DEPARTMENTOFBI OLOGICALSCIENCES

FACULTYOFLIFESCIENCE
FEDERALUNIVERSI
TYDUTSIN-MA
SECONDSEMESTER2022/ 2023ACADEMICSESSI
ON

COURSECODE:
AEB232
COURSETI
TLE:
MANANDENVI
RONMENT

Cour
seCont
ent

 Populat
ion,Communi t
y,Ecosyst
em,Envir
onmentandEnv i
ronmentalFact
ors
 StudyofCommuni ty,
Ecosy st
em,Abundance,Densi
ty,
Yiel
dandCov er
 Ecologi
calNiche,
NicheOv erl
ap,
competit
ion,
ResourceParti
ti
oni
ng
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

COURSELECTURER:UMARMUSAKANKARA
Umar
musakankar
a@gmai
l
.com

@2023

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

1
Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
he 
manandt
heenv
ironment
 hasbeenest
abl
i
shedi
nthe

ear
lyper
iods.Humanbei
ngsl
i
vei
ntheki
ngdom ofnat
ureandi
nter
actwi
thi
tconst
ant
ly.

Thenat
urei
nfl
uencedourwayofl
i
fei
nthef
orm oft
heai
rwebr
eat
hes,t
hewat
erwe

dr
inks,t
hef
oodweeat
s,andt
hef
low ofener
gyi
nourenv
ironment
.Humans 
needt
o

i
nter
actwi
tht
he 
env
ironment
 t
oobt
ainf
ood,wat
er,f
uel
,medi
cines,bui
l
dingmat
eri
als

andmanyot
hert
hings.Adv
ancesi
nsci
enceandt
echnol
ogyhav
ehel
pedust
oexpl
oit

t
he 
env
ironment
 f
or our benef
it
, but we hav
e al
so i
ntr
oduced pol
l
uti
on and

caused 
env
ironment
al 
damage.Humans i
mpact
ed 
the phy
sical
 
env
ironment
 i
n many

way
s:ov
erpopul
ati
on,pol
l
uti
on,bur
ningf
ossi
lfuel
s,anddef
orest
ati
on.Changesl
i
ke

t
hese 
hav
e t
ri
gger
ed 
cli
mat
e change,
soi
ler
osi
on,
poorai
rqual
i
ty,
andundr
inkabl
ewat
er.

Ot
heror
gani
sms 
i
nter
actanduseav
ail
abl
eresour
ces,suchasf
ood,space,l
i
ght
,heat
,

wat
er,ai
r,andshel
ter
.Eachpopul
ati
onof
 or
gani
sms,andt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thi
nit
,
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

i
nter
acti
nspeci
fi
cway
sthatar
eli
mit
edbyandcanbenef
itf
rom ot
her
 or
gani
sms.

Ther
efor
e,t
heuseofnat
uralr
esour
cesi
ncr
easesduet
o popul
ati
ongr
owt
h,whi
ch

meanst
hatast
he 
popul
ati
on 
i
ncr
eases,
theEar
th'
sresour
cesdepl
etemor
erapi
dly
.

HUMANPOPULATI
ONGROWTHANDFACTORSAFFECTI
NGPOPULATI
ONGROWTH

POPULATI
ON

Thet
erm popul
ati
on‖r
efer
stoagr
oupofi
ndi
vi
dualsofspeci
esoccupy
ingadef
ini
te

geogr
aphi
car
eatagi
vent
ime.Thesum ofal
lpopul
ati
onsoft
hesameki
ndconst
it
utes

aspeci
es.Humanpopul
ati
onov
ert
hewor
ldbel
ongst
osi
ngl
especi
es,Homosapi
ens.

Theev
er-
growi
nghumanpopul
ati
oni
sov
er-
expl
oit
ingnat
uralecosy
stemst
osat
isf
ythe

v
ari
etyofneeds.Thi
s,ov
erexpl
oit
ingi
sdi
stur
bingt
henat
uralbal
ance.Moder
nhuman

(
Homo sapi
ens)appear
ed ar
ound f
if
tyt
housand y
ear
s ago.I
nit
ial
l
y,t
he human

2
popul
ati
onwassmal
lhencehumani
nter
fer
encewi
thnat
urewasmi
nimal
.

HumanPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h

HumanPopul
ati
onGr
owt
hPopul
ati
ongr
owt
hist
hechangei
npopul
ati
onov
ert
ime,
and

canbequant
if
iedast
hechangei
nthenumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
sinapopul
ati
onusi
ng‘
per

uni
tti
me’f
ormeasur
ement
.The t
erm popul
ati
on gr
owt
h can t
echni
cal
l
yref
ert
o

humansandi
tisof
tenusedi
nfor
mal
l
yfort
hemor
especi
fi
cdemogr
aphi
cter
m.

Popul
ati
ongr
owt
hrat
eandi
sof
tenusedt
oref
erspeci
fi
cal
l
ytot
hegr
owt
hoft
he

popul
ati
onoft
hewor
ld.Ther
api
dgr
owt
hoft
hewor
ld‘
spopul
ati
onov
ert
hepastone

hundr
edy
ear
sresul
tsf
rom adi
ff
erencebet
weent
hebi
rt
hrat
eanddeat
hrat
e.The

humanpopul
ati
onwi
l
lincr
easeby1bi
l
li
onpeopl
eint
henextdecade.Thi
sisl
i
keaddi
ng

t
he whol
e popul
ati
on ofChi
na t
othe wor
ld‘
s popul
ati
on.The gr
owt
hin human
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

popul
ati
onar
oundt
hewor
ldaf
fect
sal
lpeopl
ethr
oughi
tsi
mpactont
heeconomyand

env
ironment
.

Popul
ati
onGr
owt
hRat
e

Humanpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hrat
eismeasur
edast
heannualav
eragegr
owt
hrat
e,whi
ch

canbecal
cul
atedasf
oll
ows:
Aver
ageannual
growt
hrat
e(i
nper
cent
)=P1

(
Wher
eP1i
spopul
ati
onSi
zei
nthepr
evi
ouscensus,
and

Ni
snumberofy
ear
sbet
weent
het
wocensus.

Censusascer
tai
nst
henumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
spr
esenti
ngi
venr
egi
onatagi
vent
ime.The

t
imer
equi
redf
orapopul
ati
ont
odoubl
eit
sel
fiscal
l
edt
heDoubl
eti
me.Ani
malav
erage

gr
owt
handdoubl
i
ngt
imear
ethet
woi
mpor
tanti
ndi
cat
orsoft
hepaceofpopul
ati
on

3
gr
owt
h.Gr
owt
hrat
edependsonsev
eral
fact
ors,
thesei
ncl
udes;

1.Fer
ti
li
ty

I
tist
heabi
l
ityoft
her
epr
oduct
ivel
yact
ivei
ndi
vi
dualt
opr
oducebabi
es.Fer
ti
li
tyi
sthe

det
ermi
nantofcur
rentgr
owt
h ofpopul
ati
on.Bi
rt
hrat
eist
he numberofbabi
es

pr
oducedpert
housandi
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
tisdi
sti
nctf
rom t
hepopul
ati
ongr
owt
hrat
easi
t

cannev
erbenegat
ive,whi
l
ethel
att
ercanbenegat
ivebi
rt
hrat
es,howev
er,donot

i
ndi
cat
ethecur
rentf
ert
il
it
ypat
ter
n.

