DISCUSSION 1
steam, thus increasing the volume and the
The thorough knowledge of Geology for Civil
Engineers will make him design quality and
strong structures using the geological principles
that can sustain any natural or manmade ground
movements.
When there is a collapse, a building caused by
poor foundation design had led to the provision
of new building code of the Philippines.
The code provides all buildings constructed -
One story, above or all structures considered
heavy shall require a detailed Foundation study
of its underlying materials.
Now, civil engineers who conduct the design of
the building need the expertise of an experienced
geologist to study the physical properties of the
foundation materials where buildings or
structures will be placed. The geologists will
conduct a detailed geological evaluation study
citing his findings and recommendations.
Civil engineers need to hire the services of
geologists because whether or not your structure
is one story or more, you notice shaking of the
earth’s crust, Earthquakes whether man-made or
natural by faults. Earthquakes are vibrations,
produced when rocks break beyond restraints.
Or if there is a fault or displacement from the
ground from the surface going down or from
beneath the surface of the ground going up.
So there is always that instability on the surface
of the ground. The ground will be softened or
weakened because the majority of the
overburden of Cebu province and Bohol is
composed of limestone rock formations. The
limestone rock is composed of carbonates and
these carbonates are highly soluble by rainwater.
As the rainwater infiltrates into the ground, the
water will absorb into the ground. And the
ground or lands with limestone rock formation
have carbonates and the carbonate content of
limestone are highly soluble by rainwater.
Aside from that, the level of your water table is
going high or up due to the constant melting of
ice from the North Pole. The water that comes
from the melting of the glacier or the ice, will
add to the volume of water in the sea, to the
pacific ocean or the Atlantic ocean. With this,
the sea water level will rise. And the rain will
increase causing floods. The water table is
rising, and only a portion of the ground will be
able to absorb little amounts of water.
With the rain, the water will accumulate in the
form of runoff. Accumulation of so many
runoffs will produce temporary steam.
Temporary steam will join with your permanent
current of water. It produces or will form into a
flood so it is very easy to flood because the
water table is rising.
The water table is an irregular surface of contact,
separating the zone of aeration or the Vadose
zone from the zone of saturation. The zone of
aeration or Vadose zone is in the ground going
to the top of the water table. In these zones, the
openings of rocks are partially filled with water
and air. In the zone of saturation, which is
beneath the water table, the openings of the
rocks are filled with water. That is why when
you drill for water purposes with 5 pipes to
reach the zone of saturation, the state of the
water tells you which zone you are pumping.
Turbid water will come from the zone of
aeration, showing that the rocks are filled water
and air. Rocks are not filled with water. But in
the zone of saturation, where the openings of the
rocks are filled with water, you can observe that
after you pump you will get clear water.
Then going back to one story building or more
stories supporting story building. You need to
hire the services of geologists. The primary
work of geologists is to determine what kind of
rocks are there in the area and the deep where
the soil or rocks are hard or soft. So that is why
in the construction of this high-rise building, you
have to drill the ground. You need samples from
the ground using a diamond drill to look at the
core, the core represents the layers of the rocks
or soil from the surface going down to 50 ft,
10ft, or 15 ft. But you can't keep on drilling as
deep as 10 feet. You have to pull it out because
the core will break and the layers and sediments
can’t clearly be observed and studied. So you
pull out a log, then drill again. And always test
the rocks on what type it is whether Igneous,
Metamorphic, or Sedimentary. For example,
Igneous rocks are hard, diorite or granite.
Sedimentary rock, like limestone, is made of
carbonates that are soluble in water. Marble, an
example of metamorphic rock, is the product of
the metamorphism of limestone. The
metamorphose of limestone due to constant heat
and pressure causes it to change into the
metamorphic rock marble.
You can’t expect rocks to be that stable if they
don’t naturally exist in the place. Structures, no
matter how strong, will have a possibility to
collapse because the ground that is supporting
the whole structure is not undisturbed rock.
Your structure should reach the parent rock, or
undisturbed rock so it will be very strong with a
strong foundation.
DISCUSSION 2
Terminologies
Tornado is a funnel shape column of wind,
which begins from a cloud and then tapers down
to the ground during a severe thunderstorm.
