnas (sacrificial prayers) were used by the Adhvaryu priests.
⮚ In this text, various rituals and procedures are explained and those were supposed to
be followed when sacrifices were carried out.
⮚ Yajur Veda has existed in two main categories, ‘Krishna Yajur Veda, which is also
known as ‘Black Yajur Veda’ and ‘Shukla Yajur Veda’, known as ‘White Yajur Veda’.
The Black or Krishna Yajur Veda existed in 4 versions and the other one Shukla or
white Yajur Veda existed in 2 versions. The meaning of black entails ‘unarranged
collection’ of verses and in white entails a collection of verses well-arranged and clear.
⮚ The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is also called the ‘Vajasaneyi Samhita’.
o Out of 16 recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda, the endured “Madhyandina’
and ‘Kanva’ are slightly different from each other.
⮚ There are four living recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda Taittirīya saṃhita,
Maitrayani saṃhita, Kapiṣṭhala saṃhita and Kaṭha saṃhita; each has its own
characteristics.
⮚ The well-known and well-preserved recension is “Taittriya Samhita”, which was
composed by the Yaksha’s pupil, Tittri as mentioned by the Panini.
⮚ The oldest recension known is “Maitrayani Samhita”.
⮚ Yajur Veda has a collection of various short magic spells, which are used by the priests
at the time of ritual sacrifices.
● Atharva Veda
⮚ It is also known as “Brahmaveda”. It is believed that Atharva Veda was composed of
the groups 2 rishis, and they are ‘Atharvans’ and ‘Angrasas’, therefore the oldest and
most ancient name of this text is “Atharvangirasa”.
 ⮚ It has a very significant place in ‘Atharvanas’ daily life because it has guidelines for
everyday life. Atharva Veda is also considered very important due to it being a
“knowledge storehouse of atharvaṇas’. It was added later in the later Vedic period.
⮚ The Atharva Veda has 730 hymns and about 6000 mantras which are divided into 20
books, and all this is written in a language called “Vedic Sanskrit”.
⮚ The Saunakiya and Veda Paippalada are also available in 2 different recensions.
⮚ As per Kenneth Zysk, Atharva Veda is one of the ancient and earliest texts having
various evolved religious practices, rituals, and medicines. It unveils the “earliest
forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity.”
⮚ It incorporated 2 Upanishads and they are Mandukya and Mundaka. The verses of
these 2 Upanishads have described mostly practices beliefs along with the
superstitions related to the humble folk including charms and spells to ward off
diseases and evils.
Aranyaka
● The Aranyakas comprise the third stage of development of the Vedic literature, placed in
between Brahmanas and Upanishads.
● Their implication in the Vedic literature is indicated in the Mahabharata by saying that
Aranyakas are the essence of the Vedas.
⮚ But till now, their precise role in Vedic literature is not clear.
● Usually, the word ‘Aranyaka’ is associated with the forest. Aranyakas, also called Aranyakas,
are a set of meditations written by hermits and ascetics in forests about God, man, and the
world.
● The four texts of Vedic literature, such as the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads, though they represent an expansion of Vedic belief, are not distinct parts of the
Vedas, and their significance cannot be diminished by calling them mere 'forest texts.'
● In the work of Panini, the term Aranyaka occurs as a reference to a forest-associated man. In
the work of Katyayana, the term appears in a forest-related chapter.
● Aranyakas hold symbols and other aspects, but the symbolism is considered their main feature
because it is mainly discussed in them.
● Besides only depicting secret or mystic subjects, sandhyopasana, Pancha maha yajnas, and
brahmopasana illustrate the daily activities of households or commoners, too.
● The study of these teachings of the Vedas recognised as Aranyakas does not harm the persons
who study them.
 ● Role of Aranyakas in Vedic Literature: The common view of the Vedic literature is that
Aranyakas are pragmatic and display the transitional phase from ritual to philosophy.
⮚ The Aranyakas were written in Forest and are the final parts of the Brahmans. Moreover,
they include information about rishis living in jungles.
⮚ While they oppose early rituals, the Aranyakas place a lot of emphasis on moral values
and don't place any importance on sacrifices.
⮚ So, they act as a bridge between work (karma marga), the focal point of Brahmana
thought, and knowledge (gyana marga), the perspective of the Upanishads.
Puranas
● The Puranas are important works of ancient Sanskrit literature in India. Some of them have
been considered significant sources of political history. As religious works, Puranas offer us
great insights into all the aspects and phases of Hinduism, its theism, idol worship, mythology,
philosophies and superstitions, festivals and ceremonies, and ethics, which are different from
any other religious work.
● There are 18 subsidiaries of Puranas and many other associated books. Every Purana deal with
five topics viz.,
⮚ Sarga is concerned with the evolution of the universe.
⮚ Pratisarga is related to the involution of the universe.
⮚ Manvantara deals with the recurrence of time.
⮚ Vamsa contains the genealogical list of sages and kings.
⮚ Vamshaharita deals with the life stories of certain selected characters.
● The Puranas begin with the rulers who trace their origin to the sun and the moon. They refer
to the various kings who ruled in Madhyadesh. They fill in the gap between the Puru kings of
Hastinapur and the Ikshvaku King of Kosala. They give us facts about the Shishunaga Kings and
Nanda Kings.
● Puranas also describe the tirthas, sacred places of pilgrimage, and their mahatyam, or their
religious importance.
● They mention the four ages of Hinduism viz., Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Every succeeding
age is worse than its preceding one in terms of the social institutions and the overall moral
values in the society.
● Srimad Bhagavata Purana is the most popular among all the Puranas. It comprises 18000
verses and contains a description of Dashavatara, the celebrated ten avatars of Lord Vishnu.
⮚ The tenth chapter of the Purana deals with the deeds and exploits of Lord Krishna
during his childhood.
 ⮚ This is the longest chapter of the Purana and contains a theme that many Bhakti saints
later elaborated on.
● Apart from being a source of political history, Puranas are also an important source of ancient
Indian geography. In them, we come across the names of many cities which existed during
their times. The distance between the various cities mentioned can be approximately
determined from the information contained in the Puranas.
● They also help know the old names of the cities, rivers, and mountains of a particular region
mentioned in a Purana.
● However, the Puranas are criticised for their poor language usage, including the verification,
resulting in bad grammar.
⮚ They are known for boundless exaggeration of events and as a confused medley of
contents.
⮚ In the present times, there is a consensus among historians regarding the Puranas.
They should be understood neither with prejudice nor as historical truths.
⮚ A middle path should be followed, and only those aspects of the Puranas which seem
reasonable should be accepted.

Sanskrit Literature
● Ashtadhyayi: It is a Sanskrit treatise on grammar, which was written by Panini in the 5th to
6th century BCE. This is an example of classical Sanskritic linguistic standards work.
● Kalidasa was a Classical Sanskrit writer, generally considered India’s greatest poet and
dramatist in the Sanskrit language. Some of the major works done by Kalidasa are
Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvamsha and Meghaduta
etc.
● Katha Kosa: Harisena’s Katha Kosa is the most excellent example of Jain short stories in
Sanskrit.
● Rajatarangini: The Rajatarangini or the “River of Kings” by Kalhana is the most primitive
history of Kashmir. It is a historical poem that was written between 1148 and 1150 AD.
⮚ The book grants valuable social and political information about Kashmir and the rest
of India.
⮚ The book is written in the Sanskrit language and translated into different languages
by various scholars and translators.
 ⮚ The first translation of a segment of the Rajatarangini was carried out in Persian, at
the behest of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1421- 1472) AD of Kashmir. The version was
entitled Behrul- Asmar (or the sea of tales).
● Kathasaritsagara: The Kathasaritsagara (“Ocean of the Streams of Stories”) is a renowned
11th-century collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold in Sanskrit by
Shaivanamed Somadeva.
● Vikramankadevacharita: Vikramankadevacharita is a tribute written by Bilhana praising
Vikramaditya VI.

Accounts of Important Foreign Visitors to India

● Foreign traveller accounts are crucial in determining Indian history, especially in ancient and
mediaeval India. During their visit, their account shed light on various aspects such as
administration, social life, financial conditions, and common practices.
● Megasthenes
⮚ Seleucus Nicator, the Greek ruler of West Asia, sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta’s
court as an envoy. Megasthenes visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya in Patna
around 300 BC and wrote ‘Indica’. The Greeks were fascinated by geography, and it
appears that Megasthenes’ discussion of India’s location, measurements, and
topography is the most republished section of Indica.
● Fa-Hien
⮚ The Chinese traveller visited India around 400 AD during the reign of Chandragupta
II. In his important travelogue, ‘A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms,’ he describes his
journey. His accounts tell us about the economic prosperity and administration of the
Gupta age.
● Huen Tsang
⮚ Period of stay in India: 630 AD – 645 AD.
⮚ Chinese travellers visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana.
⮚ On his journey, he visited several places and took careful note of the country’s social,
religious, political, cultural, and economic conditions.
⮚ In his book ‘Si-yu-ki,’ or ‘Record of the Western Countries,’ he wrote a detailed
description of India.
● Al-Biruni
⮚ He came from Uzbekistan (eleventh century).
 ⮚ He was well proficient in several languages: Syriac, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew and
Sanskrit.
⮚ The Kitab-ul-Hind, written in Arabic by Al-Biruni, comprised chapters covering religion
and philosophy, social life, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, weights and measures,
iconography, rules, and metrology.
● Ibn Battuta
⮚ This Moroccan traveller, born in Tangier, had made pilgrimages to Mecca before
setting off for India in 1332-33.
⮚ Ibn Battuta arrived in Sind in 1333 after travelling overland through Central Asia.
⮚ Visited India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
⮚ Ibn Battuta’s travel book, Rihla, is written in Arabic and contains a wealth of
information about the social and cultural life of the subcontinent in the 14th century.
● Abdur Razzaq
⮚ He visited south India in the 1440s. He wrote one of the most valuable accounts of
Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century.
● François Bernier
⮚ He was a French doctor, political philosopher, and historian.
⮚ From 1656 to 1668, he lived in India for twelve years and was closely associated with
the Mughal court, first as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, Emperor Shah Jahan’s
eldest son, and later as an intellectual and scientist with Danishmand Khan, an
Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
⮚ He wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’.