2.Mor
tal
it
y

Mor
tal
i
tyi
sthedeat
hrat
epert
housandi
ndi
vi
dual
s.I
nmostcount
ri
es,t
hedeat
hrat
e

hasdr
oppedal
mostcont
inuousl
ysi
ncet
hei
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on,
mai
nlyduet
oimpr
oved

per
sonalhy
giene,sani
tat
ionandmoder
nmedi
cine.A decr
easei
ndeat
hrat
ewoul
d
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

r
esul
tini
ncr
easedpopul
ati
ongr
owt
hrat
e.

3.Mi
grat
ion

Mi
grat
ioni
sthemov
ementofi
ndi
vi
dual
sint
o(mi
grat
ion)oroutof(
emi
grat
ion)apl
ace

orcount
ry.Mi
grat
ionmayal
sooccurwi
thi
nacount
ryf
rom oner
egi
ont
oanot
her
.But

onl
ybet
weencount
rymi
grat
ioni
nfl
uencesanat
ion‘
spopul
ati
on.

4.AgeandSexSt
ruct
ures

Theagest
ruct
ureofagi
venpopul
ati
onr
efer
stot
hepr
opor
ti
onofi
ndi
vi
dual
sof

di
ff
erentageswi
thi
nthatpopul
ati
on.Thi
saspecti
simpor
tantbecausemanyf
unct
ional

aspect
soft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
sar
erel
atedt
oage.I
naddi
ti
on,
thepr
opor
ti
onofr
epr
oduct
ivel
y

act
ivemal
esandf
emal
esi
napopul
ati
oni
nfl
uencest
hepopul
ati
ongr
owt
h.Thenumber

4
off
emal
eindi
vi
dual
sinact
iver
epr
oduct
iveage(
usual
l
y15-
44)i
nfl
uencest
hebi
rt
hrat
e

wi
thi
napopul
ati
on.

Popul
ati
onExpl
osi
on

Popul
ati
onexpl
osi
oni
sther
api
dincr
easei
nhumanpopul
ati
onov
erar
elat
ivel
yshor
t

per
iod.I
nthel
astcent
ury
,aphenomenalr
isei
nthewor
ldpopul
ati
onhast
akenpl
ace.I
t

hasal
mostt
ri
pledsi
nce1900t
othepr
esentl
evel
.Thewor
ldpopul
ati
onwhi
chwas

ar
ound2bi
l
li
on(
2000mi
l
li
oni
n1900,r
eachedt
o6bi
l
li
onby2000)
.Thei
ncr
easei
n

humanpopul
ati
onwi
thsuchanal
armi
ngr
atecoul
dleadt
oanabsol
utescar
cit
yofev
en

basi
cneeds,
i.
e.f
ood,
shel
terandcl
othi
ngi
nspi
teofsi
gni
fi
cantpr
ogr
essmadei
nthese

ar
easdur
ingt
hepastf
ewdecades.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

Ther
e ar
e many f
act
ors whi
ch af
fectt
he human popul
ati
on.Those i
ncl
ude t
he

geogr
aphi
c,demogr
aphi
candsoci
o-economi
cfact
ors

Geogr
aphi
cFact
ors

a)Thecl
imat
epl
aysacr
uci
alr
olei
nthegr
owt
hofhumanpopul
ati
on.Thear
easwi
th

ext
remev
ari
ati
oni
nthet
emper
atur
eli
kedeser
tsi
ntheRaj
ast
hanandar
ti
coceanshav
e

l
owdensi
tyofpopul
ati
on.Theequat
ori
alar
easar
ehotbuthav
eri
chnat
uralr
esour
ces.

Thet
ropi
cal
areasar
ethemostpopul
atedar
easandhav
eagoodr
ainf
all
andv
eget
ati
on.

b)Thesoi
lfer
ti
li
tydependsupont
henumberoff
act
orsl
i
kesoi
l
,ai
r,wat
er.Under
ground

wat
erandt
hemi
ner
alcont
extofsoi
l
.Thenat
uralr
esour
cesar
efor
medbyt
henat
ure.

Theyi
ncl
udewat
er,
miner
als,
fuel
s,et
c.t
hewat
eri
sessent
ialf
ort
hesur
viv
alofhuman

5
bei
ngs.Mostoft
hehumanpopul
ati
onoccur
sneart
hebanksofr
iver
.

Agr
icul
tur
alchangeshav
ebeenmassi
veov
ert
hepast400y
ear
sandwecanpr
oduce

mor
efoodt
hanev
erbef
orenow.Manyoft
hoseagr
icul
tur
alchanges,
evenatal
owl
evel
,

f
reeupwor
ker
sfr
om t
hef
arms.Thi
sal
l
owsi
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionwhi
chneedsl
otsof

wor
ker
sandt
endst
opr
omot
ehi
ghbi
rt
hrat
es.Themor
eregul
arsuppl
yoff
oodf
rom

adv
ancedf
armi
ngal
sopr
omot
esbi
rt
hrat
ios(
aspeopl
ear
emor
esur
etheycanf
eed

t
hei
rchi
l
dren)andr
educesf
ami
nes,
deat
hs

Demogr
aphi
cFact
ors

Thedemogr
aphi
cfact
orsconsi
stofnat
ali
ty,mor
tal
it
y,emi
grat
ionandi
mmi
grat
ion.

Ther
ear
efew count
ri
eswhi
chhav
emai
ntai
nedt
hei
rdev
elopmentbyi
mmi
grat
ion.I
t

i
ncl
udesUSAandAust
ral
i
a.I
nthesecount
ri
es,
ther
ehasbeenani
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
on
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

ar
ound1t
o2per
centbyi
mmi
grat
ion.I
nthesecount
ri
est
hebi
rt
hrat
ehasf
all
en

dr
amat
ical
l
y.Thenat
ali
tyi
sdecr
easedsl
i
ght
lyandt
her
ehasbeeni
ncr
easei
nthe

popul
ati
oni
nourcount
ryduet
othebet
terheal
thcar
e,educat
ion,f
oodsuppl
yand

sani
tat
ion.

Soci
o-Economi
cFact
ors

Thesoci
o-economi
cfact
orspl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthegr
owt
hofpopul
ati
on.The

soci
o-economi
c f
act
ors i
ncl
udi
ng ar
e i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion,ur
bani
zat
ion,educat
ion,

r
eli
gious,bel
ief
s,mar
ri
age,soci
alst
atus,f
ami
lyst
ruct
ure,heal
thcar
eandnut
ri
ti
onal

st
atuset
c.t
her
eisani
nver
ser
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hei
ndust
ri
algr
owt
handt
her
ateof

popul
ati
ongr
owt
h.Thedev
elopedori
ndust
ri
ali
zedcount
ri
eshav
elessgr
owt
hoft
he

popul
ati
on.Theyar
emost
lyst
abl
ebutt
hedev
elopi
ngcount
ri
est
her
ehasbeenan

6
i
ncr
easei
nthegr
owt
hofpopul
ati
on.Asacount
rybecomesi
ncr
easi
ngl
yur
bani
zed,t
he

bi
rt
hrat
etendst
ori
seanddeat
hrat
etendst
ofal
l
.