Meaning the origin is from the cloud going
down to the ground during a severe
thunderstorm. Now when a tornado passes
through a body of water it becomes a water
spout and that is already known as
Cyclone/Tornado.
Stress is a force acting on a body or rock unit
that tends to change the size or the shape of that
body or that rock unit.
Subduction is the process where one tectonic
plate, out of 16, slides under another resulting in
tension and faulting in the Earth's crust with
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Especially
when one plate is smaller than the other one, so
it is under the bigger plate.
Tsunami is used ocean wave produced by
displacement at the sea floor, which is also
called seismic sea waves. Now tsunami occurs
when the sea floor breaks deeply, which pulls
the salty water into the break. Then after a few
minutes, it will be closed again and where the
water will go is outside. Because of the pressure,
a huge ocean wave is produced.
Global Warming is a natural or human-induced
increase in the average global temperature of the
atmosphere near the Earth’s surface.
Climate refers to the representative or
characteristic atmosphere for a region on Earth
or it refers to those conditions over a long-term
period such as seasons, years, or decades.
Weather Conditions refer to shorter periods of
time, such as in hours, number of days, or
number of weeks.
Climate Change means the annual temperature
of the earth which has swung up and down by
several degrees Celsius over the past million
years.
Volcanism refers to volcanic activity, including
the eruption of lava and rock fragments, and also
gas explosions.
Volcano is a mountain constructed by the
extrusion of lava or rock fragments from a vent
of a volcano.
Seismogram is a paper record of Earth
vibrations.
Seismograph is a seismometer with a recording
device that produces a permanent record of the
earth's motion.
Seismic Wave is a wave of energy produced by
an earthquake.
Seismometer is an instrument designed to detect
seismic waves or earth motion.
Country Rock is any rock that is older than and
intruded by an igneous body.
Crystal Rebound is the rise of the earth's crust
after the removal of glacial ice.
Elastic Rebound Theory is the sudden release of
progressively stored strain in rocks that results in
a movement along the fault.
Geothermal Energy is the natural heat within the
earth that arises from ancient heat within the
earth's core where the source is from friction.
Friction is where continental plate slide over one
another from the decay of radioactive elements,
which can be used for space heating, and also to
generate electricity.
Divergent Plate Boundary is a boundary
separating two plates, moping way from each
other or spreading center.
DISCUSSION 3
Ways and means which may lead to
Mountain Formation
I. Folding or Fold
Now folding is the formation of folds in the
rocks. Folds look like folds in paper with their
original formation being flat, so-called bed or
strata. Beds or strata are layered with one
another. If the Strata or Stratum is subjected to
compressive forces acting in an opposite
direction, this will form into a fold.
Folding is described as a curve or bend of a
planar structure, such as rock strata, wading
planes, collision, or cleavage. A fold is usually a
product of the deformation. Although its
definition is descriptive and not genetic and may
include primary structures.
Faulting is the process of fracturing and
displacement that produces a fold. When you see
a fault, there is really a displacement with
respect to the original position. There is an
internal force causing one side up, causing
displacement/fault with respect to the original
position. Faulting is described as a fracture or
fracture zone in crustal rocks along which there
has been displacement of the two sides relative
to one another and parallel to the fracture. The
displacement may be a few inches, or it may be
miles long.
II. Volcanic Action
Earthquakes also often occur in volcanic
regions and are caused there both by tectonic
faults and by the movement of magma in
volcanoes. Before the volcano erupts, there is
shaking or vibration of the Earth's crust.
Somehow you will notice animals living near the
volcano will run away because they hear
rumbling below the ground. Tectonic plates
move and cause a displacement or fault.
Every year the tectonic plates move. For
example, the Australian plate is moving towards
the Philippine plate, by three centimeters every
year. We will all die because the Philippine plate
is smaller than the Australian Plate. So what will
happen to the Philippine plate is that it will be
buried below the Australian plate.
Earthquakes in volcanic regions can
serve as an earlier warning for volcanic
eruptions, especially in areas with active
volcanoes. Volcanic Action is another way and
means which may lead to mountain formation.
This is due to lava that spews out of volcanic
eruptions and eventually dries up forming
mountains.
Note: Philippine islands are within a so-called
Circum Pacific Blet or Ring of Fire. The ring of
fire always has ascending molten materials, or
magma, from the mantle passing through a crack
in the land.