Bhakti Literature
Bhakti and Sufi Movement
● Bhakti movement is considered a cultural revolution against the ill practices carried out in
Hinduism during the Medieval period of India. This cultural revolution had a very significant
impact on the treasure of Indian literature. This literary work was mainly written by
elaborating new forms of devotion towards the god and focussed on the close relationship
between the devotee and deity.
● Alvars And Nayanars
⮚ Bhakti literature started to be composed in the 6th Century AD in South India by the
Tamil poet-saints.
 ⮚ Through the Divya Prabandha, the devotional poetry of Vishnu devotees, the Alvars
expanded Vaishnavism.
o The Alvars were 12 in number. Tiruvaymoli was written by Nammalvar and is
highly revered by Vaishnavas.
o The only female among the Alvars was Andal whose collection of poems,
celebrated as Tiruppavai, enjoys great popularity even in present times for its
touching fervour and simplicity.
⮚ Nayanars, who are devotees of Shiva, wrote the Thirumurai, a collection of devotional
poetry called the Tamil Veda. There were 63 Nayanars. Of the 12 volumes that make
up this collection, the first seven volumes are classified as Thevaram, which includes
hymns and songs praising Lord Shiva.
● Bhakti Movement’s Contribution to North India
⮚ During the 12th century AD, the pioneer admirer of the Bhakti movement in North
India was Ramananda. This resulted in huge growth in literature including in various
languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, etc.
⮚ ‘Ramcharitmanas’ and ‘Hanuman Chalisa’ are the famous works of Tulsidas. The
main contribution of Tulsidas was, that he made sacred texts and Ramayana
accessible to every person. The contribution of Tulsidas is so precious, hence his
works, including verses and phrases, have a very significant place in Hindi speaking
regions because of the use of the common Hindi dialect.
⮚ As an admired poet by Hindus, Muslims as well as Sikhs, Kabir wrote in his own
vernacular. His works were primarily composed of two lines, often called 'Dohe', but
they were not strictly grammatically correct. He used metaphors and similes from
everyday life, through which he expanded his philosophical understanding. Many of
his verses are included in the holy book of the Sikhs, the Guru Granth Sahib.
⮚ Mirabai was the most famous lady saint of the Bhakti movement. She composed
various devotional songs, known as Bhajans, to express her love and devotion to Lord
Krishna. Even today her bhajans are highly valued literary works and they are still
listened to during the auspicious and festival times. It is said that Meerabai has written
more than 1300 songs in her repertoire that represent passion, eroticism, and
complete surrender to Lord Krishna.
⮚ Surdas was a blind poet who composed songs tributing to Lord Krishna. There are
approximately 8000 poems that have survived from Surdas' collection of more than
1,00,000 poems. The language he used to compose was Braj Bhasha (Hindi dialect),
 which eventually gained the status of literary language because of his compositions.
⮚ Jagadeva has written popular poetic texts during the Bhakti period in devotion to Lord
Krishna and thus famous sacred text called "Gita Govinda". This poetic text of Jagdeva
celebrated the love between Radha and Krishna. It is considered this work laid the
foundation for the evolution and development of Bengali literature. This famous
work is considered a mix of passion, devotion, and lyricism.
⮚ Vaishnava poets Chaitanya and Chandidasa were famous in Bengal. They produced
eroticism combined with spiritual fervour in their poetry.
⮚ Among the Vaishnava saints of Assam were Shankara Deva and Madhavadeva.
Kirtana-ghost features devotional songs composed by both of them, but mostly by
Shankara Deva. Bhattadeva had translated the Bhagavad Gita into Assamese, which
led to the enrichment of Assamese prose.
⮚ Gujarati literature was developed under the influence of Vaishnava Bhakti through
the works of Narasimha Mehta, Akho, and Bhalana. Narasimha Mehta is considered
the father of Gujarati poetry.
⮚ Accordingly, the works of Jnanadeva (also known as Jnaneshwari) and Amrutanubhav
are considered sacred in Marathi. In the present time, there is also great fame for the
works of Namdev and Tukaram, who rebelled against the Sanskrit elite to write
devotional literature in Marathi.
● Bhakti Movement’s Role in The Development of Telugu and Kannada
⮚ The Bhakti movement has played a very significant role in promoting and growth of
local languages like Kannada and Telugu in the southern part of India. The trio jewel
Pampa, Ponna and Ranna have written significant literature in the Kannada language,
which also helped in language development.
⮚ The Telugu literature has been greatly enriched by the various saint poets, during the
Bhakti movement, including kirtan verses written in the devotion of Lord Vishnu by
Annamacharya, in the 11th century Nannay translated Mahabharata into Telugu and
Vallabhacharya have written texts like Bhagavata Tika and Subodhami.
⮚ At the time of the Bhakti Movement, in south India, another religious movement was
started which was called as Virashaiva movement and the pioneer of this movement
was Basaveshwara. He used the Kannada language as a medium to reach the
common masses as well as for teaching and instruction purposes.
o His contemporaries like Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi invented a new
kind of prose composition called the Vachanas. Noted for their directness,
 ease, and poetic beauty, they played a significant role in enriching Kannada
literature.
⮚ As a result of Bhakti literature, the Bhakti cult was popularized. It marked a
conceptual leap from earlier devotional literature, which was based primarily in
Sanskrit and centred on rites and rituals. Bhakti literature also popularised spirituality
among the common people.

Hindi Literature
● Prithviraj Raso
⮚ The book reports the exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan and is said to be the first book in
Hindi. It is credited to Chand Bardai, who, according to the text, was a court poet of
the king.
● Padmavat
⮚ A poem describes the story of the historic siege of Chittor by Alauddin Khilji in 1303,
who attacked Chittor after being made aware of the beauty of Queen Rani Padmini
who was the wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This book was composed in Awadhi by
Malik Muhammad Jayasi. His other important works are Akhrawat and Akhiri Kalaam.

Other Regional Languages

 Figure 13.1: Literature in other Regional Languages

Modern History Literature

● An increasing dissatisfaction against British rule in India began in the 19th century, giving rise
to a planned national movement. Inspired by this movement, a corpus of literature surfaced
that contributed to the growth and spread of nationalist sentiments across various regions of
the country and among the different sections of Indian people.

Miscellaneous Work
● Apart from the freedom struggle, the social and religious reforms underway in Indian society
since the early 19th century also added to the spread of nationalist literature.
● Bharatendu Harischandra wrote Andher Nagari (city of darkness), a drama on the sad state
of matters in urban India under British rule. He highlighted the administrative inefficiency of
the British officials and the corruption being done to them. He also wrote Bharat Durdasha
which became a well-known nationalist work.
● The works of Munshi Premchand (Godhan) and Deenbandhu Mitra (Neel Darpan)
emphasised the struggles faced by the poor in India.
● Raja Rammohan Roy wrote several works that formed the basis of his reform agenda,
influenced by modern western ideas. In his Gift to Monotheists, Roy emphasised
monotheism. Roy also brought out many English, Hindi, Bengali, and Persian journals to
educate public opinion and take the public’s grievances to the government.
● Debendranath Tagore wrote Tattvabodhini Patrika, which endorsed a rational outlook and a
systematic study of India’s past.
● The first nationalist poet of modern India, Henry Vivian Derozio stimulated his pupils to think
freely and rationally, opposing any forms of traditional or customary oppression as well as for
women's equality as well as their right to education.
● By publishing his weekly Darpan, Bal Shastri Jambekar sought to reform Hinduism and disturb
Brahmanical orthodoxy.
● Jyotiba Phule’s Gulamgiri is work on Brahminical supremacy, and the discrimination faced by
the Shudras. He promoted an end to the caste system and the abolition of socioeconomic
inequalities through his work. Gulamgiri played an important role in the backward class
movement in the early 20th century.
● Dayanand Saraswati wrote Satyarth Prakash in which he presented his vision of a classless
and casteless society, as well as a united, free India (from imperialism).
● Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a Muslim leader, founded a magazine called Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq that
promoted progressive ideas, such as supporting education for women and opposing purdah
and polygamy, among others.
● Our national song, Vande Mataram, was composed by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and was
included in his novel Anand Math, one of the greatest works of nationalist literature. By
tackling colonialism, Bankim created a space for nationalist writings in Indian literature.
● In his writings, Rabindranath Tagore emphasized federalism and the idea that India's unity
could only come through unity in diversity.
⮚ Through his novel Gora, Tagore confronted colonial rule and inspired the national
movement.
⮚ The national anthem of India, Jana Gana Mana, is a product of his nationalistic
literature.
● Throughout their literary works, Sharath Chandra Chatterjee and R. C. Dutt also promoted
the nationalist movement and contributed significantly to Bengali literature.
Economic Critique
● The moderate nationalists generated another type of nationalist literature in the form of
economic critique of British rule.
● Dadabhai Naoroji had put forward the theory of the Drain of Wealth that disguised those
British economic policies directly resulting in a significant outflow of national wealth from
India annually. A drain resulted from such an outflow because India did not get anything in
return.
● Romesh Chandra Dutt calculated how much capital was lost during the period of British rule
in his work (The Economic History of India).
● In terms of economics, the British were no longer able to justify colonial rule on the basis of
the White Man's Burden, and thus to civilise and rule over us for their own benefit.
● As a result of the critique, nationalist leaders invented protest devices such as Swadeshi and
Boycott, taking the freedom struggle to the next level.

