CELL STRUCTURE AND

TECHNOLOGIES
Types of Cells
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC

No membrane surrounding genetic Membrane-bound nucleus

material, therefore no nucleus

Possess: Membrane-bound organelles

➔ Cytoplasm
➔ Cell membrane ribosomes
➔ Genetic material

➔ Cell (plasma) membrane: ➔ Plasmids: small rings, contains

controls what goes in and out of genetic material not in bacterial
the cell chromosome
➔ Plasmids: small rings, contains Organelles: see Organelles in cells
genetic material not in bacterial
chromosome
➔ Cell wall: protects, provides
structural support
➔ Pili: hair-like structures on some
cells, allow them to adhere to
substances
➔ Flagella: tails, provide locomotion
➔ Capsule: layer of complex carbs
outside cell wall, protection

Most are unicellular - some bacterial

species clump as a colony

Prokaryotic organisms (prokaryotes): Eukaryotic organisms (eukaryotes):

➔ Bacteria - Plants
◆ Found in many - Animals
environments - Fungi
◆ Can be beneficial or - Protists
harmful to living organisms -
➔ Archaea
◆ Unicellular organisms
◆ Found in harsh/extreme
environments e.g.
hydrothermal vents, hot
springs

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 Technologies used to determine cell structure
Microscopes
Magnification

Ocular lens Objective Lens Total

10x 4x 40x - low

10x 10x 100x - high

10x 40x 400x - high

➔ Magnification: indicates how much an image has been increased in size

➔ Resolution: indicates minimum distance objects need to be apart to be seen
separately
➔ Light microscopes: pass light rays through thin specimens magnified by convex
glass lenses
◆ Max. magnification: 2000x
◆ Max. resolution: 200nm
◆ Can view living & non-living
➔ Fluorescent microscopy: targets specific structures, uses fluorescent
substances to label & conseq. see them
➔ Electron microscopes: use electron beams and electromagnets
◆ Transmission electron microscopes (TEM)
● Beams of electrons pass through specimen, produce 2D image.
● Very high magnification and resolution are possible
◆ Scanning electron microscopes (SEM)
● Electron beams bounce off surfaces, produce 3D image

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 ◆ No living specimens can be viewed with either
➔ Confocal laser scanning microscopes: use pinpoint laser beams, image w/
many layers, then combined into a 3D model

Sizes of cells
cm 1m = 102 1/100m

mm 1m = 103 1/1000m

µm (microns/micrometres) 1m = 106 1/1,000,000m

nm (nanometres) 1m = 109 1/1,000,000,000m

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 Drawing scaled diagrams
➔ Scale bar: represents a specific whole number of µm, often 1-5cm length

To draw the scale bar:

1. Determine actual length of object

2. When the actual length of the object determined above is divided by the length
of the proposed drawing, a whole number should be obtained.

E.g. Length of cell: 8µm, length of drawing: 4cm

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 8µ𝑚
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
= 4𝑐𝑚
2µ𝑚
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 1𝑐𝑚

∴ scale bar 1cm in length would represent 2µm

Organelles in cells
ORGANELLES: membrane-bound internal structures, each with a specific function to ensure
the most efficient functioning of the cell.
Organelle types
Organelle/cell structure Function

Cell membrane/membranes
➔ Surrounds cell contents & separates them from their
surroundings
➔ Controls the passage of water & other chemical substances in &
out of cells
➔ Selective barrier, aka selectively permeable (semipermeable)
➔ Plant & animal cells have a cell membrane
➔ Membranes surrounding organelles are also selective, allowing
certain substances to pass between cytoplasm and organelle

Protoplasm ➔ The living content of a cell surrounded by the cell membrane

➔ Carries out respiration, making cellular products etc.
➔ Composed of nucleus and cytoplasm
◆ Cytoplasm consists of liquid called cytosol which has
dissolved chemicals e.g. chloride ions, suspended
organelles and insoluble granules
◆ 90% of cytoplasm is water