ReasonsForHi
ghPopul
ati
onGr
owt
h

Someoft
hei
dent
if
iedr
easonsoft
hei
ncr
easei
npopul
ati
onar
egi
venbel
ow:

i
) I
ll
i
ter
acy
,par
ti
cul
arl
yamongwomen

i
i
) i
i
)Ignor
anceaboutt
hei
mpor
tanceofsmal
lfami
l
ysi
zeandcomf
ortand

f
utur
eav
ail
abl
eofr
esour
ces

i
i
i) Manypeopl
ethi
nkt
hathav
ingmor
echi
l
drenwi
l
lbr
ingmor
eincomet
othe

f
ami
l
y.

i
v) Bel
i
eft
hatsoci
alsecur
it
ycomeswi
thmor
ehumanbei
ngsatapl
aceori
na
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

r
eli
gion.

v
) Opposi
ti
onofbi
rt
hcont
rol
met
hodsbycer
tai
nrel
i
gions

v
i) Lackofpr
opagandaaboutt
hepopul
ati
onsi
zeandav
ail
abi
l
ityr
esour
ces

Ef
fectofOv
erpopul
ati
on

Thecombi
nat
ionofacont
inui
nghi
ghr
ate,adecl
i
nei
nmor
tal
i
tyr
ates,ani
ncr
easei
n

i
mmi
grat
ionorunsust
ainabl
ebi
omei
scr
eat
ingar
api
dpopul
ati
oni
ncr
ease.When

i
ncr
easei
nhumanpopul
ati
onr
eachest
oanundesi
rabl
econdi
ti
onwher
eanor
gani
sm‘
s

numberexceedt
hecur
rentcar
ryi
ngcapaci
tyofi
tshabi
tatorecol
ogi
calni
chei
sknown

asOv
erpopul
ati
on.

Ov
erpopul
ati
onhasadef
ini
teef
fectonacount
ry‘
seconomy
.Fi
rstofal
lwhencount
ri
es

7
ar
e ov
er popul
ated; t
hey har
dly hav
e enough f
ood t
o suppor
tthemsel
ves.

Ov
erpopul
ati
ondoesnotj
ustaf
fectt
hest
andar
dofl
i
ving,butal
soenv
ironment
.The

ot
heref
fect
sofov
erpopul
ati
oni
ncl
udes:

i
. Peopl
est
ruggl
i
ngt
oli
veunderpoorcondi
ti
ons

i
i
. Lowbi
rt
hrat
eduet
othei
nabi
l
ityofmot
her
stogetenoughr
esour
cest
osust
ain

abadl
yfr
om f
ert
il
izat
iont
obi
rt
h.

i
i
i. Lowl
i
feexpect
ancy

i
v. Lowl
evel
ofl
i
ter
acy

v
. Hi
ghr
ateofunempl
oymenti
nur
banar
eas(
leadi
ngt
osoci
alpr
obl
ems)

v
i. I
nsuf
fi
ci
entar
abl
eland
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

v
ii
. Li
tt
lesur
plusf
ood

v
ii
i. Poordi
etwi
thi
l
lheal
thanddi
et-
def
ici
encydi
seases(
e.g.r
icket
s)

i
x. Lowpercapi
taGr
ossDomest
icPr
oduct(
GDP)

x. Lowpercapi
tal
inf
ormat
ion

xi
. Unhy
gieni
cli
vi
ngcondi
ti
onsf
ormany

xi
i
. Economi
cal
l
yst
ret
chedgov
ernment

xi
i
i. Hi
ghcr
imef
rom peopl
ewhost
eal
resour
cest
osur
viv
e

xi
v. Massext
inct
ionsofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sashabi
tat
sar
eusedf
orf
armi
ngand

humanset
tl
ement
sand

8
xv
. Decr
easi
nghumanpopul
ati
ont
owar
dsequi
l
ibr
ium.

Cont
rolofOv
erpopul
ati
on

Popul
ati
oncont
rol
isagov
ernmentpr
ogr
ammet
oli
mitorsl
owpopul
ati
ongr
owt
h,asby

bi
rt
hcont
roleducat
ion,
thewi
deav
ail
abi
l
ityofcont
racept
ivesandeconomi
cincent
ives.

Popul
ati
onexpl
osi
oni
sthemai
nobst
acl
etot
hesmoot
hdev
elopmentoft
heNi
ger
ian

economy
.Si
ncet
hispr
obl
em i
sget
ti
ng i
ntensedaybyday
,iti
sobv
ioust
otake

appr
opr
iat
emeasur
est
okeepi
tundercont
rol
byl
ower
ingt
hebi
rt
hrat
e.

Theef
fect
ivecont
rolmeasur
escanbe:

A.Ri
sei
nper
-capi
tai
ncome

Demogr
aphi
c hi
stor
y of v
ari
ous adv
anced count
ri
es shows t
hat i
s an i
nver
se
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenper
-capi
tai
ncomeandacount
ry‘
sbi
rt
hrat
e.Whenper
-capi
ta
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

i
ncomei
ncr
eases,peopl
edon‘
tdesi
remor
echi
l
dren i
n or
dert
o suppl
ementt
hei
r

i
ncome.Howev
er,i
ncr
easei
nper
-capi
tai
ncomewi
l
lhav
eit
sposi
ti
vei
mpactonbi
rt
h

r
ateaf
teraper
iodoft
ime

B.Ur
bani
zat
ionandI
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion

I
ntheNi
ger
iansoci
ety
,par
ti
cul
arl
ytheNor
ther
nregi
on,t
heyhav
ejoi
ntf
ami
l
ysy
stem

whi
chencour
ageahi
ghbi
rt
hrat
e.Hence,
thi
sjoi
ntf
ami
l
yhast
ober
epl
acedbynucl
ear

f
ami
l
y.Anucl
earf
ami
l
yisgener
all
yfoundi
nanUr
bani
zedandI
ndust
ri
ali
zedeconomy
.

Hence,
ouref
for
tsshoul
dbet
oindust
ri
ali
zedandur
bani
zedoureconomyt
oreducet
he

hi
ghbi
rt
hrat
e.

9
C.Lat
emar
ri
age

I
nAf
ri
caandsomepar
tnor
ther
nNi
ger
ia,gi
rl
smar
ryatanear
lyageandhav
eal
onger

spanoft
imet
opr
oducechi
l
dren.A UN r
epor
thaspoi
ntedout
;ther
ewoul
dbea

si
gni
fi
cantdecl
i
neofbi
rt
hofsev
enpert
housand,i
ftheav
erageageofmar
ri
ageof

f
emal
eswer
etor
isef
rom 16t
o20y
ear
s.

D.Lower
ingi
nfantmor
tal
it
yrat
e

Poorpeopl
e,i
n or
dert
o ensur
ethatsome chi
l
dren do sur
viv
e,r
epr
oduce mor
e.

Ther
efor
e,wi
despr
ead v
acci
nat
ion and pr
operchi
l
d and mat
erni
tycar
e shoul
d be

under
takent
oreducet
hei
nfantmor
tal
i
tyr
ate.

E.Spr
eadofEducat
ion
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

I
ndev
elopi
ngcount
ryl
i
keNi
ger
ia,
highper
cent
agesoft
het
otal
popul
ati
onsar
eil
l
iter
ate.
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

Theyr
egar
dchi
l
drenast
hegi
ftofGodandar
enotconsci
ousaboutt
heev
il
sof

popul
ati
ongr
owt
h.Tor
emov
eil
l
iter
acyandbl
i
ndbel
i
ef,spr
eadofeducat
ioni
sver
y

muchessent
ial
.Aneducat
edmancanr
ight
lyunder
standt
hebenef
itofasmal
lfami
l
y

nor
m.

F.WomenEducat
ionandEmpl
oyment

Thegov
ernmentt
her
efor
e,shoul
dtakest
epst
ospr
eadwomeneducat
ionandcr
eat
e

empl
oymentoppor
tuni
ti
esf
ort
hem sot
hatt
heycanunder
standt
heev
il
sofpopul
ati
on

gr
owt
handcont
rol
itbyt
hemsel
ves.