Contribution By Others
● Mahatma Gandhi
⮚ The English language now became a sharp and strong tool in the hands of Gandhiji,
who edited and wrote for papers like ‘Young India’ and ‘Harijan.’
⮚ Gandhiji also wrote his autobiography, ‘My Experiments with Truth,’ celebrated for
its literary flair. His ‘Hind Swaraj’ played a very important role in the growth of the
national movement.
● Aurobindo Ghosh
⮚ He was a well-known philosopher, poet, and sage. He used poems as the main form
of mediation. He contributed to English literature by writing an epic called Savitri and
Life Divine in 2 volumes.
● Sarojini Naidu
⮚ Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) was a renowned poetess whose romanticism enamoured
readers in India and Europe.
⮚ Her Golden Threshold (1905) and The Broken Wing (1917) are works of great literary
merit.
● Jawaharlal Nehru
⮚ Although he was a well known and recognised leader, he also contributed well to
literature by writing.
 ⮚ He is chiefly remembered for his Glimpses of World History, Discovery of India and
an Autobiography.
● Bhagat Singh
⮚ ‘Why I am an Atheist’ is an essay written by Bhagat Singh in Lahore Central Jail in
1930. This was written in response to a religious man who thought Bhagat Singh
became an atheist out of vanity.
● Mulk Raj Anand
⮚ Mulk Raj Anand (1905), popularly known for his short story ‘The Lost Child’, has
written several works of prose, poetry, and drama.
⮚ His novels Coolie (1933), Untouchable (1935), and The Woman and the Cow (1960)
reveal his worry for the downtrodden and underprivileged in India.
● R.K. Narayan
⮚ He was known for his excellent creative and imaginative writings and contributions to
Indian English writings. A great example of his work is his first novel called, Swami and
Friends written in 1935 in an imaginative and fictional place called ‘Malgudi’. In which
he explained the Indian ethos, which has an entirely distinct identity of its own.
⮚ Malgudi days is perhaps the single most appealing work R.K. Narayan has been
created. Some of his popular novels including, Bachelor of Arts (1937), The Financial
Expert (1952), The Guide (1959), and Waiting for the Mahatma (1955) are his other
famous novels.
 Figure 13.2: Mughal Period Literature

Classical Languages in India

● At Present, six languages have been designated as ‘Classical’ languages: Tamil (2004),
Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014). The
criteria for classifying a language as ‘Classical’ are as follows:
⮚ A remarkably long history of written text/recorded history, stretching back roughly
1500-2000 years.
⮚ A body of ancient literature/texts is regarded as a valuable legacy or heritage by
generations of speakers.
⮚ The literary tradition must be original and unique and not copied from another
speech community.
● With classical literature and language distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity
between the classical language and its later forms or offshoots.

Schools of Philosophy
● In ancient Indian literature, philosophy has a long history. Several thinkers were interested in
the mysterious existence of life and death and the powers beyond them.
● There are sometimes overlaps between religious denominations and the doctrine that they
support. When the state and varna split social order, the differences between different
philosophical schools crystallised and became the mainstay of the Indian sub-continent.
Orthodox School
● In this school, important literature and works include the Vedas. As per this school,
Vedas are supreme scriptures which are having secrets to attain salvation. Vedas have 6
schools Samakhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
● Samkhya School
⮚ This is the oldest philosophical school, founded by Kapil Muni, credited with writing
the Samkhya Sutra. The word ‘Samkhya’ or ‘Sankhya’ means ‘count’ in Sanskrit. It is
possible to achieve salvation through gaining knowledge. The root cause of man’s
suffering is thought to be a lack of understanding.
⮚ Samakhya school mainly believed in dualism which was also called “dvaitavada”. As
per this belief soul and matter are 2 different entities. Hence it is considered that it is
the cornerstone of all the true knowledge.
⮚ Three key principles can be used to obtain this knowledge.
 o Pratyaksha: Perception
o Anumana: Inference
o Shabda: Hearing
⮚ Samakhya school was popular for its scientific investigation methods. As per the final
philosophy of this school, the Purusha and Prakriti are the completely independent
base of the truth.
o Purusha is linked to consciousness and cannot be modified or altered because
it resembles male characteristics.
o On the other hand, Prakriti is made up of three main characteristics: thought,
movement, and transformation.
● Yoga School
⮚ Yoga translates to “union of two large entities.” They claim that by incorporating
meditation with the physical practice of yogic methods, humans can attain
redemption. These techniques, it is said, lead to Purusha’s liberation from the Prakriti
and, as a result, to salvation.
⮚ The Yogasutra of Patanjali, which is tentatively dated to the 2nd century BC, describes
the origins of Yoga and the school. The physical component of this school focuses on
exercises in different postures, also known as asanas. The word “pranayama” refers
to several breathing exercises.
⮚ The Yoga school favours these exercises because they aid in controlling the mind,
body, and sensory organs. They claim that these exercises can be beneficial if one
believes in God as a guide, tutor, and instructor. They would assist the individual in
moving away from worldly things and achieving the focus needed for salvation.
● Nyaya School
⮚ They believe in the methodology of critical reasoning to attain redemption, as the
name of the school implies. They regard life, death, and redemption as enigmas that
can be deciphered by rational and empirical reasoning. Gautama, who is also known
as the author of the Nyaya Sutra, is said to have created this school of thought.
⮚ The school believes that a human being can verify the validity of a proposition or
argument using logical methods such as inference, listening, and analogy. It holds that
God not only created but also sustains and destroys the world. The emphasis in this
theory was always on systematic logic and thought.
● Vaisheshika School
⮚ The Vaisheshika school is a logical and rational philosophy that rules the universe. A
physical universe is what it believes in. The basic text regulating Vaisheshika
philosophy was written by Kanada, also regarded as the school’s founder.
⮚ They say that the five primary elements of fire, air, water, earth, and ether formed
everything in the universe (sky). Dravya is another name for these material elements.
They also assert that truth is divided into various categories, such as attribute,
behaviour, genus, inherence, substance, and distinct consistency.
⮚ Because of this school’s scientific bent, they also established the atomic theory,
which claims that all material objects are made up of atoms. They say that atoms and
molecules joined to form matter, which is the foundation for all that can be physically
touched or observed to explain the phenomena of this world. This school was also the
birthplace of physics in the Indian subcontinent.
⮚ They are thought to be the promoters of the universe’s mechanical creation process.
o They believe in God and consider him the guiding force, despite their reasons
for scientific reasoning.
o They also assume that the rules of karma govern this universe and that
everything is determined by human behaviour. Our acts decide whether or
not we are praised or punished.
o God establishes the merits and demerits of our deeds, and man is sentenced
to either heaven or hell as a result.
o They also believed in redemption, but it was in tandem with the cyclic process
of the universe’s creation and death, which was dictated by God’s wishes.
● Mimamsa School
⮚ Mimamsa literally translates to “the art of reasoning, interpretation, and
application”. This school focuses on the interpretation of Vedic texts such as the
Samhita and Brahmana. They say that the Vedas are the repository of all wisdom and
contain the eternal truth. If one wishes to obtain religious merit, heaven, and
redemption, one must perform all the duties prescribed by the Vedas.
o The Sutras of Jaimini, which were supposedly compiled in the 3rd century BC,
are the texts that explain Mimamsa philosophy in detail. Two of their most
ardent supporters, Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta, made further inroads
into philosophy.
 ⮚ They argue that performing rituals can lead to salvation but that understanding the
justification and rationale behind Vedic rituals is also needed. It was important to
comprehend this logic if one desired to execute the rituals flawlessly and achieve
salvation.
o Their deeds determined the merits and demerits of a person, and a person
would enjoy the bliss of heaven as long as their meritorious acts lasted.
o They will not, however, be exempt from the cycle of life and death. They will
be able to break free from this never-ending loop until they have found
redemption.
⮚ The key emphasis of this philosophy was on the Vedic ritualistic aspect, i.e.,
performing Vedic rituals to attain salvation. Since most people did not understand
the rites, they would have to enlist the aid of priests. Consequently, this philosophy
indirectly legitimised the social division between groups. The Brahmans used this to
retain their power over citizens, and they continued to rule the social hierarchy.
● Vedanta School
⮚ Vedanta is made up of two words: Veda and Ant, which refers to the end of the
Vedas. This school adheres to the life philosophies outlined in the Upanishads. The
Brahma Sutras of Badarayana is the oldest text on which this philosophy is based.
According to the theory, Brahm is the truth of creation, while everything else is
imaginary or Maya.
⮚ In addition, the Atma, or self-consciousness, is identical to the Brahm. This claim
equates to Atma and Brahma, implying that if an individual achieves self-knowledge,
he will immediately comprehend Brahm and achieve salvation.
⮚ This logic would render Brahma and Atma immortal and indestructible. This theory
had social consequences, in that true spirituality was implicit in the unchanging social
and material circumstances in which an individual was born and placed.
⮚ But, thanks to the philosophical intervention of Shankaracharya, who wrote
commentaries on the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita in the 9th Century AD, this
philosophy developed. Advaita Vedanta arose from his transformations. Ramanujan,
who lived in the 12th Century AD, was another important philosopher of this school.
⮚ Shankaracharya’s View: Brahm, he believes, is stripped of all qualities. He finds
jnana/Gyan, or knowledge, to be the primary means of salvation.
⮚ Ramanujan’s View: He considers Brahm to possess certain attributes. The key to
salvation, he believes, is to love the faith and practise obedience.
Heterodox School
● The Naastikaas or the heterodox thinkers are those who questioned the authority of the Veda.
They were particularly concerned about three issues:
⮚ the authority of the Veda concerning matters of the spirit,
⮚ the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices and
⮚ the supremacy of the Brahmin.
● History records many movements opposed to orthodox religion. The most prominent as they
find constant mention in the polemical treatises of orthodox schools: Charvaka, Buddhism
and Jainism.
Charvaka School or Lokayata Philosophy
● Brihaspati laid the foundation stone for this school, which is thought to be the first to establish
a philosophical theory. Lokayata often denoted a strong connection to the physical and
material world (Loka).
● They argued that every universe outside this one populated by a human should be completely
ignored. They rejected the presence of any supernatural or spiritual agent capable of
regulating our actions in this world.
● They claimed that redemption was unnecessary and rejected the presence of Brahm and God.
They were believers in everything that could be touched and sensed through the human
senses.
● A few of their main teachings are:
⮚ They pleaded with Gods and their earthly leaders, the priestly class. They said that a
Brahman fabricates fake rituals to obtain gifts (Dakshina) from his devotees.
⮚ Man is at the centre of all things, and he can have fun for the rest of his life. He should
eat everything on the planet and enjoy sensual pleasures.
⮚ Since ether cannot be perceived by thought, the Charvakas do not consider it to be
one of the five fundamental elements. As a result, they believe that the universe
comprises only four elements: fire, earth, water, and air.
⮚ This school contends that since there is no other universe beyond this one, death is
the ultimate goal of life, and happiness should be the ultimate goal of life. So, they
formulated the principle of ‘eat, drink and make merry’.
Buddhism Philosophy
● “Buddhism” discusses the teachings of the practical teachings of the Buddha (early Buddhism),
which were carried forward almost faithfully by all the followers of Buddhism.
 ● Buddha was against the social rigidity practising in Brahmanical order.
⮚ He was strongly against priestly domination.
● The caste system was rejected by Buddhism when it emerged during later periods.
● They do not believe in Idol Worship (Hinayana).
Jainism Philosophy
● The philosophical teachings of “Jainism,” which is a very old form of heterodox system
repudiate the teachings of the Vedas. The word ‘Jainism’ is derived from ‘Jina’ which means
conqueror, i.e., one who has conquered one’s passions and desires.
● Mahavira denied the existence of God. He emphasised that the universe continues on its own
through the cycle of rising (Utsarpani) & the cycle of fall (Avasarpani).
● Jaina philosophy believes that all those living things have jiva, meaning soul in its body or
physical structure. As per Jainism soul is impure because it is bound by different actions,
however in order to attain true knowledge or moksha the soul should be pure and free from
all the boundations and actions which may make the soul impure or pollute it.
Ajivikas
● This school was founded in the 5th century BC by Makkhali Gosala, who founded a school
which is today known as Ajivikas. Niyati (fate) i.e., the doctrine of an absolute determinism
is the foundational philosophy of this school.
● This school has no belief in the doctrine of karma since they have a belief that there is no
free will and everything which has happened, is occurring, or will occur in future is
predetermined and dependent on cosmic concepts.
● About the creation of the world, they believe in the atomic principle. As per this principle,
everything in this world is made up of atoms. They believe that different qualities arise from
predetermined aggregates of atoms.
● Ajivikas were atheist. They rejected both Buddhism and Jainism. They live a very simple
and ascetic life which is devoid of clothing or material possessions.
● Ajivikas criticised Jainism and Buddhism. They do not believe in the doctrine of karma.
● Like Buddhism and Jainism, they have also rejected the authority of Vedas. They differ
from Jainism on the basis of the type of soul. Jainism believes in formless souls whereas
ajivikas believe in material souls.
● Bindusara (4th Century BC) was one of the important followers.
● Savatthi (Sravasti) in Uttar Pradesh is the locus for the development of the ajivikas sect.
● Ajivikas are mentioned in Ashoka’s seventh pillar edicts, but the sect’s texts are currently
unavailable. But this sect has lost its glory today.
Conclusion
Indian literature, one of the most ancient of literature, has been exemplary for the rest of the world.
Using literature, humans have been given the ability to express history, and ideas, tell stories, publish
philosophy, question society and examine laws, rules and government. One can learn from the
literature of other cultures as well as their own. Literature from the past has even given archetypes
to use in modern writing as well.

