Anatomy and Physiology Lecture

Levels of Structural Organization

BSN 1H MC 2 - Lec & Lab Prelims

1. Chemical Level is the simplest level of the

Chapter 1 structural ladder; includes atoms and
molecules
○ Ex.: DNA & Glucose
The Human Body: An Orientation
○ Atoms are tiny building blocks of matter,
which combine to form molecules such
● Anatomy is the study of the structure and
as water, sugar, and proteins.
shape of the body and the body parts and
2. Cellular Level is the individual cells that vary
their relationships to each other
widely in size and shape. Cells are made of
○ The term anatomy comes from the
molecules:
Greek words meaning ‘to cut’ (tomy)
○ Cells are the smallest unit of all living
‘apart’ (ana)
things
○ The scientific discipline that investigates
○ Muscle Cells (3 Types): Smooth, Cardiac,
the structure of the body.
and Skeletal
● Physiology is the study of how the body
○ Cellular Level is the basic structural and
and its parts function
functional units of an organism that are
○ Function of the body and how does it
composed of chemicals
work normally
○ Ex.: muscle cell, nerve cell, epithelial cell
○ The scientific discipline that deals with
3. Tissue Level consists of a group of cells that
the processes or functions of living
perform the same function.
things.
○ Histology - study of tissues
○ Major goals of physiology: to
○ Epithelial Tissue, Smooth Muscle
understand and predict the body’s
Tissue/Muscle Tissue, Connective
responses to stimuli and; to understand
Tissue, Nervous Tissue
how the body parts work
4. Organ Level is an extremely complex
function. Organs are made of different types
Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology
of tissues.
● Anatomy and Physiology is complementary
○ Composed of two or more tissues that
of structure and function
perform the same function
● The parts of the body form a well-organized
○ Ex.: stomach, heart, brain, skin, bones,
unit, and each of those parts has a job to
lungs
do to make the body operate as a whole.
5. Organ System Level is the group of organs
that cooperate to accomplish a common
purpose. Each organ has its own john to
do.
○ Ex.: cardiovascular system, digestive
system
6. Organismal Level or Organism represents ○ Cardiac Muscles - attached to the
the highest level of structural organization. heart
These are made up of major organs. ○ Smooth Muscle - any muscle not
attached to heart/bones
4. Nervous System - is the body’s
The 11 Organ Systems
fast-acting control system; it consists of
the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
1. Integumentary System - is the external
sensory receptors
covering of the body or the skin. It
● Command center
waterproofs the body cushions and
● Nerve impulse is a sensory receptor
protects the deeper tissues from injury.
that detects changes and sends
● Skin - largest organ; protects the body
messages via electrical signals to the
● Protects body, regulates body
central nervous system
temperature, eliminates some wastes,
5. Endocrine System - controls body
makes vitamin D, stores fat and
activities.
provides insulation
● A complex network of glands and
● Detects sensation such as touch, pain,
organs.
warmth, and cold
● Regulates body system by producing
2. Skeletal System - consists of bones,
hormones
cartilages, ligaments, and joints. It supports
● Gland - is an organ that makes and puts
the body and provides a framework.
out hormones that do a specific job in
● To enclose some organs; to protect
your body.
● Two important organs: heart and brain;
● Glands secrete hormones that regulate
doesn’t regenerate when cells are
processes such as growth, reproduction,
damaged
and nutrients used by body cells
● Supports and protects body
● Regulation of the hormones and
● Provides surface area for muscle
anything chemical inside the body
attachment; aids body temperature
● Hormones produce chemical molecules
● Stores minerals and lipids
and release it into blood to travel to
3. Muscular System - is a system that
targeted organs
contracts or shortens. Muscles can be
6. Cardiovascular System - carries oxygen
viewed as machines of the body.
nutrients, hormones, and other substances
● Enables us to push, pull, and carry
from tissue cells
objects; participates in body
● Heart acts as the blood pump, propelling
movements
blood through the body vessels to all the
● Maintain posture; produce heat
body
● These muscles support your body
● Blood vessels transport blood, which
● 3 Types of Muscles
carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,
○ Skeletal Muscles - large, fleshy
nutrients, and wastes
muscles attached to the bones
7. Lymphatic System - picks up fluid leaked
from blood vessels and returns it to blood
● Lymph nodes help to cleanse the blood
and house cells involved in immunity
