11.1 How do rocks provide building materials?
• to consider and evaluate the environmental, social
11.2 How do rocks provide metals and how are metals used?
11.3 How do we get fuels from crude oil?
11.4 How are polymers and ethanol made from oil?
• to evaluate the developments in using limestone, c
• All substances are made of atoms. A substance tha
• Atoms of each element are represented by a chem
• Atoms have a small central nucleus around which t
• When elements react, their atoms join with other a
• Atoms and symbols are used to represent and expl
• The formula of a compound shows the number and
• No atoms are lost or made during a chemical reacti
• Limestone, containing the compound calcium carb
• Calcium carbonate can be decomposed by heating
• Carbonates of other metals decompose on heating
• Quicklime (calcium oxide) reacts with water to pro
• Limestone and its products have many uses, includ
• to consider and evaluate the social, economic and
• to evaluate the benefits, drawbacks and risks of us
• to explain how the properties of alloys (but not sm
• Ores contain enough metal to make it economical
• Unreactive metals such as gold are found in the Ea
• Metals that are less reactive than carbon can be ex
• Iron from the blast furnace contains about 96% iro
• Removing all of the impurities would produce pure
• Most iron is converted into steels. Steels are alloys
• Many metals in everyday use are alloys. Pure copp
• Smart alloys can return to their original shape after
• The elements in the central block of the periodic ta
• Copper has properties that make it useful for elect
• Low density and resistance to corrosion make alum
• We should recycle metals because extracting them
• to evaluate the impact on the environment of burn
• to consider and evaluate the social, economic and
• to evaluate developments in the production and us
• Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of com
• A mixture consists of two or more elements or com
• Most of the compounds in crude oil consist of mole
• Alkane molecules can be represented in the follow
• The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separa
• Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the si
• Most fuels contain carbon and/or hydrogen and m
• Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain, carbon dioxide caus
• Sulfur can be removed from fuels before they are b
• to evaluate the social and economic advantages an
• to evaluate the social, economic and environmenta
• to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of m
• Hydrocarbons can be broken down (cracked) to pro
• The products of cracking include alkanes and unsat
• Unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules can be repres
• Some of the products of cracking are useful as fuel