Chapter 14| Indian Puppetry and Martial Arts in India

Index
Introduction
Indian Puppetry
Origin of Puppetry in India
Categorisation of Puppetry
String Puppets
Shadow Puppets
Glove Puppets
Rod Puppets
Martial Arts in India
Kalaripayattu
Silambam
Gatka
Musti Yuddha
Thang-Ta
Lathi
Mardani Khel
Pari-Khanda
Kathi Samu
Inbuan Wrestling
Cheibi Gadga
Sarit-Sarak
Thoda
Mukna
 Lakna-Phanaba
Karra Samu
Conclusion
Introduction
Throughout history, puppetry has played an important role in traditional entertainment. Like
traditional theatre, puppet theatre topics are frequently inspired by epics and tales. India also boasts
a thriving martial arts tradition that can be found throughout the country.
Indian Puppetry
● Puppetry is a type of entertainment that dates back thousands of years.
⮚ Puppetries, with their indication of a master controlling them, are a captivating
experience. However, performances, with their low cost of production, are popular
with freelance artists.
⮚ One of the most brilliant innovations of mankind is artistic expression, which is
granted freedom in form, design, colour, and movement.
⮚ The relevance of puppetry has increased due to its higher influential capability,
particularly in education and awareness about social issues.
Origin of Puppetry in India
● India has long been fascinated by puppetry, both for educational and entertainment purposes.
Puppets with sockets have been discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, suggesting that
puppetry was a kind of art.
● The first known reference to puppetry is found in the Tamil classic Silappadikaram, written
between the 1st and 2nd century BC.
● Even though there exist some references to puppetry in mythology and art.
● The lack of a dedicated audience for this art form, as well as financial insecurity, have been
significant factors in its demise.
Categorisation of Puppetry
● String Puppet: Kathputli, Kundhei, Gombeyatta, Bommalattam.

● Shadow Puppet: Togalu Gombeyaata, Ravan Chhaya, Tholu Bommalata.

● Glove Puppet: Pavakoothu.

● Rod Puppet: Yampuri, Putul Nachh.

String Puppets
● The puppets are made of wood and are 9 inches tall. Oil colour is used to match the colour of
the wood to the colour of the skin, as well as to paint features like eyes, noses, and other facial
features. Small pieces of jewellery and strings are attached to the puppets' hands, heads, and
backs, and a puppeteer controls the strings to give them a lifelike appearance.
⮚ Kathputli: Kathputli, which means "wooden doll," refers to traditional string puppets
from Rajasthan. The puppets are dressed in traditional Rajasthani attire that is bright
and colourful. The show is accompanied by dramatic folk music. Puppets have string
attachments on their fingers and no legs.

Figure 14.1: Kathputli

⮚ Kundhei: Wooden puppets from Odisha are called Kundhei. They're composed of
light wood and wear short skirts. They feature more joints, which allows the
puppeteer to move around more freely during the performance. Strings are tied to a
triangular prop that serves as a prop.

Figure 14.2: Kundhei Nata

⮚ Gombayetta: This is a traditional theatre from the state of Karnataka, influenced by
the Karnataka Yakshagana theatre.
⮚ Bommalattam: It is Tamil Nadu's original form of art. In most situations, more than
one puppeteer is present to handle each puppet. The strings of the puppet are held
together by an iron ring. This ring is worn by the puppeteer on his head. The
Bommalattam puppets are India's largest and heaviest marionettes. Some people
stand up to 5 feet tall and weigh up to 10 kilogrammes.
 Figure 14.3: Bommalattam
Shadow Puppets
● The leather figures are constructed of leather and are flat, painted on both sides. When a
white screen is lit from behind by a puppet scene, a shadow effect is formed on the screen.
The puppets are positioned on the blank screen to create intriguing silhouettes. Some
examples of this style of form are as follows:
⮚ Togalu Gombeyaata
o Karnataka's most popular theatre performances.
o The size of the puppets changes depending on the social status of the figure.
o As a result, rulers are shown as being larger than ordinary people.
⮚ Ravan Chhaya

o This is a popular kind of entertainment in Odisha.

o Puppets with no joints are used in the show, which necessitates a high level
of talent in order to operate.
o There are other puppets that aren't human.

Figure 14.4: Ravan Chhaya

⮚ Tholu Bomayatta
o Andhra Pradesh's theatre is shadow puppetry. It is based on Purana mythical
legends and is performed with classical music. Puppets are larger and have
coloured surfaces on both sides.
 Figure 14.5: Tholu Bomayatta
Glove Puppets
● The puppets are worn on the puppeteers' hands like gloves, and the puppeteer controls the
puppet with his index and thumb.
● The performances are accompanied by dholaks or rhythmic beats.
● Pavakoothu is an example of this form of puppetry.
⮚ It's a puppet show from Kerala that's been passed down through the generations.
⮚ This theatre has been influenced by the Kathakali dance genre.
⮚ The plays are based on the Ramayana and Mahabharata in a broad sense.

Figure 14.6: Pavakoothu

Rod Puppets
● It comprises a variety of hand puppets and is popular in Eastern India.
⮚ Yampuri
o Traditional rod puppet from Bihar.
o Puppets are made entirely of wood and have no joints.
o They are made of wood and are colourfully painted and ornamented.

Figure 14.7: Yampuri

 ⮚ Putul Nach
o The puppeteer manipulates the puppets with a rod linked to his waist in this
traditional style of art from Bengal, Odisha, and Assam.
o Along with the show, a musical ensemble performs.

Figure 14.8: Putul Nach

Martial Arts in India

● The majority of ancient civilisations around the world possessed a well-trained and disciplined
militia. The preservation and security of indigenous traditions necessitated an understanding
of such combat skills.
● Shaolin was developed in ancient China to safeguard the Shaolin monastery from bandits.
Traditionally, Japanese Samurai were expected to be proficient in a wide range of weapons,
but also in unarmed combat, and to attain the highest degree of proficiency. Gladiators with
their combat knowledge in sword, spear and shield were famed in Rome. India, too, had a
variety of martial arts at the time, many of which have survived the test of time.
Kalaripayattu
● Kalaripayattu, a well-known Kerala-based Indian martial art, is considered one of the world's
oldest combat techniques. It is practised in most parts of south India. A Kalari, or martial arts
training hall, school, or other sites where martial arts are taught, is known as a Kalari.

Figure 14.8: Kalaripayattu

 ● Kalaripayattu includes strikes, kicks, and some weapon-based activities, but footwork patterns
are the most significant feature. It is the best Indian martial technique, and it has been
popularised because of films like Ashoka and the Myth.
Silambam
● It is a weapon-based Indian martial art from Tamil Nadu. Silambam employs a variety of
weapons, some of which have no counterparts anywhere else on the earth.

Figure 14.9: Silambam

● Animal motions such as snake, tiger, and eagle shapes, as well as walking patterns, will be
included in Silambam art. Kuttu varisai, a sort of unarmed martial art, is the other half.
Gatka

Figure 14.10: Gatka

● Gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art that was primarily established by Punjabi Sikhs.
Gatka's weapons include the stick, talwar, kirpan, and kataar. Depending on the hand or foot
stance and the weapons used, the attacking and defending techniques will change. It is also
presented during numerous festivals and fairs in Punjab.
Musti Yuddha
● Punches, kicks, knees, and elbow blows are used in this unarmed martial art form from
"Varanasi". It consists of a combination of physical, mental, and spiritual development.
● Despite its lack of visibility, this artwork was highly popular in middle age.
Thang-Ta
 Figure 14.11: Thang-Ta
● Thang-Ta is the ancient Manipuri Martial Art, also known as Huyen Langlon. This Manipuri
martial art, which employs swords and spears, is a formidable yet gracefully complicated skill.
Lathi
● The earliest armed martial art in India is the lathi, and there are many other forms of stick
martial arts practised in India's Punjab and Bengal regions.