● Returns proteins and fluid to blood
● First line of defense in our body (tonsils)
● Ex: lymph nodes, tonsils
* Additional notes:
- We experience tonsillitis because of the
bacteria inside our mouth. Our tonsils
are the first line of defense in our body.
- Tonsils can stop bacteria from entering
in your body
- Bacterias feed on sugar
8. Respiratory System - keeps the blood
constantly supplied with oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide
● Air sacs of the lungs are responsible for
the gaseous changes that were made
from the blood
● Main organ of the respiratory system is
the lungs
● Highly connected to the cardiovascular
system because our blood
oxygenated in our lungs
9. Digestive System - breaks down food into
absorbable units that enter the blood for
the distribution of cells
● Liver is considered to be in the digestive
system because it produces bile that
helps break down the fats
● Achieves physical and chemical
breakdown of food
● Absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid
wastes
10. Urinary System - eliminates nitrogenous
wastes from the body; regulates waste,
electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the
blood
11. Reproductive System - exists primarily to
produce offspring
● Male and female reproductive system
● Transports and stores gametes
● Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormones
● Ovaries produce eggs and female
sex hormones
● Mammary glands of female produce
breast milk
Maintaining Life
● Organ systems have to be interrelated
and synergistic in order to maintain life.
● If one organ system failed to function,
other organ systems will fail as well
* Additional Notes:
○ Hypoxemia - lack of oxygen in the
blood
○ Hypoxia - lack of oxygen in the cells
○ Hypertension
is
Necessary Life Functions
➢ Maintaining Boundaries
■ “Inside" environment remains distinct
from the “outside” environment
■ Encloses contents and essential
substances
■ Protective nature:
○ Heat, dehydration, toxins, pathogens
○ Pathogens are everywhere;
babies/infants will not develop
immunity if failed to expose from the
pathogens outside
➢ Movement (organization)
■ Necessary on all levels of organization
 ■ Change in position of body parts ■ Organisms produce offspring as a result,
motion of internal organs genetic, pass on genetic information
■ Ability to manipulate external ➢ Growth
environment ■ Increase in body size without change in
➢ Responsiveness shape
■ Ability to sense stimuli and respond to ■ Accomplished by: increased cell number,
them increased cell size
■ May be conscious or unconscious ■ Occurs when “construction” out-paces
reflexes (ex. gag reflex, swallowing of “destruction” (ex. muscle growth)
food)
➢ Digestion
Requirements for Life:
■ Breaking down ingested food into Survival Needs
simple molecules that can be absorbed
into the blood
➢ Nutrients
■ May be physical or chemical in nature
■ Coming from our food
■ Digestion starts in our mouth, not in
■ Used as an energy source
our stomach
■ Supply raw material for building new
* Additional notes:
living matter
- Cause of indigestion: abnormality in
■ Help regulate vital chemical reactions
the stomach, overeating, etc.
➢ Oxygen
➢ Metabolism
■ Coming from our environment
■ How our body process the food
■ Is used to release energy from food
■ Ability of your body to absorb all the
substances
nutrients
■ Released energy then drives metabolic
■ All chemical reactions that occur inside
processes
the body
➢ Water
○ Catabolism - breaking down
■ Most abundant chemical in the body
substances into their basic form
■ Required for metabolic processes
○ Anabolism - synthesizing larger
■ Transports substances throughout the
molecule from basic units
body
➢ Excretion
■ Important for regulating body
■ Removal of waste products produced
temperature
by metabolic reactions
* Additional notes:
■ Waste products are either: non-usable
○ ORS (oresol) used to rehydrate
by-products or potential toxins
patients
➢ Reproduction
○ ‘Where sodium goes, water follows’
■ Occurs at the cellular and organismal
○ Sugar + salt + electrolytes
level
➢ Heat
■ Cells divide to produce two identical
■ Coming from the sun
cells necessary for growth and repair
 ■ Below normal body temperature (cold):
metabolism slows down and comes to a
stop
■ Above normal body temperature (hot):
metabolism is too rapid, proteins and
enzymes denature
○ cold: slow metabolism; hot: fast
metabolism
➢ Atmospheric pressure
■ Refers mostly in your lung functions
■ We have to maintain negative air
pressure in our lungs
■ Force air exerts on the surface of the
body
■ Affects breathing rate and gas exchange
and ultimately cellular metabolism

Homeostasis/Equilibrium
- balance between fluids/ chemical
components within the body
- is the state of steady internal conditions
maintained by living things.

