LESSON 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM 1.

Soma / Cell Body

2. Cell membrane
NERVOUS SYSTEM 3. Dendrites
4. Axon
➔ network of nerve cells and fibers which transmit
5. Axon Hillock
nerve impulses between parts of the body.
6. Oligodendrocyte
➔ involved in almost every body function.
7. Node of Ranvier
➔ we can consider it as a control
- Gaps between the myelin sheath
system/communication system, receiving
8. Myelin sheath
signals and sending commands to different
- Covers the axon; insulates and increases
parts of the body.
the transmission of nerve impulses.
➔ Coordinates body functions to maintain
9. Axon terminal
homeostasis.
- Sends the impulses away from the
neuron. Contains neurotransmitters.
10. Synaptic end bulbs
CELLS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NOTE!!
1. Neurons
Synapse
➔ conducts impulses (action potential)
➔ occurs at synaptic cleft.
➔ junctions where neurons communicate
with one another.

MAIN PARTS
➔ enlarged body filled with
cytoplasm.
2. Glial Cells / Neuroglia / Non-Neuronal Cells ➔ contains the:
Soma/Cell
➔ supportive cells of CNS and PNS. ✓ Nucleus – contains the
Body
➔ does not conduct impulses nucleolus.
a. Microglia ✓ Nissl bodies
b. Macroglia – larger soma and wider (organelles)
scope in terms of function
➔ a single long cell process
Axon extending from the neuron
cell body
➔ cone-shaped projection
from soma
Axon Hillock
➔ projects to become the
axon
➔ short branches, finger-like
Dendrites ➔ highly branching
cytoplasmic reactions

PARTS OF THE NEURON

TYPES OF NEURONS
➔ many projections
Multipolar ➔ 2 or more dendrites, 1
axon
➔ 2 projections
Bipolar
➔ 1 dendrite, 1 axon
➔ 1 projection
Unipolar
➔ 1 axon
➔ false unipolar
➔ branched axon with
Pseudounipolar
processes extending in
opposite sides.
 ➔ epithelial-like
cells.
➔ line the cavities
in the brain and
spinal cord that
contains
Ependymal Cells
cerebrospinal
fluid.
➔ some form
choroid
plexuses, which
produce CSF
➔ cell processes
that from myelin
sheaths around
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA Oligodendrocytes axons or enclose
unmyelinated
axons in the
CNS
➔ protect CNS
from infection.
➔ become
Microglial Cells phagocytic in
response to
inflammation.
Micro = Microbiology
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
➔ counterpart of
oligodendrocytes
➔ provide myelin to
neurons in the
Schwann Cells PNS.
➔ wrap around the
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM axons (forms a
➔ major supporting multilayered
cells in the CNS coating).
➔ regulate ➔ support neurons,
neuronal providing
signaling. nutrients.
Astrocyte
➔ contribute to Satellite Cells
➔ protect neurons
blood-brain from heavy-
barrier. metal poisons.
➔ help with neural
tissue repair
 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE GRAY ➔ Center of spinal cord
NERVOUS SYSTEM MATTER ➔ Looks like a letter H or a
butterfly
➔ Color Red
➔ Contains
✓ Posterior Horns
✓ Anterior Horns
✓ Lateral Horns
✓ Central Canal
- Fluid-filled space in
center of cord
WHITE ➔ Outside of spinal cord
MATTER ➔ Color White
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ➔ Contains three columns:
✓ Dorsal
BRAIN ✓ Ventral
➔ Receives and processes sensory information, ✓ Lateral
initiates responses, stores memories,
generates thoughts and emotions.

Cerebrum Most prominent feature

Small, rounded structure

Cerebellum
caudal to the cerebrum

Brain region ventral to the

Diencephalon cerebrum and cranial to the
brainstem
Composed of:
➔ Medulla Oblongata
Brainstem
➔ Pons
➔ Midbrain

SPINAL CORD
➔ Conducts signal to and from the brain, controls
reflex activity.
➔ Nerve tissue extending inferiorly from the brain
at the level of the foramen magnum to the
second lumbar vertebra.
➔ Covered by layers of protective or nourishing
tissue

Vertebral Column Bony covering

Meninges Membranous coverings
 Cervical Spinal Nerves C1 to C8

Thoracic Spinal Nerves T1 to T12

Lumbar Spinal Nerves L1 to L5
Sacral Spinal Nerves S1 to S5

Coccygeal Spinal Nerves C or Cx

➔ Organized in 3 plexuses:

Cervical From spinal nerves C1-4

Brachial From spinal nerves C5-T1

Lumbosacral From spinal nerves L1-S4

RELATION OF GRAY MATTER AND WHITE
MATTER WITH THE SPINAL CORD
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
MOTOR → Efferent
DIVISION → Nerve fibers that carry
impulses away from the
CNS
1. SOMATIC
- voluntary/controllable
2. AUTONOMIC
- involuntary/uncontrollable
SENSORY → Afferent
DIVISION → Nerve fibers that carry
information to the CNS

Somatic Neurons and Autonomic Neurons

SPINAL NERVES
➔ Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal
(posterior) roots and ventral (anterior) roots.
➔ Located between vertebra; 31 pairs.
➔ Named for the vertebral region with which they
are associated:
 Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic – Fight or Flight; responds under stress.

Parasympathetic – Rest or Digest; tones down the response.

NERVES AND REFLEXES

Reflex Arc Tendon Or Stretch Reflexes

➔ The neuronal pathway by which a reflex 1. Patellar or Knee Reflex – L2 to L4
occurs. 2. Biceps Reflex
➔ Triggers the reflex. 3. Triceps Reflex – C7 to C8
4. Angle Jerk or Tendon of Achilles Reflex – L5
Involuntary reaction in response
to S2
to a stimulus applied to the
REFLEX 5. Wrist Reflex
periphery and transmitted to the
CNS
Specialized cell or cell Other Reflexes
RECEPTOR projection, stimulated by a 1. Sneezing Reflex
change in its environment 2. Palmar Reflex
3. Abdominal Reflex
Eye Reflexes 4. Pharyngeal or Gag Reflex
1. Corneal or Conjunctival Reflex (Cranial Nerve 5. Plantar Reflex
5) 6. Axon Reflex
2. Blink Reflex – when dust enters the eye. 7. Babinski’s Reflex (infants only)
3. Pupillary Reflex – dilation / constriction of 8. Moro or Startle Reflex (infants only)
pupils. 9. Epigastric Reflex
4. Convergence Reflex 10. Cremasteric Reflex (males)
11. Gluteal Reflex
12. Palatal Reflex
 LESSON 8: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ✓ endocrine
➔ Endocrine chemical messengers are called
hormones.