Figure 14.12: Lathi

● In martial arts, the lathi is one of the oldest weapons. In many Indian communities, it is still a
popular pastime.
Mardani Khel
● Mardani Khel is a Maratha-developed armed martial art system. Kolhapur is the home of
Maharashtra's traditional martial art.
Pari-Khanda
● The sword and shield fighting method of Bihar's Pari-khanda. This work of art was created by
the Rajputs. Pari Khanda's motions and methods are included in Chau dance.
Kathi Samu
● Kathi Samu is an ancient Indian martial style that originated in Andhra Pradesh and was
utilised by masters of the state's royal troops.
● The martial art is also acknowledged as Sword Fighting.
Inbuan Wrestling
● In Mizoram, it is an unarmed kind of wrestling in which the opponent attempts to knock the
opponent off his feet strictly according to the rules; no kicking, stepping out of the circle, or
knee bending is permitted.
 Figure 14.13: Inbuan Wrestling
● A wrestler's belt must be tight around the waist at all times when wrestling.
Cheibi Gadga
● It is a weapon Based martial art in Manipur.
● Plays with a sword and shield; victory is based on skill rather than muscle power.
Sarit-Sarak
● It is an unarmed Type of martial art of Manipur.
● It may be used to battle armed or unarmed opponents, and it excels at both evasive and
attacking manoeuvres.
Thoda
● It is a Mahabharata-era weapon-based martial technique that originated in Himachal
Pradesh.
● It is generally based on archery skills.
● The arrow's head is fastened to a spherical piece of wood.
Mukna
● It is a Manipuri form of unarmed wrestling in which two men wrestle while wearing cloth
bands around their waists, with the winner always on top of the loser.
Lakna-Phanaba
● It is the unarmed wrestling of Manipur.
Karra Samu
● It is a stick fight in Andhra Pradesh.

Conclusion
Various ancient war skills gave way to many Indian martial arts. It also finds and inspires Indian yoga,
dance and performing arts. As with Indian dances, many of the routines of the martial arts have
influenced Indian dance. Likewise, Indian puppetry is as diverse as the many cultures in India. Several
regional genres make it one of the richest Indian cultural heritages
 Chapter 15| Indian Culture, Festivals, and Calendars

Index
Introduction
Calendars in India
Hindu Calendar
Classification of Indian Calendar Forms
Vikram Samvat
Saka Samvat
National Calendar of India
Awards and Honours
Awards Given by Government of India
Bharat Ratna
Padma Awards
Padma Vibhushan
Padma Bhushan
Padma Shri
Sahitya Akademi Award
Other Literary Honours
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
Bhasha Samman
Jnanpith Award
Saraswati Samman
Dada Saheb Phalke Award
Cultural Institutions in India
The Archaeological Survey of India
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
All India Radio
Centre For Cultural Resources and Training
National Archives of India (NAI)
Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
Sangeet Natak Akademi
Lalit Kala Akademi
Festivals Of India
National Festivals
Religious Festivals
Hindu Festivals
Muslim Festivals
Christian Festivals
Sikhs Festivals
Jain Festivals
Buddhist Festivals
Sindhi Festivals
Parsi or Zoroastrian Festivals
Secular Festivals
Khajuraho Dance Festival
Tyagaraja Aradhana
Onam
Pongal
Festivals Of North-East India
Saga Dawa (Triple Blessed Festival)
Losoong Festival
Bihu Festival
Hornbill Festival
Moatsu Mong festival
Kharchi Puja
Dree Festival
Conclusion
Introduction
India is famous all over the world for its culture and tradition. It is a country where people of more
than one religious culture live together. It is amongst the oldest civilisations globally, with the vital
components of Indian culture being etiquette, civilised communication, rituals, beliefs, values, etc.
In India, people are highly devoted to their culture and believe in maintaining social relations. Different
religions have their own culture and tradition in India, along with their festival and fair, and they
celebrate it according to their rituals.
Calendars In India
● In a calendar, each day is designated by its corresponding time cycle, usually day, week,
month, or year. Under such a scheme, each date is designated by a single word. A calendar is
a tangible record of such a method (often made of paper).
● Various systems for marking the start of a new year have become common in India multiple
times. The method used to frame calendars in different parts of India falls into one of three
categories:
⮚ Lunar System
⮚ Solar System
⮚ Luni-Solar System
● These systems are based on astronomical years, which observe the passage of celestial
bodies, and are used in various calendars. These systems are responsible for the following
names:
⮚ Lunar Year: The lunar year comprises 12 months, or lunations, much like the solar
year. On the other hand, each lunation is a synodic month, as defined by the time
between two consecutive full moons or new moons. As the duration of a lunar month
ranges from 29.26 to 29.80 days, it has 354 days, 11 days less than the solar year. This
disparity is compensated for by intercalation or suppression, which aligns the lunar
and solar calendars. An intercalary month is added to the lunar calendar every two
years and six months to match it with the solar calendar. Adhik Masa is the name
given to this extra month, also known as an intercalary month.
⮚ Solar Year: It denotes the amount of time the earth spends rotating in its orbit around
the Sun, passing through a point on the ecliptic, such as the solstice or equinox, to
which it returns after its journey is completed. There are 365 days, 5 hours, 48
minutes, and 46 seconds in a solar year. The closest correspondence between the year
and the seasons is maintained by this method. The solar year has a total of 12
months.
⮚ Luni-Solar Year: As in Hindu calendars, the year is determined by the solar cycle, and
lunar divisions calculate the months; the change between the two is made by
intercalation and suppression of days and months.
Hindu Calendar
● Year, month, paksha, tithi, and ghatika, or alternatively, tithi, vaara, nakshatra, yoga, and
karana, are all considered by Panchanga, or the Hindu Calendar. The twelve rashis through
 which the Sun moves each year are named after a constellation of stars known as the
Nakshatras.
● There are a total of 28 nakshatras or constellations. Because of their different sizes,
Nakshatras do not all have the same number of stars; some only have one or two. Two to
three nakshatras make up each Rashi. The Hindu Calendar splits the solar year into two halves:
⮚ Uttarayana: It lasts six months, from Makar Sankranti to Karka Sankranti, or from
Paush (January) to Ashadh (June).
⮚ Dakshinayana: It lasts six months, from July to December.
Classification of Indian Calendar Forms
● Various types of calendars emerged in India, based on the various eras to which they pertain.
The following are some of them:

Vikram Samvat
● There is still a Vikram era in almost all of India, although the Bengal region has failed to
embrace the era. It began 56 years before the Christian era, in the year 56 BC.
⮚ According to historians, this period was created by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain to
commemorate his victory over the Saka rulers.
⮚ However, many historians believe that Vikram Samvat was founded by the Malwa
Ganarajya, and thus known as the Malwa Gana period and that it was named after
Chandragupta Vikramaditya when he conquered Malwa around 400 AD.
● It is a Lunisolar calendar based on Hindu rituals from the past.
● The solar Gregorian calendar is 56.7 years behind the calendar. The new year begins with the
first day after the new moon in the month of Chaitra, which falls in the Gregorian calendar
months of March–to April. It starts in mid-April in Nepal, marking the start of the solar new
year. There are 354 days in a year, split into 12 months. The Vikram period begins with Kartika
as the first year in most parts of Indian territory.
● The light half and the dark half of each month are split into two halves (fortnights). Vikram
Samvat has an additional month known as Adhik Masa added to it every 3 years and every 5
years, 13 months, to compensate for the discrepancy of 11 days with the solar year. Under
Vikram Samvat, the zero years is 56 BC.
Saka Samvat
● In the year 78 AD, King Shalivahan developed this calendar type. The Saka period was also
known as the Shalivahan era because Shalivahan belonged to this tribe. Historians disagree
about whether Shalivahan was a Saka or a defeated Saka.
⮚ Like the Vikram Samvat, the Saka Calendar is solar and lunar, with lunar months and
solar years and the same number of months as the Vikram period.
⮚ The months, on the other hand, start at different times in this country. It is zero year
starts around the year 78 AD, near the vernal equinox.
⮚ Every year, the Saka Calendar begins on 22nd March, except in Gregorian leap years,
when it begins on 21st March. Each month in the Saka calendar has a fixed number of
days. In a Saka year, there are 365 days.
⮚ Hijri Calendar: This calendar was produced in Arabic. Originally known as Amulfil, it
was renamed Hijri or Hejira after Prophet Mohammed’s death to commemorate his
hijrat, or journey from Mecca to Medina, which occurred in the 52nd year of his life
in 622 AD This year was declared the Hijri era’s zero years.
o This calendar uses a lunar year, which is split into 12 months and has 354 days.
This year, the day begins with a sunset. During the reign of the Muslim rulers
in India, this calendar was adopted. Muharram is the first month of the Hijri
period, during which no business or travel is allowed. 1st Muharram is the
Islamic New Year.
⮚ Gregorian Calendar: It is derived on the birthday of Jesus Christ, the father of
Christianity. It is a solar year that begins on 1st January and lasts for 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes, and 46 seconds. Adding one day to the month of February every four
years was introduced as a means of intercalating the new hours since they couldn't
be used in the calendar for a year. A civil year is a year that follows this calendar
format.
National Calendar of India
● It is formulated based on the Saka Calendar, which is used as the country’s official civil
calendar. It is used in news broadcasts by All India Radio, calendars, and correspondence
documents published under the control of the Government of India, as well as via
notification in the Official Gazette.
● Saka Samvat was the original name of the Saka calendar, which is a Hindu calendar. In the
Hindu religion, it is often used to calculate days of religious significance.
 ● The Calendar Reforms Committee was set up by the Indian government and adopted the Saka
calendar as the National Calendar in 1957.
● After correcting some local errors, the Committee worked to align the astronomical data and
harmonise the use of this calendar. According to the Gregorian calendar, it was first used on
22nd March 1957, which corresponded to Chaitra 1, 1879 in the Saka Samvat.
● It was chosen as India’s National Calendar to harmonise 30 different types of calendars in the
country at the time.