11.5 How can plant oils be used?
11.6 What are the changes in the Earth and its atmosphere?
• Ethene can be reacted with steam in the presence
• Alkenes can be used to make polymers such as pol
• Polymers have properties that depend on what the
• Polymers have many useful applications and new u
• Many polymers are not biodegradable, so they are
• to evaluate the effects of using vegetable oils in foo
• to evaluate the benefits, drawbacks and risks of us
• to evaluate the use, benefits, drawbacks and risks o
• Some fruits, seeds and nuts are rich in oils that can
• Vegetable oils are important foods and fuels as the
• Oils do not dissolve in water. They can be used to p
• Vegetable oils that are unsaturated contain double
• Vegetable oils that are unsaturated can be hardene
• Processed foods may contain additives to improve
• Chemical analysis can be used to identify additives
• to explain why the theory of crustal movement (co
• to explain why scientists cannot accurately predict
• to explain and evaluate theories of the changes tha
• to explain and evaluate the effects of human activi
• The Earth consists of a core, mantle and crust.
• Scientists once thought that the features of the Ear
• The Earth’s crust and the upper part of the mantle
• The movements can be sudden and disastrous. Ear
• For 200 million years, the proportions of different g
• The noble gases are in Group 0 of the periodic tabl
• During the first billion years of the Earth’s existenc
• Some theories suggest that during this period, the
• Plants produced the oxygen that is now in the atm
• Most of the carbon from the carbon dioxide in the
• Nowadays the release of carbon dioxide by burning
 luate the environmental, social and economic effects of exploiting limestone and producing building materials from it
elopments in using limestone, cement, concrete and glass as building materials, and their advantages and
made of atoms. A substance that is made of only one sort of atom is called an element. There are about 100 different elements. Elemen
ment are represented by a chemical symbol, eg O represents an atom of oxygen, Na represents an atom of sodium.
central nucleus around which there are electrons.
ct, their atoms join with other atoms to form compounds. This involves giving, taking or sharing electrons and the atoms are held toge
are used to represent and explain what is happening to the substances in chemical reactions.
mpound shows the number and type of atoms that are joined together to make the compound.
r made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants and we can write balanced equations
ng the compound calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is quarried and can be used as a building material.
can be decomposed by heating (thermal decomposition) to make calcium oxide (quicklime) and carbon dioxide.
r metals decompose on heating in a similar way.
oxide) reacts with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide).
roducts have many uses, including slaked lime, mortar, cement, concrete and glass.
luate the social, economic and environmental impacts of exploiting metal ores, of using metals and of recycling metals
efits, drawbacks and risks of using metals as structural materials and as smart materials
properties of alloys (but not smart alloys) are related to models of their structures.
h metal to make it economical to extract the metal and this changes over time.
uch as gold are found in the Earth as the metal itself but most metals are found as compounds that require chemical reactions to extra
reactive than carbon can be extracted from their oxides by reduction with carbon, for example iron oxide is reduced in the blast furna
furnace contains about 96% iron. The impurities make it brittle and so it has limited uses.
impurities would produce pure iron. Pure iron has a regular arrangement of atoms, with layers that can slide over each other, and so i
ted into steels. Steels are alloys since they are mixtures of iron with carbon and other metals. The different sized atoms added distort t
ryday use are alloys. Pure copper, gold, and aluminium are too soft for many uses and so are mixed with small amounts of similar meta
urn to their original shape after being deformed.
central block of the periodic table are known as transition metals. Like other metals they are good conductors of heat and electricity a
ties that make it useful for electrical wiring and plumbing. Copper can be extracted by electrolysis of solutions containing copper comp
istance to corrosion make aluminium and titanium useful metals. These metals cannot be extracted from their oxides by reduction wit
metals because extracting them uses limited resources and is expensive in terms of energy and effects on the environment.
act on the environment of burning hydrocarbon fuels
luate the social, economic and environmental impacts of the uses of fuels
ments in the production and uses of better fuels, for example ethanol and hydrogen.
re of a very large number of compounds.
of two or more elements or compounds not chemically combined together. The chemical properties of each substance in the mixture a
unds in crude oil consist of molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only (hydrocarbons). Most of these are saturated hydro
an be represented in the following forms: − C2H6,
bons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by evapor
hydrocarbons depend on the size of their molecules. These properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels.
carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur. The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel burns may include car
es acid rain, carbon dioxide causes global warming, and particles cause global dimming.
ved from fuels before they are burned, for example in vehicles. Sulfur dioxide can be removed from the waste gases after combustion,
al and economic advantages and disadvantages of using products from crude oil as fuels or as raw materials for plastic and other chem
al, economic and environmental impacts of the uses, disposal and recycling of polymers
antages and disadvantages of making ethanol from renewable and non-renewable sources.
be broken down (cracked) to produce smaller, more useful molecules. This process involves heating the hydrocarbons to vaporise them
cking include alkanes and unsaturated hydrocarbons called alkenes. Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n
carbon molecules can be represented in the following forms: − C2H4
ts of cracking are useful as fuels.
ted with steam in the presence of a catalyst to produce ethanol.
d to make polymers such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene). In these reactions, many small molecules (monomers) join together to fo
perties that depend on what they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, slime with different visc
y useful applications and new uses are being developed, for example: new packaging materials, waterproof coatings for fabrics, denta
not biodegradable, so they are not broken down by microorganisms and this can lead to problems with waste disposal.
cts of using vegetable oils in foods and the impacts on diet and health
efits, drawbacks and risks of using vegetable oils to produce fuels
benefits, drawbacks and risks of ingredients and additives in foods.
and nuts are rich in oils that can be extracted. The plant material is crushed and the oil removed by pressing or in some cases by distilla
mportant foods and fuels as they provide a lot of energy. They also provide us with nutrients.
in water. They can be used to produce emulsions. Emulsions are thicker than oil or water and have many uses that depend on their sp
are unsaturated contain double carbon carbon bonds. These can be detected by reacting with bromine or iodine.
are unsaturated can be hardened by reacting them with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst at about 60 °C. The hydrogenate
ay contain additives to improve appearance, taste and shelf-life. These additives must be listed in the ingredients and some permitted
an be used to identify additives in foods. Artificial colours can be detected and identified by chromatography.
heory of crustal movement (continental drift) was not generally accepted for many years after it was proposed
ntists cannot accurately predict when earthquakes and volcanic eruptions will occur
uate theories of the changes that have occurred and are occurring in the Earth’s atmosphere
uate the effects of human activities on the atmosphere.
of a core, mantle and crust.
ught that the features of the Earth’s surface were the result of the shrinking of the crust as the Earth cooled down following its formati
d the upper part of the mantle are cracked into a number of large pieces (tectonic plates). Convection currents within the Earth’s man
n be sudden and disastrous. Earthquakes and/or volcanic eruptions occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates.
s, the proportions of different gases in the atmosphere have been much the same as they are today: − about four-fifths (80%) nitrogen
in Group 0 of the periodic table. They are all chemically unreactive gases and are used in filament lamps and electric discharge tubes.
on years of the Earth’s existence there was intense volcanic activity. This activity released the gases that formed the early atmosphere
est that during this period, the Earth’s atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide and there would have been little or no oxygen gas (like
e oxygen that is now in the atmosphere.
from the carbon dioxide in the air gradually became locked up in sedimentary rocks as carbonates and fossil fuels.
se of carbon dioxide by burning fossil fuels increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 materials from it