10
G.Fami
lyPl
anni
ngFaci
l
iti
es

Manypoorpeopl
eofr
ural
areasi
nsomanydev
elopi
ngnat
ionsdon‘
tgetf
ami
l
ypl
anni
ng

f
aci
l
iti
eseasi
l
y.Ther
e,f
ami
l
ypl
anni
ngcent
erswi
tht
rai
nedper
sonnelshoul
dbesetup

i
nrur
alar
east
opr
ovi
det
hisf
aci
l
ityatt
hei
rdoor
step.Thi
scanv
erymuchhel
pin

l
ower
ingt
hebi
rt
hrat
e

H.I
ncent
ive

The gov
ernmentshoul
d pr
ovi
de bot
h monet
aryand r
eali
ncent
ives t
o peopl
efor

adopt
ingf
ami
l
ypl
anni
ngmeasur
es.Thef
undsf
ort
hepur
poseshoul
dbepr
oper
ly

ut
il
ized.

I
. Publ
ici
ty
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

Thei
mpor
tancebewi
despr
eadpubl
i
cizet
othepeopl
eofr
uralar
easv
ianewspaper
,
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

r
adi
oandT.
Vandpeopl
eshoul
dbeconv
incedt
hatnobi
rt
hcont
roldev
icei
shar
mful

andsmal
lfami
l
yisahappyf
ami
l
y

J.Legi
slat
ion

Fami
l
yisav
olunt
arymeasur
e.Howev
er,gov
ernmentshoul
denactl
awsf
ordi
rect
ly

l
ower
ingt
hebi
rt
hrat
e.Thegov
ernmentcanmakel
awsi
nthi
sfi
eldofr
aisi
ngt
he

mi
nimum ageofmar
ri
age,
compul
sor
yeducat
ionupt
ohi
ghschooll
evel
,ter
minat
ionof

pr
egnancyandabol
i
tionofchi
l
dlabour
.

11
Speci
esAbundance

I
n ecol
ogy
,abundance i
sthe r
elat
iver
epr
esent
ati
on ofa speci
es i
n a par
ti
cul
ar

ecosy
stem.I
tisusual
l
ymeasur
edast
henumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
sfoundpersampl
e.How

speci
esabundancesar
edi
str
ibut
edwi
thi
nanecosy
stem i
sref
err
edt
o asr
elat
ive

speci
es abundances. Bot
h i
ndi
cat
ors ar
e r
elev
ant f
or comput
ing bi
odi
ver
sit
y.

Abundance i
s cont
rast
ed wi
th,butt
ypi
cal
l
ycor
rel
ates t
o,i
nci
dence,whi
ch i
sthe

f
requencywi
thwhi
cht
hespeci
esoccur
satal
linasampl
e.Whenhi
ghabundancei
s

accompani
edbyl
ow i
nci
dence,i
tisconsi
der
edl
ocal
l
yorspor
adi
cal
l
yabundant
.A

v
ari
etyofsampl
i
ngmet
hodsar
eusedt
omeasur
eabundance.Forl
argerani
mal
s,t
hese

mayi
ncl
udespot
li
ghtcount
s,t
rackcount
sandr
oadki
l
lcount
s,aswel
laspr
esenceat

moni
tor
ingst
ati
ons.I
nmanypl
antcommuni
ti
est
heabundancesofpl
antspeci
esar
e
T)
EN
M

measur
edbypl
antcov
er,i
.e.t
her
elat
ivear
eacov
eredbydi
ff
erentpl
antspeci
esi
na
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

smal
lpl
ot.Rel
ati
vespeci
esabundancei
scal
cul
atedbydi
vi
dingt
henumberofspeci
es

f
rom onegr
oupbyt
het
otal
numberofspeci
esf
rom al
lgr
oups.

no.ofindi
vi
dualsofapar
ti
cul
arspeci
e
Rel
ati
veSpeci
eAbundance=
tot
alno.ofindi
vi
dual
sofall
speci
es

Thef
act
orst
hat
 det
ermi
nedi
str
ibut
ionandabundance 
canbedi
vi
dedi
ntophy
sical

f
act
orsandbi
oti
cfact
ors.

Phy
sicalFact
ors:I
ncl
ude t
emper
atur
e,soi
lcomposi
ti
on,r
ainf
allpat
ter
ns,al
ti
tude,

pr
essur
e,soi
lcomposi
ti
on,
li
ghtpenet
rat
ionet
c.

Bi
oti
cFact
ors:Pr
edat
ion,
Compet
it
ion,
par
asi
ti
sm,
ener
gyl
ostatv
ari
oust
ropi
clev
elet
c.

12
Scal
eUsedToDescr
ibeSpeci
esAbundance

A.
C.F.
O.R.i
sanacr
ony
mforasi
mpl
e,somewhatsubj
ect
ivescal
eusedt
odescr
ibe

speci
esabundancewi
thi
nagi
venar
ea.I
tisnor
mal
l
yusedwi
thi
nasampl
i
ngquadr
att
o

i
ndi
cat
ehow manyor
gani
smst
her
ear
einapar
ti
cul
arhabi
tatwheni
twoul
dnotbe

pr
act
icalt
ocountt
hem al
l
.Inst
ead,
asmal
l
err
epr
esent
ati
vesampl
eoft
hepopul
ati
oni
s

count
edi
nst
ead.

TheA.
C.F.
O.R.scal
eisasf
oll
ows:

A–Thespeci
esobser
vedi
s"Abundant
"wi
thi
nthegi
venar
ea.

C–Thespeci
esobser
vedi
s"Common"wi
thi
nthegi
venar
ea.

F–Thespeci
esobser
vedi
s"Fr
equent
"wi
thi
nthegi
venar
ea.
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

O–Thespeci
esobser
vedi
s"Occasi
onal
"wi
thi
nthegi
venar
ea

R–Thespeci
esobser
vedi
s"Rar
e"wi
thi
nthegi
venar
ea.

Thi
smet
hodofsampl
i
ngi
ssi
mpl
eandeasyt
oimpl
ement
,butcanbesubj
ect
ive.

Speci
esf
requencyi
sthenumberoft
imesapl
antspeci
esi
spr
esenti
nagi
vennumber

ofquadr
atsofapar
ti
cul
arsi
zeoratagi
vennumberofsampl
epoi
nts.Fr
equencyi
s

usual
l
yexpr
essedasaper
cent
ageandsomet
imescal
l
edaFr
equencyI
ndex.The

conceptoff
requencyr
efer
stot
heuni
for
mit
yofaspeci
esi
nit
sdi
str
ibut
ionov
eranar
ea.

Nocount
ingi
sinv
olv
edj
ustar
ecor
dofspeci
espr
esent
.Eachi
ndi
vi
dualoft
hespeci
es

pr
esenti
srecor
ded,
isamor
eaccur
ateandr
eli
abl
emet
hodofsampl
i
ng.

13
COMMUNI
TY

A 
communi
ty 
i
sagr
oup 
of 
popul
ati
ons 
oft
woormor
edi
ff
erent
 speci
es 
occupy
ingt
he

same geogr
aphi
cal ar
ea at t
he same t
ime. Thi
s i
s al
so known as 
biot
ic

communi
ty,
 
biol
ogi
calcommuni
ty,
 
ecol
ogi
calcommuni
ty,
or 
li
feassembl
age.Thet
erm

communi
tyhasav
ari
etyofuses.I
nit
ssi
mpl
estf
ormi
tref
erst
ogr
oupsofor
gani
smsi
n

aspeci
fi
cpl
aceor
.Popul
ati
oncan,wi
thi
nli
mit
s,adaptt
ochangesi
nenv
ironment
al

condi
ti
ons.Themaj
ordr
ivi
ngf
orceofadapt
ati
ont
oenv
ironment
alchangesi
sbel
i
eved

bymostbi
ologi
stst
obebi
ologi
calev
olut
ion,t
hechangei
napopul
ati
on‘
sgenet
ic

makeupt
hroughsuccessi
vegener
ati
on.