Awards And Honours

● Person and community awards and honours are granted as a token of gratitude or recognition
for extraordinary work. Every year, the Government of India bestows many honours on those
who have excelled in their fields.
Awards Given by the Government of India
Bharat Ratna
● The title Bharat Ratna literally translates to “Jewel of India,” which is the Republic of India’s
highest civilian honour.
● The Bharat Ratna is granted to outstanding people who
have excelled in their fields. It was issued for the first time
in 1954. Originally, this award was presented to artists who
had made significant contributions to art, research,
literature, or public service; however, the standards were
extended in December 2011 to include “any area of
human endeavour”.
● The Prime Minister of India makes recommendations to the
President of India, who selects no more than three individuals for the award in any given year.
Although the awardees do not receive any money, they receive a peepal-leaf shaped medal
and a certificate (sanad).
● Those who receive the Bharat Ratna are numbered seventh in the Indian Order of
Precedence. According to Article 18(1) of the Constitution, the award cannot be used as a
prefix or suffix to the recipient’s name.
Padma Awards
● These awards, founded in 1954, are given to deserving individuals for their outstanding
achievements in social work, art, sports, civil service, education, public relations, literature,
 science and technology, trade and industry, and others. Every year on Republic Day, the
awardees’ names are
revealed.
● The Padma awards are
subject to a variety of rules,
including the following:
⮚ In order to receive a
higher degree of
the Padma award, anyone who has received a lesser degree must have been awarded
that award for the last five years or more.
⮚ Second, awards are seldom granted posthumously, but exceptions may be made if
the case is compelling.
⮚ Third, the accomplishments of the individual to be chosen should include a
component of public service. It should not be focused solely on exceptional
performance in any area but rather on exceptional performance plus.
⮚ Government employees, including those employed by Public Sector Undertakings, are
not eligible for these honours, except for physicians and scientists.
● According to the Government of India, the awards are of three categories:
⮚ Padma Vibhushan: It is the Republic of India’s second most prestigious civilian
award. Those who are honoured with the award are presented with a citation
certificate and a badge with a lotus flower in the centre and the words “Desh Seva”
embossed on the obverse.
⮚ Padma Bhushan: It is the government of India’s third-highest civilian honour, granted
to those who have contributed to India’s international reputation. The President of
India bestows the award at a lavish ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhawan in March or
April.
⮚ Padma Shri: It is the Republic of India’s fourth highest civilian honour, granted by the
government for outstanding contributions to various fields such as literature, arts,
politics, sports, industry, social service, medicine, and so on. The awardee receives a
certificate and a medallion with a three-leafed flower on one side and Padma (lotus)
and Shri (Mr. or Ms.) written in Devanagari script on the other side.
Sahitya Akademi Award
● This is an award presented to those who succeed in the field of literature. This award was
established in 1954 and is granted by the ‘Sahitya
Akademi,’ which is our country’s National Academy
of Letters.
● It is awarded annually to such persons who have
achieved literary merit and developed new trends by
publishing their works, whether prose or poetry, in
any of the Akademi’s 24 major languages.
● The Sahitya Akademi has recognised English and Rajasthani as languages that can be
considered for the award, in addition to the 22 languages mentioned in the Indian
Constitution.
⮚ The competition includes a cash prize of Rs. 1 lakh and a plaque in Devanagari script
that reads “Sahitya.” The plaque was designed by Satyajit Ray, a well-known Indian
filmmaker.

Other Literary Honours

● Sahitya Akademi Fellowship: The Sahitya Akademi Fellowship is a prestigious fellowship
offered by the Akademi. The Akademi’s highest distinction is bestowed upon the ‘Fellows and
Honorary Fellows,’ who are selected solely for their exceptional contributions to the literary
arts.
● Bhasha Samman: Sahitya Akademi also awards these prized authors every year for their
contributions to languages other than the 24 protected languages by the Sahitya Akademi
prize, as well as for classic and medieval literature.
⮚ A plaque and a cash reward of Rs. 1 lakh are included in the Bhasha Samman.
● Jnanpith Award: The Jnanpith Award (Seat of Knowledge) is given for outstanding literary
achievement. The Bharatiya Jnanpith, a trust run by the Jain family famous for establishing
the newspaper Times of India, was founded in 1961.
⮚ The winner gets a bronze statue of 144 Goddess Saraswathi in addition to a plaque
and a cash reward of Rs. 11 lakhs. This award is not offered to those who have passed
away.
 ● Saraswati Samman: It is an annual award granted in any of the 22 Indian languages specified
in Schedule VIII of the Indian Constitution for outstanding prose or poetry literary works.
⮚ It is considered one of India’s top literary awards and is named after an Indian goddess
of learning.
● Dada Saheb Phalke Award: The Dada Saheb Phalke Award was created in 1969 to honour
Dada Saheb Phalke (1870–1944), the legendary film director who produced India’s first full-
length feature film, Raja Harishchandra (1913).
⮚ The Directorate of Film Festivals, which is part of the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, bestows the award.
⮚ The award is presented for outstanding contributions to the growth and development
of Indian cinema and is chosen by a committee of eminent film industry figures.

Cultural Institutions In India

● India's Constitution entrusts the Indian Government with the responsibility to preserve,
conserve, and propagate Indian culture, and there are a number of government and non-
government organizations committed to conserving India's long cultural traditions. The
following are some of the most well-known institutions:
The Archaeological Survey of India
● The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the leading institution for archaeological research
in India, and it is directly under the Ministry of Culture’s aegis.
● The protection of physical and tangible heritage accumulated in ancient ruins and
archaeological sites is its main priority.
● ASI is regulated by the 1958 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act.
The Antiquities and Art Treasure Act of 1972 is another significant piece of legislation that
governs the ASI’s operations.
● The ASI’s mandate under this Act is to avoid the illicit export of Indian antiquities.
Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
● In 1985, the IGNCA was created. IGNCA is a self-contained agency that focuses on arts
research, restoration, exhibition, and dissemination.
● Despite their emphasis on visual and performing arts, they also encourage critical and creative
writing. IGNCA’s main aim is to become a major resource centre for India’s oral and visual art
forms.
All India Radio
● All India Radio is the country’s most well-known public service radio station. It is run by the
Indian government’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Its slogan is “Bahujan Hitaya:
Bahujan Sukhaya,” which literally translates to “Serve, Teach, and Entertain the Audience”.
● AIR hits nearly 99.19 per cent of the population in terms of demographics. AIR has worked to
protect citizens’ interests by keeping them updated on all issues of public concern since its
inception. Only by providing them with a fair and balanced flow of knowledge will this be
accomplished.
● They generate programming in approximately 23 languages. The Prasar Bharati Act, which
was amended in 1990, regulates the material, goals, and objectives of AIR.
● The key goals of AIR, according to the Act, are to:
⮚ Pay more attention to education and literacy, the environment, health and family
welfare, agriculture, rural development, and other issues that promote national
integration and uphold the values enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
⮚ Attempt to study and extend broadcasting faculties, as well as create new broadcast
technology.
⮚ Emphasis on women’s problems, as well as children’s, disabled, minority community,
tribal, or any other disadvantaged segment of society.
⮚ Focus on celebrating Indian culture’s diversity and promoting youth activities such as
sports and other games.
Centre For Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT)
● India’s Ministry of Culture founded the Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT) to
link education and culture.
● It was established in 1979 by Dr Kapila Vatsyayan and Smt. Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay at
their request. The government has required CCRT to reinforce the nation’s structure, despite
being an autonomous entity.
● The CCRT, with its headquarters in New Delhi and three regional centres in Udaipur (the west),
Hyderabad (the south), and Guwahati (the northeast), aims to promote the broad diffusion of
Indian art and culture.
● CCRT focuses on students and raises awareness of the diversity of regional cultures and
languages in India among teachers, principals, and non-teaching/administrative actors.
● This diversity must be expressed in the curriculum and strengthened by modern and creative
teaching methods.
National Archives of India (NAI)
● This is one of the oldest British institutions, which was founded to keep the administrative
records of the Indian state. The main goals of NAI, according to the Ministry of Culture’s
Memorandum on the National Archives of India, are as follows:
⮚ To assist in preserving Indian documentary cultural heritage and ensuring that it is
passed onto future generations, with greater access to archival holdings.
⮚ Gathering a large number of records and managing them scientifically.
⮚ To foster closer ties between archival institutions and archivists, especially at the
national and international levels.
⮚ Finally, to foster a scientific mindset among archivists, custodians, and users of
records about India’s rich documentary heritage.
Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)
● The ICCR was established under the Ministry of Culture’s auspices to conduct programmes
that promote Indian culture globally. It was established in 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad, who believed strongly in promoting cultural exchanges with other countries and
cultures.
● Globalisation has resulted in several forums for cultural exchange between nations. The ICCR
develops and implements policies deeply rooted in India's international cultural ties.
● The ICCR supports a variety of visual and performing arts programmes that have a global
reach. They fund events such as the New Delhi Jazz Festival and the Guwahati North-East
Music Festival.
● The services are an important part of forming and sustaining partnerships with other national
and international organisations in the cultural field.
● The ICCR’s key aim is to foster international friendship, cultural interaction, healthy
competition, and exchange. As a result, to combine the new and old aspects of Indian culture.
Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)
● It was established in 1972, following the passage of the Societies Registration Act.
● It is a self-supporting group that receives funding from the University Grants Commission
(UGC).
● It was founded to promote and preserve Indian culture. It served as a gathering place for
historians to explore new ideas.
Sangeet Natak Akademi
● The Government of India founded the Sangeet Natak Akademi (SNA) in 1952 as the first
national academy for the arts. It was inaugurated by Dr Rajendra Prasad, India’s first
President.
● In addition to creating an environment for Indian music, drama, and dance, the academy
had the daunting task of promoting India's intangible heritage besides creating an
environment for Indian music, drama, and dance, which was manifested in the forms of music,
dance, and drama.
● They are not only meant to be the central body in charge of overseeing the protection of our
cultural heritage, but they also have to work with state and union territory governments to
conserve and encourage their cultures on a national level.
● The Sangeet Natak Akademi also oversees a variety of institutions that specialise in dance,
music, and drama.
Lalit Kala Akademi
● The Government of India founded the National Academy of Art in 1954 to promote fine arts
in India.
● The academy is a self-governing body sponsored by the Ministry of Culture. They promote the
appreciation and understanding of fine arts. Even though they deal with both national and
foreign art, they are primarily concerned with promoting and preserving Indian art.
● Its main centre is in Delhi with regional centres in Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow, Shillong,
Shimla and Bhubaneswar.

