SEAA 2712

SKAB 2712
IGNEOUS ROCK

Prepared by: Dr Afikah binti Rahim

 Course Content
Topics on Geology
• Chapter 1.0: Introduction to engineering
geology
• Chapter 2.0: Rock classification
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
• Chapter 3.0: Weathering
• Chapter 4.0: Geological structures &
discontinuities in rock.
• Chapter 5.0: Ground Investigation.
❑Rocks are mixture of minerals of variable properties.
Minerals are compound of elements of fixed properties
(Table 2.1).
❑Rock properties broadly depend on:
• Strength & stability of constituent minerals.
• Interlocking or weaknesses of mineral structure.
• Fracture, bedding & larger rock structures.
❑Most rock-forming minerals are silicate minerals,
compound of oxygen & silicon, these are classified as
dark- & light-colored minerals Table 2.2 & 2.3.
Table 2.1: Composition of element in earth’s crust
Table 2.2: Dark-coloured mineral silicates (mafic) &
their physical properties
Table 2.3: Light-coloured mineral silicates & their
physical properties
Cleavage (fracture) in
minerals
Cleavage direction (mineral fracture)
Mineral quartz: no cleavage, fracture like glass (conchoidal)
Mineral quartz: no cleavage, fracture like glass (conchoidal)
Microcline (feldspar): 2 set of fracture planes
Mineral biotite (black mica): 1 set cleavage,
fracture in form of thin sheet
Mineral calcite : 3 set of cleavage, fracture in cubic form
By definition rocks are aggregates of one or more
minerals (i.e. silicate minerals)
Classification of rocks:
❑Rock properties can show extreme variations but
generalisation as Table 2.4 is useful in order to build an
understanding of geology. Note that rocks are natural
materials formed under complex geological environment.
They are not perfectly engineered, and their properties vary
from site to site.
❑All rocks fall into one of three families namely:
❑Igneous Rocks
❑Sedimentary Rocks
❑Metamorphic Rocks
❑Each group with broadly definable origins & properties.
ROCK IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
FAMILY
Material Crystalline from Erosional debris on Altered by heat
origin molten magma Earth’s surface and/or pressure
Environment In earth crust; & as Deposition basins; Mostly deep inside
lava flow mainly sea mountain chains
Rock Mosaic of Mostly granular and Mosaic of
texture interlocking crystals cemented interlocking crystals
Rock Non-bedded Layered, bedding Crystal orientation
structure (structureless) planes due to pressure
Rock Uniform high strength Variable, low; planar Variable high; planar
strength weaknesses weaknesses
Major types Granite, basalt, Sandstone, limestone, Schist, slate, gneiss,
pumice shale quatzite

Table 2.4: Rock classification [Waltham, 2002].

Homework alert 1
Igneous rocks:
❑Magma is generated by local heating & melting of rocks
within the earth’s crust, mostly at depths (10 – 100 km).
When magma flows upwards (through major faults) to the
surface it cools and solidifies by crystallisation into a mosaic
(interlocking) of minerals, to form various types of igneous
rock.
❑Volcanic eruptions – may be violent & explosive if a
viscous magma has a high gas pressure, or may be quiet &
effusive if the magma is very fluid.
❑There is a continuous flowing of magma into the earth’s
crusts (intrusive igneous rocks) & on the earth’s surface
(extrusive igneous rocks), in the past & at present.
Extrusive igneous rocks:
❑These are formed when magma extrudes onto the
earth’s surface to create a volcano.
❑Lava is the name for both molten rock on the surface
& also the solid rock formed when it cools.
❑Fluid basaltic lavas flow easily to form low-profile shield
volcanoes & more viscous lavas (mainly andesitic), build
up conical composite, strato-volcanoes, where lava is
interbedded with ash & debris.
Homework alert 2
Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
❑These are formed when magma solidifies below the
earth’s surface. They may later be exposed at the surface
when the overburden materials are eroded away, or
when new magma flow pushes the intrusive igneous
rock to the surface - uplifting (e.g. formation of the Main
Range).
❑Batholiths are large blob-shaped intrusions, roughly
equidimensional & commonly 5 – 50 km in diameter. Most
are granite.
❑Dykes are smaller sheet intrusions formed where magma
flows into a fissure. Mostly 1 – 50 m wide & extends for
many kms (see forms of igneous rocks).
• Task 1
 Homework alert 3

Forms of igneous rock: rock bodies form by cooling

& crystallization of magma in & on the earth’s crust
Granite – intrusive igneous rock (acid, plutonic)
Gabbro – intrusive igneous rock (basic, plutonic)
Basalt – extrusive igneous rock (basic, volcanic)
Rhyolite – extrusive igneous rock (volcanic)
Pumice – Extrusive igneous rock (volcanic)
 Homework alert 4

Texture of igneous rocks due to the locations

where magma (lava) crystallizes.
Intrusive & extrusive igneous rocks:
❑Most common intrusive igneous rocks are granite,
gabbro & granodiorite, & for extrusive igneous rocks are
basalt, rhyolite & pumice.

Granite:
❑Acid/felsic igneous rock; coarse-grained (holocrystalline);
large-scale intrusive (plutonic).
❑Texture coarse interlocking crystal mosaic with random
arrangement of minerals (aphanitic texture).
❑Mineral content mainly quartz 25%, feldspar 50%, micas
15% & mafic minerals 10%.
Granite:
❑Weathering is mainly slow decomposition of feldspar to
clay minerals & leaving quatrz to form sandy soils.
Spheroidal weathering leaves rounded corestones in soil
matrix.
❑Strength is high with all physical properties good; UCS 
200 MPa, Safe Bearing Press. (SBP)  10M Pa.
❑As foundations it is a very strong rock, except where
partially decomposed to clayey soils near the surface or
along deep joint zone.
❑Varieties are syenite & diorite (less quartz & slightly darker.
❑Excellent dimension stone, rock armour & aggregate.
 Homework alert 5

Spheroidal weathering (onion peeling) of granite

Spheroidal weathering (onion peeling) of granite
Basalt:
❑Basic/mafic igneous rock fine-grained (holohyaline),
extrusive (volcanic).
❑Texture is fine (phaneritic or glassy texture) interlocking
crystal mosaic with no textural orientation, may have
vesicles (old gas bubbles).
❑Mineral content mainly feldspar 50%, & mafic minerals
50%.
❑When weathered (iron staining) it decomposes to clayey
soils, may be spheroidal weathering.
❑Compact basalt are very strong UCS  250 MPa & SBP 
10 MPa (less on young lava).
❑Good aggregates & valuable roadstone.
 Pillow Basalt, Terengganu

Can you see the iron stain?

Classification of intusive igneous rocks:
❑Depending on the composition of light- & dark-coloured
mineral silicates, igneous rock can be classified as
Ultrabasic/Ultramafic, Basic/Mafic,
Intermediate/Andesitic & Acid/Felsic ( pH).
❑This classification is based on 2 basis - colour & size of
mineral grains.
❑When a magma body cools down (as it rises to the
surface), each mineral crystallises at different temperature
(Bowen’s reaction series - order of crystallisation). This
process leads to the formation of different types of
igneous rock (each with different mineralogy, colour &
grain size), although they originate from the same magma
body.
Bowen’s reaction series & composition of igneous rocks.
Homework alert 6
Order of crystallisation:
❑Partial crystallisation of part of magma body at early
stage (deep in the earth’s crust & high temperature) forms
intrusive igneous rocks with large mineral crystals due
to slow cooling process. Consists of dark coloured
(mafic) minerals
❑Cooling of the remaining magma body at later stage
(close to & on earth’s surface & low temperature) forms
extrusive igneous rocks, with fine-grained due to fast
cooling. Consists of light coloured minerals
❑Classification of igneous rock is as Table 2.5 & 2.6.
❑Crystallisation at early stage (temp ) produces ultrabasic
igneous with minerals composition of olivine, augite &
plagioclase (Ca-rich).
❑Crystallisation at later stage (temp ) produces acid
igneous rocks with minerals composition quartz,
orthoclase, plagioclase (Na-rich) & mica (biotite &
muscovite).
❑In general acid igneous rock is light colour (e.g. granite)
& basic igneous rock is dark colour (e.g. basalt).
❑Boundary between these 4 classes is not clear, but it can
be generalised when igneous rocks do not contain quartz
(Si O2) or olivine, they can be classified as basic or acid,
respectively.
Table 2.5: Minerals composition of igneous rocks
resulting from differential crystallisation
Table 2.6: Minerals composition (approx. %) of igneous
rocks resulting from differential crystallisation
Mineralogy of common igneous rocks & the
magmas from which they form. Homework alert 7
Acidic/felsic Granite:
❑Acidic granite contains > 65% quartz (Si O2).
❑Although an excellent aggregate materials, when used as
cement mix may lead to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) -
reaction between silica (from granite aggregate) & alkali
(from OPC).
❑The consequences of ASR is gradual (few years) and the
result is microfractures in cement (weaker UCS & contact
between water & reinforcement bars).
Classification of igneous rocks:
❑The form of occurrence determines the structure of the
igneous rock; also, lavas may cool in hours or days while
batholith may take million years to cool (crystallise). The
cooling rate determines the grain size of the rock.
❑Chemical composition is determined by what rocks had
melted to form the original magma; silica rich magmas are
referred to as acidic & are generally low in black iron
minerals, & therefore lighter in colour than basic rocks.
❑In fine-grained (holohyaline) rocks grains cannot be seen
with the naked eye, the limit is 0.1 mm (similar to 0.06 mm in
soils).
 Homework alert 8

OCCURRENCE FORM COOLING GRAIN SIZE

Rhyolite Andesite BASALT extrusions lavas fast fine > 0.1 mm
Porphyry Dolerite small intrusions dykes medium medium 0.1 - 2 mm
GRANITE Diorite Gabbro large intrusions batholith slow coarse > 2 mm
70% 50% Si O2 content
acid basic classification
viscous fluid magma viscosity
explosive effusive volcano type
3% 12% Fe content
10% 50% mafic minerals
light dark colour

Table 2.7: Classification of igneous rock [Waltham, 2002].

Granite & Basalt:
❑Granite & basalt are most abundant because magma
viscosity determines the ease of migration.
❑Acid magma is viscous, so most stays in batholiths to form
granite while basic magma is so fluid that most of it escapes
to the surface to form basalt lava.
❑Main Range (Banjaran Titiwangsa) consists of 60%
intrusive igneous rocks (Main Range Granite.
Phorphyritic texture in igneous rock – due to 2 stages of
cooling of magma body:
(a) Porphyritic extrusive igneous rock
(b) Porphyritic plutonic igneous rock

(a) (b)
Homework alert 9
 Homework alert 10
Classification of major groups of igneous rocks based on
their mineral composition & texture – phaneritic (coarse-
grained) & aphanitic (fine-grained)
Take picture before ends