Functions of the Endocrine System

1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of reproductive functions
9. Uterine contractions and milk release
10. Immune system regulation

T-CELLS B-CELLS
Produced by bone Produced by bone
marrow that travels to marrow that stays in
the thymus gland the bone marrow

HORMONES
➔ Derived from the Greek word hormon,
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM which means to set into motion

➔ Composed of glands that secrete chemical

messengers known as hormones. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
➔ Hormones are carried in the bloodstream to ➔ Soluble in fats
specific areas of the body, including the organs ✓ Steroids
and body tissues. Lipid-Soluble ✓ Thyroid hormones
➔ The pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the ✓ Some fatty acid
pituitary gland, the thyroid, the ovaries, and the derivatives
testes are some of the most important glands ➔ Soluble in water
in the body. Water- ✓ Proteins
➔ Consists of ductless glands that secrete Soluble ✓ Peptides
hormones into the interstitial fluid. ✓ Amino acid derivatives

Principles Of Chemical Communication STIMULATION OF HORMONE RELEASE

➔ Chemical messengers allow cells to
communicate with each other to regulate body
activities (specific collection of cells or by a
gland).
➔ Four classes of chemical messengers based
on the source of the chemical messenger and
its mode of transport in the body.
✓ autocrine
✓ paracrine
✓ neurotransmitter
Humoral Hormones sensitive to blood
Stimulation vessels of certain molecules
Neural hormone secretion in direct
Stimulation response to neurons
Hormonal
common in the endocrine system
Stimulation
 DISORDERS IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
INSULIN Produced by beta cells 1. Diabetes
GLUCAGON Produced by alpha cells 2. Thyroid Disorders
3. Hypogonadism
4. PCOS
5. Osteoporosis
 LESSON 9: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
➔ Consists of the digestive tract, or
gastrointestinal tract, plus specific associated
organs
➔ Nearly all segments of the digestive tract
consist of four layers, called tunics: mucosa,
submucosa, muscularis, serosa (adventitia)
➔ The organ system that takes in food and liquids
and break them down into substances that the
body can use for energy, growth, and tissue
repair.
➔ The G.I. tract (gastrointestinal tract) is a series
of hollow organs that are connected to each
other from your mouth to your anus.
Functions of the Digestive System
Every cell of the body requires nutrients.
1. Ingestion of Food
2. Digestion of Food
3. Absorption of Nutrients
4. Elimination of Wastes
• The function of the digestive tract is to
break down the ingested food into its
components and produce vital nutrients
and energy required to sustain life.
TERMINOLOGIES
Ingestion
➔ Intake of food is an active, voluntary process.
➔ Refers to the entry of food into the alimentary
canal through the mouth.
➔ The food is chewed and mixed with saliva,
which contains enzymes that begin breaking
down the carbohydrates in the food plus some
lipid digestion via lingual lipase.
Propulsion
➔ If foods are processed by more than one
digestive organ, they must be propelled from
one organ to the next.
➔ Swallowing is one example of food movement
that depends largely on the propulsive process
called peristalsis (involuntary, alternating
waves of contraction and relaxation of the
muscles in the organ wall).
Mechanical Digestion
➔ Prepares food for further degradation by
enzymes by physically fragmenting the foods
into smaller pieces, and examples of
mechanical digestion are:
a. mixing of the food in the mouth by
tongue
b. churning of food in the stomach
c. segmentation in the small intestine
➔ chyme = acidic “soup; thick semi-fluid mass
of partially ingested food mixed with gastric
juices that is formed in the stomach and
intestine
Chemical Digestion
➔ Large food molecules are broken down into
their building blocks by enzymes.
Segmentation
➔ Allows contractions to isolate small sections of
the intestine, moving their contents back and
forth while continuously sub-dividing, breaking
up, and mixing contents.
➔ Segmentation mixes food with digestive juices
and facilitates absorption.
Absorption
➔ Transport of digested end products from the
lumen of the GI tract to the blood or lymph
➔ Food that has been broken down is of no value
to the body unless it enters the body and its
nutrients are put to work.
➔ Most nutrients are absorbed from the lumen of
the alimentary canal into the bloodstream
through the epithelial cells that make up the
mucosa.
Defecation
➔ Elimination of indigestible residues from the GI
tract via the anus in the form of feces
➔ Final step in digestion, undigested materials
are removed from the body as feces
➔ It is necessary to expel undigested proportions
of food in addition to metabolic waste products
like stercobilin from the body in the form of
stool.
LAYERS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Mucosa
➔ the innermost layer, a moist membrane that
lines the cavity, or lumen, of the organ.
➔ it consists primarily of oof a surface epithelium,
plus a small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria) and a scanty smooth muscle
layer.
 Submucosa
➔ found beneath the mucosa;
➔ it is a soft connective tissue layer containing
blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules
and lymphatic vessels.

Muscularis externa
➔ a layer typically made up of an inner circular
layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth
muscle cells.

Serosa
➔ also known as adentitia
➔ is the outermost layer of the wall that consists
of a single layer of flat serous fluid-producing
cells, the visceral peritoneum.
➔ Simple squamous epithelium

Intrinsic nerve plexuses

➔ the alimentary canal wall contains two
important intrinsic nerve plexuses:
• Submucosal nerve plexus
• Myentric nerve plexus
➔ both of plexuses are networks of nerve fibers
that are actually part of the autonomic nervous
system and help regulate the mobility and
secretory activity of the GI tract organs.
 ORAL CAVITY
Lingual frenulum
➔ The oral cavity is the first part of the digestive
trait ➔ a fold of mucous membrane, secures the
➔ The lips and cheeks are important in the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits
process of mastication (begins the process of its posterior movements
mechanical digestion)
➔ Consists of the digestive tract, or
Palatine tonsils
gastrointestinal tract, plus specific associated
organs ➔ at the posterior end of the oral cavity are
paired masses of lymphatic tissue, the
palatine tonsils
Parts of the Oral Cavity

Lingual tonsil
➔ cover the base of the tongue just beyond

FUN FACT!!
There are 32 teeth in the normal adult mouth,
located in the mandible and maxillae:
• one central incisor
• one lateral incisor
• one canine,
• first and second premolars
• first, second, and third molars

Lips
➔ also called as labia
➔ it protects the anterior opening

Cheeks
➔ form the lateral walls

Palate
➔ Hard palate – anterior roof
➔ Soft palate – posterior roof

Uvula
➔ a fleshy finger-like projection of the soft
palate, which extends inferiorly from the
posterior edge of the soft palate

Tongue
➔ has bony attachments; two of these are to
the hyoid bone and the styloid processes of
the skull
 ESOPHAGUS 1. Gastric glands – secrete the solution
called gastric juice
➔ Aka “gullet” is a muscular tube, lined with moist
2. Intrinsic factor – a substance needed for
stratified squamous epithelium, that extends
the absorption of Vitamin B12 from the
from the pharynx to the stomach; 25 cm long
small intestine
➔ It transports food from the pharynx to the
3. Chief Cells – produce protein-digesting
stomach; a passageway that conducts food by
enzymes, mostly pepsinogens
peristalsis to the stomach.
4. Parietal Cells – produce corrosive
➔ Esophageal sphincter - connection of
hydrochloric acid, which makes the
esophagus to the stomach
stomach contents acidic and activates
enzymes
5. Enteroendocrine cells – produce local
hormones such as gastrin, that are
important to the digestive activities of the
stomach
6. Chyme – heavy cream resulted after the
food is processed; acidic “soup; thick semi-
fluid mass of partially ingested food mixed
with gastric juices that is formed in the
stomach and intestine