III. Irrational Mountain/Evolution of
Mountain?
Removal of surface material from the
Earth’s crust, primarily soil and rock debris and
the transportation of the eroded materials by
natural agencies from the point of removal. The
mountain, due to sudden changes in
temperatures, could be subjected to physical
weathering, mechanical disintegration,
biological weathering, chemical weathering or
chemical decomposition. Now with this
weathering, the change in rocks on or near the
surface of the earth, due to the action of air
water and organic matter cause big rocks to
break into smaller pieces. Then these fragmented
rocks will be transported by the agents of
erosion from one place to another place, where
later these sediments will form into a mountain.
These agents of erosion, such as water, wind, ice
or glacial ice, are responsible for transporting
dividend materials from one place to another
place.
DISCUSSION 4
Rocks
Rocks are natural substances composed of solid
crystals of different minerals, either firm, earthy,
or granular. that have been fused together into a
solid lump. It can also be described as
aggregates of one or more minerals.
Minerals
The minerals are naturally occurring inorganic
substances of different chemical compositions
and they form under favorable conditions. they
have also a definite crystal form.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
The engineering properties of the rocks often
relate to the minerals, which make up the rocks
and their arrangement. If the rocks are hard or
soft, it depends on the composition of the rocks
and whether the minerals are also hard. For
example, Granite, the composition of granite has
quartz, feldspar, and biotite and among the three
among three minerals composing granite, only
biotite is the softest while the hardest is quartz.
Where quartz has a hardness of seven and
feldspar with a hardness of six. Another one of
the most important physical and chemical
properties of these minerals is to be used to aid
with their identification.
Rock Cycle
Rock Cycle is the concept that rocks are
continually subjected to change. And that any
rock may be transformed into another type of
rock through appropriate geologic processes. In
other words, rocks are exposed to sudden
changes in temperature or exposed to weathering
processes. Weathering is the change in rocks on
or near the surface of the earth due to the action
of air water and other matter. That is how rocks
could be transformed into another rock type. For
example, Igneous rocks could be transformed
into metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks
could be transformed into also metamorphic
rocks.
Three Principal Factors that Help in the
Transformation into Metamorphic Rocks
The three principal factors that help in the
transformation of both igneous and sedimentary
into a metamorphic type of rock include the
following:
1. Intense resist due to crustal movements
of the earth
2. Permitting hot vapor and liquid from the
intruding magma
3. Excessive pressure from the overlying
rocks.

Igneous Rocks
1. Extrusive/Volcanic
While this lava is a molten substance
found on the surface, right after a
volcanic eruption, but before
solidification occurs. So that is why it
gives you the two types of igneous
rocks. Extrusive/Volcanic is coming
from the solidification of molten
material known as lava,
2. Intrusive/Platonic
Magma is a molten substance found in
the magma chamber, or particularly in
the mantle and in the outer core,
meaning it is the molten substance found
beneath the surface of the ground. while
intrusive or platonic, this is coming from
the molten material known as a
solidification of molten material known
as magma.
Examples of Igneous Rocks
 Granite
 Granodiorite
 Quartz Diorite
 Andesite
 Basalt
 Gabbro
 Peridotite
 Rhyolite
 Dacite
 Rhyodacite
 Obsidian
 Pumice
 Diorite
 Andesite
 Dunite
 Scoria
 Aragonite
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed and layers from
materials deposited by water when ice or other
agents.
1. Mechanically formed like clastic
sedimentary rocks. An example is
conglomerate, formed by cemented
gravel deposits.
2. Chemically formed by inorganic
processes and those that are chemically
formed by organic processes. So,
organic, organic means or chemical
means the first one, those that are
chemically formed or mechanically
formed. So by decomposition and
disintegration of the former rocks
referring to igneous rocks, followed by
accumulation to form plastic deposits,
but these are the products of weathered,
eroded, and transported Surface
Materials, usually conveyed in a fluid
medium.
3. Chemically formed by organic
processes, where animal or vegetable
remains accumulate with shell beads,
rocks O's, they produce carbonate rocks
if shealing materials accumulate pure
salacious deposits with diatoms and the
third one by chemical means this mainly
includes evaporates which are sulfate
silicates phosphates chlorates chlorides.
this form mainly by evaporation or
precipitation from bodies of surface
water
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is essentially a sorting of this
aggregated material, according to density and
solubility, or is the act or process of
accumulating sediments in layers.