St
ruct
ureofCommuni
ty

Communi
ti
esmaybesmal
l
,consi
sti
ngoff
ewspeci
espopul
ati
onsi
nasmal
lspace,or
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23

l
arge,
compr
isi
ngsev
eral
speci
espopul
ati
onsi
nal
argear
ea.Thecommuni
tyst
ruct
ures,
B
AE

composi
ti
onandot
herchar
act
eri
sti
cscanber
eadi
l
ydescr
ibedbyv
isualobser
vat
ion

wi
thoutact
ual
measur
ement
.

Thi
sisaqual
i
tat
iveappr
oachwhi
chi
seasi
ert
hant
hequant
it
ati
vepopul
ati
onanal
ysi
s

wher
e measur
ement
s ar
e act
ual
l
y made.Communi
ti
es usual
l
y cat
egor
ies by t
he

ecol
ogi
stsi
nvar
iousway
spr
imar
il
ybasedofhabi
tatf
eat
uresl
i
kewat
erav
ail
abi
l
ity
,hi
gh

exposur
e,orot
herhabi
tatf
eat
ures.

Fori
nst
ance,dependi
ngont
heamountofwat
erav
ail
abi
l
ity
,pl
antcommuni
ti
esmaybe

hy
drophy
tic(
aquat
ic habi
tat
s),mesophy
tic(
moder
atel
y moi
stsoi
lhabi
tat
) and

xer
ophy
tic(
dryorar
id habi
tat
).Si
mil
arl
y,communi
ti
es gr
owi
ng on condi
ti
ons of

abundantl
i
ghtar
ecal
l
edhel
iophy
ticandt
hosegr
owi
ngi
nshadesci
ophy
tic.I
dent
ical
l
y

14
communi
ti
esgr
owi
ngonv
ari
oushabi
tat
sdesi
gnat
edasdeser
tcommuni
ti
es,
mount
ain

communi
ti
esandest
uar
inecommuni
ti
esandsoon.

I
ngener
al,acommuni
tyi
sdy
nami
csi
ncei
tchangesov
ert
ime.Thi
sdy
nami
cnat
urei
s

r
efl
ect
edi
nthesuccessi
onofor
gani
smsi
nahabi
tat
.Aser
iesofchangesr
esul
tsi
nthe

dev
elopmentofa r
elat
ivel
yst
abl
e communi
ty,whi
ch mai
ntai
ns i
ts st
ruct
ure and

i
nfl
uencest
hecl
i
mat
eoft
hear
ea.Suchast
abl
eandmat
urecommuni
tyi
scal
l
eda

cl
i
max communi
ty,whi
l
e communi
ti
es of successi
onalst
ages ar
e cal
l
ed ser
al

communi
ti
es.Thepl
antcommuni
tyst
ruct
ures,composi
ti
onandot
herchar
act
eri
zecan

bedescr
ibedi
nbot
hqual
i
tat
iveandquant
it
ati
vemeans.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofaCommuni
ty

Acommuni
tyhast
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

(
a)St
ruct
ure

St
ruct
ureofacommuni
tycanbest
udi
edbydet
ermi
ningt
hedensi
ty,f
requencyand

abundanceofspeci
es.

(
b)Domi
nance

Usual
l
yacommuni
tyhasoneormor
especi
eswhi
choccuri
nlar
genumber
.Such

speci
esar
ecal
l
eddomi
nant
sandt
hecommuni
tyi
sof
tennamedaf
tert
hem.

(
c)Di
ver
sit
y

Thecommuni
tyconsi
stsofdi
ff
erentgr
oupsofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sofdi
ff
erentspeci
es,

maybel
argeandsmal
l
,maybel
ongt
oonel
i
fef
orm oranot
herbutar
eessent
ial
l
y

15
gr
owi
ngi
nauni
for
m env
ironment
.

(
d)Per
iodi
cit
y

Thi
sincl
udesst
udyofv
ari
ousl
i
fepr
ocesses(
respi
rat
ion,gr
owt
h,r
epr
oduct
ionet
c.)i
n

t
he v
ari
ous seasons oft
he y
eari
nthe domi
nantspeci
es ofa communi
ty.The

r
ecur
renceoft
hesei
mpor
tantl
i
fepr
ocessesatr
egul
ari
nter
val
sinay
earandt
hei
r

mani
fest
ati
oni
nnat
urei
ster
medper
iodi
cit
y.

(
e)St
rat
if
icat
ion

Nat
uralf
orestcommuni
ti
espossessanumberofl
ayer
sorst
oresorst
rat
arel
atedt
o

t
hehei
ghtofpl
ant
s,f
orexampl
e,t
allt
rees,
smal
l
ert
rees,
shr
ubsandher
baceousl
ayer
s

f
ormt
hedi
ff
erentst
rat
a.Thi
sphenomenoni
napl
antcommuni
tyi
scal
l
edst
rat
if
icat
ion.
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

(
f)Eco-
toneandEdge-
eff
ect
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

Azoneofv
eget
ati
onspr
eadi
ngorsepar
ati
ngt
wodi
ff
erentt
ypesofcommuni
ti
esi
s

cal
l
edecot
one.Thesear
emar
ginalzonesandar
eeasi
l
yrecogni
zabl
e.Usual
l
y,i
neco-

t
ones,t
hev
ari
etyofonespeci
esi
slar
gert
hani
nanyoft
headj
acentcommuni
ti
es.A

phenomenonofi
ncr
easedv
ari
etyandi
ntensi
tyofpl
ant
satt
hecommonj
unct
ioni
s

cal
l
ed edge-
eff
ectand i
sessent
ial
l
yduei
twi
derr
ange ofsui
tabl
eenv
ironment
al

condi
ti
ons.

(
g)Ecol
ogi
calNi
che

Di
ff
erentspeci
esofani
mal
sand pl
ant
sful
fi
lldi
ff
erentf
unct
ionsi
ntheecol
ogi
cal

compl
ex.Ther
oleofeachi
sspokenofasi
tsecol
ogi
calni
chei
.e.t
her
olet
hatspeci
e

pl
aysi
nit
secosy
stem:whati
teat
s,whoeat
sit
,it
srangeofmov
ementet
c.,i
not
her

16
wor
ds,
thet
otal
rangeofi
tsi
nter
act
ionwi
thot
herspeci
esofi
tsenv
ironment
.Ecol
ogi
cal

ni
checanal
sobeasmal
lhabi
tatwi
thi
nahabi
tat
,inwhi
chonl
yasi
ngl
especi
escan

sur
viv
e.

(
h)I
nter
speci
fi
cAssoci
ati
on

Thi
sist
hest
udyoft
woormor
especi
esgr
owi
ngt
oget
heri
ncl
oseassoci
ati
oni
nregul
ar

occur
rence.

(
i)Communi
tyPr
oduct
ivi
ty

Thest
udyofpr
oduct
ionofbi
omass(
organi
cmat
ter
)isknownaspr
oduct
ionecol
ogy
.

