Week 6 Lec Material

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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Prof. Piyali Sengupta
Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad
Module 06: Arch Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Cable-Stayed Bridges, Balanced

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 15: Masonry Arch Bridges
 General Features
 Structural Configurations
E L
 Design Principle P T
 Design Example
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Topic of Discussion
 Design Principle
 Design Example
E L
P T
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Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Masonry Arch bridges were the first category of bridges to be

evolved.
• These bridges are aesthetically superior to slab bridges.
E L
P T
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Bridge Engineering
General Features
• An arch bridge consists of a solid barrel between two face walls

that is mounted on the arch ring.
• The arch ring is the major load carrying member of the bridge.
• The ring sustains of the superimposed load essentially as a

compressive thrust.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Since naturally available

stones are strong in
bearing compressive loads,
the masonry arch bridges
that are still existing in the
world have withstood
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around 40% more load than
P T
their design load. N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations
• The arch ring is made up of stones cut to the shape of wedges

arranged in radial joints. The central key stone is a little bigger
than the rest and it is placed at the end of construction of the
arch.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
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Type of Arch Rings
Bridge Engineering
• Arches have a general tendency of opening up at the springing

level because of self weight and superimposed loads. To
prevent this, some extra weight is placed on the haunch of the
arch by laying lean concrete that is sloped tangential to the
extrados.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The haunch filling serves dual purpose, i.e. it serves as an

additional weight and provides a working platform for
construction of face wall. The haunch filling is retained by back
wall/ curtain wall.
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P T
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Bridge Engineering
• End Connectors:
End connectors are structures of masonry built together with the

abutment.
Purpose of providing end connectors is:
• to anchor the bridge to its approach road,
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•
P T
to pave a confined way for smooth movement of water
beneath, N
• to retain the earthen embankment and prevent it from spilling
into or interfering with flow of stream
Bridge Engineering
Two types of wing walls are commonly in use as end connectors.

• Return type wing wall
• Splayed type wing wall
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Return type wing wall:

Return type wing walls emerge at
right angles to the abutment and
are prolonged towards the road
bund. Their top is kept at
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embankment formation level.
P T
This type of wing wall is
preferred if approaches are in
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cuttings, or for small
embankments of height less than
4 m or if the banks are steep and
soil is firm.
Bridge Engineering
• Splayed type wing wall:

Splayed type wing wall is built at
an angle to the abutment.
Inclination of wing wall with
respect to face of abutment is
E L
termed as splay. For bridges it is
P T
45º in general.
Top of wing wall slopes down
N
from top level of embankment to
general ground level at site.
Bridge Engineering
• Masonry Arch Bridges are preferable to locations where

supplies of materials such as cement and steel, skilled labour
and heavy machinery are inadequate.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Masonry Arch Bridges can be constructed for bridge spans up

to 30 m. The span may be restricted to 6 m in seismic zones.
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Now-a-days, masonry bridges have become almost obsolete as

the construction of these bridges is labour intensive and
uneconomical.
E L
P T
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Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Design Principle of Masonry Arch Bridges
Design of an Arch Bridge involves dimensions of various

components of the bridge superstructure such as rise of the arch,
radius of the arch ring, thickness of the arch ring, depth of haunch
filling etc. by using empirical formula.
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Rise of Arch:
Rise of an arch is decided based on rise to span ratio. Too large rise
results in big headroom and too small rise results in increased
lateral thrust.
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Thus, the rise of the arch varies from 1/2 - 1/10 of spans. For
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segmental arches, a rise of 1/3 to 1/4 of the span is found to be
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strong and economical.
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Bridge Engineering
• Radius of Arch:
Radius of an arch is calculated based on the geometry of the circle.
The radius R of the intrados is given by the following equation.
R = (S2 + 4r2)/ 8r
Where
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S = Span of the arch and r = Rise of the arch
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Thickness of Arch Ring:

Thickness of an arch is empirically calculated based on Trautwyne’s
formula.
Thickness of arch t = [√(R + 0.5S)]/7 + 0.06
E L
For large spans more than 15 m, thickness of the arch ring at the
P T
springing level should be 25-50% higher than the crown level
(usually 1/3 rd of the span).
N
For arches made of brick masonry, thickness calculated must be
increased by 35%.
Bridge Engineering
• Depth of Haunch Filling:

Depth of Haunch Filling of an arch from the springing level is given
by the following equation.
d = (r + t)/ 2
E L
The filing is done tangential to the arch extrados or laid in a slope of
1 in 6.
P T
N
Sometimes, this filling is taken up to the crown level.
This filling serves dual purpose, i.e. it serves as an additional
weight and provides a working platform for construction of face
wall.
Bridge Engineering
• Abutment:
The top width of abutment is empirically calculated based on
Trautwyne’s formula.
a = 0.6 + 0.2 R + 0.1 r
The back batter is given by b = S/ 24r
E L
P T
The length of the abutment should match with the width of the
superstructure. N
Length of Abutment = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width
Bridge Engineering
• Pier:
The top width of pier should not be less than twice of width of the
bearings or arch skewbacks, with clearance between them.
The following thumb rules are available for calculating top width of
pier.
E L
P T
Top width = Higher of (2t + 0.3) or (1/6 to 1/7 of span)
N
Straight sections without batter may be provided for heights less
than 3 m.
For heights more than 3 m, a side batter of 1 in 12 to 1 in 30 may be
given for stability and aesthetics purposes.
Length of Pier = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width
Bridge Engineering
• Return type Wing Wall:

Top Width of Return Type Wing Wall
can be assumed as 0.5 m in general.
Bottom Width of Wing Wall = 0.25 ×
Height of Wing Wall = 0.25 × (Distance
E L
between Road Top Level and Bed
P T
Level)
Return Length of Wing Wall L =
N
Projected Width of Stream Bund +
Clearance + Projected Length of Road
Bund
1 m clearance is provided in general.
Bridge Engineering
• Splayed type Wing Wall:
Top Width of Splayed Type Wing Wall
can be assumed as 0.5 m in general.
Bottom/ Base Width of Wing Wall =
0.4 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.4 ×
E L
(Distance between Springing Level
P T
and Bed Level)
Length of Wing Wall L = Height of
N
Embankment × Slope = (Distance
between Formation Level and
Springing Level) × Slope
Wing Wall ends up at pedestal or newel of size 0.5-1 m.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Design Example
E L
P T
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Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Problem Statement
Design a masonry arch bridge and it’s components for the following
design particulars. While designing end connectors, design both
return type and splayed type wing walls.
Span Length = 10 m; No of Spans = 2; Rise to Span Ratio = 1 : 4
L
HFL of Stream = 108 m; Stream Bund Top Level = 108.75 m
E
Bed Level = 105 m; Springing Level = 109 m
Road Top Level = 113 m; Formation Level =P
T
Slope of Formation Embankment = 2 : 1
N 112 m
Stream Bed Width = 25 m; Slope of Stream Bund = 1 : 1

