Instructor Resource

Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e

Sage Publishing, 2018

Introduction to Criminology Why Do

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Chapter 5: Early Positivism

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. Scientists and academics became aware that the Classical School and
deterrence framework was not explaining what?
a. what could stop individuals from committing crime
b. which individuals or groups tended to offend more than others
c. why individuals committed crime
d. the distribution of crime
Ans: D
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Early Biological Theories of Behavior
Difficulty Level: Medium

2. The emphasis on science in criminology started in the ______ and provided a

basis for what continues today.
a. mid-1700s
b. mid-1800s
c. mid-1900s
d. beginning of the 21st century
Ans: B
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Introduction
Difficulty Level: Easy
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

3. ______ is the perspective that assumes individuals have no free will to control
their behavior.
a. Classical School
b. Positive School
c. Evolutionary theory
d. Neoclassical School
Ans: B
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Introduction
Difficulty Level: Easy

4. Later studies of craniometry revealed ______ between size of the skull/brain

and certain behaviors or personality traits.
a. a small correlation
b. a large correlation
c. no correlation
d. an unknown correlation
Ans: A
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Craniometry
Difficulty Level: Easy

5. The science of determining human disposition based on distinctions (bumps)

in the skull.
a. craniometry
b. phrenology
c. atavism
d. physiognomy
Ans: B
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Phrenology
Difficulty Level: Easy

6. Darwin’s theory laid the groundwork for what major scientific theory of crime?
a. rational choice
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

b. craniometry
c. routine activities
d. born criminals
Ans: D
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Physiognomy
Difficulty Level: Medium

7. Sheldon’s theoretical approach was largely known as:

a. endotyping
b. cromotyping
c. somatotyping
d. none of these
Ans: C
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

8. According to Sheldon, all embryos must develop ______ distinct tissue layers,
which are still acknowledged by perinatal medical researchers.
a. four
b. five
c. three
d. six
Ans: C
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. The lowest group on the ranked order of low IQ individuals according to

Goddard was the ______.
a. morons
b. idiots
c. imbeciles
d. fool
Ans: B
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ

testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Easy

10. When Goddard determined that his IQ measurement was flawed, he lowered
the criteria for mental age from 12 to ______.
a. 4
b. 5
c. 8
d. 10
Ans: C
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Easy

11. According to Goddard, the biggest threat to the progress of humanity and the
genetic pool was the ______.
a. moron
b. idiot
c. imbecile
d. fool
Ans: A
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Easy

12. Which researcher developed the measurement we know today as IQ?

a. Goddard
b. Darwin
c. Lombroso
d. Binet
Ans: D
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Answer Location: After Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era

Difficulty Level: Easy

13. Lombroso’s model of stigmata as predictors of antisocial problems is more

accepted by ______ than they are by ______.
a. criminologists; political science
b. modern medical science; criminologists
c. criminologists; modern medical science
d. political science; criminologists
Ans: B
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Policy Implications
Difficulty Level: Medium

14. Several perspectives were created in the mid-1800s that were focused on
determining which individuals or groups are most likely to commit crime. These
perspectives were likely developed in relation to ______.
a. women’s rights
b. class relationships
c. slavery
d. prisoner rights
Ans: C
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Early Biological Theories of Behavior
Difficulty Level: Easy

15. Modern scientific studies show that perhaps the most vital part of the brain in
terms of criminality regarding trauma is the ______.
a. occipital lobe
b. right temporal lobe
c. left temporal lobe
d. frontal lobe
Ans: C
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Phrenology
Difficulty Level: Easy
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

16. Stigmata not only consisted of facial and bodily features, but also some extra
physiological features, including what?
a. tattoos
b. simian crease
c. malformed ears
d. head circumference
Ans: A
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
Difficulty Level: Easy

17. Which individual is known for labeling low IQ as feeble-mindedness?

a. Goddard
b. Binet
c. Sheldon
d. Lombroso
Ans: A
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Easy

18. Which individual is known for saying people were born criminal?
a. Goddard
b. Binet
c. Sheldon
d. Lombroso
Ans: D
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
Difficulty Level: Easy

19. All of the following are policy implications derived from the theories and
findings discussed in Chapter 5 EXCEPT:
a. medical screening at puberty for MPAs
b. same-sex classes
c. mandatory health insurance for pregnant mothers and children
d. youth screening for abnormal levels of hormones, neurotransmitters, and
toxins
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Ans: A
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Policy Implications
Difficulty Level: Medium

Multiple Response

1. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. William Sheldon’s new theoretical perspective

merged what two (2) concepts?
a. biology
b. sociology
c. psychology
d. chemistry
Ans: A, C
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