SMALL INTESTINE
➔ Is about 6 meters long and consists of three
parts:
• Duodenum (25 cm)
• Jejunum (2.5 m)
• Ileum (3.5 m)
➔ Is the major site of digestion and absorption
of food, which are accomplished due to the
presence of a large surface area: circular
folds, villi, microvilli.
STOMACH ➔ Ileocecal junction - connection bet the
ileum and cecum
➔ Is an enlarged segment of the digestive tract in
the left superior part of the abdomen
➔ Secretes strong acids that can melt metals.
➔ Muscularis = longitudinal, circular, oblique
➔ Rugae – rough folds in the stomach lining
 LARGE INTESTINE
➔ It consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and
anal canal
➔ The cecum is the proximal end of the large
intestine where it joins with the small
intestine at the ileocecal junction

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT

Digestion
➔ is the breakdown of food to molecules that
are small enough to be absorbed into the
circulation.

Absorption
➔ begins in the stomach, where some small,
lipid soluble molecules, such as alcohol
and aspirin, can diffuse through the
stomach epithelium into the circulation.

Transportation
➔ requires carrier molecules and includes
facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active
transport.
 PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Mouth • food starts its journey from the mouth or the oral cavity

• create saliva that helps moisten food so we can swallow it more easily
Salivary Glands
o Amylase – enzyme that help the stomach to break down starches in food

Pharynx • mainly involved in the passage of chewed/crushed food from the mouth through the esophagus
Esophagus • to carry food and liquid from your mouth to your stomach

• acts as a storage for the food and provides enough time to digest meals; also produces digestive
enzymes and hydrochloric acid that maintains the process of digestion
o Mucous – protecting the stomach lining and gastric pits from the acid, which is produced by
the glands to destroy the bacteria that entered along with the food particles
Stomach
Gastrointestinal Tract o Digestive enzymes – group of enzymes which functions by breaking down polymeric
macromolecules; smaller and simpler substances
o Hydrochloric acid – digestive fluid that destroys harmful microorganisms present in the food
particles

• It helps to further digest food coming from the stomach; It absorbs nutrients and water from food so
Small Intestine
they can be used by the body.

• It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support the breakdown of wastes to fetch
Large Intestine
small nutrients.

• Waste is stored in the rectum as semi-solid feces which later exits from the body through the anal
Rectum
canal through the process of defecation.

Pancreas • releases digestive enzymes to complete the process of chemical digestion

Liver • produces bile, which helps in the digestion of fat in the small intestine.
Accessory Organs
Gall Bladder • The bile produced by the liver is stored and recycled in the gallbladder.
Anus • The opening at the far end of digestive tract through which the stool is released from the body
 LESSON 10: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPHATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Lymph
➔ Made up of proteins and lipids, and immune
cells that fight bacteria and other foreign
substances.
➔ excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic
vessels.
• Flows within the interstitial spaces
(between the BV and the tissues)
➔ Properties of Lymphatic Vessels
• One way system toward the heart
• No pump
• Lymph moves toward the heart.

The lymphatic system includes: FUN FACT!

• Lymph - Lymphatic Vessels and the Tissues will provide
• Lymphatic vessels back pressure to injured Blood Vessels to
• Lymph nodes suppress bleeding.
• The tonsils - Edema = swelling due to accumulation of fluid
• The spleen (lymph) in the interstitial spaces
• The thymus - Chyle = milky white lymph

➔ It does not circulate fluid to and from tissues. LYMPHATIC VESSELS

➔ It only carries fluid (lymph) in one direction,
from tissues to the circulatory system.
➔ Fluid moves from blood capillaries into tissue
spaces.

Two Parts:
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymphoid tissues and organs
Function
• Transport fluids back to the blood
• Play essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease.
• Absorb digested fat at the intestinal villi.
➔ Collects lymph from lymph capillaries.
• lymph capillaries are blind-ended.
➔ Carries lymph to and away from lymph nodes.
➔ Returns fluid to circulatory veins near the
heart.
➔ Flaplike minivalve lessens the possibility of
forming and edema and ensures one way flow
Right lymphatic duct – drains everything at the
right side of the body and the right thorax
Thoracic duct – drains the rest of the body that
isn’t covered by rhe RLD
 LYMPH NODES
➔ Size is almost an inch
➔ Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
➔ Defense cells within lymph nodes
• Macrophages – engulf and destroy
foreign substances
• Lymphocytes – provide immune
response to antigens
*Antigens induces immune response
that are found in foreign substances
*Antibodies respond of the body
against antigen

SPLEEN
➔ Located on the left side of the abdomen.
➔ Filters blood
➔ Destroys worn out blood cells
➔ Forms blood cells in the fetus
➔ Acts as a blood reservoir.

Pitting
• removal of cytoplasm inclusion of RBC
Follicle – is where the lymphocytes are located. Culling
Cortex – is where the follicle and germinal center is
located. • destruction of senescent cells
Trabecula – part of the capsule that extends in the
lymph node.
Medulla – is where the macrophage is found
Afferent – the one that receives the lymph; cortex
area
Efferent – the one that discharges the lymph; medulla
area
 THYMUS PEYER’S PATCHES
➔ Located low in the throat, overlying the heart ➔ Found in the wall of the small intestine
➔ Functions at peak levels only during childhood ➔ Resemble tonsils in structure
➔ Produces hormones (like thymosin) to ➔ Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
program lymphocytes
• Lymphocytes involved in adaptive immune
response

Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

Includes:
• Peyer’s patches
• Tonsils
TONSILS
• Other small accumulations of lymphoid
➔ Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the tissue
pharynx • Acts as a guard to protect respiratory and
➔ Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign digestive tracts
materials

Tonsilitis caused by congestion with bacteria THE BODY DEFENSES

Humoral immunity
• Antibody-mediated immunity (produced
by B-cells)
• Cells produce chemicals for defense
Cellular immunity
• Cell-mediated immunity
• Cells target virus infected cells
 PHAGOCYTOSIS
➔ plasma membrane; the ingestion/engulfment
of bacteria or other material by phagocytes
and amoeboid protozoans
➔ phagocyte - cell which eats the pathogen
➔ pathogen - foreign material

1. Initiation and activation of the phagocyte

2. Chemotaxis is the movement of phagocytes
toward an increasing concentration of some
attractant such as bacterial factors
3. Attachment of the phagocyte to the microbe
or cell
4. Ingestion of the microbe or cell by the
phagocyte
5. Destruction of the microbe or cell
 LESSON 11: BLOOD

BLOOD
➔ the red liquid that circulates in the arteries and
veins of humans and other vertebrates –
carrying oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the
tissues of the body.