Slope of Road Bund = 2 : 1; Road Width = 2 Lane (7.5 m) with 600
mm wide kerbs; Top width of pier = 1/7 of Span
Bridge Engineering
Design Example: Solution
Design of Superstructure
Span of the Arch S = 10 m
Rise of the Arch Intrados r = Span/ 4 = 10/4 = 2.5 m
Radius of the Arch Intrados R = (S2 + 4r2)/8r = (102 + 4 × 2.52)/(8 ×
2.5) = 6.25 m
E L
P T
Thickness of the Arch by Trautwyne’s formula t = [√(R + 0.5S)]/7 +
N
0.06 = [√(6.25 + 0.5 × 10)]/7 + 0.06 = 0.539 m ≈ 0.55 m
Depth of Haunch Filling d = (r + t)/2 = (2.5 + 0.55)/2 = 1.525 m ≈ 1.6 m
The filling is made tangential to the arch extrados.
Bridge Engineering
Design of Abutment
Top Width of the Abutment by Trautwyne’s formula a = 0.6 + 0.2 R +
0.1 r = 0.6 + 0.2 × 6.25 + 0.1 × 2.5 = 2.1 m
The front face of the abutment is kept vertical and the back face is
provided with a batter.
E L
Back Batter b = S/ 24r = 10/ (24 × 2.5) = 1/6
Height of the Abutment = (109 ‒ 105) = 4 m P
T
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Base Width of the Abutment at the Bed Level = Top Width + (1/6) ×
Height of the Abutment = 2.1 + (1/6) × (109 ‒ 105) = 2.77 m ≈ 2.8 m
Length of Abutment = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width = 7.5 + 2 × 0.6 =
8.7 m
Bridge Engineering
Design of Pier
Top Width of the Pier = 1/7 of the Span = (1/7) × 10 = 1.429 m ≈ 1.5 m
Height of the Pier = (109 ‒ 105) = 4 m
Since height of the pier is more than 3 m, a batter of 1 in 24 is
provided to both sides of the pier.
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Side Batter of the Pier = 1/24
P T
N
Bottom Width of the Pier = 1.5 + 2 × (1/24) × 4 = 1.83 m ≈ 1.9 m
Length of Pier = Road Width + 2 × Kerb Width = 7.5 + 2 × 0.6 = 8.7 m
Bridge Engineering
Design of End Connectors (Return Type Wing Wall)
Top Width of Return Type Wing Wall = 0.5 m
Bottom Width of Wing Wall = 0.25 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.25 ×
(Distance between Road Top Level and Bed Level)
= 0.25 × (113 ‒ 105) = 2 m
E L
P T
Return Length of Wing Wall L = Projected Width of Stream Bund +
Clearance + Projected Length of Road Bund
N
= (108.75 ‒ 105) × 1 + 1 + (113 ‒ 108.75) × 2 = 13.25 m
1 m clearance is provided in return length calculation of wing wall.
Bridge Engineering
Design of End Connectors (Splayed Type Wing Wall)
Top Width of Splayed Type Wing Wall = 0.5 m
Bottom/ Base Width of Wing Wall = 0.4 × Height of Wing Wall = 0.4 ×
(Distance between Springing Level and Bed Level)
= 0.4 × (109 ‒ 105) = 1.6 m
E L
P T
Length of Wing Wall L = Height of Embankment × Slope = (Distance
N
between Formation Level and Springing Level) × Slope
= (112 ‒ 109) × 2 = 6 m
Wing Wall ends up at pedestal or newel of size 1 m.
Bridge Engineering
0.5 m 0.5 m
0.55 m 2.5 m 0.55 m
1.6 m 2.5 m
1.6 m Radius 6.25 m Radius 6.25 m 1.6 m
1.5 m
10 m 10 m
2.1 m
L
2.1 m
Springing Level 109 m
T E
2.8 m
Bed Level 105 m
1.9 m N P 2.8 m
Front Elevation of Masonry Arch Bridge
Bridge Engineering
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P T
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Bridge Engineering
 N. Krishna Raju, Design of Bridges, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
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 D.J. Victor, Essentials of Bridge Engineering, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
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Pvt. Ltd.
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 S. Ponnuswamy, Bridge Engineering, McGraw Hill Education.
 T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jayaram, Design of Bridge Structures, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
 W.F. Chen, and L. Duan, Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Taylor &
Francis Group.
 G. Parke and N. Hewson, ICE manual of Bridge Engineering, Thomas Telford
Publishing.
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BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 16: Concrete Arch Bridges
E L
 Analysis Methodology P T
 Numerical Example
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Topic of Discussion
 Analysis Methodology
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P T
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Bridge Engineering
General Features
• An arch is a structural member curved in a vertical plane and

the loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly
through direct axial thrusts on the supports.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Reinforced Concrete Arch bridges are adopted when girder

bridges are found uneconomical.
• With increase in span, the section of girder increases to such

an extent that the self weight of girders becomes a substantial
part of total loads.
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P T
• Reinforced Concrete Arch bridges are considered economical
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as the bending moments generated from dead loads are almost
negligible if the arch bridge is properly designed.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The shear forces and bending moments generated in arches are

relatively small compared to the girders. In girders, under action
of external loading only positive bending moments are
generated.
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• On the other hand, arches experience positive bending moment
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due to external loading and negative bending moment from the
P
•
N
horizontal thrusts to balance the positive moment.
Consequently, the design bending moment is much less in

arches in comparison with the girders requiring a smaller
section for arches.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
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P T
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Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

Location of Deck with respect to Arch Ribs
Bridge Engineering
General Features
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P T
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Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

Supporting Arrangement
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Circular Arch
In circular arch, OA = OB = OC = OP = R (Radius of arch).

x and y are coordinates of P from Origin D.
AB = L (Span of the arch).
CD = r (Rise of the arch).
In the right angled triangle OEP,
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OP2 = OE2 + EP2
P T
Or, R2 = (R ‒ r + y)2 + x2 N
x = OP Sinθ = R Sinθ
y = OE ‒ OD = R Cosθ ‒ R Cosα = R (Cosθ ‒ Cosα)
Cosα = OD/OA = (R ‒ r)/R and Sinα = AD/OA = (L/2)/R = L/2R
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Circular Arch
In triangle ODA, OA2 = OD2 + DA2

Or, R2 = (R ‒ r)2 + (L/2)2
Or, R2 = R2 ‒ 2Rr + r2 + L2/ 4
Or, 2Rr ‒ r2 = L2/ 4
Or, 2R = L2/ 4r + r
E L
Or, R = L2/ 8r + r/2
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features: Parabolic Arch
In parabolic arch, AB = L (Span of

the arch).
CD = r (Rise of the arch).
x and y are coordinates of P from
Origin A.
E L
P T
N
Equation of Parabola: y = Kx (L ‒ x) where K is a constant.
At x = L/2, y = r. So, r = KL/2 × (L ‒ L/2) = KL2/4 Or, K = 4r/L2
Equation of parabola: y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x)
Slope of the arch rib = tanθ = dy/dx = 4r/L2 (L ‒ 2x)
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
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P T
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Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
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Components of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges
Bridge Engineering
The Primary Design Parameter for Reinforced Concrete Arch

bridges is Rise to Span Ratio (r/L). The ratio varies from 1/6 - 1/10
depending on site conditions and surroundings. Greater is the
ratio, lesser is the horizontal thrust on the supports.
L
To achieve economy, the centre of pressure under external
E
T
loading should coincide with the centre line of the arch.
P
N
Bridge Engineering
The moment M at any section x of an arch is given by:
M = M1 ‒ H × y
Where M1 = Moment considering the arch as a simply supported

beam;
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T
H = Horizontal Force at the Springing Level;
P
Springing Level.
N
y = Vertical Ordinate of the arch centre at section x from the
Assuming M = 0, y = M1/ H
Bridge Engineering
• Arches may be fixed, hinged or tied at the supports. Due to the

curved shape of an arch, horizontal forces are developed at the
supports in addition to vertical forces both in the fixed and
hinged arches. For fixed arches, fixed end moments are also
generated at the supports.
E L
•
P T
The horizontal forces produce negative moments at all the
sections of the arches and reduce
N the positive moments
resulting in reduced cross-sectional dimensions of arches in
comparison with girders.
Bridge Engineering
• In two and three hinged arches, only axial forces are

transmitted to the supports or abutments and there is no
bending moment in the arch at the springing level or in the
abutments.
•
E L
In fixed arches, forces and moments are generated both due
T
to rotation and displacement of the supports. So, fixed arches
P
N
are constructed in places where absolute unyielding foundation
conditions can be achieved.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
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P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Forces and Moments of RC Arch Bridges
• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads
• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation
• Forces and Moments due to Arch Rib Shortening
• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete

E L
P T
• Forces and Moments due to Plastic Flow/ Creep of Concrete
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation:
Temperature variation causes thrust and moment in the reinforced

concrete arch. For reinforced concrete arches, the effective
temperature variation is generally taken as 2/3rd of the actual
temperature variation.
E L
P T
N
• Forces and Moments due to Arch Rib Shortening:
Arch Rib Shortening is caused due to compressive strain of the

arch concrete by direct axial thrust in the rib due to external loading
on the arch rib. This phenomenon releases part of the horizontal
thrust produced by the dead and superimposed loads.
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete:
The volumetric changes of concrete structures due to the loss of

moisture by evaporation is termed as shrinkage of concrete.
Shrinkage of concrete shortens the length of arch rib.
E L
Shrinkage of concrete is maximum at the initial stage and this
P T
phenomena reduces with elapse of time when concrete is hardened.
N
Shrinkage can be minimized by adopting high grade concrete in
arches.
Shrinkage can further be reduced by pouring concrete in arch ribs

in sections leaving gaps at the crown and springing levels which are
concreted later on.
Bridge Engineering
• Forces and Moments due to Plastic Flow/ Creep of Concrete:
Plastic flow/ creep of concrete is a phenomenon which causes a

permanent strain in the concrete when loaded for a long time.
Similar to shrinkage strain, creep strain is maximum at the initial
E L
stage and this phenomena reduces with elapse of time.
P T
N
Plastic flow of concrete causes pull and additional moments in the
hinged and fixed arches.
Plastic flow/ creep can be minimized by adopting high grade

concrete in arches.
Bridge Engineering
Analysis of RC Arch Bridges
• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads:

 Two Hinged Arches:
A two-hinged arch has four unknown reaction components at the
two supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
E L
From statics, three
equations of equilibrium
P T
can be employed i.e. ∑H = N
0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Therefore, two-hinged arch

is statically indeterminate
to first degree.
Bridge Engineering
From ∑H = 0, HA + HB = 0 Or, HA = ‒ HB = H
From ∑V = 0, VA + VB ‒ W = 0 Or, VA + VB = W
From ∑M = 0 about point A, VB × L ‒ W × a = 0 Or, VB = Wa/L
VA = W ‒ VB = W ‒ Wa/L = W(1 ‒ a/L)

E L
Moment at any section of
P T
the arch rib is given by M =
M1 ‒ Hy
N
We are required to
determine the magnitude
of H.
Bridge Engineering
The fourth equation can be derived from the displacement

consideration using Castigliano’s first theorem.
Castigliano’s first theorem states that the partial derivative of the

total strain energy in any structure with respect to the applied force
L
or moments gives the displacement or rotation respectively at the
E
T
point of application of the force or the moment in the direction of
P
the applied force or moment.
N
Bridge Engineering
Neglecting the strain energy due to direct thrust which is quite

small, total strain energy due to bending moment U will be
U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hy)2/2EI ds
If the supports do not yield, δU/ δH = 0
E L
T
L
Or, δU/ δH = ∫0 (M1 ‒ Hy)(‒ y)/EI ds = 0
[(y ds)/EI] = ∫ (MP

Or, H = ∫0L [(M1 yds)/EI]/ ∫0L 2
0 N yds)/ ∫
L
1 0
L
(y2ds)
If the supports yield, δU/ δH = ‒ δ
Or, δU/ δH = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hy)(‒ y)/EI ds = ‒ δ
Or, H = ∫0L [(M1 yds)/EI ‒ δ]/∫0L [(y2ds)/EI] = ∫0L (M1yds ‒ EIδ)/∫0L (y2ds)
Bridge Engineering

 Three Hinged Arches:
A three-hinged arch has four unknown reaction components at the
two supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
E L
From statics, three
equations of equilibrium P T
can be employed i.e., N
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Since three-hinged arch has a third hinge at the crown C, moment

at C is zero. So, the fourth equation would be Mc = 0
Bridge Engineering
With four unknowns and four equations available, three-hinged arch

is a statically determinate structure.
From ∑H = 0, HA + HB = 0
Or, HA = ‒ HB = H
From ∑V = 0, VA + VB ‒ W = 0
E L
Or, VA + VB = W
P T
From ∑M = 0 about point A,
N
VB × L ‒ W × a = 0 Or, VB = Wa/L
VA = W ‒ VB = W ‒ Wa/L = W(1 ‒ a/L)
Bridge Engineering
Moment at third hinge at the crown C is zero.
From Moment about point C MC = 0, it can be written that
MC = M1 ‒ Hr = 0
Or, H = M1/r
E L
Here r is rise of the arch.
P T
Where N
M1 = VA × L/2 ‒ W × (L/2 ‒ a)
= W(1 ‒ a/L) × L/2 ‒ W × (L/2 ‒ a)
= W × L/2 ‒ W × a/2 ‒ W × L/2 + W × a = W × a/2
Bridge Engineering

 Fixed Arches:
A fixed arch has six unknown reaction components at the two
supports, HA, VA and MA at support A and HB, VB and MB at support
B.
E L
From statics, three
P T
equations of equilibrium
can be employed i.e.,
N
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
Therefore, fixed arch is statically indeterminate to third degree.
Bridge Engineering
Three additional equations can be formulated by considering the

total strain energy U of the arch as: U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds
a) No horizontal displacement of the abutments:
δU/ δH = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δH) ds = 0
E L
T
b) No vertical displacement of the abutments:
P
δU/ δV = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δV) ds = 0
N
c) No rotation of the abutments:
δU/ δM = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δM) ds = 0
Bridge Engineering

 Tied Arches:
Tied arches are modified two-hinged arches where the horizontal
thrusts are resisted by a tie provided at the springing level.
E L
Due to external loading, the
springing level of the arch tends P T
to move in outward direction N
which is prevented by the tie
partially.
Bridge Engineering
The tie being in tension is subjected to tensile deformation which

allows one end of the arch provided with rollers to move such that
the outward force of the arch at the springing level balances the
tension force in the tie.
E L
T
For the stability of the tied
arches, one end of the arch is
provided with a hinge and the N P
other end with a roller.
Bridge Engineering
Tied arches have four unknown reaction components at the two

supports, HA and VA at support A and HB and VB at support B.
From statics, three equations of

equilibrium can be employed i.e.
∑H = 0, ∑V = 0 and ∑M = 0.
E L
Therefore, tied arch is statically P T
indeterminate to first degree. N
In tied arches δU/ δH ≠ 0 as the arch end moves.
The fourth equation will be: δU/ δV = (1/EI) ∫0L M. (δM/δV) ds = 0
Bridge Engineering
• Temperature Effect in Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges:
If L is the span of the arch, support B if can be free to move due to

temperature effect, will go to B′ horizontally such that BB′ = Lαt.
Where α is thermal expansion

coefficient of arch material and
E L
t is temperature change.
P T
Bending moment M at an
height y from the springing
N
level is: M = Ht y
Here Ht is the horizontal thrust due to prevention of expansion of
arch due to temperature change.
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal increase in span δL of the arch is given by: δL = δU/ δHt

Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (Ht y)2/2EI ds
δU/ δHt = ∫0L 2Ht y2 /2EI ds = (1/EI) ∫0L Ht y2 ds
L
Also, Horizontal increase in span δL of the arch due to temperature
E
change δL = Lαt
P T
Hence, we can write:
Lαt = δL = δU/ δHt

N
Or, Lαt = (1/EI) ∫0L Ht y2 ds
Or, Ht = EI Lαt / ∫0L y2 ds
Bridge Engineering
• Effect of Arch Rib Shortening in Reinforced Concrete Arch

Bridges:
Arch Rib Shortening is caused due to compressive strain of the

arch concrete by direct axial thrust in the rib due to external
loading on the arch rib.
E L
This phenomenon releases
P T
part of the horizontal thrust
produced by the dead and
N
superimposed loads.
Horizontal thrust generated in arch due to arch rib shortening is Ha
Bridge Engineering
Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (M1 ‒ Ha y)2/2EI ds
Change in Length due to Arch Rib Shortening, δL is represented

by: δL = δU/ δHa = δ/ δHa[ ∫0L (M1 ‒ Ha y)2/2EI ds]
= ∫0L (M1 ‒ Hay)(‒ y)/EI ds
Arch Rib Shortening would cause reduction of E

L
L
P T rib length equal to
‒∫ H ds/AE
0 a
L
a
L
N
Now, ‒∫ H ds/AE = ∫ (M ‒ H y)(‒ y)/EI ds
1 a
0 0
Or, Ha = ∫0L (M1 yds/ EI)/ [∫0L (y2ds / EI) + ∫0L (ds/AE)]
Bridge Engineering
• Effect of Shrinkage and Plastic Flow in Reinforced Concrete

Arch Bridges:
Hs is the horizontal thrust due to shrinkage of arch rib and Cs is the

shrinkage strain.
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = LCs

E L
P T
N
Bending moment due to shrinkage at an height y from the
springing level is: M = Hs y
Total Strain Energy U = ∫0L M2/2EI ds = ∫0L (Hs y)2/2EI ds
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = δU/ δHs = ∫0L 2Hs y2/2EI ds

= (1/EI) ∫0L Hs y2 ds
Bridge Engineering
Change in length due to Shrinkage δL = LCs = (1/EI) ∫0L Hs y2 ds

Or, Hs = EI LCs / ∫0L y2 ds
Effect of plastic flow of concrete can be incorporated by modifying

E to half of the instantaneous value in calculation of thrust due to
E L
temperature variation and shrinkage including plastic flow.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example: Problem Statement
A two hinged parabolic arch of 40 m span is loaded with 120 kN load
at 10 m interval, as shown in figure. Rise of the arch is 5 m. Find the
forces and moments considering the effect of temperature variation,
arch shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow of concrete.
L
α = 11.7 × 10‒6/ ºC, Cs = 4 × 10‒4, E = 31.2 × 104 kg/cm2, t = 18ºC, A =
E
30 cm × 150 cm, I = 8.5 × 106 cm4.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Numerical Example: Solution
Equation of parabolic arch rib is y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x)
y = 4rx/L2 × (L ‒ x) = 4 × 5x/ 402 × (40 ‒ x) = x/ 80 (40 ‒ x)
Considering the parabolic arch as a simply supported beam, VA = VB

= (3 × 120)/ 2 = 180 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For 0 < x < 10 m, Moment from A to C = 180x kNm
For 0 < x < 20 m, Moment from C to D = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) = (60x +

1200) kNm
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
For 0 < x < 30 m, Moment from D to E = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) ‒ 120(x ‒
20) = (3600 ‒ 60x) kNm
For 0 < x < 40 m, Moment from E to B = 180x ‒ 120(x ‒ 10) ‒ 120(x ‒

20) ‒ 120(x ‒ 30) = (7200 ‒ 180x) kNm
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Thrust H = ∫0L (Mydx)/ ∫0L (y2dx)
Section A to C:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫010180x × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫010(90x2 ‒ 9x3/4) dx = (30x3 ‒
9x4/16) 010 = 24375 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section C to D:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫1020 (60x + 1200) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫1020(30x2 ‒ 3x3/4 +
600x ‒ 15x2) dx = ∫1020(15x2 ‒ 3x3/4 + 600x) dx
= (5x3 ‒ 3x4/16 + 300x2) 1020 = 96875 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section D to E:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫2030 (3600 ‒ 60x) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫2030(1800x ‒ 45x2 ‒
30x2 + 3x3/4) dx = ∫2030(1800x ‒ 75x2 + 3x3/4) dx = (900x2 ‒ 25x3 +
3x4/16) 2030 = 96875 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Section E to B:
∫ (Mydx) = ∫3040 (7200 ‒ 180x) × (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) dx = ∫3040(3600x ‒ 90x2
‒ 90x2 + 9x3/4) dx = ∫3040(3600x ‒ 180x2 + 9x3/4) dx = (1800x2 ‒ 60x3 +
9x4/16) 3040 = 24375 kN-m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Total ∫0L (Mydx) = (24375 + 96875 + 96875 + 24375) = 242500 kN-m3
∫0L (y2dx) = ∫040 [(x/80) × (40 ‒ x)]2 dx = ∫040(x/2 ‒ x2/80)2 dx = ∫040(x2/4 ‒

x3/80 + x4/6400) dx = (x3/12 ‒ x4/320 + x5/32000) 040 = 533.33 m3
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Horizontal Thrust H = ∫0L (Mydx)/ ∫0L (y2dx) = 242500 kN-m3 / 533.33 m3
= 454.69 kN
Moment at A = Moment at B = 0
y at C and E = (x/80) × (40 ‒ x) = (10/80) × (40 ‒ 10) = 3.75 m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Moment at C = Moment at E = (VA × x ‒ HA × y) = (180 × 10) ‒ (454.69
× 3.75) = 94.91 kN-m
Moment at D = [VA × x ‒ 120 (x ‒ 10) ‒ HA × y] = [(180 × 20) ‒ 120 (20 ‒

10) ‒ (454.69 × 5)] = 126.55 kN-m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Effective temperature variation = 2/3rd of the actual temperature
variation = 2/3 × ± 18 = ±12º C
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature change, Ht = EI Lαt / ∫0L y2 dx
Ht = (31.2 × 104 kg/cm2 × 8.5 × 106 cm4 × 4000 cm × 11.7 × 10‒6/ ºC × ±