2. SELECT ALL THAT APPLY. According to Herrnstein and Murray, which ethnic
group(s) scores the highest on IQ or intelligence testing?
a. African Americans
b. Hispanics
c. Asians
d. Jewish
Ans: C, D
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Reexamining Intelligence
Difficulty Level: Medium

True/False
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

1. Eugenics is the study of and policies related to improvement of the human

race via control over selective reproduction.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Early Biological Theories of Behavior
Difficulty Level: Easy

2. Atavism is the belief that certain characteristics or behaviors of a person are

throwbacks to an earlier stage of evolutionary development.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Difficulty Level: Easy

3. Lombroso’s documentation of some of the tattoos he saw on known criminal

offenders included many tattoos that featured female names or some motto such
as “born under an unlucky star” or “man of misfortune.”
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
Difficulty Level: Easy

4. The front portion of the brain is called the splenium.

Ans: F
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Craniometry
Difficulty Level: Easy

5. Lombroso examined the bodies of captured war criminals in his research

concerning the born criminal.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Difficulty Level: Easy

6. Darwin’s theory is very relevant to today’s society.

Ans: F
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Difficulty Level: Hard

7. If people are born criminals, we can prevent them by medicating them at birth.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Difficulty Level: Medium

8. The Positive School is a perspective that assumes individuals have free will to
control their behavior.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: Describe what distinguishes positivistic perspectives from the
Classical/rational choice perspectives in terms of assumptions, concepts, and
propositions.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Early Biological Theories of Behavior
Difficulty Level: Easy

9. According to Lombroso, people who are serious criminals are manifestations

of higher forms of humanity in terms of evolutionary progression.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Crime
Difficulty Level: Medium

10. Lombroso was called as an expert witness in criminal trials to determine the
guilt or innocence of the suspects.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Policy Implications
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Difficulty Level: Easy

11. According to modern science and the creator of the measure, IQ cannot be
changed. Whatever IQ individuals are born with stays with them the rest of their
lives.
Ans: F
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: After Lombroso: The IQ-Testing Era
Difficulty Level: Easy

12. The various bumps in the skull used to determine human dispositions were
believed to conform to the shape of the brain.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Phrenology
Difficulty Level: Easy

13. Most entering freshmen in Ivy League schools, especially Harvard, were
asked to pose in three positions for photos in Sheldon’s studies. Many politicians
who have been in the news in the past few years were participants in his studies.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Easy

14. Sheldon tested his theory using poor methodology, and his validity was weak.
Ans: T
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Easy
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Essay

1. Explain Lombroso’s idea of the born criminal and atavism. What did the
concept of the born criminal mean for the criminal justice system? Can they be
reformed or rehabilitated? Why or why not.
Ans: Born criminals are those that are born deviant and antisocial and are the
most serious and violent criminal in a society. These individuals cannot deviate
from their natural tendencies. These individuals cannot be reformed because
they will always revert back to their natural-born tendencies to commit crime.
They should be singled out by the criminal justice system and identified early to
prevent or reduce crimes. An atavist is a person or particular feature of an
individual that is a throwback to an earlier stage of evolutionary development.
They are similar to the earlier stages of humankind, like the missing link.
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Difficulty Level: Hard

2. Explain what positivism and determinism are. How is Lombroso associated

with this school of thought? Give two (2) examples of real-life situations in which
determinism has affected individual decisions and explain.
Ans: Idea that most human behavior is determined by factors beyond free will
and free choice. This assumes human beings do not decide how they will act by
rationally thinking through costs and benefits of the situation. Lombroso’s idea of
the born criminal assumes individuals do not decide whether or not to be
criminal; they are born with that predisposition. Students must give real-life
examples. Career paths or religion are the examples listed in the book.
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the
Positive School
Difficulty Level: Hard

3. Explain determinism.
Ans: Determinism is the idea that most human behavior is determined by factors
beyond free will and free choice (i.e., the Classical School). In other words,
determinism (i.e., the Positive School) assumes that human beings do not decide
how they will act by rationally thinking through the costs and benefits of a given
situation. Rather, the Positive School is based on the fundamental belief that
factors outside of free will and choice—such as biological, psychological, and
sociological variables—determine the choices we make regarding all types of
behavior, especially decisions of whether or not to engage in criminal activity.
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses

of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the
Positive School
Difficulty Level: Medium