Chapter 2
 ○ Away from the head end or toward the
lower part of a structure or the body;
The Language of Anatomy
below
○ Examples:
● Special terminology is used to prevent
- The navel is inferior to the
misunderstanding
breastbone.
● Exact terms are used for: position,
- The mouth is inferior to the nose.
direction, regions, structures
■ Anterior (ventral)
○ Toward or at the front of the body; in
Anatomical Positions front of
○ Examples:
● The body is standing erect and facing - The breastbone is anterior to the
forward, the feet are together, and the arms spine.
are hanging at the sides with the palms - The face is anterior to the hair.
facing forward. - The toes are anterior to the ankle.
- The adam’s apple is anterior to the
nape.
■ Posterior (dorsal)
○ Toward or at the backside of the body;
behind
○ Examples:
- The heart is posterior to the
breastbone.
- The anus is posterior to the fallopian
tube.
■ Ventral - belly / towards the belly
- synonymous with anterior
■ Dorsal - back / towards the back
Orientation and Directional Terms
- synonymous with posterior
■ Proximal
■ Supine - lying face upward ○ Close to the origin of the body part or
■ Prone - lying face downward the point of attachment of a limb to the
■ Superior (cranial or cephalad); (cephalo) body trunk
○ Towards the head end or upper part of a ○ Distal: far from the proximal
structure or the body; above ○ Examples:
○ Examples: - The elbow is proximal to the wrist
- The forehead is superior to the (meaning that the elbow is closer to
nose. the shoulder or attachment point of
- The neck is superior to the chest. the arm than the wrist is).
■ Inferior (caudal) - The knee is proximal to the toes.
■ Distal
○ Distant / father from the point of ● Anterior and Posterior
attachment; far from the proximal
○ Ex.: The knee is distal to the thigh.
■ Midline - an imaginary vertical line that
divides the body equally (right down the
middle)
■ Medial
○ Toward or at the midline of the body;
on the inner side of
○ Examples:
- The heart is medial to the arm.
- The stomach is medial to the
arm.
- The lungs are medial to the arm.
Body Planes / Anatomical Planes
■ Lateral
○ Away from the midline of the body; on
● Imaginary flat surfaces; the body is often
the outer side of
cut or sectioned along a flat surface.
○ Examples:
- The arms are lateral to the chest.
- The ears are lateral to the nose.
- The clavicle is lateral to Adam's
apple.
■ Intermediate
○ Between a more medial and a more
lateral structure
○ Examples:
- The armpit is intermediate between
the breastbone and shoulder.
■ Superficial (external)
○ Close to / towards the surface of the
body
○ Ex.: The skin is superficial to the
● Sagittal Plane / Lateral Plane - runs from
skeleton.
front to back; divides body into right and left
■ Deep (internal)
sides
○ Away from the surface of the body /
● Median Plane - a sagittal plane through the
toward the interior of the body
midline of the body; divides the body into
○ Ex.: The lungs are deep into the rib
right and left halves
cage.
Body Landmarks
● Transverse / Horizontal Plane - runs parallel
to the surface of the ground; divides the
body into superior and inferior parts
● Frontal / Coronal Plane - a vertical plane
running from side to side; divides the body
into anterior and posterior portions
● Longitudinal Section - it is a cut through the
long axis of the organ
● Transverse Section / Cross Section - it is a
cut at a right angle to the long axis
● Oblique Section - a cut that is made across
the long axis at other than a right angle

➢ Right Hypochondriac Region

Abdominopelvic Quadrants
- Liver, right kidney, gallbladder,
large/small intestine
➢ Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ), Right Lower
➢ Epigastric Region
Quadrant (RLQ), Left Upper Quadrant
- Liver, stomach, spleen, duodenum,
(LUQ), Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
adrenal glands, pancreas
➢ Left Hypochondriac Region
- Liver’s tip, stomach, pancreas, left
kidney, spleen, large/small intestine
➢ Right Lumbar Region
- Ascending colon, small intestine, and
right kidney
➢ Umbilical Region
- Duodenum, small intestine, and
transverse colon
➢ Left Lumbar Region
- Descending colon, small intestine,
and left kidney
➢ Right Iliac Region
- Appendix, cecum, ascending colon,
Abdominopelvic Regions small intestine
➢ Hypogastric Region
(order in upper left, upper center, upper - Bladder, sigmoid colon, small
right, and so on) intestine, and reproductive organs
➢ Left Iliac Region
- Sigmoid colon, descending colon,
and small intestine
 Conditions Associated with Other Body Cavities
Abdominal Pain