12 ºC) / (533.33 × 106) cm3 = ± 2792.57 kg = ± 27.387 kN
E L
P T
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N
Horizontal Thrust due to arch rib shortening, Ha = ∫0L (My dx)/ [∫0L
(y2dx) + ∫0L (I dx/A)]
∫0L (My dx) = 242500 kN-m3; ∫0L (y2dx) = 533.33 m3
A = (30 cm × 150 cm) = 4500 cm2 = 0.45 m2
Bridge Engineering
I = 8.5 × 106 cm4 = 0.085 m4
∫0L (I dx/A) = (I/A) ∫0L dx = (0.085/0.45) ∫040 dx = (0.085/0.45) × 40 = 7.56

m3
Ha = ∫0L (My dx)/ [∫0L (y2dx) + ∫0L (I dx/A)] = 242500/ (533.33 + 7.56) =
448.34 kN
E L
P T
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Shrinkage strain Cs = 4 × 10‒4 N
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage, Hs = EI LCs / ∫0L y2 dx
∫0L (y2dx) = 533.33 m3
Hs = (31.2 × 104 kg/cm2 × 8.5 × 106 cm4 × 4000 cm × 4 × 10‒4)/ (533.33
× 106) cm3 = 7956.05 kg = 78.025 kN
Bridge Engineering
Effect of Plastic Flow of Concrete can be incorporated by modifying
E to half of the instantaneous value in calculation of thrust due to
temperature variation and shrinkage including plastic flow.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Summary of Results
Horizontal Thrust due to external loads, H = 454.69 kN
Horizontal Thrust due to arch rib shortening, Ha = 448.34 kN
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage, Hs = 78.025 kN (‒ ve)
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature variation, HE

L
P T = ± 27.387 kN
t
H = 39.01 kN (‒ ve)
s
N
Horizontal Thrust due to shrinkage including plastic flow = 50% of
Horizontal Thrust due to temperature variation including plastic flow

= 50% of Ht = ± 13.69 kN
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Horizontal Thrust inclusive of temperature variation, arch
rib shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow = Hmax = 448.34 kN ‒ 39.01
kN + 13.69 kN = 423.02 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Minimum Horizontal Thrust inclusive of temperature variation, arch
rib shortening, shrinkage and plastic flow = Hmin = 448.34 kN ‒ 39.01
kN ‒ 13.69 kN = 395.64 kN
Moment at A = Moment at B = 0
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Maximum Moment at C = Maximum Moment at E = (VA × x ‒ Hmin × y)
= (180 × 10) ‒ (395.64 × 3.75) = 316.35 kN-m
Maximum Moment at D = [VA × x ‒ 120 (x ‒ 10) ‒ Hmin × y] = [(180 ×

20) ‒ 120 (20 ‒ 10) ‒ (395.64 × 5)] = 421.8 kN-m
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 17: Suspension Bridges
E L
 Aerodynamic Instability P T
 Cable Sag and Cable Tension
N
Topic of Discussion
 Aerodynamic Instability

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300

metres. Suspension bridges of lesser spans are also
constructed for aesthetic reasons. For spans exceeding 600
metres, stiffened suspension bridges are adopted.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Suspension bridges consist of one main span and two side

spans. The ratio of side span to main span generally varies from
0.17 to 0.50.
• Two groups of cables run from one end of the bridge to the
L
other passing over two towers. The ends of the cables are
E
anchored into the ground.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The bridge deck supported over stiffening truss is suspended

from the cables by suspenders and hence, this type of bridge is
named as suspension bridge.
• The ratio of side span to main span is 0.17-0.50 in general.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• A suspension bridge has the following structural components:
a) Towers, b) Cables, c) Anchorages

d) Suspenders, e) Stiffening Truss
f) Bridge Deck, g) Foundation
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The loads from the stiffening truss are carried by the

suspenders which in turn transfer the load to the cables.
• Since the cables of suspension bridge are very flexible, they do

not take any bending moment and are subjected only to tensile
forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The cables which are

subjected to tensile
forces transfer the
loads to the towers.
• Foundations, either
E L
separate or combined
P T
is provided below the
towers for ultimate
N
transfer of the loads to
the soil strata beneath.
Bridge Engineering
• Stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distribute the deck live
loads to the cables otherwise the cables would have subjected
to local sag due to concentrated live load causing local angle
change in deck system. Stiffening trusses are hinged at the
L
towers and suspended at node points from suspenders.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Vertical suspenders are generally used in many bridges but

diagonal suspenders have the advantage of improving the
aerodynamic stability of the bridge.
• The cables should

be cold-drawn wires,
E L
not heat-treated as
P T
the latter is
susceptible to failure
N
due to alternate
stresses even at low
loads.
Bridge Engineering
The following structural arrangements can be made for

suspension bridges.
• Loaded or Unloaded Side Span

• Self-anchored or Externally Anchored Back Stay
• Various Configurations of Stiffening Trusses
E L
• Various Ratios of Side to Main Spans
P T
N
• Various Ratios of Span to Sag of Cable
• Various Ratios of Span to Depth of Stiffening Trusses
• Tower Arrangement
• Hanger Arrangement
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Aerodynamic Instability
• Tacoma Narrows Bridge I of span length 853 m, world’s third

longest bridge of that time was made open to traffic on July 1,
1940.
• To make the bridge slender, span to depth ratio was considered
L
as 350, which used to be around 90 during that time. Span to
E
T
deck width ratio was 72 against the conventional value of 35.
P
•
N
The bridge became extremely flexible as a result.
Use of solid yet shallow plate girders for stiffening the deck for
visual enhancement, rendered the bridge aerodynamically
unstable.
• The bridge was oscillating vertically under moving loads.
Bridge Engineering
• On November 7, 1940, a stiff breeze of around 68 km/hr created

the vertical oscillation of the bridge combined with the violent
twisting motion. Soon, the whole deck twisted itself into pieces
and fell into the Narrows.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The Tacoma Narrows disaster emphasized the need to study

the aerodynamic stability of bridges.
• Wind tunnel tests on models and analysis were initiated by

researchers across the world soon.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• The wind exerted on a structure may cause the static and

dynamic instability depending on the shape and cross-section
of the deck and the angle of wind incidence.
• The following conditions are required to be explored.
E L
a) Lift and Drag Forces: Lift force acts perpendicular to the wind
P T
direction while drag force acts parallel to the wind direction.
N
b) Vortex formation: Vortices can be described as a swirling air
mass with an annular cylindrical shape. The rotary speed at
the periphery is at its minimal, but the rotary speed increases
inversely with the radius so that its speed near the centre is at
maximum.
Bridge Engineering
c) Flutter: Flutter is the oscillation of the bridge deck in a mode

including both transverse movements and torsional rotations.
Flutter becomes critical when the wind acting on a structure

reaches a critical velocity that triggers a self-excited unstable
condition.
E L
P T
It may occur where the ratio of natural frequencies of the torsional
N
mode and translational (vertical) mode is equal to unity i.e. Nθ/Nv =
1 where Nθ = torsional frequency and Nv = vertical frequency.
The lowest frequencies generate vertical and torsional movements

at the centre of the main span.
Bridge Engineering
d) Buffeting: Buffeting is the shaking due to gusts. Buffeting

affects the fatigue performance of the bridge and causes
disturbances to the users. Wind blowing slightly upwards
under the deck generally cause maximum disturbances.
L
e) Cable vibrations: Cables of long span suspension bridges are
E
T
vulnerable to wind-induced vibrations. This can be mitigated
P
N
by increasing the damping at the cable ends, by altering the
natural frequency of the cables by reducing cable lengths with
use of spacers or cross cables and by changing the cable
characteristics by increasing the surface roughness.
Bridge Engineering
• In order to mitigate the adverse effects of wind-induced