Nucleus ➔ Large, spherical/oval structure in cytoplasm

➔ Colourless, transparent, more jelly-like than the rest of the cell
➔ Most organisms have one per cell
➔ Stores the info needed to control all cell activities
➔ Surrounded by double nuclear membrane or nuclear
envelope, pierced by tiny pores
◆ Pores regulate passage of substances between nucleus
and cytoplasm to allow communication between the
two
Nucleoplasm/nuclear sap
➔ Liquid part holding the chromatin material
◆ Chromatin - made of protein and nucleic acid
◆ Separates into chromosomes

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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) -
transport and processing of
proteins & lipids
Ribosomes - protein synthesis
Golgi bodies (Golgi apparatus) -
packaging & sorting the
products
Lysosomes - digestion &
destruction
Mitochondria - cellular
respiration
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➔ DNA stored in the nucleus
Nucleolus
➔ Dense, granular region
➔ Commonly seen within nucleoplasm
➔ Contains large amts of nucleic acid; some DNA, mostly RNA
➔ Manufactures ribosomes
➔ Flat, interconnected membranes
➔ Connection of pathways between nucleus & cell’s environment,
allowing intracellular transport
➔ Folded membrane sheets = more surface area
➔ Rough ER
◆ Ribosomes attached
◆ Folds & processes proteins made by cell, can
synthesise lipids
➔ Smooth ER
◆ No ribosomes attached
◆ Main site of lipid production
● Lipid production = for membrane repair,
manufacture
➔ Can transport substances from one cell to another in plants, via
channels, cell pits, in cell wall
➔ Small, dense, rounded granules in electron micrographs of cells
◆ Small size = increased total surface area
➔ Made of RNA & protein
➔ Follows ‘instructions’ of DNA for protein production
◆ Amino acids join together to form a chain,
polypeptides, the structural unit of protein
➔ Can be found free in cytoplasm, or scattered over ER surface
➔ Newly synthesised proteins pass from ribosomes → ER, where
protein is folded
➔ Flat membranes arranged in stacks of 4-10, no ribosomes
➔ Process, package and sort cell products
➔ Add proteins and carbs to cell products, provide membrane
around cell products as ‘packaging’
➔ Packaging membranes vary, serve as a label
➔ Formed by the Golgi body
➔ Contain digestive enzymes that split chemical compounds into
simpler ones, eg proteins broken down into amino acids
◆ These simpler molecules used as building blocks for
new compounds/organelles
➔ Sometimes destroy entire cell, apoptosis, aka programmed cell
death
◆ Deliberately destroys old & damaged cells
➔ Under direction of the cell, lysosome membrane ruptures →
releases enzymes which digest contents of the cell
POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL BABY
➔ Produces energy via cellular respiration
◆ Combines oxygen & sugars, makes ATP
➔ Usually rod-shaped, can be round; vary in shape & size, smaller
than nucleus & chloroplasts, bigger than ribosomes
➔ No. of mitochondria depends on energy consumption i.e. less
active cell → a few mitochondria, very active cells → hundreds,