Induration
Induration is the hardening of the rock material
by the application of heat and pressure, or by the
introduction of the cementing material.
DISCUSSION 5
Assignment
1. The three basic stress conditions acting
on a unit cube of earth materials are
compressive stress, shear stress, and
tensile stress. Explain the different
stresses.
2. What is the meaning of the shearing
stress of the materials or rock?
3. What is rock mass?
4. What is the tensile strength of the
material?
5. What is rock substance?
6. What is rock material?
7. What is tension stress?
Sedimentation
Sedimentation is essentially assorting of
the aggregated material according to density and
solubility. Basic density refers to the weight of
the rocks or the weight of the materials. When
the density of the materials is heavier, the
majority of the sediments will be deposited
immediately if there is sedimentation. If the
majority of the materials are lighter, they will
just be deposited on top of the heavier materials.
If you observe the deposition of
sediments, and you fluff it out, the heavy rocks
are located on the bottom because they are the
sediments that are first deposited. While the
lighter sediments are found on top.
Sedimentation is the act or process of
accumulating segments in layers. It is in layers.
For example, the position of sediments that will
be compacted In the following weeks, other
sediments are deposited, and this process repeats
forming a new layer of rocks. The hardening of
rock material by the act or process of
accumulating sediments in layers. You can see
that there are layers of rocks that are being
deposited. The deposition of sediments is not
deposited at the same time and same day as
other materials. For example, the first layer is
muliumus, the second layer is adenisiumus, and
the third layer is sand soil. You can distinguish
the layers of rocks because, with the hardening
of the different layers, there are different colors
and sizes of sediments.
Solubility
How soluble is or are the rocks? Now, rocks
containing carbonates are more soluble than
rocks containing Quartz or Silicon dioxide.
Induration
Induration is the hardening of the rock material
by the application of heat or pressure or by the
introduction of cementing materials.
Lithification
Lithification is the conversion of newly
deposited sediments into an indurated rock. This
comes first before Induration.
Sedimentary Facies
Sedimentary facies are composed of
stratigraphic facies differing from another part
 Sandstone
 Limestone
 Conglomerate
 Shelly limestone
 Fossilized shale
 Shale
Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphic rocks are rocks formed from pre-
existing solid rocks, this refers to igneous and
sedimentary rocks. The rocks formed by pre-
existing solid rocks by mineralogical, structural,
and chemical changes in response to extent
changes in temperature, pressure, and strain are
formed by alteration of the parent rock through
heat, pressure, and chemical actions of fluids
and gases. Or in other words, metamorphic rocks
are rocks formed due to the three principal
factors.
Three Principal Factors of Metamorphic
Rocks
1. Intense thesis due to crustal movements
of the Earth
2. Permitting hot vapor and liquid from the
intruding magma
3. Excessive pressure from the overlying
rocks
Three Types of Metamorphosis
1. Regional Metamorphism
or parts of the same unit in both lithologic and
palaeontologic characters.
Diagenesis
Diagenesis includes the process which turns rich
sediments into relatively stable rock with
pressure and temperature conditions not far from
removed from those acting at the Earth’s
surface. Just like taking Diarrhea medicine and
turning liquid poo into manageable poo.
Main Factors Affecting the Process of
Diagenesis
1. Porosity
Porosity means the number of voids or
interstices which is present in the rock.
The more voids, the more accumulation
or deposition of water. So what will
happen during rainy days or rainy
season, more water will be accumulated
or will be deposited in the porous
openings of the rocks.
2. Permeability
Permeability is the capacity of the rock
or soil to transmit fluid or liquid. Now if
the rocks or soil will not transmit fluid
or liquid, they are termed impermeable
rocks.
Examples of Sedimentary rocks
 Rock Salt
 Chert
 Coquina
 Breccia
 Carrier sandstone
Regional metamorphism involves the
large-scale action of heat and pressure
producing a wide range of new minerals
and a series of crystalline rocks with a
distinctive fabric resulting from mineral
re-orientation. Examples include Slate,
Gneiss, and Schist.