disturbances, it is necessary to set up eddies or turbulence in
the wind and to increase the rigidity of the structure.
• Diagonal suspenders may be used in place of vertical hangers
L
and artificial damping devices may be installed in the structure.
E
P T
• Additionally, increase in the depth of stiffening truss and width
N
of the deck have also been found effective in this regard.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
• Cable sag would influence the design of a suspension bridge

considerably as a smaller cable sag increases the cable tension
but reduces the height of towers and lengths of hangers.
• If the unit cost of towers and hangers is higher than the unit
L
cost of cables, smaller cable sag is adopted and vice versa.
E
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
• A reduced cable sag increases the cable stiffness as well as the

total stiffness of the structure resulting in higher natural
frequency and reduced susceptibility to aerodynamic
instability.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Sag
Let us consider a point P on the cable having coordinates x and y

with B as origin. The suspension cable hangs in the shape of a
parabola, equation of which is given by:
y = kx(L ‒ x) where k is constant and L is main span.
L
At x = L/2, y = yc i.e. the cable sag at centre of main span.
E
Therefore, y = (4yc/L2) x (L ‒ x)
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Tension
Considering the main span loaded with uniformly distributed load

of intensity w, vertical reaction on tower RB = RD = wL/2 = R
The cable being flexible can not take any moment and thus,
moment at mid span of the cable is zero.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Cable Tension
Considering moment of the forces in the left hand side about C,
RB × L/2 = H × yc + wL/2 × L/4 Or, H = wL2/8yc
Maximum tension in cable at B, T = √(H2 + R2)
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
• The suspension cable of the main span is supported on two

towers on both sides of the main span. The suspension cable
after passing over the supporting tower is generally anchored
down into an anchorage system. The cable of the side span is
L
thus termed as “anchor cable” or “back-stay cable”.
E
cables over the towers from the main P
T
• There are two arrangements generally made for passing the
a) Guide Pulley Support

N span to the side span.
b) Roller Support
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
a) Guide Pulley Support: The main cable is taken over a

frictionless guide pulley fixed on the top of the supporting
tower to the side span and then anchored. Since the cable
passes through a frictionless pulley, cable tension on both the
sides is the same.
E L
Vertical reaction on the
P T
tower due to cable tension
RT = T cosα + T cosθ
N
Horizontal force on the
top of the tower H = T sinα
– T sinθ
Bridge Engineering
Back-Stay Cable
b) Roller Support: The main cable and the anchor cable are
attached to a saddle supported on rollers placed at the top of
the tower. Since the saddle is at rest, the horizontal force
component of both the main and anchor cables must be the
same.
E L
Horizontal force on the
P T
top of the tower H = T1
sinα = T2 sinθ
N
Vertical reaction on the
tower due to cable tension
RT = T1 cosα + T2 cosθ
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
A suspension bridge having a main span of 100 meters has a cable
sag of 10 metres at centre. Angle of anchor cable α = 60°.
Calculate the maximum tension in the cables when the deck is
carrying a uniformly distributed loading in the main span of 50 kN
per meter length.
E L
P T
Find the vertical reaction on the tower (a) if the cable passes over a
on rollers. N
friction less pulley and (b) if the cable passes over a saddle resting
Bridge Engineering
1. Given Data:
Main span length L = 100 m
Cable sag at center yc = 10 m
Uniformly distributed loading in the main span w = 50 kN/m
Angle of anchor cable α = 60°
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
2. Maximum Cable Tension:
Vertical reaction on tower RB = RD = R = wL/2 = R = (50 × 100)/2 =
2500 kN
Let us consider the horizontal pull on the cables as H.
L
The cable being flexible can not take any moment and thus,
E
moment at mid span of the cable is zero.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Considering moment of the forces in the left hand side about C,
RB × L/2 = H × yc + wL/2 × L/4
Or, H = wL2/8yc = (50 × 1002)/(8 × 10) = 6250 kN
Maximum tension in cable at T = √(H2 + R2) = √(62502 + 25002) =
6731.46 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Case (a) The cable passes over a frictionless pulley i.e. for Guide
Pulley Support:
Vertical reaction on the tower due to cable
tension RT = T cosα + T cosθ = T cosα + R
= 6731.46 cos60° + 2500 = 5865.73 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Case (b) The cable passes over a saddle on rollers i.e. for Roller
Support:
Horizontal force on the top of the tower H
= T1 sinα = T1 sin60°
Horizontal force on the top of the tower H
E L
= 6250 kN
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
So, T1 = H/ sinα = 6250/ sin60° = 7216.88 kN
Vertical reaction on the tower due to cable
tension RT = T1 cosα + T2 cosθ = T1 cosα +
R = 7216.88 cos60° + 2500 = 6108.44 kN
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 18: Cable-Stayed Bridges
E L
 Aerodynamic Instability P T
 Optimum Cable Inclination
N
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• In cable stayed bridges, cables from the deck are connected to

the main tower by inclined but straight cables. The inclined
cables of cable-stayed bridges are relatively stiff than the
cables of a suspension bridge which are relatively flexible.
E L
P T
N
Cable Stayed Bridges
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The cable stays of cable-stayed bridges act as intermediate

elastic supports in addition to the abutment or tower support.
• Presence of intermediate elastic supports in cable-stayed

bridges reduce deflection of bridge deck as well as the depth of
girders.
E L
P T
N
Cable Stayed Bridges
Bridge Engineering
Advantages
• Cable stayed bridge is an innovative structure and is preferred

to conventional steel suspension bridges for long spans mainly
due to the reduction in moments in the stiffening girders
resulting in smaller section of the girders leading to economy in
overall costs.
E L
P T
• The ratio of maximum bending moment in the cable stayed
girder is nearly 1/10th of that of the conventional continuous
girder system. N
• In addition, the moments can be controlled to make them more
uniformly distributed along the girder length resulting in
efficient material utilization even with a very low depth to span
ratio of 1/90.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Various structural components of Cable Stayed Bridges are:

a) Towers or Pylons
b) Deck System
c) Cable System Supporting Deck
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Towers or Pylons
• Towers or Pylons are principal compression members involved

in transmission of loads to foundation.
• Towers can be of different types so as to accommodate

different cable arrangements, site conditions, design features,
aesthetics and economical considerations.
E L
P T
• Generally the arrangement of the cable stays determines the
N
design of both the pylon and the deck.
• The pylons can be arranged to support one axial layer of cable

stays or two lateral layer of cable stays.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Transverse arrangement of Pylons with one axial
layer of cable stays
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Transverse arrangement of Pylons with two axial
layer of cable stays
Bridge Engineering
Transfer of forces from the cable stays to the pylon is achieved by

three different arrangements.
a) A saddle permitting the continuity of the cable stay.
b) The cable stays fixed to the top of the tower may cross each
other inside the pylon.
E L
P T
c) A relay device incorporated into the top of the tower
N
connecting the upper anchorages of the associated cable
stays.
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Saddle Crossing of Cable Stays Relay Device
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Cable Stays
The cable stays are made up of high tensile steel of different types
with an ultimate tensile strength in the range of 1500 to 2000
N/mm2.
The different types of cable stays used are:
a) Twisted Cable Stay