out 100 different elements. Elements are shown in the periodic table. The groups contain elements with similar properties.
om of sodium.

trons and the atoms are held together by chemical bonds. (No further knowledge of ions, ionic and covalent bonding is required in this

we can write balanced equations showing the atoms involved.

on dioxide.

of recycling metals

require chemical reactions to extract the metal.

oxide is reduced in the blast furnace to make iron. (Details of the blast furnace are not required.)

can slide over each other, and so is soft and easily shaped, but too soft for many uses.
fferent sized atoms added distort the layers in the structure of the pure metal, making it more difficult for them to slide over each othe
with small amounts of similar metals to make them harder for everyday use.

onductors of heat and electricity and can be bent or hammered into shape. They are useful as structural materials and for making thin
solutions containing copper compounds. (No details are required of the extraction process.) The supply of copper-rich ores is limited. N
from their oxides by reduction with carbon. Current methods of extraction are expensive because: − there are many stages in the proc
ts on the environment.

of each substance in the mixture are unchanged. It is possible to separate the substances in a mixture by physical methods including d
Most of these are saturated hydrocarbons called alkanes, which have the general formula CnH2n+2

mber of carbon atoms, by evaporating the oil and allowing it to condense at a number of different temperatures. This process is fracti
are used as fuels.
when a fuel burns may include carbon dioxide, water (vapour), carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. Particles may also be released.

he waste gases after combustion, for example in power stations.

aterials for plastic and other chemicals

he hydrocarbons to vaporise them and passing the vapours over a hot catalyst. A thermal decomposition reaction then occurs.
es (monomers) join together to form very large molecules (polymers).
example, slime with different viscosities can be made from poly(ethenol).
erproof coatings for fabrics, dental polymers, wound dressings, hydrogels, smart materials, including shape memory polymers.
with waste disposal.

ressing or in some cases by distillation. Water and other impurities are removed.

many uses that depend on their special properties. They provide better texture, coating ability and appearance, for example in salad dr
ne or iodine.
t at about 60 °C. The hydrogenated oils have higher melting points so they are solids at room temperature, making them useful as spre
ingredients and some permitted additives were given E-numbers.

cooled down following its formation.

on currents within the Earth’s mantle, driven by heat released by natural radioactive processes, cause the plates to move at relative sp
tectonic plates.
− about four-fifths (80%) nitrogen − about one-fifth (20%) oxygen − small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide
mps and electric discharge tubes. Helium is much less dense than air and is used in balloons.
hat formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans.
been little or no oxygen gas (like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today). There may also have been water vapour and small propo

nd fossil fuels.
with similar properties.

ovalent bonding is required in this unit.)

lt for them to slide over each other, and so alloys are harder. Alloys can be designed to have properties for specific uses. Low carbon st

ural materials and for making things that must allow heat or electricity to pass through them easily.
ply of copper-rich ores is limited. New ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores are being researched to limit the environmental
there are many stages in the processes − much energy is needed.

e by physical methods including distillation.

emperatures. This process is fractional distillation.

Particles may also be released.

ition reaction then occurs.

shape memory polymers.

ppearance, for example in salad dressings and ice creams.

ature, making them useful as spreads and in cakes and pastries.

e the plates to move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.

er gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.

een water vapour and small proportions of methane and ammonia.

 es for specific uses. Low carbon steels are easily shaped, high carbon steels are hard, and stainless steels are resistant to corrosion.

arched to limit the environmental impact of traditional mining.

eels are resistant to corrosion.
1b – Atoms 1.4 describe simple experiments leading to the idea of th
YEAR 10 1.5 understand the terms atom and molecule
1.6 understand the differences between elements, comp
1.7 describe techniques for the separation of mixtures, in
1c – Atomic structure 1.8 recall that atoms consist of a central nucleus, compo
YEAR 9 1.9 recall the relative mass and relative charge of a proto
1.10 understand the terms atomic number, mass numbe
1.11 calculate the relative atomic mass of an element fro
1.12 understand that the Periodic Table is an arrangeme
1.13 deduce the electronic configurations of the first twe
1.14 deduce the number of outer electrons in a main gro
1f – Ionic compounds 1.27 describe the formation of ions by the gain or loss of
YEAR 9 1.28 understand oxidation as the loss of electrons and re
1.29 recall the charges of common ions in this specificati
1.30 deduce the charge of an ion from the electronic con
1.31 explain, using dot and cross diagrams, the formation
1.32 understand ionic bonding as a strong electrostatic a
1.33 understand that ionic compounds have high melting
1.34 understand the relationship between ionic charge a
1.35 describe an ionic crystal as a giant three-dimension
1.36 draw a simple diagram to represent the positions of
1g – Covalent substances 1.37 describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sh
YEAR 9 1.38 understand covalent bonding as a strong attraction
1.39 explain, using dot and cross diagrams, the formation
1.40 recall that substances with simple molecular structu
1.41 explain why substances with simple molecular struc
1.42 explain the high melting points of substances with g
1.43 draw simple diagrams representing the positions of
1.44 explain how the uses of diamond and graphite depe
1a – States of matter 1.1 understand the arrangement, movement and energy
YEAR 10 1.2 describe how the interconversion of solids, liquids an
1.3 describe the changes in arrangement, movement and
2a – The periodic table 2.1 understand the terms group and period
YEAR 10 2.2 recall the positions of metals and non-metals in the P
2.3 explain the classification of elements as metals or non
2.4 understand why elements in the same group of the Pe
2.5 recall the noble gases (Group 0) as a family of inert g
1d – Relative molecular and molar volumes of gases 1.15 calculate relative formula masses (Mr) from relative
YEAR 11 1.16 understand the use of the term mole to represent the
1.17 understand the term mole as the Avogadro number o
1.18 carry out mole calculations using relative atomic ma
1.19 understand the term molar volume of a gas and use i
2b – The Group 1 elements: lithium, sodium and potassium 2.6 describe the reactions of these elements with water an
YEAR 10 2.7 recall the relative reactivities of the elements in Grou
2.8 explain the relative reactivities of the elements in Gro
2c – The Group 7 elements: chlorine, bromine and iodine 2.9 recall the colours and physical states of the elements
YEAR 10 2.10 make predictions about the properties of other halog
2.11 understand the difference between hydrogen chlorid
 2.12 explain, in terms of dissociation, why hydrogen chlo
2.13 recall the relative reactivities of the elements in Gro
2.14 describe experiments to show that a more reactive h
2.15 understand these displacement reactions as redox re
3a – Introduction 3.1 explain the terms homologous series, hydrocarbon, s
3b – Alkanes 3.2 recall that alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2
YEAR 11 3.3 draw displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five c
3.4 recall the products of the complete and incomplete co
3.5 recall the reaction of methane with bromine to form b
4a – Acids, alkalis and salts 4.1 describe the use of the indicators litmus, phenolphth
YEAR 10 4.2 understand how the pH scale, from 0–14, can be use
4.3 describe the use of universal indicator to measure th
4.4 define acids as sources of hydrogen ions, H+, and alk
4.5 predict the products of reactions between dilute hyd
4.6 recall the general rules for predicting the solubility of
4.7 describe how to prepare soluble salts from acids
4.8 describe how to prepare insoluble salts using precipi
4.9 describe how to carry out acid-alkali titrations.
5b – Crude oil 5.6 recall that crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
YEAR 11 5.7 describe how the industrial process of fractional disti
5.8 recall the names and uses of the main fractions obtain
5.9 describe the trend in boiling point and viscosity of the
5.10 recall that incomplete combustion of fuels may prod
5.11 recall that, in car engines, the temperature reached is
5.12 recall that fractional distillation of crude oil produce
5.13 describe how long-chain alkanes are converted to al
1e – Chemical formulae and chemical equations 1.20 write word equations and balanced chemical equatio
YEAR 11 1.21 use the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq) in chemica
1.22 understand how the formulae of simple compounds
1.23 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from ex
1.24 calculate reacting masses using experimental data an
1.25 calculate percentage yield
1.26 carry out mole calculations using volumes and mola
2d – Oxygen and Oxides 2.16 recall the gases present in air and their approximate
YEAR 10 2.17 describe how experiments involving the reactions of
2.18 describe the laboratory preparation of oxygen from h
2.19 describe the reactions with oxygen in air of magnesi
2.20 describe the laboratory preparation of carbon dioxid
2.21 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the th
2.22 recall the properties of carbon dioxide, limited to its
2.23 explain the use of carbon dioxide in carbonating drin
2.24 recall the reactions of carbon dioxide and sulfur diox
2.25 recall that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are pol
3c – Alkenes 3.6 recall that alkenes have the general formula CnH2n
YEAR 11 3.7 draw displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four c
3.8 describe the addition reaction of alkenes with bromin
4c – Rates of reaction 4.17 describe experiments to investigate the effects of ch
YEAR 11 4.18 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a s