Festivals of India
● Festivals are a substantial part of Indian culture, acting as a vehicle for presenting our values
and emotions. While each community has its festivals and holy days, all religious groups can
participate in these celebrations. India is a secular nation, and holidays are observed for a
variety of religious and community celebrations.
National Festivals
● On the occasion of major historical events of national significance, national holidays are
commemorated. Through these festivals, Indians are instilled with a deep sense of patriotism.
India celebrates three National Festivals namely:
⮚ Republic Day: 26th January
⮚ Independence Day: 15th August
⮚ Gandhi Jayanti: 2nd October
Religious Festivals
● People of all faiths can attend these festivals, as they are celebrated by specific groups of
people who adhere to a particular belief system. Holi, for example, is mainly a Hindu religious
festival, but non- Hindus also enjoy it in secular countries like India.
Hindu Festivals
● Diwali or Deepawali: It is a light festival held on the day of the New Moon (Amavasya) in the
month of Kartik that falls between October and November.
⮚ Naraka Chaturdashi is the day before the festival.
● Holi: Holi is a Hindu festival which is celebrated in the month of Phalguna (February-March).
It is known as the Festival of Colours, and it is observed by citizens of all faiths. It represents
the victory of good over evil, i.e., the burning of Holika and the rescue of Bhakt Prahlad.
⮚ It is known as Dol Jatra in West Bengal and parts of Assam.
● Dussehra: It is a Hindu holiday. It is also known as Vijaya Dashami, and it is celebrated all over
India to commemorate Lord Rama’s victory over Ravana. Ravana Dahan is a popular sight on
this day, especially in North India.
● Durga Puja: It is a Hindu festival commemorating the goddess, Durga. It is mainly observed in
India’s eastern regions (especially West Bengal). It commemorates Goddess Durga’s victory
over the demon Mahishasura.
● Ganesh Chaturthi: It is a Hindu festival commemorating the birth of Lord Ganesha. This
festival is held all over India to commemorate Lord Ganesha’s birth anniversary, but it is mainly
celebrated in Maharashtra because it is the state’s main festival.
Muslim Festivals
● Eid-ul-Fitr: This is one of the many festivals observed by Muslims around the world. The
festival takes place after the end of the Islamic holy month of Ramadan (Ramzan), which is
the ninth month of the calendar. People fast for the entire month of Ramadan, starting at
sunrise and ending at sunset.
⮚ The first day of the month of Shawwal and after the appearance of the moon at the
end of the month of Ramadan is set as the dates for the Eid-ul-Fitr festival, which is
determined through a complicated procedure.
● Eid-ul-Zuha or Eid-al-Adha: Bakr-Eid, or the Id that includes the sacrifice of a goat or Bakra, is
another name for this. This is commemorated on the tenth day of Dhu-al-Hijjah, the Islamic
calendar’s 12th month.
⮚ It commemorates the Prophet Ibrahim’s unwavering devotion to Allah, which was put
to the test when God asked him to sacrifice his son.
 o Ibrahim is said to have readily agreed to have his son’s head cut off, but God
was merciful and accepted the offering of a goat’s head.
o As a result, a goat’s head is sacrificed on the day of Eid-ul-Azha, and the meat
is distributed as ritual offerings among family members and neighbours. A
third of the sacrificed meat is also distributed to the needy.
⮚ This Eid also marks the start of the holy time during which many people perform the
Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca.
● Milad-un-Nabi: This festival, also known as the Barahwafat, commemorates the Prophet
Muhammad’s birth anniversary. According to the Quran, the Prophet was born on the 12th
day of Rabi-al-Awwal, the third month of the Muslim calendar. Milad-un-Nabi is the name of
the day.
⮚ This is also the day that the Prophet is believed to have left the world, so the festivities
are very lowkey on this day. The day falls under the category of national holidays.
⮚ It is observed with solemnity and respect. People meet in mosques to hear the Holy
Quran read aloud. At special gatherings, religious scholars recite the Qasida al- Burda
Sharif, a very sacred poem written by Arabic Sufi Busiri in the 13th Century.
⮚ They also perform Nats, which are traditional poems written in the Prophet’s honour
and portraying his good works.
● Muharram: During Muharram, the Islamic New Year occurs coincidentally on the first day of
the first month of the calendar. It commemorates the death of Hussain, Ali's son. The 10th
day of Muharram is known as Yaum-al-Ashura, which the Muslims observe as a day of
mourning.
Christian Festivals
● Christmas: The birth anniversary of Jesus Christ is commemorated on this day all over the
world. Every year on 25th December, it is observed. The festivities begin with the midnight
mass held in all churches on the night of the 24th-25th of December 151 and commemorate
Christ’s birth at midnight.
⮚ People flock to the church, where a number of activities are organised to remind
devotees of Christ’s good works.
⮚ People exchange presents and pays visits to each other’s homes. The Christmas Tree,
which is placed in everyone’s home, is one of the two traditions associated with the
festival. Lamps and lights adorn the room.
⮚ The other legend is that of Santa Claus, who is said to be a bringer of presents. On this
day, people sing carols and hand out sweets and cakes.
 ● Easter and Good Friday: The resurrection of Jesus Christ is commemorated on this day.
According to the Bible, Jesus was reborn three days after he was crucified, so Easter is meant
to represent the victory of life over death.
Sikhs Festivals
● Gurpurab: It is commemorated by the Sikh community all over the world. The birth
anniversaries of all ten Sikh gurus are commemorated in Gurpurabs, but Guru Nanak and
Guru Gobind Singh are the most notable. Other significant Gurpurabs commemorate the
deaths of Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur, both of whom were killed by the Mughals.
⮚ On the occasion of Guru Nanak’s birthday, the Sikh community celebrates Guru Nanak
Jayanti. On this day, all Gurudwaras hold special services and langar is distributed to
the public. All the Gurpurabs are reasons to rejoice and remember the Lord.
⮚ Therefore, Akhand Path is held, and people sing Prabhat Pheris or congregational
singing of praise hymns to the Lord.
● Lohri: On 13th January, in the month of Magh, a day before Makar Sankranti, this occasion is
commemorated. Lohri is a Hindu festival that honours fertility and the spark of creation.
People congregate around bonfires, throwing candy, puffed rice, and popcorn into the flames,
singing common songs, and exchanging greetings. It also represents the triumph of light over
darkness.
● Vaisakhi/Baisakhi: Every year on the 13th or 14th of April, a religious festival is held. It is also
the celebration of the Khalsa Panth's birthday. Gurudwaras are decorated and kirtans are sung
there. For the Sikhs, this is the spring harvest festival. Sikhs bathe in the holy river, visit
temples, socialise with relatives, and enjoy festive foods.
Jain Festivals
● Mahavir Jayanti: The festival is celebrated by the Jain community. It is held to commemorate
Lord Mahavira’s birth anniversary as the 24th Tirthankara and one of Jainism’s founders. It
happens on the 13th day of Chaitra, the month of the rising moon.
⮚ The festival is marked by pomp and circumstance, with the saffron flag flying high over
all Jain temples. Mahavira’s idol is washed in milk and given a ceremonial bath
(Abhishek). After that, it is held in a procession.
● Paryushana: Paryushana is the name of the Jains’ annual festival. The Svetambara sect
celebrates it for eight days in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September). The festival is
held for ten days by the Digambara sect.
● Mahamastakabhisheka: It takes place every 12 years in the Karnataka town of
Shravanabelagola. The holy bathing ceremony of Siddha Bahubali, son of Rishabhdev, is held
 during this festival. Devotees holding specially prepared vessels sprinkle the concentrated
water. The statue is bathed in milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and powdered
sandalwood, turmeric, and vermilion are sprinkled on top.
● Gyana Panchami: “Gyana Panchami” is the name given to the fifth day of Kartika. It is known
as “Awareness Day.” Under Jainism, holy scriptures are shown and worshipped on this day.
Buddhist Festivals
● Buddha Purnima: The Buddha Purnima, also known as the Buddha Jayanti, commemorates
the birth of Lord Buddha. It occurs in the months of April/May and is commonly observed in
North-East India. In Sikkim, it is known as Saga Dawa (Dasa), and in the Theravada tradition, it
is known as Vishakha Puja. Bodh Gaya in Bihar and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh are the major
celebration centres in Northern India.
● In addition to the traditional prayers and sermons, the festivities include singing Buddhist
scriptures, worshipping the Bodhi tree and the Buddha's image, and engaging in meditation.
Different sects have varying guidelines, including:
⮚ A large procession of musical instruments such as gyalings is organised by Mahayana
Buddhists.
⮚ Theravada Buddhists only focus on offering ritual prayers to Buddha idols, and they
also read Kangyur text.
● Songkran: This Buddhist festival is celebrated in the same way as spring cleaning is. In the
middle of April, it is commemorated for several days. People clean their homes, wash their
clothing, and sprinkle perfumed water on the monks is a common pastime.
● Ploughing Festival: This festival commemorates Buddha’s first enlightenment, which
occurred when he was seven years old and was watching ploughing with his father. The two
white oxen pull a gold-painted plough, followed by four white girls who throw rice seeds from
baskets, and this is celebrated in the month of May.
● Ullambana: This festival lasts from the first to the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. The
gates of Hell are said to open on the first day, allowing spirits to enter the earth for fifteen
days. During this time, food offerings are made to ease the pain of the ghosts. People visit
cemeteries on the 15th day (Ullambana or Ancestor Day) to make offerings to the departed
souls.
Sindhi Festivals
● Chaliho Sahib: In the months of July and August, Sindhis observe a 40-day fast. They fast for
40 days in order to pray to Lord Jhulelal, and then they celebrate the day like Thanksgiving
 Day. The people of Thatta were troubled by Mirkshah Badshah, a Muslim invader from Sindh
who wanted them to convert to Islam.
⮚ People performed penance on the river’s banks for 40 days in order to pray to Varun
Devta or the God of Water.
⮚ Varun Devta heard their prayers on the 40th day and vowed to deliver them from the
tyrant. Jhulelal was the answer to their prayers.
Parsi or Zoroastrian Festivals
● Jamshed Navroz: The Parsi community celebrates the festival of Navroz as the New Year’s
celebration. It occurs on the Roj Hormuzd or the first day of the Shehanshahi calendar’s first
month (MahFrawardin).
⮚ As this is the end of winter and the start of the New Year, it is believed to be the start
of the Universal Dawn.
⮚ The two celestial beings who are the harbinger of the Light, Khorshed and Meher
Yazads, are worshipped by Parsis.
⮚ People pay each other visits and pay a visit to the Fire Temple.

