3

Bonding
●● TEST YOURSELF ON PRIOR KNOWLEDGE 1
1 a) nitride ion
b) calcium ion
c) sulfide ion
d) bromide ion
e) rubidium ion
f) hydride ion
2 shared pair of electrons
3 a) sodium oxide
b) calcium fluoride
c) magnesium iodide
d) potassium chloride
4 a) 1
b) 4
c) 2

●● TEST YOURSELF 2
1 a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Potassium atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom
K+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Cl− 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
The ionic bond is the attraction of oppositely charged ions.
b) Water is polar and ionic substances have charged particles which like 1
to dissolve in polar solvents;
c) High melting point/high boiling point;
cannot conduct electricity when solid/conduct electricity when
molten or dissolved in water;
crystalline/brittle
2 a) Na+
b) 1s2 2s2 2p6
 3 name of compound formula formula of formula of
positive ion negative ion
magnesium oxide MgO

AgF Ag+ F–

lithium carbonate Li2CO 3

zinc bromide ZnBr2

4 a) The ionic bond is the attraction between oppositely charged ions

b) The ionic bonds between the positive and negative ions are strong
and require a large amount of energy to break
5 The Mg2+ ion is smaller than the Ca2+ ion.
The larger ion leads to a weaker ionic bond in calcium oxide.
Less energy is needed to break the weaker ionic bond.

●● TEST YOURSELF 3
1 shared pair of electrons
2 a) CO2 N2 O2
b) H3O+ NH4Cl
3 Lone pair of electrons

H N H
+
+ +

H
Bonding pair of electrons

4 Two electrons in the bond come from the same atom

●● TEST YOURSELF 4
3 Bonding

1 Regular structure showing Mg2+ ions with delocalised electrons between

them. The metallic bond is the attraction between the positive ions and
the delocalised electrons.
Magnesium

Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+ Mg2+

e– e– e–
e– e
–

2 Mg Mg Mg Mg2+ Mg2+
2+ 2+ 2+

e– e– e– e– e
–

Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg2+
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+

e– e– e– e– e
–

Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg2+
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+

2 metallic bonding = attraction between positive ions and delocalised

electrons
metallic structure = regular lattice arrangement of positive ions held
together by delocalised electrons
 3 Delocalised electrons can move and carry charge.

TEST YOURSELF 7
4 a) A substance can be hammered into shape without breaking.
b) A substance which can be drawn out into wires.
5 a) The layer of positive ions can slide over each other without
disrupting the bonding.
b) Sodium has delocalised electrons which can move and carry charge.

●● TEST YOURSELF 5
1 ice/iodine
2 covalent bonds between the atoms in I2
van der Waals’ forces between the molecules
3 a) Mg2+
b) Mg2+ and O2−
4 a) macromolecular covalent
b) ionic
c) molecular covalent
d) metallic
5 A large amount of energy is needed to break the many strong covalent
bonds in diamond

●● TEST YOURSELF 6
1 a) bent, 104.5°
b) tetrahedral, 109.5°
c) pyramidal, 107°
d) trigonal planar, 120°
2 a) pyramidal, 107°
b) tetrahedral, 109.5°
c) tetrahedral, 109.5°
d) bent, 104.5°

●● TEST YOURSELF 7 3

1 van der Waals’ forces are due to induced dipole–dipole forces caused by
movement of electrons in atoms and molecules
2 The attraction between a lone pair of electrons on one electronegative
atom and an H atom bonded to either N, O of F.
3 a) van der Waals’ forces
b) hydrogen bonds
c) hydrogen bonds
 d) permanent dipole–dipole forces
e) van der Waals’ forces
f) hydrogen bonds
4 Ice has a lower density than water
The hydrogen bonds in ice are fixed
The water molecules in ice are further apart than the water molecules
in water.
5 The Mr and number of electrons increases from F2 to I2
There are increased induced dipole-dipole forces
There are increased van der Waals’ forces of attraction between the
molecules.

●● ACTIVITY
Testing a liquid for polarity
1 a) ‘Polar bond’ means that there is a slight positive charge and slight
negative charge on each atom due to unequal sharing of electrons in
a covalent bond.
b) The oxygen is more electronegative than the hydrogen and attracts
the bonding electrons in the covalent bond to itself, resulting in a
slight positive charge on the hydrogen and a slight negative charge
on the oxygen.
Rod
2
+ δ−
O
H H
δ+ δ+
δ−
O
3 Bonding

Rod H H
− δ+ δ+
3 a) Ethanol is a polar molecule as it contains a polar OH bond
Hexane is a non polar molecule it contains no polar bonds – there is
little electronegativity difference between C and H
4
Trichloromethane has polar C-Cl bonds and is not symmetrical so it
is a polar molecule.
 b) Liquid Is the stream deflected?

ACTIVITY
Water yes

Ethanol, CH3CH2OH yes

Hexane, C6H14 no

Trichloromethane, CHCl 3 yes

4 a) C–Cl
b) The stream will not be deflected by the rod even though it contains
polar bonds due to the symmetrical nature of the polar bonds
around the central atom (tetrahedral-shaped).

●● ACTIVITY
Comparing the viscosity of liquids
1
burette

stopwatch alcohol

beaker

2 Open the tap and at the same time start the stopwatch. Record the time
taken for, for example, 30 cm3 of liquid to flow from the burette. Repeat
the measurement and find the average.
Calculate the flow rate by dividing the volume of liquid by the time taken,
which will give the flow rate in cm3 s−1
Repeat for each alcohol.
3 density = mass
volume 5
0.79 = mass
2.0
Mass = 1.58 g
Moles = 1.58 = 0.0343 mol s−1
46.0
0.0343 × 60 = 2.058 = 2.1 mol/min−1 (to 2 significant figures)
 4 a) Hydrogen bonds occur between a hydrogen atom (which is
covalently bonded to O, N or F) in one molecule and an O, N or F
atom in another molecule. Hydrogen bonds are an extreme case of
permanent dipole attractions.
b) H3C O
δ–
C Hδ+ Hydrogen bond
H2
O CH3
δ–
δ+H C
H2

5 There are more –OH groups in propane-1,2,3-triol than in ethane-

1,2-diol; ethanol has the least number of –OH groups of these three
compounds. More –OH groups lead to more H-bonding and therefore
higher viscosity.
6 Use a liquid which has the same number of OH groups and so the same
hydrogen bonding but different RMMs. Compare the flow rates – they
should be different if the RMM affected the flow rate.
3 Bonding