Functions of Blood
• Transport of gasses (CO2 and O2),
nutrients, and waste products
• Transport of processed molecules
• Transport of regulatory molecules
(hormones)
• Maintenance of body temperature
o Vasodilation – first mechanism of BV in
inflammation
o Vasoconstriction – first mechanism in
bleeding
• Protection against foreign substances
• Clot formation
o Fibrin - stabilizes the clots.

Composition of Blood
➔ Blood is a type of connective tissue that
consists of a liquid matrix (plasma) containing
cells and cell fragments (formed elements).

Blood volume in an average adult

Female 4L – 5L
Male 5L – 6L
General 5L

Production of Formed Elements •

➔ Hematopoiesis = blood cell production •
• In the fetus, it occurs in several tissues: •
liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red •
bone marrow. • After birth, it is confined primarily to red
• After birth, it is confined primarily to red bone marrow.
bone marrow.
 RED BLOOD CELLS
➔ Normal red blood cells are disk-shaped, with
edges that are thicker than the center of the cell
(biconcave shape)
➔ During their development, red blood cells lose
their nuclei and most of their organelles.
➔ The primary functions of red blood cells are to
transport oxygen from the lungs to the various
tissues of the body and to help transport
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
• Hemoglobin that is bound to oxygen is
bright red, whereas hemoglobin without
bound oxygen is a darker red.
• Iron is necessary for oxygen transport (2/3
found in hemoglobin)
Lifespan of RBCs
Female 110 days
Male 120 days
General 120 days
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
➔ White blood cells are larger than red blood
cells, and each has a nucleus.
➔ White blood cells can leave the blood and
travel by ameboid movement (flagella) through
the tissues.
FUNCTION:
• Protect the body against invading
microorganisms.
• Remove dead cells by phagocytosis.
➔ Each white blood cell type is named according
to its appearance in stained preparations:
• Granulocytes
• Agranulocytes

Life History of RBCs

➔ About 2.5 million red blood cells are destroyed
every second.
➔ Red blood cell production is stimulated by low
blood oxygen levels.
➔ Low blood oxygen levels stimulate red blood
cell production by increasing the formation and
release of the glycoprotein called
erythropoietin (EPO).
• Erythropoietin is synthesized in the
kidneys.
 Types of White Blood Cells

CLASSIFICATION NAME DESCRIPTION PICTURE

➔ It has 3 or more lobes.
➔ It remains in the blood for a short time (10–12 hours)
➔ move into other tissues, and phagocytize microorganisms
Neutrophils
and other foreign substances.
➔ First line of defense (innate immunity); fights bacterial
infections

➔ 2 lobed nucleus
Granular Eosinophils ➔ Involved in inflammatory responses and allergic reactions
➔ orange-y or bright pink appearance

➔ Large cytoplasmic granules.

➔ Works with the mast cells to release histamine and other
Basophils
chemicals that promote inflammation.
➔ Dark appearance

➔ Consists of only a thin, sometimes imperceptible ring

around the nucleus.
Lymphocytes
➔ Production of antibodies (B-cells) and other chemicals (T-
cells) that destroy microorganisms.

Agranular

➔ Largest of the white blood cells.

Monocytes ➔ Monocytes enlarge and become macrophages when it
enters the tissues
 PLATELETS
➔ Platelets are minute fragments of cells, each
consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm
surrounded by a cell membrane.
➔ They are produced in the red bone marrow
from megakaryocytes, which are large cells.
➔ Plays a vital role in hemostasis (normal blood
flow inside the body).
Blood Clotting
➔ A clot is a network of threadlike protein fibers,
called fibrin that traps blood cells, platelets,
and fluid.
➔ Clot formation is a complex process involving
many chemical reactions.
(1) Vascular spasm
(2) Platelet plug formation
(3) Blood clotting
SUMMARY OF FORMED ELEMENTS
BLOOD GROUPING
➔ A transfusion is the transfer of blood or blood
components from one individual to another.
➔ An infusion is the introduction of a fluid other
than blood, such as a saline or glucose
solution, into the blood.
➔ The surfaces of red blood cells have molecules
called antigens and the plasma includes
proteins called antibodies.
➔ Antibodies are very specific, antibody can bind
only to a certain antigen
• Agglutination - the clumping of the cells
• Hemolysis - rupture of the red blood cells
ABO Blood Group
➔ First pioneered by Karl Landsteiner
➔ The ABO blood group system is used to
categorize human blood.
➔ There are two types of antigens that may
appear: type A antigen and type B antigen.
➔ Plasma from type A blood contains anti-B
antibodies, which act against type B antigens;
plasma from type B blood contains anti-A
antibodies, which act against type A antigens.
Rh Blood Group
➔ Named because it was first studied in the
rhesus monkey.
➔ People are Rh-positive if they have certain Rh
antigens on the surface of their red blood cells,
and they are Rh-negative if they do not have
these Rh antigens.
➔ Antibodies against the Rh antigens do not
develop unless an Rh-negative person is
exposed to Rh-positive red blood cells.
 Blood Typing Unacceptable Peripheral Blood Films

• The blood group will depend on which antigens

are on the surface of the red blood cells.
Antigens are molecules.
• They can be either proteins or sugars. The
types and features of antigens can vary
between individuals, due to small genetic
differences.