2. Contact Metamorphism / Thermal
Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism involves heat
almost exclusively and is normally
associated with igneous intrusions for
contact. It produces soots of plenty of
homogeneous open charterils rock called
phonophoresis, and open in cloves
marble. Marble is a metamorphosed
limestone. Thermal Metamorphism
involves heat where the heat is coming
from igneous intrusions.
3. Dynamic or Burial Metamorphism
Burial Metamorphism involves intense
localized stresses tending to cause the
 dislocation of minerals and break up of
rocks.
 Marble
 Slate
 Schist
 Fluoride Schist
 Gneiss
Engineering Properties of Rocks
1. Elastic Properties of Rocks
2. Modulus of Elasticity
3. Poisson’s Ratio
DISCUSSION 6
1. What is weathering?
2. What are the three kinds of weathering?
3. What are the processes involved in
physical weathering?
4. What are the processes involved in
chemical weathering?
5. What is acid rain?
6. What are the factors affecting
weathering?
7. What is soil?
8. What is soil profile?
9. Soils are primarily classified based on
particle sizes. What are these classifications?
10. What are the types of soil which are
categorized according to their mode of
deposition?
Weathering is the breaking down or dissolving
of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface. Once a
rock has been broken down, a process called
erosion transports the bits of rock and minerals
away. Water, acids, salt, plants, animals, and
changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering and erosion.
THREE KINDS OF WEATHERING
-Physical Weathering
In physical weathering the
rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces, but the chemical composition of
the rock remains the same.
-Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering occurs
when rocks are broken down by a
chemical change. Rainwater can become
slightly acidic by absorbing carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and this reacts
with the mineral grains in the rock
giving rise to new minerals and salts.
The degree of chemical weathering depends on
the type of rock for example limestone is more
readily chemically weathered than granite. Other
factors such as temperature also play a role as
the chemical reactions occur more quickly in
areas of high temperatures. Acid rain is also a
contributor to chemical weathering. When fossil
Examples of Metamorphic Rocks
fuels such as coal, gas and gasoline are burnt
they release oxides sulphur, carbon, and nitrogen
into the atmosphere. These gases combine with
moisture in the air to form sulphuric acid,
carbonic acid and nitric acid, making the
resulting rainwater more acidic than normal.
-Biological Weathering
Biological weathering takes
place when rocks are worn away by
living organisms. Trees and other plants
can grow within the cracks in a rock
formation. As the roots grow bigger,
they push open cracks in the rocks
making them wider and deeper. Over
time the growing tree eventually prizes
the rock apart.
Tiny organisms like bacteria, algae and moss
can grow on rocks and produce chemicals which
can break down the surface layer of the rock.
Burrowing animals such as rabbits can
accelerate the formation of cracks.
PROCESSES INVOLVED- PHYSICAL
WEATHERING
Abrasion:
Abrasion is the process by which clasts are
broken through direct collisions with other
clasts. Gravity causes abrasion as rocks tumble
down a mountainside or cliff. Abrasion also
commonly occurs in riverbeds where clasts
tumble along the bottom with the current or on
sand dunes where wind causes grains of sand
and silt to collide with exposed rock. Rocks can
also undergo abrasion within glaciers too, where
clasts embedded in ice grind along the rock
below. Clasts that undergo abrasion tend to be
come rounder and smoother. This process is
called rounding.
Frost Wedging:
Frost wedging occurs in places that have the
right temperatures to freeze water and then melt
water. This commonly happens in polar regions
and mid latitude mountains where sunlight can
melt water during the day and refreeze overnight
when temperatures drop. Frost wedging is
directly related to the fact that as water freezes
its volume increases by roughly 9%. Liquid
water percolates into existing cracks within a
rock. The pressure of expanding ice causes
cracks to widen and extend. This processes then
repeats as melted water further fills newly
formed cracks and freezes. Frost wedging works
quickly and results of which can be seen at the
bottom of hillslopes as piles of fragmented
rocks.
Biological Activity/Root Wedging:
Weathering processes can happen due to the
activity of living organisms. Burrowing animals
can break rocks and stir sediments causing
physical weathering. Animals that burrow can
also bring fresh material to the surface where
physical and chemical weathering can work
more efficiently. Plant roots in search of
nutrients in water grow into fractures. As the
roots grow they wedge the rock apart similar to
the frost wedging process. This is called root
wedging. During root growth, organic acids can
form contributing to chemical weathering.