Thenetpr
oduct
ionofbi
omassandst
orageofener
gybyacommuni
typeruni
tti
meand

ar
eai
scal
l
edcommuni
typr
oduct
ivi
ty.
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

(
j)Bi
oti
cSt
abi
li
ty
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

Abi
oti
ccommuni
tyhast
heabi
l
ityt
oqui
ckl
yregai
nequi
l
ibr
ium af
teradi
stur
bancei
n

popul
ati
onf
luct
uat
ion.Thi
siscal
l
edbi
oti
cst
abi
l
ityandi
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
othe

numberofi
nter
act
ingspeci
esi
tcont
ainsi
.e.t
hedi
ver
sit
yint
hecommuni
ty.

ECOSYSTEM

An 
ecosy
stem 
isasy
stem consi
sti
ngofbi
oti
candabi
oti
ccomponent
sthatf
unct
ion

t
oget
herasauni
t.Thebi
oti
ccomponent
sincl
udeal
lthe 
l
ivi
ngt
hings 
wher
east
he

abi
oti
ccomponent
sar
ethe 
non-
li
vi
ngt
hings.Thus,anecosy
stem sci
encedef
ini
ti
on

ent
ail
sanecol
ogi
calcommuni
tyconsi
sti
ngofdi
ff
erentcommuni
ti
esofor
gani
smst
hat

l
i
vet
oget
heri
napar
ti
cul
arhabi
tat
.Anecosy
stem i
ssi
mpl
yacommuni
typl
  us 
the

env
ironment
.

17
Component
soft
heEcosy
stem

A.Abi
oti
c(Non-
Liv
ing)Component
soft
heEcosy
stem

Abi
oti
ccomponent
sar
eandecol
ogi
cal
fact
ort
hatact
sofl
i
vingcomponent
sdur
ingany

par
toft
hei
rli
fe.Abi
oti
cfact
orsar
ethef
act
orst
hatar
eei
therphy
sicalorchemi
cal

f
act
orst
hatar
ethechar
act
eri
sti
coft
heenv
ironmentunderst
udy
.Al
otofecol
ogi
cal

st
udi
eshav
ebeenconduct
edont
hesi
gni
fi
canceori
mpor
tanceoft
hemai
nabi
oti
c

f
act
orswhi
chcont
rolt
hephy
sicalandbi
ologi
calcomponent
sinanecosy
stem at

di
ff
erentr
angesoft
imeandspace.Abi
oti
cfact
orsar
ethenon-
li
vi
ngcomponent
sofa

habi
tat
.Theabi
oti
cfact
orsi
nanecosy
stem ar
egr
oupedi
nto

Soi
l(edaphi
c)

Thesoi
list
hehomef
oral
lli
vi
ngor
gani
smsi
ncl
udi
ngwor
ms,i
nsect
s,r
odent
sand
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

mi
croor
gani
sms,
andi
tal
sosuppor
tsgr
owt
h.

At
mospher
e

Theat
mospher
econsi
stsofgasessuchascar
bondi
oxi
de,
oxy
genandni
tr
ogen.

The met
eor
ologi
calorcl
imat
icf
act
ors ar
etemper
atur
e,wi
nd,sun,humi
dit
yand

pr
eci
pit
ati
on.Theact
ivi
ti
esandgr
owt
hofpl
ant
sandani
mal
sar
ear
esul
tofmanyof

t
hese abi
oti
cfact
ors.The quant
it
y oft
he abi
oti
c component
s av
ail
abl
eint
he

ecosy
stem i
sref
err
edt
oast
hest
andi
ngst
age’
.Abi
oti
ccomponent
sofanecosy
stem

t
her
efor
ear
emadeupoft
hei
nor
gani
caspect
soft
heenv
ironmentt
hatdeci
dest
he

l
i
vingt
hingst
hatcansur
viv
eint
hatpar
ti
cul
arecosy
stem.

Temper
atur
eofanecosy
stem di
ff
ersbyl
ati
tude;l
ocat
ionscl
oset
otheequat
orar
e

18
hot
tert
hanl
ocat
ionst
hatar
ecl
osedt
othepol
esort
het
emper
atezones.

Humi
dit
yregul
atesanddet
ermi
nest
heamountofwat
erandmoi
stur
eint
heai
randsoi
l
,

whi
ch,
int
urn,
inf
luencer
ainf
all
.

Topogr
aphyi
sthel
ayoutoft
hel
andi
nrel
ati
ont
oit
sel
evat
ion.Fori
nst
ance,l
and

si
tuat
edi
nther
ainshadowofamount
ainwi
l
lexper
iencel
esspr
eci
pit
ati
onofr
ainf
all
.

Nat
uraldi
stur
bancesi
ncl
udet
hingsl
i
ket
sunami
s,l
i
ght
ningst
orms,hur
ri
canesand

wi
l
dfi
res.

Ot
herabi
oti
ccomponent
sincl
udest
heav
ail
abi
li
tyofwat
erand qual
it
yofwat
er,

r
adi
ati
on,
andev
eryor
gani
c(e.
g.car
bohy
drat
es,
prot
eins,
li
pids,
humi
csubst
anceset
c.)

andi
nor
gani
csubst
ances(
e.g.car
bon,
ni
tr
ogen,
hydr
ogen,
oxy
gen,phosphor
us,sul
phur

et
c.
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

B.Bi
oti
cComponent
soft
heEcosy
stem

The bi
oti
ccomponent
sofan ecosy
stem ar
ethe l
i
ving or
gani
smst
hatl
i
vei
n an

ecosy
stem.Thesel
i
vingor
gani
smsi
nanecosy
stem assi
sti
nthet
ransf
erandcy
cleof

ener
gyi
nsi
deanygi
venecosy
stem.Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
edbasedont
hesour
ceofener
gy

r
equi
rementoft
hei
rbody
.

1)Pr
oducer
sli
kepl
ant
smanuf
act
uret
hei
rownener
gywi
thoutconsumi
ngot
herl
i
ving

or
gani
sms;pl
ant
sobt
aint
hei
rener
gyt
hrought
hepr
ocessofphot
osy
nthesi
swi
th

t
heener
gyf
ort
her
eact
ionobt
ainedf
rom sunl
i
ght
.

2)Consumer
scanbeseenont
hesubsequentl
eveloft
hef
oodchai
n.Ther
ear
ethr
ee

maj
ort
ypesofconsumer
s:

19
 I
. Her
biv
orese.
g.gr
asshopper
,mi
ce,
rabbi
ts,
deer
,cows,
sheep,
goat
s,et
c.f
eed

onpl
ant
sorpl
antpr
oduct
s;

I
I. Car
niv
orese.
g.f
oxes,f
rogs,snakes,hawks,spi
der
set
c.gett
hei
rfoodby

eat
ingot
herl
i
vingor
gani
smswhet
hercar
niv
oresorher
biv
ores

I
II
. Omni
vor
ese.
g.bear
s,t
urt
les,
squi
rr
els,
humansar
eani
mal
sthatpossesst
he

abi
l
ityt
odi
gestbot
hpl
antandani
mal
tissue.