Secular Festivals
Khajuraho Dance Festival
● A dance festival founded by the Government of India in 1975 in collaboration with the
Madhya Pradesh Kala Parishad, this festival showcased the eroticism and beauty of the
Khajuraho temples while at the same time encouraging tourism in the state.
Tyagaraja Aradhana
● Every year, it is held to commemorate the famous Telugu Saint and composer Tyagaraja’s
‘Samadhi’ day. It is held mainly in Thiruvaiyaru, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu (where he
attained Samadhi). Leading exponents of Carnatic music attend the festival to pay their
respects to the saint. The Trinity of Carnatic music consists of Saint Tyagaraja, Muthuswami
Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri.
Onam
● Onam, Kerala’s state festival, takes place at the start of Chigam, the first month of the
Malayalam calendar. It is primarily a harvest festival, but it also commemorates the return of
Mahabali, the mighty asura king from Patala (the underground).
● The colourful and lively festival of Onam includes elaborate feasts, dances, flowers, vessels,
and elephants. The Vallam Kali is a popular feature of Onam (the Snake Boat race).
 ● The Nehru Boat Race Trophy is awarded to the winners of the most famous Vallamkali, which
is held in Punnamada Lake.
Pongal
● Pongal is a four-day harvest festival that Tamils all over the world celebrate. It is observed
in January and marks the start of Uttarayan, the Sun’s six-month journey northward. In Tamil,
the word Pongal means ‘to boil,’ and the boiling of the first rice is a significant ritual observed
during the festival.
● It takes place in the Thai month when harvested from various crops such as rice, sugarcane,
and turpentine. During the Thai month, it takes place when various crops such as rice,
sugarcane, turmeric, and others are harvested. It is a time to give thanks to the Sun God and
celebrate the life cycles that provide us with grain.

Festivals of North-East India

Saga Dawa (Triple Blessed Festival)
● It is one of the most important Buddhist festivals celebrated in Sikkim in the Tibetan lunar
month. The full moon day that falls during the middle of the lunar month is called Saga Dawa.
It is considered an auspicious day by Buddhists.
● Saga Dawa is known as the ‘Month of Merits’ and is celebrated between May and June. The
festival celebrates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha.
● At the event of Saga Dawa in Sikkim, people assemble at the monasteries and present water,
incense sticks and dhog.
● On top of this, many devotees participate in the circumambulation of the Gompas, in which
they recite mantras and take the religious text.
Losoong Festival
● Losoong is the Sikkimese New Year which is celebrated each year in the month of December.
Since agriculture is the primary occupation in the state of Sikkim, it is around this time of the
year when the farmers honour their harvest.
● Although this festival is a traditional celebration of the Bhutia tribe, the Lepchas also celebrate
it with equal vigour and zeal.
● A variety of dances, including Cham Dance and Black Hat Dance, are performed at the
monasteries, and local wines, Chaang, are served. To enhance the festival spirit, an archery
competition is also conducted.
Bihu Festival
● It comprises three major Assamese nonreligious festivals: Rongali or Bohag Bihu in April,
Kongali or Kati Bihu in October, and Bhogali Bihu in January.
● Bohag Bihu is one of the major festivals of Assam which is celebrated to welcome the
Assamese New Year. It calls for a huge celebration beginning on the 14th of April each year.
Although the festival is observed for seven days, the celebration extends for about a month.
The first day of Bohag Bihu is called Goru Bihu, in which cows and bulls are bathed and fed.
● The central part of this festival is observed on the second day when people greet each other
and provide their relatives with Gamosa (hand-woven cotton towels).
● On this day, young Assamese men and women create groups and perform Bihu Dance.
Assamese delicacies are prepared out of which the speciality is Pitha (a dish made of rice
powder, wheat flour, coconut, sesame and jaggery). Stages are set in several parts of the state,
where the Bihu Dance is performed on a regular basis for a month.
Hornbill Festival
● Hornbill Festival is a major festival in Nagaland which is named after a bird. Like many
festivals in the state, this festival is also associated with agriculture.
● It is a 7 to 10 days festival that begins with immense zeal on 1st December every year. Held in
Kisama Heritage Village, all the major tribes in Nagaland attend this festival.
● This is an excellent opportunity for all tribes to come together, as well as for the younger
generation. Hornbill is a good time to observe cultural vividness.
● The warrior log drums, colourful headgear, and soulful war cry, exquisite costumes are the
features of the festival.
● All tribes use costumes, arms, bows, arrows, and clan headgears to show their talent and
cultural vibrancy.
● The Kohima Night Bazaar and contests like pork eating and King Chilly add flavours to the
festive mood.
Moatsu Mong festival
● This festival of the Ao tribe in Nagaland commemorates the completion of the sowing
season. It is a three-day festival celebrated from 1st May to 3 each year.
● After the stressful work of burning jungles, clearing fields, sowing seeds, and so on, the festival
provides them with a time of relaxation and entertainment.
● Held in the Mokokchung district, the Moatsu Mong festival begins with cleaning wells and
brewing beer.
 ● During the festival, people enjoy the taste of local delicacies and enjoy cultural programs.
Where men perform traditional warrior dances, women sing songs that praise Ao villages.
● Moatsu Mong is a very colourful festival and is also the symbol of the rich Naga culture.
Sangpangtu is a part of the festival, where a large fire is lit, and women and men sit around it.
Kharchi Puja
● Kharchi is a popular festival that originated in Tripura. Though it started as a royal family
Tripura festival, it is now celebrated by ordinary people as well.
● This festival takes place during the month of July and lasts for a week. It is a 10-day long festival
that is commemorated by animal sacrifice and worshipping 14 gods as instructed by Lord
Shiva.
● It takes place in the month of July each year in Old Agartala or Purani Haveli, where there is a
temple that houses 14 deities.
● Thousands of people throng Tripura during the festival and enjoy cultural programmes and
fairs.
Dree Festival
● Although Dree is the festival of the Apatani Tribe (Arunachal Pradesh), Dree festival
traditions are now being observed by an increasing number of tribes.
● The festival takes place on the 5th of July each year; however, celebrations associated with
the festival begin on the 4th of July itself.
● It is one of the major festivals in the Ziro valley and is celebrated to ensure a good harvest.
People offer prayers to four Gods during the festival, namely, Tamu, Harniang, Metis, and
Danyi.
● People brew wine, and women serve various delicacies and rice/millet beer as a symbol of a
good harvest. A traditional dance is performed, and cucumbers are distributed as a symbol of
a good harvest.

Conclusion
In India, culture can be seen in everything from dance, fashion, artistry, and music to behaviour, social
norms, food, architecture, dressing sense, etc. India could be considered a big melting pot with various
beliefs and behaviours that gave birth to different cultures. A great message that forms an essential
part of our culture is “Atithi Devo Bhava”, which translates to always welcoming our guests like a
God. The basic roots of our great culture are humanity and spiritual practices.

Wisdom Nuggets #1
Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. (UPSC 2018)

Answer:

Cultural heritage is the legacy of cultural resources and intangible attributes of a group or society
that is inherited from past generations. India’s cultural heritage is not only one of the most ancient,
but it is also one of the most extensive and varied. The highlights of Indian heritage lie in the
treasure of its art, architecture, classical dance, music, flora and fauna, and the innate secular
philosophy of its people. The different components of heritage are:

Cultural Natural
Heritage Tangible and Intangible Heritage Landscape and
Culture Biodiversity

Buildings, Monuments,
Landscape, Literature, Mountains, Rivers,
Artefacts, Music, Desert, Coastal, Hills,
Dance, Folklore, Forest
Traditions, Knowledge,
and Languages

Indian art heritage is “fragile wealth”, and they are required to be preserved and cherished because
once lost, they are nonrenewable. Also, there are other factors for which this fragile wealth is
needed to be safeguarded:

● According to IUCN, which helps the world find pragmatic solutions to the most pressing
environmental and developmental challenges, natural world heritage sites are not just
important environmentally, they also provide social and economic benefits.
● WWF survey estimates that “more than half of the population depend directly on world
heritage sites for food, water, shelter, and medicine. Harmful industrial development poses
a threat to these ecosystem services and communities that depend on them."
 ● Many Indian art forms are on the verge of extinction such as Tikuli art and the Patna kalam
Painting of Bihar to Parsi Ghara embroidery.
● Around 197 languages in India are either vulnerable, endangered or extinct. The extinct
languages are Ahom, Andro, Rangkas, Sengmai, and Tolcha -- all spoken in the Himalayan
belt.
● A large number of historic monuments and heritage buildings are in a pathetic state and
need urgent attention like the mausoleum of Amanat Khan Shirazi and the historical site of
Pul Kanjri in Amritsar.
● The traditional toys of India like Channapatna, Kondapalli, or Galar putul are on the verge of
extinction due to the inundation of Chinese toys in the Indian market.
● Art heritage represents the “unity in diversity” of India and builds a bridge between people
living abroad to get connected with their native country.

Preserving the heritage is enshrined as a Fundamental Duty (Article 51 A) in the Indian Constitution.
Also, Article 49 makes it clear that the obligation to protect these sites is of the State. Institutions
like the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) are charged with the preservation of physical and
tangible heritage that is accumulated in the ancient monuments and archaeological sites.

India has successfully inscribed 13 Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) elements in the UNESCO
Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity under the 2003 Convention. Schemes
like ‘Adopt Heritage’ and Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) will give
more thrust to safeguarding Indian heritage.