 4.19 understand the term activation energy and represent
4.20 explain the effects of changes in surface area of a so
4.21 understand that a catalyst speeds up a reaction by pr
5c – Synthetic polymers 5.14 recall that an addition polymer is formed by joining
YEAR 11 5.15 draw the repeat unit of addition polymers, including
5.16 deduce the structure of a monomer from the repea
5.17 recall that nylon is a condensation polymer
5.18 understand that the formation of a condensation po
5.19 recall the types of monomers used in the manufactu
5.20 draw the structure of nylon in block diagram format
2e – Hydrogen and water 2.26 describe the reactions of dilute hydrochloric and dil
YEAR 10 2.27 describe the combustion of hydrogen
2.28 describe the use of anhydrous copper(II) sulfate in t
2.29 describe a physical test to show whether water is pu
2f – Reactivity series 2.30 recall that metals can be arranged in a reactivity seri
YEAR 10 2.31 describe how reactions with water and dilute acids c
2.32 deduce the position of a metal within the reactivity s
2.33 understand oxidation and reduction as the addition a
2.34 understand the terms redox, oxidising agent and red
2.35 recall the conditions under which iron rusts
2.36 describe how the rusting of iron may be prevented b
2.37 understand the sacrificial protection of iron in terms
3d – Ethanol 3.9 describe the manufacture of ethanol by passing ethen
YEAR 11 3.10 describe the manufacture of ethanol by the fermenta
3.11 evaluate the factors relevant to the choice of method
3.12 describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethene, using
4d – Equilibria 4.22 recall that some reactions are reversible and are indi
YEAR 11 4.23 describe reversible reactions such as the dehydration
4.24 understand the concept of dynamic equilibrium
4.25 predict the effects of changing the pressure and temp
5d – The industrial manufacture of chemicals 5.21 recall that nitrogen from air, and hydrogen from nat
YEAR 11 5.22 describe the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber
5.23 understand how the cooling of the reaction mixture
5.24 recall the use of ammonia in the manufacture of nitr
5.25 recall the raw materials used in the manufacture of s
5.26 describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the con
5.27 recall the use of sulfuric acid in the manufacture of d
5.28 describe the manufacture of sodium hydroxide and c
5.29 write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the ele
5.30 recall important uses of sodium hydroxide, includin
1i – Electrolysis 1.47 understand an electric current as a flow of electrons
YEAR 11 1.48 understand why covalent compounds do not conduc
1.49 understand why ionic compounds conduct electricity
1.50 describe simple experiments to distinguish between
1.51 recall that electrolysis involves the formation of new
1.52 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, usi
1.53 describe simple experiments for the electrolysis, usi
1.54 write ionic half-equations representing the reactions
 1.55 recall that one faraday represents one mole of electr
1.56 calculate the amounts of the products of the electrol
1h – Metallic crystals 1.45 describe a metal as a giant structure of positive ions
YEAR 9 1.46 explain the malleability and electrical conductivity o
2g – Tests for ions and gases 2.38 describe simple tests for the cations: i Li+, Na+, K+
YEAR 10 2.39 describe simple tests for the anions: i Cl−, Br− and I
2.40 describe simple tests for the gases: i hydrogen, ii ox
4b – Energetics 4.10 recall that chemical reactions in which heat energy
YEAR 11 4.11 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactio
4.12 calculate molar enthalpy change from heat energy c
4.13 understand the use of ΔH to represent molar entha
4.14 represent exothermic and endothermic reactions on
4.15 recall that the breaking of bonds is endothermic an
4.16 use average bond energies to calculate the enthalpy
5a – Extraction and uses of metals 5.1 explain how the methods of extraction of the metals
YEAR 11 5.2 describe and explain the extraction of aluminium fro
5.3 write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the ele
5.4 describe and explain the main reactions involved in t
5.5 explain the uses of aluminium and iron, in terms of th
 leading to the idea of the small size of particles and their movement including: i dilution of coloured solutions, ii diffusion experiments
and molecule
etween elements, compounds and mixtures
eparation of mixtures, including simple distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation and paper chromatography.
central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons, orbiting in shells
elative charge of a proton, neutron and electron
ic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass (Ar)
c mass of an element from the relative abundances of its isotopes
c Table is an arrangement of elements in order of atomic number
gurations of the first twenty elements from their positions inthe Periodic Table
r electrons in a main group element from its position in the Periodic Table.
ons by the gain or loss of electrons
e loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons
on ions in this specification
n from the electronic configuration of the atom from which the ion is formed
diagrams, the formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3, and 5, 6, 7
s a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
ounds have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions
between ionic charge and the melting point and boiling point of an ionic compound
a giant three-dimensional lattice structure held together by the attraction between oppositely charged ions
epresent the positions of the ions in a crystal of sodium chloride.
covalent bond by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms
ng as a strong attraction between the bonding pair of electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved in the bond
diagrams, the formation of covalent compounds by electron sharing for the following substances: i hydrogen, ii chlorine, iii hydrogen
simple molecular structures are gases or liquids, or solids with low melting points
h simple molecular structures have low melting points in terms of the relatively weak forces between the molecules
nts of substances with giant covalent structures in terms of the breaking of many strong covalent bonds
esenting the positions of the atoms in diamond and graphite
mond and graphite depend on their structures, limited to graphite as a lubricant and diamond in cutting.
, movement and energy of the particles in each of the three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas
rsion of solids, liquids and gases are achieved and recall the names used for these interconversions
ngement, movement and energy of particles during these interconversions.

and non-metals in the Periodic Table

lements as metals or non-metals on the basis of their electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of their oxides
he same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties
0) as a family of inert gases and explain their lack of reactivity in terms of their electronic configurations.
asses (Mr) from relative atomic masses (Ar)
rm mole to represent the amount of substance
the Avogadro number of particles (atoms, molecules, formulae, ions or electrons) in a substance
using relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula mass (Mr)
olume of a gas and use its values (24 dm3 and 24,000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure (rtp) in calculations.
e elements with water and understand that the reactions provide a basis for their recognition as a family of elements
of the elements in Group 1
es of the elements in Group 1 in terms of distance between the outer electrons and the nucleus.
al states of the elements at room temperature
properties of other halogens in this group
etween hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid
 tion, why hydrogen chloride is acidic in water but not in methylbenzene
s of the elements in Group 7
w that a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from a solution of one of its salts
ent reactions as redox reactions.
us series, hydrocarbon, saturated, unsaturated, general formula and isomerism.
eneral formula CnH2n+2
alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in a molecule, and name the straight-chain isomers
mplete and incomplete combustion of alkanes
e with bromine to form bromomethane in the presence of UV light.
ators litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions
e, from 0–14, can be used to classify solutions as strongly acidic, weakly acidic, neutral, weakly alkaline or strongly alkaline
indicator to measure the approximate pH value of a solution
drogen ions, H+, and alkalis as sources of hydroxide ions, OH¯
tions between dilute hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids; and metals, metal oxides and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions bet
edicting the solubility of salts in water: i all common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble, ii all nitrates are soluble, iii c
uble salts from acids
oluble salts using precipitation reactions
d-alkali titrations.
ure of hydrocarbons
rocess of fractional distillation separates crude oil into fractions
he main fractions obtained from crude oil: refinery gases, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen
point and viscosity of the main fractions
ustion of fuels may produce carbon monoxide and explain that carbon monoxide is poisonous because it reduces the capacity of the blo
he temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from air to react, forming nitrogen oxides
tion of crude oil produces more long-chain hydrocarbons than can be used directly and fewer short-chain hydrocarbons than required
kanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking, using silica or alumina as the catalyst and a temperature
alanced chemical equations to represent the reactions studied in this specification
, (g) and (aq) in chemical equations to represent solids, liquids, gases and aqueous solutions respectively
e of simple compounds can be obtained experimentally, including metal oxides, water and salts containing water of crystallisation
ecular formulae from experimental data
ing experimental data and chemical equations

using volumes and molar concentrations.

r and their approximate percentage by volume
nvolving the reactions of elements such as copper, iron and phosphorus with air can be used to determine the percentage by volume of o
aration of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide
oxygen in air of magnesium, carbon and sulfur, and the acidbase character of the oxides produced
aration of carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate and dilute hydrochloric acid
rbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates such as copper(II) carbonate
on dioxide, limited to its solubility and density
oxide in carbonating drinks and in fire extinguishers, in terms of its solubility and density
n dioxide and sulfur dioxide with water to produce acidic solutions
d nitrogen oxides are pollutant gases which contribute to acid rain, and describe the problems caused by acid rain.
eneral formula CnH2n
alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in a molecule, and name the straight-chain isomers
n of alkenes with bromine, including the decolourising of bromine water as a test for alkenes.
estigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a
ges in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, pressure of gases, temperature and the use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
 on energy and represent it on a reaction profile
es in surface area of a solid, concentration of solutions, pressure of gases and temperature on the rate of a reaction in terms of particle co
eeds up a reaction by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy.
mer is formed by joining up many small molecules called monomers
ition polymers, including poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(chloroethene)
monomer from the repeat unit of an addition polymer
nsation polymer
tion of a condensation polymer is accompanied by the release of a small molecule such as water or hydrogen chloride
rs used in the manufacture of nylon
in block diagram format.
ute hydrochloric and dilute sulfuric acids with magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron

ous copper(II) sulfate in the chemical test for water

how whether water is pure.
anged in a reactivity series based on the reactions of the metals and their compounds: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium,
water and dilute acids can be used to deduce the following order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, i
tal within the reactivity series using displacement reactions between metals and their oxides, and between metals and their salts in aqueo
duction as the addition and removal of oxygen respectively
oxidising agent and reducing agent
which iron rusts
iron may be prevented by grease, oil, paint, plastic and galvanising
otection of iron in terms of the reactivity series.
ethanol by passing ethene and steam over a phosphoric acid catalyst at a temperature of about 300°C and a pressure of about 60–70 atm
ethanol by the fermentation of sugars, for example glucose, at a temperature of about 30°C
to the choice of method used in the manufacture of ethanol, for example the relative availability of sugar cane and crude oil
ethanol to ethene, using aluminium oxide.
e reversible and are indicated by the symbol ⇌ in equations
s such as the dehydration of hydrated copper(II) sulfate and the effect of heat on ammonium chloride
ynamic equilibrium
ng the pressure and temperature on the equilibrium position in reversible reactions.
, and hydrogen from natural gas or the cracking of hydrocarbons, are used in the manufacture of ammonia
ammonia by the Haber process, including the essential conditions: i a temperature of about 450°C, ii a pressure of about 200 atmosphe
of the reaction mixture liquefies the ammonia produced and allows the unused hydrogen and nitrogen to be recirculated
n the manufacture of nitric acid and fertilisers
d in the manufacture of sulfuric acid
sulfuric acid by the contact process, including the essential conditions: i a temperature of about 450 °C, ii a pressure of about 2 atmosp
d in the manufacture of detergents, fertilisers and paints
sodium hydroxide and chlorine by the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) in a diaphragm cell
or the reactions at the electrodes in the diaphragm cell
ium hydroxide, including the manufacture of bleach, paper and soap; and of chlorine, including sterilising water supplies and in the man
nt as a flow of electrons or ions
mpounds do not conduct electricity
ounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution
s to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes
ves the formation of new substances when ionic compounds conduct electricity
s for the electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten salts such as lead(II) bromide
s for the electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride, copper(II) sulfate and dilute sulfuric acid and pred
epresenting the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis
 sents one mole of electrons
products of the electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions.
tructure of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons
electrical conductivity of a metal in terms of its structure and bonding.
cations: i Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+ using flame tests, ii NH4 + using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the ammonia evolved, iii C
anions: i Cl−, Br− and I−, using dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution, ii SO4 2−, using dilute hydrochloric acid and barium chlor
gases: i hydrogen, ii oxygen, iii carbon dioxide, iv ammonia, v chlorine.
ns in which heat energy is given out are described as exothermic and those in which heat energy is taken in are endothermic
experiments for reactions such as combustion, displacement, dissolving and neutralisation in which heat energy changes can be calcu
ange from heat energy change
o represent molar enthalpy change for exothermic and endothermic reactions
ndothermic reactions on a simple energy level diagram
onds is endothermic and that the making of bonds is exothermic
to calculate the enthalpy change during a simple chemical reaction.
extraction of the metals in this section are related to their positions in the reactivity series
action of aluminium from purified aluminium oxide by electrolysis, including: i the use of molten cryolite as a solvent and to decrease
the reactions at the electrodes in aluminium extraction
n reactions involved in the extraction of iron from iron ore (haematite), using coke, limestone and air in a blast furnace
m and iron, in terms of their properties.
 solutions, ii diffusion experiments

d paper chromatography.

nts from Groups 1, 2, 3, and 5, 6, 7

y charged ions

in the bond
hydrogen, ii chlorine, iii hydrogen chloride, iv water, v methane, vi ammonia, vii oxygen, viii nitrogen, ix carbon dioxide, x ethane, xi eth

n the molecules

er of their oxides

calculations.
ly of elements
ne or strongly alkaline

nates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals)

uble, ii all nitrates are soluble, iii common chlorides are soluble, except silver chloride, iv common sulfates are soluble, except those of

e it reduces the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen

ain hydrocarbons than required

as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600–700°C.

ining water of crystallisation

ine the percentage by volume of oxygen in air

by acid rain.

he use of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction

a catalyst on the rate of a reaction
 of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory

ydrogen chloride

um, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, copper, silver and gold
hium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and copper
ween metals and their salts in aqueous solutions

nd a pressure of about 60–70 atm

ugar cane and crude oil

a pressure of about 200 atmospheres, iii an iron catalyst

n to be recirculated

C, ii a pressure of about 2 atmospheres, iii a vanadium(V) oxide catalyst

n a diaphragm cell

sing water supplies and in the manufacture of bleach and hydrochloric acid.

e and dilute sulfuric acid and predict the products

ifying the ammonia evolved, iii Cu2+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ using sodium hydroxide solution
ydrochloric acid and barium chloride solution, iii CO3 2−, using dilute hydrochloric acid and identifying the carbon dioxide evolved

aken in are endothermic

heat energy changes can be calculated from measured temperature changes

olite as a solvent and to decrease the required operating temperature, ii the need to replace the positive electrodes, iii the cost of the

r in a blast furnace
ix carbon dioxide, x ethane, xi ethene
lfates are soluble, except those of barium and calcium, v common carbonates are insoluble, except those of sodium, potassium and am
ing the carbon dioxide evolved

itive electrodes, iii the cost of the electricity as a major factor

hose of sodium, potassium and ammonium