Vacuoles - storage and support
Chloroplasts - photosynthesis
Plant cell wall - shape and
support
Centrioles - spindle production
in cell division
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thousands of mitochondria. E.g. active liver cells, 1-2k
mitochondria
➔ Surrounded by double membrane
◆ Outer gives shape & allows passage of small
substances in and out
◆ Inner folded into fine ridges - cristae - increasing
surface area for attachment of enzymes, which appear
as knob-like particles on inside of cristae
➔ Central space is filled with fluid, called the matrix
◆ Contains mitochondrial DNA & enzymes that allow
mitochondria to replicate themselves
➔ Large, permanent, fluid-filled sacs in cytoplasm of mature plant
cells
➔ Consists of cell sap, surrounded by a single membrane,
tonoplast
◆ Sap contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids etc
dissolved in water
◆ Can also contain dissolved pigments that give cells
colour
➔ Provides support to cells; by filling with water, pushes outwards
w/ cytoplasm putting pressure on cell wall, keeping it firm, cell
becomes firm/turgid
➔ Small, temporary vesicles can be sometimes found in animal
cells, but don't play a support role, so permanent vacuoles that
give turgidity are considered unique to plant cells
➔ Green colour bc of chlorophyll
➔ Responsible for photosynthesis
➔ Not present in all plant cells - only found in green tissue of
plants that can photosynthesise
➔ Belong to group plastids, which are biconvex in shape
◆ Contain either pigment or nutrients & vary in colour
➔ Larger than mitochondria, but similar bc also contain their own
DNA; no. of chloroplasts per cell varies
➔ Surrounded by double membrane, allows substances to pass
between cytoplasm and chloroplast.
◆ Inner membrane is not folded
➔ Liquid part called stroma, contains stacks of membranes called
thylakoids, chlorophyll found there
◆ group/stack of thylakoids = granum
➔ Layering of membranes increases surface area, = more sunlight
absorption
➔ All enzymes for photosynthesis are in the stoma, and simple
sugars produced are stored there as starch grains
➔ Cellulose cell wall, differs from cell membrane inside it.
➔ Allows all substances in/out of cell
◆ Permeable to most molecules
➔ Structure allows it to provide strength & support, strands of
cellulose fibres have some elasticity & flexibility, so can resist
pressure.
➔ Some strengthened w/ additional chemicals that make it hard &
woody or provide waterproofing
➔ 2x centrioles, forming the spindle which holds chromosomes in
a dividing cell, make up the centrosome, a dense, granular
 structure
◆ often found near the nucleus in animal cells

Cytoskeleton - keeps organelles ➔ Organelle distribution is organised in cytoskeleton

in place ◆ Network of tiny microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments
➔ Framework for cell shape, movement, division and organelle
movement

Cell membranes - gateway to cells

The fluid mosaic model
➔ Selectively permeable
➔ Controls exchange of materials between internal & external environments
➔ Structure allows fairly constant concentration of substances inside cell
➔ Model proposes a ‘lipid sea’ with ‘many and various proteins floating on and in it’
➔ Describes cell membrane as a lipid bilayer, w/ ability to flow & change shape like
a 2D fluid
➔ Specialised protein molecules embedded in lipid in various patterns like a mosaic
◆ Some can move sideways, some in fixed position
➔ Proteins & phospholipids help control exchange of materials between internal &
external environments
Lipid component
➔ Fluid part of cell membrane, composed of 2 phospholipid layers → phospholipid
bilayer - not rigid, hence ‘fluid’ mosaic
◆ Each phospholipid in these can be rep. by a hea and 2 tails
◆ Phosphate group on the head makes that end hydrophilic → able to
absorb water or dissolve in water
◆ Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic → water avoiding or unable to dissolve in
water
➔ Animal cells lipid, cholesterol, interspersed among phospholipid molecules →
membrane flexibility
➔ Plant cells lipid, phytosterol → flexibility

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 ➔ Cell membranes can break and reassemble themselves during processes eg cell
division
Membrane proteins
➔ Protein molecules scattered throughout & suspended in lipid bilayer
◆ Some penetrate through bilayer, forming (semipermeable?) channels
◆ Others partly embedded
◆ Some fixed in place, others travel freely
➔ Described as “floating in the lipid bilayer like icebergs in a lipid sea”
➔ Some function as pores (temp. or perm.) or form active carrier systems or
channels for transport
➔ Glycoproteins (recognition proteins) are made up of a protein molecule w/ a
carbohydrate attached
◆ The proteins are antigens
➔ Enable cell-to-cell communication & interaction, & substance exchanges between
cell and external environment
◆ e.g. in multicellular organisms, adhesion proteins link cells together
and help maintain organisms 3D structure
➔ Transport proteins act like passageways
➔ Involved in cellular communication
➔ Receptor proteins cause cells to respond only to certain stimuli
◆ Different in different types of cells