Thoracic & Abdominopelvic Major

Organs
 Nucleus
Chapter 3

Cells and Tissues

● Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life

● Cells are the building blocks of all living things
● Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and
function

Anatomy of the Cell

● Cells are not all the same

● All cells share general structures
● Cells are organized into three main regions: nucleus,
cytoplasm, plasma membrane
● Control center of the cell
● Contains genetic material (DNA)
● Three regions:
○ Nuclear membrane - the barrier of the nucleus; consists of
a double phospholipid membrane; contains nuclear pores
that allow for the exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
○ Nucleolus - nucleoli; site of ribosome production
○ Chromatin - composed of DNA and protein; scattered
throughout the nucleus; condenses to form chromosomes
when the cell divides
 ● Microvilli - finger-like projections that increase surface area for
Plasma Membrane
absorption
● Membrane junctions - Tight (impermeable) junctions
- Desmosomes (anchoring junction)
- Gap junctions (communicating)

Memorization purposes:
- Tight is like when you are close with someone therefore
making the both of you impermeable (walang
makakawasak sa relationship niyo).
- Desmosomes is like imagining an anchor with the work
DESMO on it.
- Gap is when you are having a gap with someone close to
you (family, bestfriend, relationships) you need to
● Barrier for cell contents
COMMUNICATE with them to solve the gap between you.
● Double phospholipid layer:
○ Hydrophilic heads (dissolves in water)
○ Hydrophobic tails (retains its structures) Cytoplasm
■ Also contains protein, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
■ Specializations
● Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
Golgi Apparatus
○ Cytosol - the fluid that suspends other elements
○ Inclusions - non-functioning units
● Modifies and packages proteins
○ Organelles - metabolic machinery of the cell
● Produces different types of packages
○ Secretory vesicles
Cytoplasmic Organelles ○ Cell membrane components
(refer to illustration above)
○ Lysosomes

Ribosomes

● Made of protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid; single-stranded)

● Sites of protein synthesis
● Found at two locations: free in the cytoplasm & attached to
rough endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic Reticulum

● Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances

● Two types of ER
○ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Studded with ribosomes Lysosomes
- Site where building materials of cellular membrane are
found
● Contain enzymes that digest non-usable materials within the
○ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
cell
- Functions in cholesterol synthesis, breakdown, fat
● The stomach of the cell; sites of intracellular digestion
metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
● Membranous sacs containing acid hydrolases (powerful
digestive enzymes)
 ● Three different types:
Peroxisomes
○ Microfilaments - actin
○ Intermediate Filaments - fibrous
● Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
○ Microtubules - tubulin
○ Detoxify harmful substances
● Acts as the cell’s ‘bones and muscles’
○ Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
● Determines cell shapes, supports organelles, and provides the
● Replicate by pinching in half
machinery for intracellular transport and various types of
● Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
cellular movements
enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
● Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells,
have many peroxisomes

Mitochondria

● Powerhouse of the cell

● Changes shape continuously
● Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food
● Provides ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for cellular energy Centrioles
● Rod-like, double membrane structures
● Inner membrane fold into projections called cristae
● Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
● Site of aerobic respiration (the ‘burning’ of glucose)
○ Microtubules - major component of cytoskeleton; regulates
cell growth and movement as well as key signaling events
Cytoskeleton - determines the overall shape of a cell and the
distribution of organelles; made up of repeating
● Network of protein structures that extend throughout the subunits of protein tubulin
cytoplasm ● Direct formation of mitotic spindle during cell division
● Provides the cell with internal framework
 Cellular Projections

● Not found in all cells

● Used for movement
○ Cilia move materials across the cell surface (looks like a
rambutan)
○ Flagellum propels the cell (looks like a balloon)
○ Pseudopods are used for motility and ingestion (looks like
a slug)

Cell Diversity ● Skeletal muscle cell - many nuclei

● Smooth muscle cell - one nuclei
● Fat cell - stores nutrients
● Pseudopods
● Macrophage - a type of white blood cell that surrounds and
kills microorganisms, removes dead cells and stimulates the
action of other immune system cells.