3)Decomposer
sar
ethel
i
vingcomponentoft
heecosy
stem t
hatbr
eaksdownwast
e

mat
eri
alanddeador
gani
sms.Exampl
esofdecomposer
sincl
udeear
thwor
ms,dung

beet
lesandmanyspeci
esoff
ungiandbact
eri
a.Theyper
for
m av
italr
ecy
cli
ng

f
unct
ion,r
etur
ningnut
ri
ent
sincor
por
atedi
ntodeador
gani
smst
othesoi
lwher
e

pl
ant
scant
aket
hem upagai
n.I
nthi
spr
ocesst
heyal
sohar
vestt
hel
astoft
he
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

sunl
i
ghtener
gyi
nit
ial
l
yabsor
bedbypr
oducer
s.Decomposer
srepr
esentt
hef
inal

st
epi
nmanyoft
hecy
cli
calecosy
stem pr
ocesses.Ther
efor
e,t
hebi
oti
ccomponent
s

oft
heecosy
stem whi
chi
scomposedoft
hepl
ant
s,ani
mal
sandmi
crobeswor
k

t
oget
herandar
erel
i
antont
heabi
oti
cfact
ors.

Ty
pesofEcosy
stems

i
. Ter
rest
ri
al,
 

i
i
. Fr
eshwat
erand

i
i
i. Mar
ine.

ENVI
RONMENTANDENVI
RONMENTALFACTORS

Thet
erm env
ironmenthasbeender
ivedf
rom aFr
enchwor
d“Env
ironi
a”meanst
o

sur
round.I
tref
erst
obot
habi
oti
c(phy
sicalornon-
li
vi
ng)andbi
oti
c(l
i
ving)env
ironment
.

20
Thewor
denv
ironmentmeanssur
roundi
ngs,i
nwhi
chor
gani
smsl
i
ve.Env
ironmentand

t
heor
gani
smsar
etwody
nami
candcompl
excomponentofnat
ure.I
tregul
atest
hel
i
fe

oft
heor
gani
smsi
ncl
udi
nghumanbei
ngs.
 

The 
nat
ural env
ironment
 encompasses al
l
 l
iv
ing 
and non-
li
vi
ng t
hings

occur
ri
ng 
nat
ural
l
y.Thet
ermi
smostof
tenappl
i
edt
othe 
Ear
th 
orsomepar
tsofEar
th.

Thi
senv
ironmentencompassest
hei
nter
act
ionofal
lli
vi
ng 
speci
es,
 
cli
mat
e,weat
her

andnat
ural
resour
cest
hataf
fecthumansur
viv
alandeconomi
cact
ivi
ty.

Component
sofEnv
ironment

Env
ironmentmai
nlyconsi
stsofat
mospher
e,hy
drospher
e,l
i
thospher
eandbi
ospher
e.

Buti
tcanber
oughl
ydi
vi
dedi
ntot
wot
ypessuchas(
a)Mi
croenv
ironmentand(
b)

Macr
oenv
ironment
.Itcanal
sobedi
vi
dedi
ntot
woot
hert
ypessuchas(
c)Phy
sicaland
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D

(
d)Bi
oti
cenv
ironment
.
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

(
a)Mi
croenv
ironmentmeanst
hei
mmedi
atel
ocal
sur
roundi
ngoft
heor
gani
sm.

(
b)Macr
oenv
ironmentmeansal
lthephy
sicalandbi
oti
ccondi
ti
onst
hatsur
roundt
he

or
gani
sm ext
ernal
l
y.

(
c)Phy
sical
env
ironmentr
efer
stoal
labi
oti
cfact
orsorcondi
ti
onsl
i
ket
emper
atur
e,l
i
ght
,

r
ainf
all
,soi
l
,mi
ner
alset
c.I
tcompr
isesofat
mospher
e,l
i
thospher
eandhy
drospher
e.

(
d)Bi
oti
cenv
ironmenti
ncl
udesal
lbi
oti
cfact
orsorl
i
vingf
ormsl
i
kepl
ant
s,ani
mal
s,

Mi
cro-
organi
sms.

HumanI
mpactonEnv
ironment

Humans i
mpact t
he env
ironment i
n di
ff
erent way
s such as modi
fyi
ng r
iver
s

(
thr
ough 
dams 
and 
str
eam channel
i
zat
ion)
, 
urbani
zat
ion,genet
icmodi
fi
cat
ionofpl
ant
s

21
andani
mal
sand 
def
orest
ati
on.Thesei
mpactl
akel
evel
s,gr
oundwat
ercondi
ti
ons,
wat
er

pol
l
uti
on,t
her
malpol
l
uti
on,andmar
inepol
l
uti
on.Humansmodi
fyr
iver
sbyusi
ngdi
rect

channelmani
pul
ati
on.
 Webui
l
ddamsandr
eser
voi
rsandmani
pul
atet
hedi
rect
ionoft
he

r
iver
sandwat
erpat
h.Damscanusef
ull
ycr
eat
ereser
voi
rsandhy
droel
ect
ri
cpower
.

Howev
er,r
eser
voi
rsanddamsmaynegat
ivel
yimpactt
heenv
ironmentandwi
l
dli
fe.

Damsst
opf
ishmi
grat
ionandt
hemov
ementofor
gani
smsdownst
ream.Ur
bani
zat
ion

af
fect
s t
he env
ironment because of def
orest
ati
on and changi
ng l
ake l
evel
s,

gr
oundwat
er condi
ti
ons,et
c.Def
orest
ati
on and ur
bani
zat
ion go hand i
n hand.

Def
orest
ati
onmaycausef
loodi
ng,decl
i
ningst
ream f
low,andchangesi
nri
ver
side

v
eget
ati
on,decr
easi
ngoxy
genl
evel
s(andi
ncr
easi
nggr
eenhousegases)
,el
evat
edr
isk

ofsoi
ler
osi
onandt
hedest
ruct
ionofani
malhabi
tat
s.Ai
rpol
l
uti
onmay
 causegl
obal

war
mingandcl
i
mat
echange.Ai
randwat
erpol
l
uti
oncan 
causepubl
i
cheal
thpr
obl
ems
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

andal
sohar
m pl
antandani
mal
li
fe.

DENSI
TY

Popul
ati
ondensi
ty 
i
sof
tenusedasasi
mpl
erel
ati
vemeasur
eofhow anor
gani
sm

r
espondst
olocalcondi
ti
ons.I
fcondi
ti
onsar
enotgoodf
ort
hespeci
es,
thedensi
tywi
l
l

bel
ow (
organi
smswi
l
lhav
edi
edormov
edoutoft
hesampl
edar
ea)
,wher
easi
f

condi
ti
onsar
egoodt
hedensi
tywi
l
lbehi
gh(
organi
smswi
l
lhav
erepr
oducedand/
or

i
mmi
grat
edi
ntot
hear
ea)
.Int
hisway
,changesi
ndensi
tycanpr
ovi
dei
nsi
ghti
ntot
he

nat
uralhi
stor
yoft
hepr
efer
encesandt
oler
ancesofi
ndi
vi
dual
soft
hespeci
es.Of

cour
se,i
fthespeci
esi
sregul
atedbydensi
ty-
dependentpr
ocesses(
e.g.
,mor
tal
i
tyor

emi
grat
ion)t
hent
her
elat
ionshi
pofdensi
tywi
tht
heat
tr
act
ivenessoft
heenv
ironment

canbeobscur
ed.Ev
ent
hought
heenv
ironmentchangesi
naposi
ti
veway
,ther
emaybe

22
noi
ncr
easei
ndensi
ty.

Somet
imes,densi
tycanbeusedasanexpl
i
citpr
oxyf
orpopul
ati
onsi
ze,whi
chof

cour
sei
swhatmany
 ecol
ogi
sts 
wantt
oknowabout
.

YI
ELD

I
necol
ogy
,thi
sref
erst
otheamountofhar
vest
/capt
uret
hatoccur
swhi
l
emai
ntai
ning

t
he popul
ati
ons orecosy
stem st
abi
l
ity and f
unct
ion.I
fyi
eldi
s sust
ainabl
e,t
he

popul
ati
onr
emai
nsunaf
fect
edandt
her
esour
cesar
eexpl
oit
edr
egul
arl
yandov
ert
ime.