4. Explain the three (3) different body types according to William Sheldon and
how they relate to individual personality traits and temperament. What group had
the highest propensity for criminality, and why?
Ans: The three groups were called endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph.
Endomorphs are obese. Mesomorphs are muscular or athletic build. Ectomorphs
are thin. The endomorph tended to be more jolly or lazy. The mesomorph
typically had risk-taking and aggressive temperament. The ectomorph tended to
be introverted and shy. Mesomorphs had greatest propensity for criminality due
to their risk-taking and aggressive dispositions.
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

5. Lombroso’s theory was largely based on certain groups being atavistic. What
did this mean?
Ans: A person or particular feature of an individual is a throwback to an earlier
stage of evolutionary development.
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism and Born Criminals
Difficulty Level: Medium

6. What is craniometry? What did craniometry studies find concerning ethnic

groups and portions of the brain?
Ans: Emphasized the belief that the size of the brain or skull reflected superiority
or inferiority, with larger brains and skills being considered superior. White,
Western European individuals were far superior to other ethnic groups in terms of
larger circumference or volume in skull or brain size. The front portion of the
brain was larger in superior individuals or groups, with the hind portion of the
brain being larger in lesser individuals and groups.
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

Answer Location: Craniometry

Difficulty Level: Medium

7. How did Goddard use the concept of IQ testing? How was his concept of the
IQ different than the original premise of the measure? How could these ideas and
assumptions affect policies and practices of the criminal justice system?
Ans: Goddard twisted the assumptions and propositions for use in deporting,
incapacitating, sterilizing, and ridding society of low-IQ individuals, tested
immigrants. Goddard believed IQ did not change and could not be changed,
even with training. He believed it passed from generation to generation. Students
must give original answers to how this may affect the criminal justice system. The
system could identify individuals who have low IQs and single them out for
programs or as criminals at an early age. They would deal with individuals with
low IQs differently than the general public.
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Hard

8. Should an individual’s IQ be taken into account when they have committed a

crime? Make sure your argument ties in Goddard’s theories.
Ans: Varies dependent on perspective. If student agrees with Goddard, he or she
should talk about his IQ theory with pros, and if he or she disagree, cons.
Learning Objective: Explain the shift to more psychological areas, namely IQ
testing, and how it affected the field in terms of policy and thinking about
individuals’ risk for criminality.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Goddard’s IQ Test
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. How does examining the tattoos of criminals not coincide with Lombroso’s
born criminal theory?
Ans: Individuals are not born with tattoos.
Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Lombroso’s List of Stigmata
Difficulty Level: Hard

10. How can identifying young children on the basis of observed stigmata be
detrimental to the child?
Ans: The child is labeled from that point on as having these stigmata; this leads
to tracking and isolating these children, not allowing them equal development as
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

compared with other children.

Learning Objective: Identify the key assumptions, propositions, and weaknesses
of Lombroso’s theory of atavism and the born criminal.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Lombroso’s Policy Implications
Difficulty Level: Hard

11. How was Sheldon’s research on body types and temperament flawed?
Ans: His measures were subjective and lacked validity and reliability. Even his
trained staff did not agree on the somatotype of each individual. They also did
not have the technology we have today, such as a caliper or submersion water
tanks.
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

12. Can you think of any modern-day examples that are similar to Sheldon’s
research on body types, often referred to as somatotyping?
Ans: Various, but the idea that people “look” a certain way and may “look
criminal.” One example could be the creepy sex offender.
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

13. What two (2) political movements of the early 1900s did Lombroso’s theory
coincide with?
Ans: Fascist and Nazi movements.
Learning Objective: Evaluate the key propositions, concepts, and weaknesses of
Sheldon’s body type theory, and how he measured the various body types of this
perspective.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Body Type Theory: Sheldon’s Model of Somatotyping
Difficulty Level: Medium

14. How important is timing in relation to social acceptance of a theory or

proposition?
Ans: Timing is everything. Lombroso’s work took off and became popular
because it came after the success of Darwin’s research. If Darwin’s research had
not been published and socially accepted as it was before Lombroso’s work was
 Instructor Resource
Schram, Introduction to Criminology, 2e
Sage Publishing, 2018

released, society may not have been so accepting of Lombroso's work.

Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Lombroso as the Father of Criminology and the Father of the
Positive School
Difficulty Level: Hard

15. According to Darwin, what is natural selection?

Ans: Some species are selected by their ability to adapt to the environment, while
others do not adapt and die off or become inferior.
Learning Objective: Explain how the early, pre-Darwinian theories, such as
craniometry and phrenology, are different from (and similar to) later post-
Darwinian theories, such as Lombroso’s theory of offending.
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Physiognomy
Difficulty Level: Medium