CELL FUNCTION
Movement of materials in & out of cells
Movement of molecules across cell membranes
➔ Substances move from internal environment → external environment via cell
membrane

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 ➔ The permeability of a cell membrane to a molecule depends on the molecule’s:
◆ Size
◆ Electrical charge
◆ Lipid solubility
➔ Small molecules move across membranes faster than larger molecules
➔ Hydrophilic molecules have difficulty penetrating a membrane whereas
lipid-soluble molecules do not.
◆ This is because of the phospholipid bilayer structure of cell membrane;
lipid tails impede progress of hydrophilic molecules & enhance movement
of lipid-soluble molecules e.g. urea, ethanol
➔ Electrically charged molecules, not v soluble in lipids = low membrane
permeability
◆ E.g. sodium and potassium ions
➔ Neutral molecules soluble in lipids = high membrane permeability
◆ E.g. carbon dioxide and oxygen gas
➔ Water is a polar molecule, not lipid-soluble, but via aquaporins, tiny hydrophilic
pores in the membrane, during osmosis water = highly permeable
➔ Plant cell membranes = permeable to most substances
Diffusion
➔ Passive movement; requires no energy input
➔ Net movement of any molecules from region of high concentration → low
concentration until equilibrium is reached
◆ = no net movement of molecules; molecules move equally each direction
➔ Movement from high → low concentration = movement along a concentration
gradient
➔ Rate of diffusion depends on concentration gradient; if there is a greater
difference in concentration, the gradient will be steeper ∴ diffusion will occur
faster
➔ Can speed up/slow down depending on temperature; heat increase rate of
diffusion because kinetic energy of the particles increases
Diffusion across a cell membrane
➔ Small neutral particles e.g. carbon dioxide & oxygen move easily through
membrane via simple diffusion
◆ Concentration gradient is usually maintained for diffusion of oxygen
molecules because oxygen is removed for use in the cell
● Continually used in cellular respiration ∴ low concentration inside
the cell; this promotes diffusion of oxygen from outside the cell

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 Facilitated diffusion
➔ Large molecules & charged particles (ions) require carrier proteins or channel
proteins to assist them in diffusion; this is facilitated diffusion
➔ Carrier proteins bind to molecules on one side of membrane, then change shape
& release the substance on the other side
◆ Direction of movement depends on direction of the concentration
gradient
➔ Small ions diffuse rapidly via channel proteins; channel proteins are specific for
particular ions

Osmosis
➔ Type of diffusion
➔ Net movement of solvent molecules from region of high solvent concentration →
low solvent concentration through semipermeable membrane
◆ When water is the solvent, movement of water occurs across the
concentration gradient and does not require an energy input
➔ Water, most common solvent in a solution - transports materials in solution
◆ Solution formed when solute dissolves in a solvent
● Amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
determines concentration of the solution
➔ Osmosis = process by which water moves through the cell membrane
◆ Water is not lipid-soluble, ∴ movement is not directly through the lipid
bilayer
➔ Water moves through aquaporins
◆ When water is more highly concentrated outside the cell (low solute
concentration) than it is inside the cell (high solute concentration), water
moves through the membrane into the cell, which may swell up
◆ If concentration outside is lower than inside, water will move out of the
cell which may shrink
➔ Pressure created by water moving in osmosis = osmotic pressure

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 ◆ More water moving across the membrane = higher osmotic pressure
➔ fluid inside & outside a cell are of equal solute concentration, external solution =
isotonic to the cell contents
◆ No net water movement
➔ fluid in cytoplasm = higher solute concentration than solution outside, external
solution = hypotonic to cell contents
◆ Net movement of water molecules = into the cells
➔ fluid in cytoplasm = lower solute concentration than solution outside, external
solution = hypertonic to cell contents
◆ Net movement of water molecules = out of the cells