Slide appearances associated with the most

common errors are shown but note that a
combination of causes may be responsible for
unacceptable films.
A. Chipped or rough edge on spreader slide
B. Hesitation in forward motion of spreader
slide
C. Spreader slide pushed too quickly
D. Drop of blood too small
E. Drop of blood not allowed to spread across
the width of the slide
F. Dirt or grease on the slide; may also be
caused by elevated lipids in the blood
specimen
G. Uneven pressure on the spreader slide
H. Time delay; drop of blood began to dry.
Peripheral Blood Smear
➔ A blood smear is a blood test used to look for
abnormalities in blood cells.
DISEASES AND DISORDERS
➔ The test provides information on the number
Erythrocytosis
and shape of these cells, which can help
doctors diagnose certain blood disorders or • Polycythemia vera
other medical conditions. • Relative Erythrocytosis
➔ Irregularities in the number or shape of your
Clotting Disorders
red blood cells can affect how oxygen travels
in your blood. • Disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Von Willebrand disease
• Hemophilia
Infectious Diseases
• Septicemia
• Malaria
• Infectious mononucleosis
• AIDS
 LESSON 12: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
➔ a closed system of the heart and blood
vessels.
• the heart pumps blood
• blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all
parts of the body.
Function
➔ Managing blood supply
➔ Producing blood pressure
➔ Securing one-way blood flow (valves)
➔ Transmitting blood (pulmonary and systemic
circulation
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
➔ The heart is a muscular organ containing four
chambers.
➔ Its main function is to pump blood around the
circulatory system of the lungs and the
systemic circulation of the rest of the body.
➔ In the average day, the heart beats about
100,00 times and never rests; can pump 5L of
blood per minute.
• Tachycardia – fast heartbeat
• Bradycardia – slow heartbeat
Location of the Heart
➔ Rests on the diaphragm, with its apex directed
toward the left hip.
➔ Located in the thoracic cavity (chest) in the
mediastinum (between the lungs), behind and
to the left of the sternum (breastbone)
➔ The base of the heart is itself made up of two
of the chambers of the heart known as the atria
(singular = atrium)
NOTE:
Heart is about the size of a closed fist, and it
weighs less than a pound.
• Female – 200g -275g
• Male – 250 – 320g
HEART
➔ A hollow, cone-shaped, weighs less than a
pound.
➔ The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ
that pumps blood through the blood vessels of
the body.
➔ The wall of the heart is composed of three
layers.
➔ It must continue its cycle of contraction and
relaxation in order to provide a continuous
blood supply to the tissues and ensure the
delivery of nutrients and oxygen and the
removal of waste products.
➔ The wall of the heart is composed of three
layers of tissue.
• Epicardium
• Myocardium
• Endocardium
 Parts of the Heart ➔ The innermost layer of
Apex the heart
➔ The more pointed apex directed toward the left ➔ Thin, glistening sheet of
hip and rests on the diaphragm. endothelium that lines
➔ Approximately at the level of the fifth intercostal Endocardium the heart chambers and
space. valves. This minimizes
the surface friction as
blood passes through the
Base heart
➔ The great vessels of the body emerge, points
toward the right shoulder and lies beneath the
second rib.
BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries
Pericardium
➔ Vessels that carry blood away from the heart
➔ A membrane that surrounds and protects the
• Arterioles – very small branches of
heart
arteries
➔ The double-walled sac and the outermost layer
of the heart Veins
➔ Collect the blood from the various organs and
Fibrous Pericardium – tough, inelastic, dense parts return the blood to the heart.
irregular connective tissue. It prevents • Venules – very small branches of veins
overstretching of the heart, protects, and anchors
it to the mediastinum.
Capillaries
Serous Pericardium – thinner, more delicate
membrane that forms a double later around the ➔ Minute thin-walled vessels that connect the
heart. arterioles and venules.
➔ Nutrients and wastes are exchanged between
• Parietal Pericardium – outside layer fused
the blood and body tissues.
to the fibrous pericardium.
• Visceral Pericardium - also known as the
epicardium; part of the heart wall.

Serous Fluid / Pericardial Fluid

➔ Secretion of pericardial cells that reduce
the friction between the layers of
pericardium.
➔ Outermost layer and
actually a part of the
heart wall.
Epicardium
• Visceral layer
• Fibroelastic tissue +
adipose

➔ Consists of thick bundles

of cardiac muscle twisted
and whirled into ring-like
arrangements.
Myocardium
➔ It is the layer that
contracts.
➔ Thickest layer; comprises
of 95% of the heart wall
 VASCULAR TUNICS
➔ lines the lumen, or
interior, of the
vessels,
➔ thin layer of
Tunica Intima
endothelium resting
on a basement
membrane
➔ decreases friction as
blood flows through
the vessel lumen.
➔ the bulky middle coat
which mostly consists
of smooth muscle and
elastic fibers that
Tunica Media
constrict or dilate,
making the blood
pressure increase or
decrease.
Discharging
➔ the outermost tunic
composed largely of
fibrous connective
Tunica Externa /
tissue
Tunica Adventitia
➔ function is basically to
support and protect
the vessels.
➔ two superior atria
Auricle
• Wrinkled pouch-like
structure on the surface
• Increase the capacity of
the atrium to hold larger
Receiving
volume of blood.
Chamber
Sulci
• Series of grooves on the
surface of the heart.
• Marks the external
boundary between two
chambers of the heart
➔ two inferior, thick-walled
ventricles
➔ actual pumps of the heart
wherein when they
Chamber
contract, blood is
propelled out of the heart,
and into the circulation.
➔ divided the heart
longitudinally
Septum • interventricular
septum
• interatrial septum

HEART VALVES
➔ The heart is equipped with four valves, which
allows blood to flow only in one direction
through the heart chambers.
➔ It opens as blood is pumped through and
closes to prevent backflow.
➔ Held in place by chordae tendinae (heart
strings).

CHAMBERS OF THE HEARTS
Atrioventricular Valves
➔ are located between the atrial and ventricular
chambers on each side
➔ prevent back-flow into the atria when the
ventricles contract.

Bicuspid Valves (Mitral Valves)

• the left AV valve
• consists of two flaps or cusps of
endocardium

Tricuspid Valve
• the right AV valve
• consists of three flaps or cusps of
endocardium
 Semilunar Valve THE GREAT VESSELS
➔ guard the base of the large arteries
➔ located between the right ventricle and left
pulmonary trunk
➔ located between the left ventricle and aorta

Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

➔ where the heart receives relatively oxygen-
poor blood from the veins of the body and
pumps it to the pulmonary trunk.

Pulmonary Arteries
➔ carry blood to the lungs, where oxygen is
picked up and carbon dioxide is unloaded.

Pulmonary Veins
➔ oxygen-rich blood drains from the lungs and is
returned to the left side of the heart.

Aorta
➔ blood returned to the left side of the heart is
VALVE PATHOLOGY pumped out of the heart
➔ Incompetent vale = backflow and repump

Stenosis CARDIAC CIRCULATION VESSELS

➔ Valves are stiff, so increases the workload Coronary Arteries
of the heart; Lup Dup sound
➔ branch from the base of the aorta and encircle
➔ Needs to be replaced
the heart in the coronary sulcus
(atrioventricular groove) at the junction of the
atria and ventricles, and these arteries are
compressed when the ventricles are
contracting and fill when the heart is relaxed.