E L
b) Parallel Wires Cable Stay P T
c) Parallel Strands Cable Stay
N
d) Locked Coil Cable Stay
e) Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Typical cross sections of different types of cable stays are:
E L
P T
N
Twisted Parallel Wires Parallel Strands
Cable Stay Cable Stay Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Typical cross sections of different types of cable stays are:
E L
P T
N
Locked Coil Cable Stay Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Freyssinet Cable Stay
• The latest types of cable stay, i.e., Freyssinet cable stay
comprises a bundle of parallel strands of 15 mm diameter
which are enclosed in a polyethylene tube.
• This configuration allows the threading and grouting of the

stay.
E L
P T
• A spiral of steel wire inside the polyethylene ensures that
N
proper grout cover is provided around the bundle of strands.
• The cable stay comprises of 3 types of zones, i.e., the free

length zone, the transition zone and the anchorage zone.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Freyssinet Cable Stay
E L
P T
N
General Layout of Freyssinet Cable Stay
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Longitudinal Cable
Arrangement
• The arrangement of cables on the longitudinal direction
depends upon several factors such as clear span, tower
height, spacing of towers and level of approach roads.
L
• The choice of the longitudinal cable arrangement is
E
T
influenced by span, type of loading, number of roadway
P
N
lanes, height of towers, economy and aesthetic
considerations.
• For shorter span lengths, a single forestay and a backstay

with a single pylon is sufficient to satisfy the loading
requirements.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Longitudinal Cable
Arrangement
• Basically there are four types of cable configurations
generally used and they are classified as
(a) Fan type,
(b) Harp type,

E L
(c) Mixed type, and
P T
(d) Star type
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Fan Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Fan Type Cable
Arrangement
• Fan type arrangement is more aesthetic and as a rule the
most economical for a pylon of slenderness ratio (h/L) ≤ 0.3.
• For an equal tower height, the average inclination of the cable

stays is lower.
E L
P T
• The cable stays are longer and converge towards a single
N
point at the top of the tower posing problems of anchoring
arrangement and any subsequent stay replacement is
difficult.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Harp Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Harp Type Cable
Arrangement
• Harp type arrangement is preferred in a double plane system
as it minimizes the intersection of cables when viewed from
an oblique angle.
L
• The motorist may find the harp system more attractive. In the
E
T
harp system the cable connections are distributed
P
N
throughout the height of the tower and hence results in an
efficient tower design in comparison with the fan type.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Mixed Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Mixed Type Cable
Arrangement
• Fan type arrangement increases buckling problems due to
greater effective strut length while harp type arrangement
increases bending moments.
L
• The mixed type arrangement represents a compromise
E
T
between the extremes of the harp and the fan type
P
N
arrangements and it is useful when it becomes difficult to
accommodate all cables at the top of the tower.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Star Type Cable
Arrangement
E L
P T
N
• Star type arrangement may be preferred due to its unique
aesthetic appearance.
Bridge Engineering
Structural Configurations: Anchorage System
• The axial force in the stiffening girder depends on the method

of anchoring the cables and the provision of expansion joints
and their location in the structure.
• Basically three different types of anchored systems are

considered such as
E L
a) Self anchored system
P T
b) Fully anchored system
N
c) Partially anchored system
Bridge Engineering
• Self Anchored System:
In the self anchored system, there is no restraint at the supports

to the horizontal components of the cable force. In this case, the
axial force distribution in the girder will vary from zero at the
E L
centre of main span to maximum compression near the towers.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Fully Anchored System:
In the fully anchored system, no provision is made for

movement at the supports but expansion joints are provided at
the towers. The axial force distribution varies from zero force at
E L
the towers to a maximum value at the centre of span.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
• Partially Anchored System:
In the partially anchored system, the axial forces are considerably

reduced using a combination of the above two systems by
providing horizontal restraint at the abutments with no expansion
E L
joints or expansion joints provided only in the end spans.
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Dynamic Behaviour
• The cable stayed bridge with concrete decks and highly

stressed cables has very favourable dynamic behaviour.
• The deflection under live loads are extremely small because the
effective depth of the large cantilever truss formed by the
cables is much larger than for beam girders.
E L
P T
• The main advantage of the multi-cable system being that the
N
increase of amplitude due to resonance oscillation is prevented
by system damping caused by the interference of the multi-
cable system.
Bridge Engineering
• Following geometrical relations can be maintained for

obtaining wind stability in the case of concrete bridge decks
supported with cables in two planes along the edges.
L = Span of bridge deck
B = Width of bridge deck

E L
P T
N
H = Depth of stiffening girder
• The bridge will be safe against wind loads if the following

geometrical relations are satisfied:
a) B ≥ 10H
Bridge Engineering
b) For B < 10H, a wind nose should be provided
c) B ≥ L/30, which indicates that the width of the bridge

should not be too small in relation to the main span length.
• If this ratio gets smaller, then A-shaped towers and wind

shaping of the cross-section must be used.
E L
P T
N
• The A-shaped tower provides a triangular shape of the cable
plane and the deck, which increases the torsional rigidity.
• Bridges supported with cables in one plane along the centre

line have negligible damping for torsional oscillations.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion

E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Approximate Structural Analysis
• A cable stayed bridge system is generally many times statically

indeterminate.
• A linear analysis can be made by assuming a suitable statically

determinate system.
E L
• The deflections of the basic system under applied loads may be
P T
determined by applying the classical theory of structures by
N
neglecting the deformations of the system when formulating
the equilibrium conditions.
Bridge Engineering
• For a statically determined basic system, the resulting

equations are linear in the loads and in the internal forces and
linear superposition is valid for the internal forces caused by
different loads or load groups.
L
• If Hooke’s law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition
E
T
applies also to the displacements and therefore to the
P
N
determination of the stresses of the cable stayed bridge
systems. The design process for a cable stayed bridge system
with accepted geometrical layout may be divided into the
following stages.
Bridge Engineering
(a) A preliminary set of sectional properties is assumed for

each member of the system.
(b) The sectional properties assumed in stage (a) are

analysed, applying one of the statical methods of analysis.
L
Stresses and displacements under the given loads on the system
E
T
are determined and compared with the maximum unit stresses
P
N
and maximum displacement span ratios allowed by the
specifications.
(c) A new set of sectional properties is chosen to satisfy the

requirements of the specifications.
Bridge Engineering
The above stages are repeated until we obtain a specifies relation

between the sectional properties assumed in stage (a) and those
obtained in stage (c).
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Approximate structural analysis of cable stayed bridge system

includes the computation of the following basic items:
• Height of tower and length of panels
• Cable forces
E L
• Approximate weight of stiffening girders
P T
• Self-weight of cables
N
• Degree of redundancy
• Optimum inclination of cables
Bridge Engineering
• The number and length of the panels are basically determined

by the bridge system and its structural characteristics.
• It is possible to reduce the moment of inertia of the girder and

for this purpose it is necessary to reduce the panel length.
E L
• However, the reduction of the girder’s depth is limited because
P T
of the connection of the cable to the girder.
N
• Technically it is certainly convenient to have the minimum
number of cable connections to reduce the number of
anchorages and for regulation of forces in the cables.
Bridge Engineering
A comparison of the existing structures indicate the following

optimum values of the panel lengths:
(1) For central spans in the range of 137 to 150 m, panels of

20 m length are recommended.
(2)
E L
For the smaller central spans, the panels should be in the
range of 15 to 17 m.
P T
(3) N
For central spans longer than 170 m, panels should be 30
m in length.
Bridge Engineering
The optimum size of the middle panel is determined under the

assumption of full use of the material of the girder.
Experience indicates that the length of the middle panel may be 20

to 30 percent longer than the other panels.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Cable Inclination
• The height of the tower significantly influences the stiffness of

the bridge system.
• As the angle of inclination of the cable with respect to the

stiffening girder increases, the stresses in the cables decrease,
as does the required cross-section of the tower.
E L
P T
• However, as the height of the tower increases, the length of the
N
cables and therefore their axial deformations also increase, as
well as the amount of metal in the cables.
Bridge Engineering
Optimum Cable Inclination
• The relation between the cable inclination and girder deflection

indicates that the optimum angle of cable inclination is 45°.
• However, it may vary in the reasonable limits of 25°-65°.
• The low values correspond to external cables and the higher
E
values indicate the cable nearest to the tower. L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.
E L
T
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
P
N