Osmosis in animal cells

➔ Unicellular eukaryotic cells surrounded only by cell membrane
◆ Hypotonic solution = move into animal cells via osmosis, can cause cell to
swell & burst cell membrane
➔ Most animal cells are bathed in isotonic extracellular solution; means cells can
function because water diffuses in both directions ∴ no net movement
◆ Water concentration in animal cells needs to be constant to coordinate
biochemical reactions
Osmosis in plant cells
➔ won’t burst when soaked in hypotonic solution

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 ➔ Large fluid-filled vacuoles & firm, semipermeable cell walls surrounding the
membrane
◆ Plant cell vacuoles contain cell sap w/ high concentration of solutes and ∴
low concentration of water
➔ When hypotonic fluid surrounds plant cell, water moves via osmosis into
vacuoles which swell, push membrane towards cell wall
◆ Tough cell wall = cell doesn’t burst
➔ When cell stretches fully, no more water can enter & cell = turgid
◆ Turgid = osmotic pressure inside cell = to opposing pressure exerted by
cell wall
➔ If plant cell placed in hypertonic solution, water leaves cell by osmosis,
plasmolysis would occur
◆ = vacuole shrinks & causes cell membrane to move away from cell wall

Active transport
➔ Movement of molecules from region of low concentration → region of high
concentration, requires energy input
➔ Movement goes against concentration gradient, involves movement across cell
membrane that has receptors for the molecules
➔ Requires a carrier protein that spans the membrane to actively move chemicals
from low→high concentration, utilising cellular energy

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 Endocytosis & exocytosis - transport of large molecules
Endocytosis
➔ Endocytosis = cell membrane changes shape to surround large particle & engulf
it
◆ Phagocytosis

● solid particle engulfed

○ e.g. unicellular amoeba feeds on smaller organism; amoeba
changes shape by sending out membrane projections filled
w/ cytoplasm that surround the prey. When cell membrane
of the projections meet, membrane fusion occurs; results in
formation of vesicle that stores/transports material within
cytoplasm

◆ Pinocytosis
● fluid engulfed
○ e.g. fat droplets found in small intestine after a meal move
into cells via pinocytosis

Exocytosis
➔ Specialised plant & animal cells produce substances e.g. antibodies,
neurotransmitters & enzymes, are contained within vesicles but have functions
elsewhere in the cell.
➔ Cells also produce waste that needs to be moved out of the cell
➔ Exocytosis = substances transported to the external environment of the cell

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 ➔ Membrane-bound vesicle moves to & fuses to cell membrane, releases its
contents to exterior of the cell
◆ Vesicle membrane becomes part of the cell

Factors affecting the exchange of materials across membranes

Chemical factors
➔ Many neutral molecules can easily penetrate cell membrane because they can
dissolve in the phospholipid bilayer
➔ Hydrophilic ions cannot cross hydrophobic centre of the membrane
◆ Channel proteins specific for each ion allow their movement through cell
membrane
➔ Water can’t move through hydrophobic tails in cell membrane, ∴ move through
aquaporins
Physical factors
➔ Size & shape affect movement
◆ Small molecules = easily diffuse
◆ Large molecules = carrier proteins
● e.g. glucose, amino acids
◆ Very large molecules = endocytosis or exocytosis
Concentration gradient
➔ Relative concentration on either side of membrane affects rate of diffusion
➔ High concentration gradient = rapid diffusion
➔ Low concentration gradient = slower diffusion
◆ Cells need to maintain high concentration gradient for rapid diffusion
➔ Equilibrium = no net movement
➔ Cytoplasmic streaming = plant cell process involving organelles & cytosol
flowing around cell in a circular movement; enables cell to maintain steeper
concentration gradient
Surface-area-to-volume ratio
𝑆𝐴
➔ 𝑉
= 𝑆𝐴: 𝑉
➔ Surface area = total area around cell membrane

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 ➔ Volume = space taken up by internal contents
➔ higher SA:V =
◆ Smaller cell
◆ More efficient
◆ e.g. long, flat cells
➔ Lower SA:V =
◆ Larger cell
◆ Less efficient
◆ e.g. spherical cells
➔ Cells often have features to ensure high SA:V
◆ e.g. root hairs that cover root tips on plants