● Fibroblasts - used to maintain a structural framework for many

tissues. They also play an important role in healing wounds.
● Epithelial cells - deals with friction, exposure to the
environment, and line the surfaces of your body
 ● Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
Membrane Transport
● Movement is from high concentration to low concentration to
low concentration, or down a concentration gradient
● Movement of substance into and out of the cell
● Two basic methods
○ Passive Transport - no energy is required Types of Diffusion
○ Active Transport - cell must provide metabolic energy
● Simple Diffusion
○ Unassisted process
Solutions and Transport
○ Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass
through membrane pores.
● Solutions - homogeneous mixture of two or more components
● Osmosis
○ Solvent - dissolving medium
○ Simple diffusion of water
○ Solutes - components in smaller quantities within a
○ Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane
solution
● Facilitated Diffusion
● Intracellular Fluid - nucleoplasm and cytosol
○ Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
● Interstitial Fluid - fluid on the exterior of the cell

Selective Permeability

● Plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while

excluding others
● This permeability includes movement into and out of the cell.

Passive Transport Processes

Diffusion
 Filtration

● Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or

hydrostatic pressure
● A pressure gradient must exist
○ Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high-pressure
area to a low-pressure area

Active Transport Processes

Bulk Transport
● Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion
○ May be too large
● Exocytosis
○ May not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
○ Moves materials out of the cell
○ May have to move against a concentration gradient
○ Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
● Two Common Forms
○ Vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane
○ Solute pumping - sodium, potassium
○ Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
○ Bulk transport
○ Materials is empties to the outside

Solute Pumping

● Amino acids, some sugar, and ions are transported by solute

pumps
● ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves
substances against concentration gradients
● Endocytosis ■ The function is to produce more cells for growth and
○ Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed repair processes
in a membranous vesicle
○ Types
DNA Replication
■ Phagocytosis - cell eating
■ Pinocytosis - cell drinking
● Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division
into 2 cells
○ Occurs at the end of interphase
○ DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template

Events of Cell Division

● Mitosis
○ Division of the Nucleus
○ Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
● Cytokinesis
○ Division of the cytoplasm
○ Begins when mitosis is near completion
○ Results in the formation of 2 daughter cells
Cell Life Cycle

● Cells have two major periods

○ Interphase
■ Cell grows
■ Cell carries on metabolic processes
○ Cell Division
■ Cell replicates itself
 Stages of Mitosis Protein Synthesis

● Interphase ● Gene - DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building

○ No cell division occurs one protein
○ Cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth ● Protein has many functions
● Prophase ○ Building materials for cells
○ 1st part of cell division ○ Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
○ Centromeres migrate to the pole ● RNA is essential for protein synthesis
● Metaphase
○ Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that
are aligned in the center of the cell
● Anaphase
○ Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles
○ The cell begins to elongate
● Telophase
○ Daughter nuclei begin forming
○ A cleavage furrow (for cell division) beings to form
 Role of RNA Epithelial Tissues

● Transfer RNA - transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome ● Found in different areas
for building the protein ○ Body coverings
● Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - helps form ribosomes where proteins are ○ Body linings
built. ○ Glandular tissue
● Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carries the instruction for building a ● Functions
protein from the nucleus to the ribosome. ○ Protection
○ Absorption
○ Filtration
Transcription and Translation
○ Secretion
● Characteristics
● Transcription - transfer of information from DNA’s base
○ Cells fit closely together
sequence to the complementary base sequence of mRNA
○ The tissue layer always has one free surface
● Translation
○ The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane
○ The base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino
○ Avascular (no blood supply)
acid sequence
○ Regenerate easily if well-nourished
○ Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Classification of Epithelium
Body Tissues

● Number of cell layers

● Cells are specialized for particular functions
○ Simple Layer - one layer
● Tissues - a group of cells with similar structure and function
○ Stratified - more than one
○ Has 4 primary types - epithelium, connective tissue, nervous
● Shape of cells
tissue, & muscle tissue (mnemonic: MENC)
○ Squamous- flattened
○ Cuboidal- cube-shaped
○ Columnar- column-like
 ● Simple columnar
Simple Epithelium
○ Single-layer of tall cells
○ Often includes goblets cells, which produce mucus
● Simple squamous
○ Lines digestive tract
○ Single-layer of flat cells
○ Usually forms membranes
■ Lines body cavities
■ Lines lungs and capillaries