Salt Crystal Growth:
Another expansive force that can break rocks is
created by the growth of salt crystals. This
process frequently happens near shorelines and
in arid regions ie: beaches and deserts. The
process begins when water that has dissolved
salt in it penetrates cracks in rocks. As the water
evaporates, salt crystal begin to form. These
crystals expand pushing against existing grains
in the rock, this eventually breaks it.
Sheeting:
Sheeting, also known as exfoliation, happens in
regions with large masses of igneous rocks. It is
caused by the pressure release as overburden
rock is eroded away. The process of removing
overlying rock is called unloading. As the
pressure is released, expansion of the rock
causes concentric layers of cracks to form within
the igneous body. These layered "sheets" are
then broken off by continued weathering.
Thermal Expansion:
When minerals are subjected to different
temperature ranges they expand and contract.
Rapid temperature fluctuations such as day night
cycles can cause individual grains in rocks to
expand and contract at different rates. Individual
grains can be squeezed from the rock surface or
fractures can form to relieve stress. The
efficiency of this method is debated by
geologist, but no less contributes to physical
weathering processes. Climates that experience
rapid temperature changes such as deserts
display this weathering.
PROCESSES INVOLVED- PHYSICAL
WEATHERING
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the chemical reactions caused by
water. Water reacts with the rock and alters the
size and chemical compositions of the minerals,
lessening their resistance to weathering.
Whenever minerals are hydrolyzed, crystal rocks
and clay minerals such as calcium, potassium,
and sodium ions are produced.
This type of chemical reaction is highly common
in igneous rocks. The reaction takes either the
form of hydration or dehydration. Absorption of
water into the rock pertains to hydration while
the removal of water from the rock pertains to
dehydration. Hydration expands the rock’s
volume resulting in size alteration.
This is how gypsum is formed. Dehydration, on
the other hand, reduces the volume of the rock.
A good example is the formation of hematite
from the removal of water from limestone.
Carbonation:
Carbonation is the mixing of water with carbon
dioxide to make carbonic acid. Carbonation
takes place when the rock minerals react with
weak carbonic acid formed when water
combines with carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Carbonic acid acts on the rock by
breaking down and dissolving its mineral
contents. The dissolved materials are washed
away by ground water, and the soluble ions are
stored in the groundwater supply. Rocks such as
limestone and feldspar experience this type of
chemical weathering more. This type of
weathering is important in the formation of
caves.
Dissolution:
Dissolution equally means leaching. It the
process by which the rocks are dissolved when
exposed to rainwater. Limestone and rock salts
are particularly the rocks that form solvent
solutions when exposed to rainwater, surface
waters, or even ground water. Upon dissolving,
the minerals in the rocks become ion solutions in
the water which are then washed away. Karst
features are a common example of this
phenomenon.
Oxidation:
Oxidation is another type of chemical
weathering. Oxidation is also known as rusting.
It is the process whereby the rock minerals lose
one or more ions or atoms in the presence of
oxygen. When minerals in the rock oxidize, they
become less resistant to weathering. Oxygen
combines with other substances via the
oxidation process giving rise to the ion or atom
lose.
For instance, iron metal rusts because its ions
change from one form to another by losing one
electron. It becomes red or rust colored when
oxidized. In a similar manner, iron-bearing
minerals in rocks go through such a process by
losing ions that alter its structure and size from
one form to another. The wearing away of the
rocks is thus sped up by oxidation/rusting as the
resultant oxides are weaker than the original
materials. Change of rock color is a prime
example of rock disintegration by oxidation.
Acid rain occurs when rainwater becomes acid
by mixing with acidic depositions in the
atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels such
as coal, gasoline, and gas releases oxides of
nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon into the air which
reacts with moisture to form rainwater that is
more acidic than normal. The resulting acid rain
then reacts with the rock’s mineral particles to
produce new minerals and salts that can easily
dissolve or wear away the rock grains.

FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHER

A. Mineral composition
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic,
crystalline solid, that has a definite chemical
composition, and is stable over a range of
temperatures and pressures.

B. Climate
Speed of a chemical reaction increases 2 and a
half times with each rise in temperature of 10
degrees Celsius.