Cell Requirements
Substances needed by cells are used in two main ways:

1. As essential building blocks which cells & living tissues are made
2. As a source of stored energy for the cell
Inorganic nutrients
Inorganic nutrient Position in cells Uses in cell activities

Water 90% of the protoplasm ➔ Transport medium in cells &

➔ Oxygen organisms
➔ Hydrogen ➔ Important solvent for many
molecules inside cells
➔ Medium in which all
chemical reactions in cell
take place

Mineral salts: Dissolved as ions in the ➔ Assist all chemical reactions

chlorides, nitrates, cytoplasm and in ➔ Used in synthesis of many
phosphates and vacuoles in plant cells macromolecules & body
carbonates of sodium, tissues
magnesium, calcium, ➔ Sodium ions & chloride ions
potassium and assist in water balance in
ammonium (e.g. cells & are essential for cell
sodium chloride membrane functioning &
(NaCl)) function of nerve & muscle
cells

Gases Dissolved in Carbon dioxide:

➔ Carbon dioxide protoplasm, used ➔ Used during photosynthesis
➔ oxygen and/or produced in ➔ Released as product of
chloroplasts & aerobic cellular respiration
mitochondria Oxygen:

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 ➔ Used during aerobic cellular
respiration to release
energy
➔ Released as product of
photosynthesis

Organic compounds
➔ Biomacromolecules: large organic molecules required for structure & to
maintain biochemical processes involved in effective functioning of all living cells
➔ Four main types:
◆ Carbohydrates
◆ Lipids
◆ Proteins
◆ Nucleic acids
➔ All made up of carbon, hydrogen & oxygen, but in different proportions
➔ Plants & other photosynthetic organisms absorb inorganic nutrients & use them
to make organic nutrients
➔ Non-photosynthetic organisms need to ingest food to obtain organic nutrients
Carbohydrates
➔ Made up of carbon, hydrogen & oxygen atoms in ratio of 1:2:1
◆ General formula: (𝐶𝐻2𝑂)𝑥
➔ Composed of recurring monomers - monosaccharides
➔ Classified depending on how many monomers are linked
◆ Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
◆ Disaccharides
◆ Polysaccharides

Type of carbohydrate - definition Uses

Monosaccharides Source of ‘quick energy’ in plant & animal

➔ Simple sugars consisting of a single cells
monomer

Disaccharides
➔ Complex sugars consisting of two
monomers

Polysaccharides Starch
➔ Complex molecules consisting of 5<, ➔ Stored energy in plant cells
up to hundreds of monomers joined Cellulose
together ➔ Structural part of cell walls
◆ Strength & support

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 Glycogen
➔ Stored energy in animal cells

➔ Two monosaccharide monomers may be joined via a glycosidic linkage to form a

disaccharide
➔ Many monosaccharide monomers may be joined via glycosidic linkages to form
polysaccharides
Lipids
➔ Contain many C & H atoms, few O atoms
➔ Triglycerides
◆ Largest type of lipid
◆ Function primarily as long-term energy storage molecules
◆ Animals tend to store triglycerides as fats (solid), plants tend to store
them as oils(liquid)
◆ Formed by condensation from three fatty acid chains and one glycerol
unit
➔ Generally insoluble in water, have oily, greasy waxy consistency
➔ Have three important functions
1. Energy storage (they store approx. 2x energy as carbohydrates)
2. Structural component of membranes
3. Essential structural parts of hormones

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 Proteins
➔ Made up of C, H, O, N, sometimes S
◆ These elements combine & form amino acids
● Around 20 different amino acids, can be put together in chains of
up to 300 to form a peptide/polypeptide chain
➔ Made up of 1< polypeptide chains twisted together in a particular shape
➔ DNA controls sequence & arrangement of amino acids, determines type of
protein

➔ Proteins have many roles in cells

1. Form structural components in cells & tissues
2. Important structural component of cell membranes
3. Some have a functional role, e.g. enzymes - control all metabolic
reaction in the cell, and hormones - control functioning of other
cells
4. Occur suspended in protoplasm or combine w/ other
macromolecules to form important structural part of all
membranes within the cell

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 ➔ Plant cells synthesise their own amino acids
➔ Animal cells produce most of the amino acids for protein production
➔ 9 amino acids = ‘essential’, cannot be synthesised by cells ∴ must be sourced as
nutrients from external environment
Nucleic acids
➔ Very large biomacromolecules
➔ Contain C, H, O, N, P
➔ Two types:
◆ DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
● Double-stranded molecule, stores
information that controls the cell.
● Main chemical making up the nucleus, small amounts found in
mitochondria & chloroplasts
◆ RNA (ribonucleic acid)
● Found in small amounts in nucleus, large amounts found in
cytoplasm
➔ Made up of nucleotides; each nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar,
nitrogenous base & phosphate group
◆ DNA nucleotide: contains adenine, guanine, cytosine & thymine, +
deoxyribose
● Required by cells to make DNA during cell replication
◆ RNA nucleotide: contains adenine, guanine, cytosine & uracil, + ribose
● Required for cells to make ribosomes & to make RNA so that cells
can make proteins

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prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)
 Enzymes
➔ Protein molecules that control metabolic reactions, act as biological catalysts
◆ Unchanged at the end of a reaction, can be reused
➔ Metabolism = sum of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism
➔ If reactants are supplied w/ enough energy to break their bonds, reaction will
proceed & products will be formed
◆ Minimum amount of energy to start the reaction = activation energy
◆ 𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐶 + 𝐷, where A+B = reactants & C+D = products
➔ Speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
◆ Combine with reactions & hold them (?) in a way that makes reaction
more likely to occur
Properties of enzymes
➔ Composed of highly folded protein molecules
➔ Surface w/ specific shape = active site
◆ Where reactants - substrates - temporarily bind in a reaction
● When the binding occurs, forms substrate-enzyme complex,
then reaction proceeds
◆ Products of reaction are released from active site
● Enzyme remains unchanged
➔ Specific for a particular reaction; shape of active site only accommodates that
particular substrate
Models of enzyme activity
➔ Lock-and-key model:
◆ Active site = rigid, substrate molecule = reciprocally shaped, fits exactly
into the active site
◆ Once substrate-enzyme complex has formed, close proximity allows
reaction to be rapidl catalysed & products released

➔ Induced-fit model:

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 ◆ Proteins are not rigid
● Binding of substrate to active site induces enzyme to alter shape
slightly, to fit better around substrate

Factors affecting enzyme activity

➔ Enzymes need certain conditions to function @ optimal efficiency
◆ Any changes to these conditions = enzyme works very slowly or not at all
Enzymes are temperature sensitive
➔ Function best at body temp. of the organism
◆ In most living things, enzymes can function in max temp. 40°C
➔ Temperature increases → rate of reaction increases until optimal temp. is
reached
◆ Once @ optimal temp. enzyme activity is at max level
◆ Above this temp., enzyme activity slows & stops @ 50-60°C
➔ @ high temps, motion associated with heat energy can make protein structure
bend & flex so much it changes active site shape
◆ This means it can no longer accommodate the substrate that binds there,
∴ enzyme will not function as it should
● The heat has caused the enzyme to denature; irreversible
➔ Excessive cold also causes enzyme shape to change & functioning to slow/stop,
but this is often reversible
Enzymes are pH sensitive
➔ Function best within a certain pH range
➔ Levels of alkalinity/acidity outside optimum pH have similar effect to
temperature change
➔ Within cells most enzymes function at/near neutral, but enzymes in digestive
tract function in acidic or alkaline medium
Substrate concentration & enzyme activity
➔ Rate of enzyme-controlled reaction is affected by concentration of substrate
➔ Higher substrate concentration = greater rate of enzyme reaction until all
enzymes are being used to catalyse reaction
◆ This point = saturation point