Cardiac Veins
➔ drain the myocardium, empty into an enlarged
vessel on the posterior of the heart called the
coronary sinus.
FLOW OF THE BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART HEART DISEASES
 LESSON 13: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATION
• also what we call breathing, is critical for
homeostasis
• there are two broad aspects of respiration:
• ventilation – movement of air into and
out of the lungs
• respiration – the diffusion of gases
across cell membranes
• there are two major types of respiration within
the body:
• external respiration – the movement
of gases between atmospheric air in the
lungs and the blood
• internal respiration – the movement
of gases between the blood and body’s
cells
• the respiratory system is divided into the upper
and lower respiratory tract
Conducting zone
➔ encompasses the structures from the nose to
the smallest air tubes within the lungs and is
strictly for ventilation.
Respiratory zone
➔ is solely within the lungs and includes some
specialized small air tubes and the alveoli.
➔ Gas exchange occurs within the respiratory
zone.
Functions of the Respiratory System
• Regulation of blood pH – by altering the
circulating concentrations of CO2 levels
• Production of chemical mediators – the
lungs has ACE or angiotensin converting
enzyme that helps with bloop pressure
regulation
• Voice production – since the voice box is
involved in the respiratory system, the air
moving the vocal folds makes the sound
possible
• Olfaction – sense of smell
ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. External nose – encloses the chamber for air
inspirations.
2. Nasal Cavity – cleaning, warming, and
humidifying chamber for inspired air.
3. Pharynx – a.k.a. the throat, a shared
passageway for food and air
4. Larynx – a.k.a. voice box, a rigid structure that
helps keep the airway constantly open.
5. Trachea – a.k.a. windpipe, serves as an air-
cleaning tube to funnel inspired air to each
lung.
6. Bronchi – tubes that direct air into the lungs.
7. Lungs – gas exchange, composed airsacs and
capillaries; the air sacs are separated by
connective tissues (composed of collagenous
and elastic fibers)
THE NASAL CAVITY
1. Nostrils – where the air enters when
breathing.
2. Respiratory mucosa – it has thin-walled veins
wherein the air is being warmed when it passes
by this part of the nasal cavity.
• the mucosa gland produces mucus that
moistens the air and help trap bacteria and
foreign microorganisms.
• the mucus as distracting enzymes that help
with trapping bacteria and will be
destroyed.
3. Ciliated cells – the respiratory system have
ciliated cells because the cilia create smooth
movement/current that helps particles to move
smoothly.
4. Conchae – the lateral wall of the nasal cavity
that increase the surface area of the mucosa.
5. Palate – hard and soft palate; the nasal cavity
and oral cavity are partitioned because of the
palates, which is why the nasal cavity is
separated from the oral cavity.
6. Paranasal sinuses – helps lighten the skull
and they also act as a resonant chamber when
we produce sound.
 THE PHARYNX
• The pharynx is a muscular passageway,
usually 13 cm long.
• Commonly known as the throat, common
passageway for food and air
• It is composed of:

• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
• Pharyngeal tonsil - often called adenoid
found above the nasal cavity
• Palatine tonsil – found at the end of the
soft palate THE TRACHEA
• Lingual tonsil – found at the base of the
• The air enters the trachea from the larynx down
tongue
its length (10-12 cm, or about 4 inches) to the
level of the fifth thoracic vertebra (approx.
midchest)
THE LARYNX
Air passageways decrease in size but
increase in number

THE LUNGS

• The larynx located inferior to the pharynx

• Formed by 8 rigid hyaline cartilages

• Thyroid Cartilage – largest hyaline

cartilage that protrudes anteriorly and is
commonly called the Adam’s apple
• Epiglottis – guardian of the airways;
protects the superior opening of the larynx
When we eat or drink, the larynx is
pulled up the epiglottal tips, forming a
lid on the larynx opening. With this, the
food/drink we intake will go through the
esophagus. If anything other than air
passes through the larynx, the cough
reflex is triggered.
• Vocal folds – a pair of folds that vibrate
with expelled air which allows us to speak.
• Glottis – the slitlike passage between
the vocal folds
• Fairly large organs that occupy the entire
thoracic cavity except for the mediastinum area
where the heart is located.
• The narrow superior of each lung – called apex
– is just deep in the clavicle.
• The broad lung area resting on the diaphragm
is called the base.
• Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures: the
left lung has two lobes, the right lung has three.
• Pleura – the surface of each lung is
covered with a visceral serosa is called the
pulmonary or visceral pleura, and the
walls of the thoracic cavity are lined by
parietal pleura.
 • Bronchioles – the bronchi carry air into our
lungs. At the end of the bronchi is the
smallest of the conducting passageways –
called bronchioles – that carry air into the
alveoli
• Alveoli – small airsacs where the lungs
and blood exchange oxygen
• Stroma – made up of connective tissue,
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves; provides nutrients

THE RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE

• Thin squamous epithelium
• Alveolar sacs are chambers connected to two
or more alveoli at the end of an alveolar duct.
• Alveolar macrophages a.k.a. dust cells
wander in and out of the alveoli picking up
bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
• Cuboidal cells produce a lipid (fat) molecule
called surfactant which coats the gas-
exposed alveolar surfaces and is very
important in lung function.
 LESSON 14: URINARY SYSTEM
The renal system, also known as the urinary
system, consists of:
• kidneys, which filter the blood to produce
urine.
• ureters, which convey urine to the bladder.
• urinary bladder, a storage organ for urine until
it is eliminated.
• urethra, which conveys urine to the exterior.
Functions of Urinary System
• Excretion
• Regulation of blood volume and pressure
• Regulation of blood solute concentrations
• Regulation of extracellular fluid pH
• Regulation of red blood cell synthesis
• Regulation of vitamin D synthesis
KIDNEYS
➔ Bean-shaped organ
➔ Dorsal body wall in a retroperitoneal position
in the superior lumbar region
➔ Extend from the T12 to the L3 vertebra.
➔ The right kidney is positioned slightly lower
than the left.
➔ 12 cm (5 inches) long, 6 cm (2.5 inches) wide,
and 3 cm (1 inch) thick
Anatomy of the Kidney
Capsule
➔ encloses the kidneys.
• Fibrous capsule
• Perirenal fat capsule
Renal cortex
➔ the outer region, which is light in color.
Renal medulla
➔ deep to the cortex is a darker, reddish-
brown area
Renal pyramids
➔ a.k.a. medullary pyramids, triangular
regions with a striped appearance in the
medulla.
Renal columns
➔ extensions of cortex-like tissue which
separates the pyramids.
Renal pelvis
➔ medial to the hilum is a flat, basin-like cavity
which is continuous with the ureter leaving
the hilum.
Calyces
➔ extensions of the pelvis, calyces, form cup-
shaped areas that enclose the tips of the
pyramid and collect urine, which
continuously drains from the tips of the
pyramids into the renal pelvis.
Renal artery
➔ the arterial supply of each kidney is the
renal artery, which divides into segmental
arteries as it approaches the hilum, and
each segmental artery gives off several
branches called interlobar arteries.
 Nephrons ➔ arises from a cortical radiate artery, is the
“feeder vessel.”

Efferent Arteriole
➔ receives blood that has passed through the
glomerulus.

Peritubular Capillaries
➔ arise from the efferent arteriole that drains the
glomerulus.

URETERS
➔ Tubes measuring 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 inches)
long and 6 mm (1/4 inch) in diameter.
➔ It runs behind the peritoneum from the renal
Glomerulus hilum to the posterior aspect of the bladder
➔ The passageways that carry urine from the
➔ a knot of capillaries
kidneys to the bladder by peristalsis and is
prevented from flowing back by small valve-like
Bowman’s Capsule folds of bladder mucosa that flap over the
➔ the closed end of the renal tubule is enlarged ureter openings.
and cup-shaped and completely surrounds the
glomerulus.

Podocytes
➔ the inner layer of the capsule is made up of
highly modified octopus-like cells.