C. Presence of lines of weakness

D. Grain (Particle) size

Soil is a material composed of five ingredients

— minerals, soil organic matter, living
organisms, gas, and water. Soil minerals are
divided into three size classes — clay, silt, and
sand; the percentages of particles in these size
classes is called soil texture. The mineralogy of
soils is diverse. For example, a clay mineral
called smectite can shrink and swell so much
upon wetting and drying that it can knock over
buildings. The most common mineral in soils is
quartz; it makes beautiful crystals but it is not
very reactive. Soil organic matter is plant,
animal, and microbial residues in various states
of decomposition; it is a critical ingredient — in
fact the percentage of soil organic matter in a
soil is among the best indicators of agricultural
soil quality. Soil colors range from the common
browns, yellows, reds, grays, whites, and blacks
to rare soil colors such as greens and blues.

The soil profile is an important tool in nutrient

management. By examining a soil profile, we
can gain valuable insight into soil fertility. As
the soil weathers and/or organic matter
decomposes, the profile of the soil changes. For
instance, a highly weathered, infertile soil
usually contains a light-colored layer in the
subsurface soil from which nutrients have
leached away. On the other hand, a highly fertile
soil often has a deep surface layer that contains
high amounts of organic matter. With clues
provided by soil profile, we can begin to predict
how a soil will perform under certain nutrient
management conditions.
BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

Residual soils
- Have formed from mostly the weathering of
rock and remain at the location of their origin.
- Weathering process may be attributed to
mechanical weathering, chemical weathering,
and biological weathering.
- Residual soils can include particles having a
wide range of sizes, shapes, and composition
depending upon the amount and type of
weathering and the minerals in the parent rock.
- The rate of weathering is generally greater in
warm, humid regions than in cool, dry regions
Transported soils
- Transported soils are those materials that have
been moved from their place of origin, by
gravity, wind, water, glaciers, or human activity
– either singularly or in combination.
- The method of transportation and deposition
has great effect on the properties of the resulting
soil mass.
Gravity and wind transported soils
- Gravity : transporting aggregate particles only
limited distance, such as down a hill or mountain
slope.
- Dunes : wind deposited sands on the beach and
the desert areas
- Loess : wind-blown silts, slowly built up with
rootholes and grass channels. If the soil is
exposed to excessive water or is subjected to
severe ground vibration, the soil’s stable
structure can be broken down.
Glacial deposits
- Deposited by or because of glacial action.
- Glacial till: Debris aggregated and deposited
directly by glacier ice without disaggregation by
other agencies, such as melt water.
- Various soil types resulting from built-up
environments exist. (Outwash, Moraine,
Glaciofluvial deposits et al)
River deposits
- Are segregated according to particle size.
- Alluvial deposits : all soils carried and
deposited by rivers.
- Alluvial fans : triangular-shaped coarse soil
deposits at locations where a heavily loaded
natural river broadened or encountered flatter
terrain so that its velocity decreased.
- Natural levees : gravel and sand particles in the
vicinity of the bank
- Floodplain deposits : the fine-grained soils at
the broad lowland areas
Classification Based on Age of Formation of
Soil
According to this classification soils may be
youthful soil,
Mature soil and Senile soils, youthful soils are
fully previous,
whereas mature soils have low permeability.
The senile soils become very hard and have very
low permeability.
Senile soil normally gives very little or no
productivity.
Classification Based upon Geological Process
of Formation
Following soils are described under this
classification:
Alluvial soils. These soils are formed by the
deposition of water-borne materials.
It is a very fertile type of soil for crops.
Residual soils. These soils are the resultant of
the disintegration of rocks under various natural
actions.
Volcanic ash. These soils are formed by the
deposition of Volcanic Ash from volcanic
eruptions.
Glacial soils. These soils are formed by
transportation and deposition by glaciers.
Eolian soils. They are the result of deposition
by wind action.
Colluvial soil They are formed as a result of
deposition by rainwash below foothills.
Aggradation soils. They are the accumulation
soils.
Degradation soils. These are the continuously
zooming out soils.
Classification Based on Salt Content
Ped-o-cal. These are the soils rich in calcium
carbonate.
Ped-al-fir. These soils rich in aluminum or iron
salts come in this class.
Humus. These are the soils that are rich in
organic salts.
Soils may also be classified on a regional basis
and particle size basis. Particle size basis
classification is mainly useful for the
engineering structure’s point of view.