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)

 ➔ Increasing substrate concentration beyond saturation point will not increase rate
of reaction - all enzymes already working @ maximum turnover rate
◆ Only way to increase reaction rate = increase enzyme concentration

Biochemical processes in cells

➔ Biochemical reactions require energy, in the form ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
➔ Two major biochemical processes in cells = photosynthesis & cellular respiration
Energy transfer between reactions
➔ ATP stores energy in high-energy bond that attaches the third phosphate group
to the ADP molecule
◆ ADP = adenosine diphosphate

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)

 Photosynthesis
➔ Process where plants use light energy, trapped by chlorophyll, to break down
water & carbon dioxide molecules, and build them up into oxygen, glucose &
water molecules

➔ Photosynthesis has 2 stages:

◆ Light-dependent stage (photolysis)
● Occurs in the grana where light energy splits the water molecules
into oxygen and hydrogen
◆ Light-independent stage (carbon fixation/the Calvin Cycle)
● Occurs in the stroma where carbon dioxide and hydrogen combine
to form glucose

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)

 Cellular respiration
➔ Organisms break down glucose as source of energy to drive cellular metabolism
➔ Glucose can be broken down in either: the presence of oxygen - aerobic cellular
respiration or the absence of oxygen - anaerobic cellular respiration
◆ Anaerobic respiration involves the partial breakdown of glucose in the
cytosol for a small yield of ATP
◆ Aerobic respiration utilises oxygen to completely break down glucose in
the mitochondria for a larger ATP yield
➔ Both aerobic & anaerobic pathways begin w/ anaerobic breakdown of glucose in
the cytosol called glycolysis
◆ Breaks down glucose (6-C) into two molecules of pyruvate (3C), and also
produces:
● Hydrogen carriers (NADH) from an oxidised precursor (NAD+)
● A small yield of ATP (net gain of 2 molecules)

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)

 Anaerobic cellular respiration
➔ Two biochemical pathways enable production of energy anaerobically: alcohol
fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
◆ Alcoholic fermentation:
● Yeasts & plants
● Breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen to form ethanol &
carbon dioxide
● Two molecules of ATP are produced as a result

𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 → 2𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐴𝑇𝑃

➔ Lactic acid fermentation

◆ Animals
◆ Carried out when organism can’t produce enough energy w/
aerobic cellular respiration
◆ Occurs in periods of strenuous activity when bodies can’t deliver
enough oxygen to muscles to produce required energy
● Once more oxygen available, lactic acid changes to pyruvate
& converted by aerobic respiration into carbon dioxide,
water & ATP
◆ Breakdown of 1 glucose molecule to produce 2 molecules of lactic
acid & 2 molecules of ATP

𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 → 2𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻(𝑂𝐻)𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐴𝑇𝑃

Aerobic cellular respiration:

𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 + 𝐴𝐷𝑃 + 𝑃 ⟶6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2𝑂 + 36𝐴𝑇𝑃

➔ Energy produced is stored in ATP molecules

➔ 1st step: glycolysis

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)

 ➔ 2nd step: reaction occurs in mitochondria where pyruvate is broken down to
release carbon dioxide, water & 34 ATP
◆ 36 ATP molecules produced p/molecule of glucose broken down in
aerobic respiration
Removal of cellular products & wastes
➔ Wastes = products of cellular reactions that aren’t required
➔ Many wastes can be removed by simple diffusion through the cell membrane
➔ Lysosomes - break down ‘old’ cell parts & other cellular waste
◆ Any of these wastes that can’t be eliminated by lysosomes are packaged &
removed by exocytosis
➔ Proteins and other substances produced by animal cells are packaged into
vesicles and leave cell via exocytosis
➔ Wastes that leave a cell = excreted
➔ Useful products that leave the cell to be used elsewhere = secreted

prelim bio mod. 1 notes - @unhealthyharold (bored of studies) @pjstudiez (twitter)