17-Jul-23

MME 291: Metallic Materials

Lecture -06
Mechanical Properties of a Material
Zarif Ahmad Razin Bhuiyan
Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sonargaon University

Contacts
Email: abzarifrazin@gmail.com
Mobile: +8801816566977
Website: www.abzarif.com

17-Jul-23 © Zarif Ahmad Razin Bhuiyan, Lecturer, Sonargaon University 1

 Introduction of properties
 Deformation of material under the action of a mechanical
force
 Concept of stress and strain
 Elastic behaviour of materials

Reference:
1. MF Ashby & DRH Jones, Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to their
Properties and Applications, 1st Ed., Ch. 1, pp.1-9.
2. WD Callister, Jr. Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction, 5th Ed.,
Ch. 6, pp.112-124.

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 Modulus
 Yield strength, tensile strength, ductility
 Hardness
 Impact strength
 Fracture toughness
 Fatigue strength
 Creep strength
 Thermal fatigue resistance

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 What happens to material when it is loaded with

a mechanical force?
Material deforms, either elastically
or plastically, depending on the
magnitude of the force applied.

X-sectional area
reduced due to
tensile deformation

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Initial state Small load applied Load removed

bond
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
Linear
F elastic

Elastic means reversible!!

d
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At lower temperatures, T < Tm/3

1. Initial
Initial state 2.load
Large Largeapplied
load 3. Unload
Load removed

bond
stretch
and planes
planes still
sheared stretched

dp
F de+p

de
F
linear
elastic dp de
d Plastic means permanent!!
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The mechanical behaviour of

material under applied force
may be ascertained by a
simple stress – strain diagram
or, load – deformation
diagram
One of the most commonly
performed mechanical stress-
strain test is known as the
tensile test.

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The machine
Two categories of machines are
available:
Screw-driven: allows selection and
control of the strain rate (de/dt)
Hydraulically driven: allows selection
and control of the loading rate (ds/dt)
The sample
“505 bar” — Nickname for the ASTM
standard specimen most commonly used
in tensile testing; a cylindrical specimen,
0.505" dia. along 2" gauge length (i.e.,
the length of the straight section
between threaded ends). This diameter
gives a convenient 0.20 in2 cross-
sectional area.

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Stress: force per unit area

F
Engineering stress,
s= F = load or force
A0 A0 = original x-sectional area

Unit: Pascal (N/m2) or psi (lbf/in2)

1 MPa = 106 Pa = 145 psi ; 100 ksi (=105 psi) = 700 MPa

Strain: change in length per unit length

DL DL = change in length
Engineering strain,
e= L0 L0 = original length

Unit: dimensionless
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suts
sp – proportional limit
sy max. stress in linear region

sy – yield strength / proof stress

stress that results in a specific amount
sp of permanent strain ( 0.1 or 0.2%)
stress, s

suts – ultimate tensile strength

max. engineering stress on curve
E
ef – elongation or strain to failure
total strain at break
ef
E – modulus of elasticity
slope of curve in linear region
0.01 0.02
0.2 % strain, e

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In the Elastic Region

 In tensile test, if the deformation is elastic, the
stress-strain relationship follows the Hooke’s law:

s = Ee
E is known as the Young’s modulus,
or the modulus of elasticity

 E has the same unit as those of

stress, MPa or psi, although GPa
(109 Pa) is commonly used.

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In the Elastic Region

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
 E is a measure of :
 intrinsic stiffness of material
 Hooke’s law applied for
 bond strength (on the atomic level) only a small value of e
(typically < ~0.1-0.2 %)
 E is decreased with increasing T  ceramic materials follow
Hooke’s law up to fracture

 In the elastic region, E

does not vary with the
applied stress, i.e.
E ≠ E(s)

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Example
Design of a Suspension Rod
An aluminum rod is to withstand an applied force of 45 KN . To assure a sufficient
safety, the maximum allowable stress on the rod is limited to 150 MPa. The rod
must be at least 3.80 m long but must deform elastically no more than 0.6 cm.
when the force is applied. Design an appropriate rod.

SOLUTION

Using the definition of engineering stress, the required cross-sectional area

of the rod
F
A0 = s = (45000 lbs) / (25000 psi) = 1.8 in2
p d2
A0 = 4 = 1.8 in2 or d = 1.51 in

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However, the minimum length or rod is specified as 150 in. To produce a longer rod, we might make
the cross-sectional area of the rod larger.

The minimum strain allowed for the 150 in rod is

Dl 0.25 in Now, using the Hook’s law
e = = = 0.001667 in/in
l0 150 in s = E e = (10x106 psi) (0.001667 in/in) = 16670 psi

Then, the area required to withstand this stress

F 45000 lbs
A0 = = = 2.70 in2
s 16670 psi

Thus, in order to satisfy both the maximum stress and the minimum elongation requirements, cross-
sectional area of the rod must be at least 2.7 in2 , or a minimum diameter of 1.85 in.

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 Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those

subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral
and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio, n.

e e d0
n = - ex = - ey di
z z

 n is dimensionless, sign shows that lateral strain is

in the opposite sense to longitudinal strain.
Theoretical value for isotropic material: 0.25 z
Maximum value: 0.50, Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
x
 Many materials are elastically anisotropic. y
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Problem
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical
brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude
of the load required to produce a 2.5x10-3 mm change in diameter if
the deformation is entirely elastic.

Dd -2.5x10-3 mm
ex = - d0 =
10 mm
= -2.5x10-4

d0 = 10 mm
Dd = 2.5x10-3 mm e -2.5x10-4
ez = - nx = -
0.34
= 7.35x10-4
For brass,
n = 0.34
E = 97 GPa s = ez E
= (7.35x10-4) (97x103 MPa)
= 71.3 MPa
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 For most nonferrous metals, the

sP elastic to plastic transition is a
gradual one, where no well-defined yield
point is available.
Stress

 In such cases, an offset strength, or

proof strength, sP , is calculated.

Strain The offset is chosen for a stress

that causes a permanent strain of
0.002 strain 0.1, 0.2 or 0.5 per cent.

 After yielding, plastic deformation becomes more and more difficult. The stress
necessary to continue deformation rises with increasing strain, and the curve tends
to be flatten out.

 This is called strain hardening. With

deformation, the number of dislocations
M
inside the material is increased, which hinder TS 
further dislocation movement, and the
material becomes stronger.
stress

Tensile strength
maximum stress (~50-3000 MPa)

 At point M, the stress becomes the

maximum and is known as the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) or simply the tensile
strength (TS) of the material.
strain
MME131 / 19-7

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 If a material is deformed plastically and the stress

sy2 is then released, the material ends up with a net,
strain permanent strain.
unload hardening
sy1
reapply
load  If the stress is reapplied, the material again
Stress

responds elastically at the beginning up to a new

yield point that is higher than the original yield
point. This is due to strain or work hardening of
material.
Strain
permanent
strain  The amount of elastic strain that it will take before
elastic strain reaching the yield point is called elastic strain
recovery recovery.

 Beyond the point M, necking occurs at the sample and

stress decreases to eventual fracture.
fracture
strength
 During necking, pores and other defects start
to form or propagate, accumulate, and
multiply, and reduce the effective cross-
stress

section of the material.

necking
 When the cross-section can hold the applied
load no more, fracture or material takes place.

strain
MME131 / 19-9

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 Ductility is the measure of deformation at fracture of

materials during tension
 Usually measured as either
 Small %EL
 Material is brittle, if %EL < 5%
Elongation at failure (%E) or,
Reduction in area (%RA):

DL x 100
%EL =
L0
 Larger %EL
 Materials is ductile,
if %EL > 5% DA
%RA = x 100
A0

 %EL and %RA are often

comparable.

 A knowledge on ductility of materials is important:

 it indicates to a designer the degree to which the structure will deform

plastically before fracture.

 it specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication

operations.

MME131 / 19-11

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 Beyond the maximum point M in the s-e diagram, it appears that the strength of
material is decreased, i.e., the material is getting weaker.
 This is not at all the case; as a matter of fact, strength of the material increases
continuously.
True stress (load divided by the actual area)
in the necked-down region, continues to rise to
the point of fracture, in contrast to the
engineering stress.

Relation between true and engineering

M
stress and strain :

sT = s (1+e)
eT = ln (1+e)

MME131 / 19-11

energy
 Area under the s-e curve gives: volume

Li
stress

energy of
deformation
Work, W  F.dL
L 0
Li = instantaneous length
strain

energy 1
, U  W = AL
Li Li
volume
V  L F.dL =
0
L s de
0

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 Total work of elastic deformation

is a measure of resilience.

Given: s = Ee, ds = Ede

( E ≠ E(s) in the elastic region )

epl spl
 s ds
Ur = s de
0
= 0 E
spl2 sy2
= 
 Modulus of resilience,Ur 2E 2E
 Suitable to use in spring applications.
Modulus of sy 2

resilience U =
r 2E

Toughness
 the ability to absorb energy up to fracture
 the total area under the strain-stress curve up to fracture
 for a material to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility

Low toughness Units:

(ceramics)
Energy / volume, e.g. J/m3
High toughness
(metals, PMCs)
Stress

For brittle materials, fracture

Low toughness toughness is used, which
(unreinforced indicates material’s resistance to
polymers) fracture when a crack is present

Strain

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 The most popular mechanical testing methods:

1. simple and inexpensive
2. nondustructive testing
3. estimation of other mechanical properties (eg.,TS) from hardness data

 A measure of material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation by

indentation or scratching.

 The further into the material the indenter sinks, or the more the material is
scratched by another material, the softer is the material and lower its yield
strength.

 The high hardness means :

 better resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression
 better wear properties
 Values depends on method of testing;
 different testing methods  different scales and values

Moh’s Hardness Scale Moh’s Scale

 A qualitative and somewhat arbitrary hardness system that 1. Talc
measures the ability of one material to scratch another that 2. Gypsum
is softer. 3. Calcite
4. Feldspar
1, Talc – softest ; 10, Diamond – hardest 5. Apatite
gradations are uneven (e.g., 10 is not twice as hard as 5) 6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
 Extensively used to determine the hardness of minerals. 9. Corundum
10. Diamond
 The unknown mineral, which hardness is to be determined,
is scratched with another mineral of known hardness.
 If the mineral can be scratched by the known mineral, then Two German
the hardness of the mineral will be less than that of the Captains Fired
known mineral. An Old Queen
To Cruel Death

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Quantitative Hardness Tests

 A small indenter is forced into the surface of a
material to be tested, under controlled conditions
of load and rate of application.
 The depth or size of resulting indentation is
measured and converted into a hardness number.
The softer the material,
the larger and deeper the indentation
and the lower the hardness number

 Measured hardness is only relative

(not absolute), and care should be
taken when comparing values
determined by different techniques.

Quantitative Hardness Testing Methods

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Correlation Between Hardness and Tensile Strength

Both hardness and tensile

strength are indicative of metal’s
resistance to plastic
deformation.

Consequently they are

proportional to each other. But
the proportionality constant is
different for different materials.
For most steels,
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
TS (psi) = 500 x HB

MME131 / 20-12

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