Maxi
mum y
iel
d;i
sthemaxi
mum amountt
hatcanbet
akenwi
thoutdepl
eti
ng t
he

r
esour
cesorpopul
ati
onov
ert
hel
ongt
erm.

I
nagr
icul
tur
alenv
ironment
,maxi
mum ener
gyt
ransf
erf
rom pr
oducer
stoconsumer
s

(
li
vest
ock)cany
iel
deconomi
cbenef
it
.Thi
shasl
edt
odi
ff
erentf
ormul
ati
onoff
eeds

andi
nject
abl
edr
ugst
oassi
sti
nassi
mil
ati
on.
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingYi
eld

a.Technol
ogi
cal
(Agr
icpr
act
ice,
manager
ial
etc.
)

b.Bi
ologi
cal
(di
seases,
pest
,et
c.)

c.Envi
ronment
al(
cli
mat
ic,
topogr
aphy
,soi
lfer
ti
li
ty,
etc.
)

COVER

Thi
stheper
cent
agear
eacov
ersbyspeci
eori
ndi
vi
dual
.Iti
sanecol
ogi
cali
ndi
cat
oror

cont
rolspeci
ehasov
ersoi
l
,wat
er,
sol
arand/
ornut
ri
entr
esour
cesonasi
te.Hencet
his

r
efl
ect
sont
heamountusedbypl
ant
stocr
eat
ebi
omass.

Pl
ant
swi
thgr
eat
estcov
eronsi
tehav
eagr
eat
eri
nfl
uenceonsuccessi
onpr
ocessdue

t
odi
sper
sal
.

Fol
i
acov
ercanaf
fectt
heamountofr
ainr
eachi
ngot
herspeci
eswher
easl
i
ttercov
ers

23
i
nfl
uencepot
ent
ial
erosi
onandt
heamountofnut
ri
ent
sreachi
ngnear
byspeci
es.

ECOLOGI
CALNI
CHE

I
necol
ogy
,thet
erm“
niche”
 descr
ibest
her
oleanor
gani
sm pl
aysi
nacommuni
ty.A

speci
es'
nicheencompassesbot
hthephy
sicalandenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsi
trequi
res

(
li
ket
emper
atur
eort
err
ain)andt
hei
nter
act
ionsi
thaswi
thot
herspeci
es(
li
kepr
edat
ion

orcompet
it
ion)
.Itdescr
ibesanor
gani
sm'
sresponset
othedi
str
ibut
ionoff
oodand

compet
it
ors.

Thet
hreev
italaspect
sofanecol
ogi
calni
chear
e–phy
sicall
evel
,funct
ionr
oleandi
ts

posi
ti
oni
ntheenv
ironment
algr
adi
ent
.Basedont
his,
ecol
ogi
calni
checanbecl
assi
fi
ed

i
ntot
hreet
ypes–

 Habi
tatorSpat
ial
Niche
T)
EN

Tr
ophi
cNi
che
M
N
RO


VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

 Hy
per
vol
umeNi
che

24
Habi
tatorSpat
ialNi
che

Thi
sper
tai
nst
othephy
sical
spacei
nhabi
tedbyanor
gani
sm.

Tr
ophi
cNi
che

I
nthecaseoft
rophi
cni
che,t
wospeci
esoccupyt
hesamehabi
tatbuthav
edi
ff
erent

f
unct
ionalr
olesort
rophi
cposi
ti
ons.Thi
sisbecauseoft
hei
rvar
iat
ionsi
nfoodhabi
ts.

Exampl
e – Aquat
ic bi
r Cor
ds  ixa  Not
and  onect
a l
i
vei
nthe same pond buti
nhabi
t

di
ff
erentt
rophi
cni
ches.
 Not
onect
a i
sanact
ivepr
edat
ort
hatswi
msi
tswayt
hrought
o

f
eedonot
herani
mal
s.Wher Cor
eas  ixa 
feedsmost
lyondecay
ingv
eget
ati
on.Anot
her

cl
assi
cexampl
ewoul
dbeDar
win’
sfi
nchesorGal
apagosf
inchest
hatshowed 
adapt
ive

r
adi
ati
on.Thebeakshapeandsi
zeoft
hesepasser
inebi
rdsar
eadapt
edaspert
hei
r
T)
EN
M
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B

f
oodsour
ces.
AE

Hy
per
vol
umeNi
che

Thi
sconcepti
sbasedont
hev
ari
ousenv
ironment
alf
act
orst
owhi
chor
gani
smsofa

popul
ati
on ar
e uni
quel
yadapt
ed.The env
ironment
alf
act
orsi
ncl
udes t
emper
atur
e,

humi
dit
y,et
c.f
oragi
venor
gani
sm i
napar
ti
cul
arspaceorhy
per
vol
ume.

NI
CHEOVERLAP

Ni
cheov
erl
apdescr
ibes 
thesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chco-
occur
ri
ngspeci
esshar
epar
tsoft
hei
r

ni
chespacewi
theachot
her
.Hi
ghni
cheov
erl
apmayl
eadt
oconf
li
ctuali
nter
act
ions

(
suchascompet
it
ionandexcl
usi
on)f
orsomespeci
es.

The 
compet
it
ive excl
usi
on pr
inci
ple 
stat
es hat i
t f t
wo speci
es wi
th

25
i
dent
ical
 ni
ches 
(ecol
ogi
calr
oles)
 compet
e,t
henonewi
lli
nevi
tabl
ydr
ivet
heot
hert
o

ext
inct
ion.Thi
srul
eal
sost
atest
hatt
wospeci
escannotoccupyt
hesameexactni
chei
n

ahabi
tatandcoexi
stt
oget
her
,atl
easti
nast
abl
emanner
.Af
amousexampl
eoft
he

compet
it
ive excl
usi
on pr
inci
ple i
s shown i
n t
wo t
ypes of si
ngl
e-cel
l
ed

mi
croor
gani Par
sms,
  ameci
um aur
eli
a  Par
and  ameci
um caudat
um. When gr
own

i
ndi
vi
dual
l
yint
hel
ab,bot
hspeci
est
hri
ve.Butwhent
heyar
egr
owni
nthesamet
est

t
ube (
habi
tat
)wi
thaf
ixed amountofnut
ri
ent
s,bot
h gr
ow mor
e poor
l P.
y and 

aur
eli
a ev
ent
ual
l
y out
compet P. caudat
es  um 
for f
ood, l
eadi
ng t
o P. caudat
um'
s

ext
inct
ion.

Compet
it
iveexcl
usi
onmaybeav
oidedi
foneorbot
hoft
hecompet
ingspeci
esev
olv
es

t
ouseadi
ff
erentr
esour
ce,occupyadi
ff
erentar
eaoft
hehabi
tat
,orf
eeddur
inga
T)
EN
M

di
ff
erentt
imeofday
.Ther
esul
toft
hiski
ndofev
olut
ioni
sthatt
wosi
mil
arspeci
esuse
N
RO
VI
EN
D
AN
AN
(M
2
23
B
AE

l
argel
y non-
over
lappi
ng r
esour
ces and t
hus hav
e di
ff
erent ni
ches. Thi
s i
s

cal
l
ed 
resour
cepar
ti
ti
oni
ng,andi
thel
pst
hespeci
escoexi
stbecauset
her
eisl
ess

di
rectcompet
it
ionbet
weent
hem.

26