Collecting Duct
➔ as the tubule extends from the glomerular
capsule it coils and twists before forming a
hairpin loop and then again becomes coiled
and twisted before entering a collecting tubule,
which receives urine from many nephrons.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule URINARY BLADDER

➔ part of the tubule that is near to the glomerular ➔ It is located retroperitoneally in the pelvis just
capsule. posterior to the symphysis pubis
➔ The smooth triangular region of the bladder
base outlined by these three openings is called
Loop of Henle the trigone, where infections tend to persist
➔ hairpin loop following the proximal convoluted ➔ Detrusor Muscles - the three layers of smooth
tubule. muscle, and its mucosa is a special type of
epithelium, transitional epithelium

Distal convoluted tubule

Cortical nephrons

Juxtamedullary Nephrons
➔ next to the cortex-medullary junction, and their
loops of Henle dip deep into the medulla

Afferent Arteriole
 URETHRA
➔ The urethra is a thin-walled tube that
carries urine by peristalsis from the bladder
to the outside of the body.
Internal Urethral Sphincter - a thickening of the
smooth muscle; an involuntary sphincter that
keeps the urethra closed when the urine is not
being passed
External Urethral Sphincter - second sphincter;
skeletal muscle as the urethra passes through the
pelvic floor and is voluntarily controlled.
URINE
➔ is a sterile and clear fluid of nitrogenous wastes
and salts. It is translucent with an amber or
light-yellow color.
➔ Its color is due to the pigments from the
breakdown of hemoglobin.
➔ Concentrated urine tends to be darker in color
than normal urine.
➔ In 24 hours, only about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine
are produced.
➔ Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and other
substances.
➔ Freshly voided urine is generally clear and pale
to deep yellow.
➔ When formed, urine is sterile and slightly
aromatic, but if allowed to stand, it takes on an
ammonia odor caused by the action of bacteria
on the urine solutes.
➔ Urine pH is usually slightly acidic (around 6)
➔ Specific gravity - gravity of pure water is 1.0,
the specific gravity of urine usually ranges from
1.001 to 1.035.
➔ Solutes normally found in urine include sodium
and potassium ions, urea, uric acid, creatinine,
ammonia, bicarbonate ions, and various other
ions.
Urinalysis
➔ Urine is formed after a process of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion
➔ Urine is 96% water and approximately 4%
solutes derived from cellular metabolism.
➔ Physical examination of urine
• The volume produced is one of the physical
characteristics of urine.
• Other physical characteristics that can
apply to urine include color, turbidity
(transparency), smell (odor), pH (acidity/
alkalinity) and density.
➔ Chemical examination of urine
➔ Microscopic examination of urine
➔ Used to diagnose of monitor kidney-related
conditions and disorders
➔ Observe properly labeled and screw-capped
specimen container for urinalysis.
➔ Be mindful if the amount/volume of urine is
sufficient enough/acceptable.
➔ Keep in mind the universal
precaution/standard precaution.
"Treat all body fluids/specimens as
potentially infectious."
 Urinalysis: Dipstick
Parameter Description
pH is a measure of the acidity
(or alkalinity) of a solution, the
pH of normal urine is
pH
generally in the range 4.5–8,
a typical average being
around 6.0
Specific gravity is also known
as ‘relative density’. This is
the ratio of the weight of a
volume of a substance
compared with the weight of
the same volume of distilled
Specific
water. Given that urine is
Gravity
mostly water, but also
contains some other
substances dissolved in the
water, its relative density is
expected to be close to, but
slightly greater than, 1.000.
Urine does not normally
contain protein, as the
glomerular filter is too small to
allow for filtration of protein.
Protein
Disease associated:
Glomerulonephritis, Urinary
Tract Infection (UTI)
Urobilinogen is normally
present in small amounts in
Urobilinogen
the urine; this is associated
with bilirubin
Leukocyte esterase (LE) is an
enzyme produced by white
blood cells. Its presence in
Leukocytes
urine is indicative of an
increase in leukocytes in
urine, also known as pyuria.
Urine does not normally
contain ketones, though a
Ketone small amount may be present
after vigorous exercise,
vomiting or diarrhea.
Dipstick can detect urinary
hemoglobin (free or within red
cells). Its presence in urine is
Blood
indicative of an presence of
red blood cells in urine, also
known as hematuria

Urine does not normally

contain glucose - it is filtered
by the glomerulus but almost
completely reabsorbed.
Glucose
Disease associated:
Diabetes, Acute Tubular
Necrosis

Bacteria convert nitrates into

nitrites within urine; presence
of nitrites within urine is
suggestive of bacterial urinary
Nitrite
tract infection.

Disease associated: Urinary

Tract Infection (UTI)
Urine does not normally
contain bilirubin; result in
bilirubinuria – the presence of
bilirubin in urine.
Bilirubin
Disease associated: Acute
Hepatitis, Liver Cirrhosis or
Cholestatic Disease.
 LESSON 15: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➔ Organ system by which humans
reproduce and bear live offspring
➔ Organs and structures are required in both
the male and the female

Reproduction
• one of the most important and essential
attributes of living organisms; all living
organisms multiply in order to form new
individuals of their own kind.
Sexual Reproduction
• children are produced as a consequence
of male and female mating.
Fertilization
• occurs inside the body of the female;
involving the fusion of male and female
gametes to form a zygote.
Female Reproductive System - the female
reproductive system includes external and
internal genitalia. The internal genitalia are the
uterine tubes, the uterus, and the vagina.
Male Reproductive System – the male
reproductive system is consist of testes,
prostate gland, the seminal vesicles, and the
bulbourethral glands.
Testes
➔ The testes are suspended in the scrotal sac,
hanging one on either side of the penis. If
sperm is to be viable it is essential that
production is made at a temperature lower
than the normal body temperature.
➔ The key functions of the testes are to:
• produce sperm
• produce the male sex hormones (e.g.
testosterone)
➔ The testes are small oval-shaped organs
measuring approximately 5 cm long and 2.5 cm
wide. The testes are divided into compartments
or lobules. Inside each compartment is a
collection of tightly coiled hollow tubes known
as the seminiferous tubules.
➔ There are three layers that cover the testes:
• tunica vaginalis
• tunica albuginea
• tunica vasculosa

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Function
• To produce, maintain and transport the sperm
and the fluid semen
• To eject sperm from the penis
• To manufacture and secrete the male sex
hormones.
 Sperm covered by the prepuce (also called the
foreskin)
➔ 300 million sperm mature each day and have
structures that allow it to be able to
penetrate the ovum
➔ The mature motile male sex cell, by which the
ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact
head and one long flagella for swimming

Male Hormones
➔ Male sex hormones are known as
androgens
➔ Majority of androgens are produced in the
testes
➔ Testosterone is the main androgen
produced by the testes

Scrotum

➔ The penis is cylindrical in shape, composed of

three cylindrical masses of tissues. The
three columns of erectile tissue in the penis are
the shaft, the corpora cavernosa and the
corpus spongiosum.
➔ Erection of the penis is stimulated by the
parasympathetic nerve innervations, and the
blood supply for the penis is from the penile
artery.
➔ The scrotal sac is likened to a loose bag of skin
hanging between the thighs, anterior to the
anus; this is a supporting structure that is
suspended from the root of the penis.
➔ The scrotum assists with control of the
temperature of the testes. The most
favorable temperature for sperm production is
approximately 2–3°C below core body
temperature.

The Cremasteric Reflex

The cremasteric reflex is a phenomenon that
occurs when the body needs to lower or raise the
position of the testes.

Penis
➔ The penis is the male copulatory organ.
➔ The penis encloses the urethra and is a
highly vascular organ.
➔ This organ is the passageway for excretion
of urine as well as the ejaculation of semen.
➔ The penis has a shaft and a tip known as the
glans, and in the uncircumcised male this is
Epididymis
➔ The epididymis (plural epididymides) is an
approximately 4 cm long comma‐shaped
duct.
➔ It lies on the posterior lateral aspect of the
testes.
➔ The organ is composed of a highly coiled
duct. This duct leads to a larger and more
 muscular tube called the vas deferens; the
vas deferens enters the pelvic cavity.
➔ This is where the sperm are matured further,
being prepared to become more motile so
that they can eventually fertilize the ovum.
empty through the short ducts towards the
urethra.
➔ Semen is a product of 60% from the prostate
gland, 30% from the seminal vesicles, 5%
from the epididymis, and 5% from the
bulbourethral glands.

Vas Deferens
➔ The function of the vas deferens is to carry the
sperm through the inguinal canal from the
epididymis into the abdominal cavity where
it will end at the seminal vesicles and the
ejaculatory duct.
➔ It is a hollow tube that is protected by a thick
fibrous coating and surrounded by arteries
and veins.

Seminal Vesicles
➔ These are two convoluted pouches along the
lower portion of the posterior surface of the
bladder.
➔ The seminal vesicles secrete a liquid that is
viscous and alkaline and has high protein,
sugar, and prostaglandin content, which
makes the sperm increasingly motile. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➔ The primary genitalia in the female are the
ovaries, the secondary genitalia are the
Ejaculatory Ducts fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina; the vulva is
➔ These ducts pass through the prostate gland the external genitalia.
to join the seminal vesicles and the urethra. ➔ There are aspects of the female reproductive
organs that are enclosed and integral to the
function of the urinary system
Prostate Gland
The external genitalia:
➔ This is a chestnut-sized gland that is situated
below the bladder. • Mons pubis
➔ It secretes a thin, alkaline fluid that adds • Labia
protection to the sperm from being immobilized • Clitoris
by the low pH level of the urethra. • vaginal and urethral openings
➔ The urethra passes through its center like a • glands
doughnut.
➔ The prostate consists of three distinct zones: The internal organs are:
• the central zone • vagina
• the peripheral zone • cervix
• the transition zone • uterus
• fallopian tubes
• ovaries
Bulbuorethral Glands
➔ Also called Cowper’s gland
➔ these glands also secrete alkaline fluid to
counteract the acidic environment in the
urethra.
➔ These are two glands located at either side of
the prostate gland and seminal vesicles and
 Egg Cell
➔ Also known as ovum(plural ova), is the
Ovaries female reproductive cell
➔ The term oogenesis relates to the
➔ The ovaries are paired glands; in the adult development of relatively undifferentiated
woman they are flat, almond‐shaped germ cells called oogonia (singular
structures located one on each side of the oogonium)
uterus beneath the ends of the fallopian
tubes.
➔ The ovaries provide a space of storage for Female Hormones
the female germ cells ➔ Estrogens, progesterone and androgens are
➔ They also produce the female hormones produced by the ovaries in a repetitive
estrogen and progesterone. pattern.
➔ For its function, the ovaries produce, ➔ Estrogens are essential for the development
mature, and discharge the egg cells or ova. and maintenance of secondary sex
➔ Ovarian function is for the maturation and characteristics.
maintenance of the secondary sex ➔ It also stimulates the female reproductive
characteristics in females. organ to prepare for growth of a fetus
➔ It also has three divisions: the protective ➔ Structure of skin and blood vessels, bone
layer of epithelium, the cortex, and the resorption and cholesterol levels and clotting
central medulla.

Fallopian Tubes
➔ The fallopian tubes serve as the pathway of
the egg cells towards the uterus.
➔ It is a smooth, hollow tunnel that is divided
into four parts:
• the interstitial, which is 1 cm in length
• the isthmus, which is 2 cm in length.
 • the ampulla, which is 5 cm.
• the infundibular, which is 2 cm shaped
like a funnel
➔ The paired fallopian tubes (also called the
salpinges) are delicate, thin cylindrical
structures approximately 8–14 cm long
➔ The fallopian tube is lined with mucous
membrane, and underneath is the
connective tissue and the muscle layer.
➔ The muscle layer is responsible for the
peristaltic movements that propel the ovum
forward

Labia Majora - protect the external genitalia

and the distal urethra and vagina from trauma
Labia Minora - contains sebaceous glands all over
the area.
Clitoris - center for sexual arousal and pleasure
for females because it is highly sensitive to touch
and temperature
Bartholin’s Gland - bulbovaginal gland, this is
another gland responsible for the lubrication of
the external genitalia during coitus.
Hymen - covers the opening of the vagina

Uterus
➔ This hollow organ is also known as the
womb.
➔ It is a very muscular organ lying in the pelvic
cavity posterior and superior to the urinary
bladder; it lies anterior to the rectum
➔ The uterus is approximately 7.5 cm long.
➔ There are three principal parts:
o Fundus
o Body
o Cervix

VAGINA
➔ The vagina is a tubular, fibromuscular
structure approximately 8–10 cm in length
➔ It is the receptacle for the penis during
sexual intercourse, it is an organ of sexual
response and is the canal that allows the
menstrual flow to leave the body and the
passage for the birth of the child.
➔ The vagina is situated posterior to the
urinary bladder and urethra; it is anterior to
the rectum.
 Myth
Cervical screening checks for cervical cancer
If your cervical screening comes back
abnormal, you have cervical cancer
Older women do not need to undergo cervical
screenings
Smoking is not linked to cervical cancer
Facts
Cervical screenings are used to check the
health of your cervix and identify cell changes
An abnormal test result mean changes to the
cervical cells, which could potentially cause
cancer in the future.
Women aged 50 – 64 should undergo a cervical
screening every 5 years
Around 20% of cervical caners in the UK are
linked to smoking
 Layer Comments
A serous membrane enveloping the uterus; this is the outer layer.
Perimetrium It provides support to the uterus located within the pelvis. This may
also be known as the parietal peritoneum.
This layer is the middle layer and is composed of smooth muscle.
During pregnancy and childbirth the uterus is required to stretch.
and the muscular layer allows this to happen. The muscle will
Myometrium
contract during labour, and postnatally this muscular layer
contracts forcefully to force out the placenta. The contractions also
help to control potential blood loss after birth.
The endometrium is the mucous membrane lining the inside of the
uterus. The endometrium changes throughout the menstrual cycle.
Endometrium It becomes thick and rich with blood vessels to prepare for
pregnancy. If the woman does not become pregnant then, part of
the endometrium is shed, resulting in menstrual bleeding.