● Pseudostratified
○ Single-layer, but some cells are shorter than others
○ Often looks like a double cell layer
○ Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract
○ May function in absorption or secretion
● Simple cuboidal
○ Single-layer of cube-like cells
○ Common in glands and their
ducts
○ Forms walls of kidney tubules
○ Covers the ovaries
 ○ Often looks like a double cell layer
Stratified Epithelium
○ Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract
○ May function in absorption or secretion
● Stratified squamous
● Transitional epithelium
○ Cells at the free edge are flattened
○ Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
○ Found as a protective covering where friction is common
○ Lines organs of the body system
○ Location
■ Skin
■ Mouth
■ Esophagus

Glandular Epithelium
● Stratified cuboidal
○ Two layers of cuboidal cells ● Gland- one or more cells that secrete a particular product
○ Rare in the human body ● Two major gland types
○ Found mainly ducts of large glands ○ Endocrine glands
● Stratified columnar ■ Ductless
○ Surfaces cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size ■ Secretions and hormones
and shape ○ Exocrine glands
○ Rare in the human body ■ Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
○ Found mainly ducts of large glands ■ Include sweat and oil glands
● Pseudostratified
○ Single-layer, but some cells are shorter than others
 Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Types

● Found everywhere in the body

Bone
● Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
● Functions
● osseous tissue
○ Binds body tissues together
○ Composed of :
○ Supports the body
■ Bone Cells in lacunae
○ Provides protection
■ Hard matrix of calcium salts
■ Large numbers of collagen fibers
Connective Tissues Characteristics ○ Used to protect and support the body

● Variation in blood supply

○ Some tissue types are well vascularized
○ Some have poor blood supply or are avascular
● Extracellular matrix
○ Non-living material that surrounds living cells

Extracellular Matrix

● Two main elements Elastic Cartilage

○ Ground substance - mostly water along with adhesion
proteins and polysaccharide molecules ● Provides elasticity
○ Fibers ○ Example: supports the external ear
■ Produced by the cells
■ Three Types - Collagen Fibers, Elastic Fibers, Reticular
Fibers
 Hyaline Cartilage Dense Connective Tissue

● Most common cartilage ● Main matrix element is collagen fibers

● Composed of: ● Cells are fibroblasts
○ Abundant collagen fibers ○ Examples
○ Rubbery matrix ■ Tendon – attach muscle to bone
● Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage ■ Ligaments – attach bone to bone

Areolar Connective Tissue

Fibrocartilage
● Most widely distributed connective tissue
● Highly compressible ● Soft, pliable tissue
○ Example: forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae ● Contains all fiber types
● Can soak up excess fluid
 Adipose Tissue Blood

● Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules predominate ● Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix
● Many cells contain large lipid deposits ● Fibers are visible during clotting
● Functions ● Functions as the transport vehicle for materials
○ Insulates the body
○ Protects some organs
○ Serves as a site of fuel storage

Muscle Tissue

Reticular Connective Tissue ● Function is to produce movement

● Three types
● Delicate network of interwoven fibers ○ Skeletal muscle
● Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid organ ○ Cardiac muscle
○ Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow ○ Smooth muscle
 Muscle Tissue Types Smooth Muscle

● Involuntary muscle
Skeletal Muscle
● Surrounds hollow organs
● Attached to other smooth muscle cells
● Can be controlled voluntarily
● No visible striations
● Cells attach to connective tissue
● One nucleus per cell
● Cells are striated
● Cells have more than one nucleus

Nervous Tissue
Cardiac Muscle

● Neurons and nerve support cells

● Found only in the heart
● Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body
● Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
○ Irritability
● Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated
○ Conductivity
disks
● Cells are striated
● One nucleus per cell
 Tissue Repair Developmental Aspects of Tissue

● Regeneration ● Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers
○ Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells ● Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
● Fibrosis ● Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
○ Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue) ● With old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in
● Determination of method most tissues
○ Type of tissue damaged
○ The severity of the injury

Events in Tissue Repair

● Capillaries become very permeable

○ Introduce clotting proteins
○ Wall off injured area
● Formation of granulation tissue
● Regeneration of surface epithelium

Regeneration of Tissues

● Tissues that regenerate easily

○ Epithelial tissue
○ Fibrous connective tissue and bone
● Tissues that regenerate poorly - Skeletal muscle
● Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
○ Cardiac muscle
○ Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord