THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SMOKING AND SELF-CONTROL AMONG

STUDENTS IN UNIVERSITY OF CYBERJAYA

ALESHA KYLA AZLAN THANABALAN

BPSY 2107-3713

FACULTY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF CYBERJAYA

AUGUST 2022
Table of Contents

Chapter 1: ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Background of study ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Hypothesis..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 7
1.7 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................. 8
1.8 Significance of Study ................................................................................................................ 9
1.9 Limitations of Study ................................................................................................................... 10
1.10 Operational Definition .......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2: .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Literature Review.................................................................................................................................. 12
2.0 Review of literature based on the independent variable ............................................................. 12
2.1 Smoking and tobacco use ........................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Review of literature based on the dependent variable ................................................................ 13
2.2.1 Self-control .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Cigarette taxes as self-control ................................................................................................. 13
2.4 Becker and Murphy (1988) ..................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.5. Research gaps............................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 3: ........................................................................................................................................ 16
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Research Design.......................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Population and sample ................................................................................................................ 16
3.2 Research Instruments .................................................................................................................. 16
3.3 Data Collection Procedures......................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Technique for Data Analysis....................................................................................................... 18
References:........................................................................................................................................ 19

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Chapter 1:

Introduction

Smoking is commonly used for recreational purposes. Repeated use can have a negative

impact during childhood and adolescence causes significant health problems among young

people, including an increase in the number and severity of respiratory illnesses, decreased

physical fitness and potential effects on lung growth and function. with the most recent updates

in the 2004, 2006, and 2010 reports (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

[USDHHS] ,2010) discussing active smoking, exposure to second-hand smoke, and the

biological basis of disease, respectively. (USDHHS 1994, p. 41)

Smoking use and mental health disorders are at the risk of developing serious health

People who start smoking at an early age are more likely to develop a severe addiction to

nicotine than those who start at a later age. Of adolescents who have smoked at least 100

cigarettes in their lifetime, most of them report that they would like to quit, but are not able to

do so. Menthol cigarette use is more common among younger and newer teen smokers. This is

due to young smokers perceiving menthol cigarettes as less harsh and easier to smoke. (NCI

1997)

Several authors have noted the challenge of defining and measuring self-control (also referred

to as self-regulation, self-discipline, willpower, effortful control, ego strength, and inhibitory

control, among other terms) and its converse, impulsivity or impulsiveness (e.g., DePue &

Collins, 1999; Evenden, 1999; White et al., 1994; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001).

Self-control is the capacity for altering one’s own responses, especially to bring them into line

with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit

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of long-term goals” (p. 351). Tasks and questionnaire items that attempt to measure self-control

implicitly or explicitly posit a plurality of mutually exclusive responses

1.1 Background of study

The usage of smoking has become popular among college student age from (19-25 years

old) not only in Cyberjaya but also to any students who has been away from home and has been

introduced to this culture through their social peers as well as from the media. As we all know

smoking can help alleviate our pain and mood and help us overcome anxiety, depression and

stress. Just like how the psychiatrists prescribe antidepressant to patients to help them curb and

improve their mental state. However, this research and smoking which I am about to study is

to identify the prevalence of tobacco use among young adulthood years. There are a few studies

and research on this study on how it affects their self-control. Among high school students in

2015, the most prevalent forms of tobacco used were electronic cigarettes (16%), cigarettes

(9.3%), cigars (8.6%) and hookah (7.2%).

The aim of this study is to identify the relationship between smoking and self-control

among undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya (UoC), Selangor, Malaysia. Since

this study investigates the association between tobacco use and self-control among

undergraduate students. Therefore, smoking has the risk factor of se will be examined in this

study among undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya. For instance, self-control is

the ability to control one’s desires and impulses, will power for self-determination and

autonomy, and provide opportunities for choice and control. Understand that students may be

intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to learn Even though the relationship between tobacco

and undergraduate students seem to get out of hand as they have abused the power and the

usage of it and act it as their dependent to cope with their stress.

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Nowadays, undergraduate students are prone to stress, particularly with their assignments, as

they frequently struggle to juggle their schedules and their personal interests. can easily obtain

this tobacco use. The goal of this study is to look into the negative effects of smoking on

Cyberjaya college students and how it affects their daily motivation and self-control.

1.2 Problem Statement

This study is conducted to examine the relationship between smoking and self-control

among undergraduate students and also identifying the risk factor of tobacco use in the long

run and the side effects of smoking regularly. Despite the enormous amount of research on

smoking and tobacco use, more studies show the prevalence of smoking and known risk factors

among undergraduate students in Malaysia are required and demanding. Approximately 5

million Malaysian adults (22.8%), aged 15 years and over, were current smokers. The

prevalence of current smokers was significantly higher in males (43.0, 95%CI: 42.0-44.6)

compared to females (1.4%, 95%CI: 1.0-1.8), as a whole and across all socio-demographic

groups. Changing cultural attitudes toward smoking have recently led to social and legal

acceptance of recreational use. Concerns about the risks of adolescent tobacco use, especially

regular or heavy use,

Therefore, further research is needed to elucidate the role of demographic correlates,

including gender on tobacco and smoking as a risk factor of self-control and decrease in

productivity in Malaysia. Hence, the current study is conducted to collect significant data on

the difference between male and female undergraduate students with regards to their tobacco

use among undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya, Selangor. Furthermore, what

impact does tobacco have on behaviour?

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Smoking is associated with worse symptoms and outcomes among people with behavioural

health conditions, including greater depressive symptoms, greater likelihood of psychiatric

hospitalization, increased suicidal behaviour, and drug- and alcohol-use relapse.

Therefore, it is vital to conduct this study in Cyberjaya with the aim to identify the

relationship between smoking and self-control among undergraduate students in University of

Cyberjaya, Selangor. The targeted participants of this study will be undergraduate students in

University of Cyberjaya, Selangor.

Following that, this study helps the researcher to know if there is a significant relationship

between substance abuse and motivation and productivity among undergraduate students in

University of Cyberjaya, Selangor. Moreover, the findings from this study will provide a great

benefit to the respondent from undergraduate students at University of Cyberjaya and society

regarding the knowledge about tobacco use as a risk factor of developing fatal health disease.

This research study will also help to spread more awareness at the community level regarding

the prevalence of tobacco use and self-control in Malaysia.

1.3 Objectives

(a) To investigate the relationship between smoking and self-control among undergraduate
students in University of Cyberjaya, Selangor.

1.4 Research Questions

(c)What is the differences between male and female undergraduate students with regards to

their prevalence of tobacco use in University of Cyberjaya, Selangor?

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(d)What is the relationship between smoking and self-control among undergraduate students

in University of Cyberjaya, Selangor?

1.5 Hypothesis

To interpret/identify the relationship between tobacco use and smoking among Cyberjaya

college students. The following hypothesis is developed based on the study objectives and

research questions to assess the relationship between smoking and self-control among college

students.

Obj 3: To determine the relationship between smoking (i.e., tobacco use) among undergraduate

students in University of Cyberjaya.

H𝛼1: There is a difference between male and female undergraduate students with regards to

their prevalence of tobacco use in University of Cyberjaya.

H𝛼2: There is a difference between male and female undergraduate students with regards with

their self-control among undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya.

H𝛼3: There is significant relationship between smoking and self-control among undergraduate

students in University of Cyberjaya, Selangor.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework in this study is developed in order to investigate the relationship
between smoking (i.e., tobacco use) and self-control among college students.

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 Social cultural
factors

Behavioral Cigarette
Subjective
intention / self- smoking
norm
control

Perceived
behaviour
control

Figure 1.0: Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.0: Conceptual framework

1.7 Theoretical Framework

Attitude towards the advertisement has been proposed to be a mediating variable in the
process through which advertising exerts its effects (MacKenzie et al., 1986). Further,
previous studies have shown that attitude towards the act (smoking) mediates the effect of
attitude towards the advertisement on intentions to smoke (Reardon et al., 2006; Andrews
et al., 2004). Thus, in this study three constructs are measured in order to investigate the

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effectiveness of the message theme, namely attitude towards the advertisement, attitude
towards smoking, and intention to smoke. The theoretical model of antismoking advertising’s
effect on intention to smoke is presented in Figure 1.

Attitude Attitude Intention to

influence from towards smoke
social peers smoking

Figure 1.1: Theoretical Framework

1.8 Significance of Study

The importance of this research is to identify and educate undergraduate students in

University of Cyberjaya about the risk factors of smoking and tobacco use and self-control

among undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya. Self-control, for example, is a need

for self-determination and autonomy that provides opportunities for choice and control.

Recognize that students can be motivated to learn both intrinsically and extrinsically. Despite

the fact that the relationship of smoking has increased among undergraduate students in

University of Cyberjaya.

Tobacco smoking is a leading cause of preventable death, resulting in more than 6

million deaths per year worldwide (WHO, 2011). By 2030, it is estimated more than 8 million

deaths due to tobacco smoking will occur per year worldwide; comprising approximately 80%

of premature deaths in low-and middle-income countries (WHO, 2011).

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 Furthermore, data collected from this research will provide insight to the university

authorities about the relationship between smoking and self-control among undergraduate

students. Thus, this insight will aid the university authorities in shaping a mechanism that can

be used to decrease the prevalence of tobacco abuse among undergraduate students.

Consequently, this will provide the university with the ability to produce proficient students

that will further increase the quality of the university.

1.9 Limitations of Study

Few limitations have been reported in this study. First of all, the respondents’ honesty

when answering self-report questionnaires affected the findings of this study. This is because

there is a possibility that some of the respondents were not entirely honest when answering the

questionnaires. As a result, there are some biases and confounding factors. First, due to the

lack of disclosure, there is less evidence to support the sample data. If done discreetly, there is

a better chance that the respondents will answer the survey genuinely. Aside from that, due to

a lack of research and case study on tobacco abuse and self-control issue in Malaysia.

1.10 Operational Definition

Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and ingesting the smoke that is produced.

The smoke may be inhaled, as is done with cigarettes, or simply released from the mouth, as is

generally done with pipes and cigars. The practice is believed to have begun as early as 5000–

3000 BC in Mesoamerica and South America. Gately, Iain (2004).

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Self-control is a related concept in psychology is emotional self-regulation. Burman JT, Green

CD, Shanker S (2015) Self-control is thought to be like a muscle. According to studies, self-

regulation, whether emotional or behavioural, was proven to be a limited resource which

functions like energy. Gailliot MT (2007) In the short term, overuse of self-control will lead to

depletion. "Longitudinal improvement of self-regulation through practice: building self-control

strength through repeated exercise". However, in the long term, the use of self-control can

strengthen and improve over time.

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 Chapter 2:

Literature Review

2.0 Review of literature based on the independent variable

Title: Cigarette smoking and self-control

This chapter will be presenting the literature review of the variables by an article

published Kamhon Kan (2006) The first section discussed about the independent variable of

smoking, followed by the dependent variable of self-control. Lastly, the research gap studies

are also been discussed.

2.1 Smoking and tobacco use

These studies treat cigarette addiction as habit forming and model the reinforcement

effect by allowing lagged consumption to have an impact on current consumption. Later on, by

allowing agents to recognize the dependence of the current consumption level on past

consumption, some researchers were able to reconcile cigarette smoking with rationality. A

notable example is the rational addiction model of Becker and Murphy (1988), where people

have time consistent preferences, and are forward-looking. That is, in Becker and Murphy’s

(1988) model people are aware of the addictive nature of cigarette smoking and they choose to

smoke simply because the lifetime benefits are greater than the costs (p. 62)

Dissatisfaction with the ability of the rational addiction model of Becker and Murphy

(1988) to explain individuals’ struggles with harmful addictions has led some researchers to

consider alternative approaches to analysing individuals’ decision-making processes. A

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plausible approach is to view individuals as having a lack of self-control, which arises from

having time inconsistent preferences.

2.2 Review of literature based on the dependent variable

2.2.1 Self-control

There is ample evidence suggesting that individuals have time inconsistent preferences

and face self-control problems. Empirical and experimental findings in the economics and

psychology literature (see, e.g., Thaler, 1981; Benzion et al., 1989; Angeletos et al., 2001;

Laibson et al., 2004) suggest that individuals’ discount rates for a fixed time interval are not

constant, but decline when the time interval is further away from the present (p. 63)

2.3 Cigarette taxes as self-control

Cigarette excise taxes, serving as a self-control function, may benefit a low

income smoker under the assumption that her demand for cigarettes is more price sensitive.

Time inconsistent preferences are characterized by discount rates which are much greater in

the short-run than in the long-run, as exhibited by hyperbolic discount functions, i.e.

2.4 Becker and Murphy (1988)

The Theory of Rational Addictions, by Gary Becker & Kevin Murphy (1988), was a

rational choice model that became a standard tool for economists modeling addictive behavior.

The approach differs from other theories of addiction by modeling addictive behavior as the

gradual implementation of a rational, forward-looking plan, where consumption at any point

in time is partly motivated by the immediate payoff of consumption and partly by the effects

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this consumption has on the individual in the future. This makes addictive behavior a subset of

rational behavior, or self-control.

2.5 Summary

If individuals have time inconsistent preferences, as created by hyperbolic discounting,

they have self-control problems. An implication of time inconsistent preferences in the context

of cigarette smoking is that smokers who want to quit will have a demand for self-control

devices in order to avoid perpetual procrastination. Looking to the future, we hope the current

investigation encourages collaboration among researchers of diverse methodological

traditions. Such interdisciplinary partnerships should dramatically accelerate our

understanding of the coherent, yet complex, construct of self-control.

Moreover, we find that the quit intention is endogenous as an explanatory variable in the case

of a smoker’s supportiveness for an anti-smoking policy. The pattern of endogeneity coincides

with that predicted by our theoretical model. This lends additional support to the validity of

time inconsistent preferences in the context of cigarette smoking.

2.5. Research gaps

Data were gathered only in one European country (Finland). Future studies should

examine whether teenagers in other European countries differ in the way they are affected by

different message themes. The generalizability of our findings is thus limited. Third, this study

relied entirely on self-report measures. Without objective, behavioural data, uncertainty

14
remains as to whether the effects observed in this study would eventually translate into health-

enhancing behavioural change.

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 CHAPTER 3:

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The study is a quantitative study. This study used a cross-sectional design as this

study colleted data from the survery answered by the respondents at a single point in time.

3.2 Population and sample

As for the sampling. with a target sample student age of 19-25 years old, both diploma

and degree students were selected from a total population of 7000 based on SETTARA ratings.

We must prepare a survey that will require minimum is about 100 respondents based on the

most used method is Raosoft (2014) sample size calculator to fill out a form in order to

investigate how different students use tobacco to relieve stress and how this affects their self-

control.

3.2 Research Instruments

A self-administrated questionnaire based on factors previously

identified and validated as correlates of self-report-tobacco smoking
amongst university students was used for data collection

(a) Self-Report Habit Index (SRHI)

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 A Self-Report Habit Index (SRHI) developed by Verplanken, el, al. (2003). will be use

in this study to assess the undergraduate students in University of Cyberjaya. The SRHI is a

12-item scale designed to measure the strength of habits without relying on estimates of

behavioural frequency. It measures habit strength by breaking it down into a number of features

of habit, like frequency of engagement in the behaviour (e.g., "smoking is something I use

frequently"), automaticity (lack of control, lack of awareness, efficiency, e.g., "smoking is

something I use automatically"), and expression of one's identity (e.g., "using tabacco is

something that feels typically 'me'"). Response options for each item range from "strongly

disagree" to "strongly agree." It can be adapted to measure any substance (alcohol, tobacco,

etc.) or behaviour.

(b) The 10-Item Self-Scoring Self-Control Scale

The 10-Item Self-Scoring Self-Control Scale was developed by Tangney, Baumeister, and

Boone in 2004. It consists of 10 items only on a five-point Likert scale and is used to measure

the level of self-control among young adults.

3.3 Data Collection Procedures

There are several forms of assessments of surveys the subjected individuals will be

answering a few questions regarding this research topic through google form. This approach

method used will gain such number of respondents to answer them in anonyms without having

to reveal or disclose their matric numbers and students’ identity and personal information.

Eligibility criteria included students aged 19 years and above who only spoke English or/and

Malay or Mandarin or other preferred languages for the international students in Cyberjaya,

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 Get the Draft out the Forward- Approval Conduct the
approval for online backward from actual study
the study questionnaire translation Supervisor
process

Figure 1.2: Data Collection Procedure

3.4 Technique for Data Analysis

This element compiles all of the data gathered. In this study, it covers the interpretation

of data acquired using logical and analytical reasoning in order to determine the relationship of

tobaccos among college students. There are several types of analysis, the first of which is SPSS.

It stands for statistics package for social sciences in abbreviated form. Validity is concerned

with the correctness of the measure, while reliability is concerned with its consistency.

Questionnaires and the instruments that will be used and provided is via online survey utilizing

Google Forms for this study. Because of the platform's conveniences and accessibility, it was

chosen for this study.

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