Cantilever Bridges
Lecture 19: Balanced Cantilever Bridges
E L
 Articulations P T
 Arrangement of Spans
N
 Shear Variation in Variable Depth Girders
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• Balanced cantilever bridges offer unique advantage of

continuity in construction ideally suited for medium to long
span bridges.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
General Features
• The superstructure basically comprises of simply supported,

suspended, cantilever spans combined together so that the
entire structure has the advantage of continuous bridges with
the simplicity of determinate structures for the purpose of
analyses.
Balanced cantilever bridges are among theE

L
•
P T several innovative
second world war. N

types of bridges which were planned and constructed after the
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Advantages:
• Economy in the use of concrete, steel and form work
• Reactions at the piers are vertical permitting slender piers
L
• Balanced cantilever design requires only one bearing at every
E
the width of the pier can be smaller. P T
pier while simply supported design needs two bearings. Hence,
•
N
Fewer expansion bearings are required for the entire structure
resulting in lower initial and maintenance cost.
Bridge Engineering
General Features
Diasadvantages:
• Skilled planning and designing with elaborative reinforcement

detailing is required.
• Variation of bending moments in different spans is less

favourable.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
• Cantilever Bridges consist of three or more spans of which the

outer or anchor spans are anchored down to the shore.
Cantilevers carry their loads by tension in upper chords and by
compression in lower chords. Suspended span is rested at the
truss.
E L
cantilever ends and it acts as a simply supported beam or
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The connection between the suspended span and the edge of

cantilever is termed as articulation.
• Articulation is a hinge that permits translation and rotation

avoiding the development of moments.
E L
• The bearings at articulations are normally comprised of the
P T
roller-rocker arrangement, sliding plates or elastomeric bearings.
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The hinges are positioned in the vicinity of low and zero bending
moments under dead load.
• By convenient location of hinges, distribution of dead load

bending moments can be made almost identical to that in the
L
continuous decks of same shape and similar loading conditions.
E
P T
• Heavy loads are transmitted at articulations resulting in
N
development of tension forces and bending moments.
• Thus, the sections near articulation are critical sections in which

detailed analysis of developed forces is required for designing
adequate reinforcements.
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The figure below shows the various critical sections 1, 2, 3 and 4

etc inclined at angles θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4 to the vertical and the
moments. Normal thrust and shear developed at these sections
are analysed for designing suitable reinforcements at the
articulations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• The beams are supported on steel or concrete rocker or

neoprene pad bearings which permit limited rotations and
translations so as to reduce development of moments and
forces.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• There are different configurations of typical balanced cantilever

bridges with hinges or articulations at different locations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Articulations
• There are different configurations of typical balanced cantilever

bridges with hinges or articulations at different locations.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Arrangement of Spans
• Typical arrangement of simply supported and cantilever spans

of balanced cantilever bridge is shown below.
E L
P T
•
N
For economy, the main criterion is that the maximum moments
in the beams are the least.
• For this criterion, the dimensions of x and y should be adjusted

accordingly.
Bridge Engineering
• Typical arrangement of simply supported and cantilever spans

of balanced cantilever bridge is shown below.
E L
P T
•
N
Under normal loading conditions, the ratio of (x/y) should be in
between 4 to 5.
• This ratio reduces the bending moment to about 50% of the

moment for a simply supported beam of span (x + 2y).
Bridge Engineering
• The simplest arrangement of balanced cantilever bridge is of

three spans as shown below in the form of double cantilever
bridge.
E L
P T
•
N
The central span can be upto 30 m.
• If the span length of the bridge exceeds, a 5 span arrangement

is selected with a simply supported span at the centre.
Bridge Engineering
• The simplest arrangement of balanced cantilever bridge is of

three spans as shown below in the form of double cantilever
bridge.
E L
P T
•
N
Normally the deck consists of main girders of the tee beam and
slab and the spacing between the beams being arranged
depending on the lanes of the traffic.
Bridge Engineering
Topic of Discussion
 Articulations
E L
P T
Bridge Engineering
Shear Variation in Variable Depth Girders
• Depth of girders in the balanced cantilever bridges are usually

variable with maximum depth at the intermediate supports to
resist the bending moments and with minimum depth at the
centre of the span and the end supports.
L
• The carriageway width is determined based on the traffic lanes
E
T
on the high way and the cross-sectional details are finalized by
P
•
N
selecting the number of main girders spaced at 1.5 – 2.5 m.
Analysis of moments and shear forces in the girders of variable

depth along the span is generally simplified by using influence
lines for all critical sections such as the supports and the
centre of the spans.
Bridge Engineering
In case of beams of varying depth, the net shear force at the

section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 is calculated by the relation given in IS:456-2000 as
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
where 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 = Shear force at the support
E L
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 = Bending moment at the section
P T
𝒅𝒅 = Effective depth at the section
N
𝜷𝜷 = Angle between the top and bottom edges of the beam
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
Net shear force at the section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
The negative sign in the formula applies when the bending

moment 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 increases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth 𝒅𝒅 increases.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖
Net shear force at the section 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖.𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑽𝑽𝒖𝒖 ∓ tan 𝜷𝜷
𝒅𝒅
The positive sign in the formula applies when the bending

moment 𝑴𝑴𝒖𝒖 decreases numerically in the same direction as the
effective depth 𝒅𝒅 decreases.
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
E L
P T
N
Bridge Engineering
L
E
Pvt. Ltd.
P T
N
Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Francis Group.
Publishing.

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E L

Module 06: Arch Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Cable-Stayed Bridges, Balanced

• Masonry Arch bridges were the first category of bridges to be

• These bridges are aesthetically superior to slab bridges.

• An arch bridge consists of a solid barrel between two face walls

• The ring sustains of the superimposed load essentially as a

• Since naturally available

• The arch ring is made up of stones cut to the shape of wedges

Type of Arch Rings

• Arches have a general tendency of opening up at the springing

• The haunch filling serves dual purpose, i.e. it serves as an

End connectors are structures of masonry built together with the

Two types of wing walls are commonly in use as end connectors.

• Return type wing wall:

• Splayed type wing wall:

• Masonry Arch Bridges are preferable to locations where

• Masonry Arch Bridges can be constructed for bridge spans up

• Now-a-days, masonry bridges have become almost obsolete as

Design of an Arch Bridge involves dimensions of various

• Thickness of Arch Ring:

• Depth of Haunch Filling:

• Return type Wing Wall:

Stream Bed Width = 25 m; Slope of Stream Bund = 1 : 1

Front Elevation of Masonry Arch Bridge

Module 06: Arch Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Cable-Stayed Bridges, Balanced

• An arch is a structural member curved in a vertical plane and

• Reinforced Concrete Arch bridges are adopted when girder

• With increase in span, the section of girder increases to such

• The shear forces and bending moments generated in arches are

Consequently, the design bending moment is much less in

Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

Types of Reinforced Concrete Arch Bridges: Based on

In circular arch, OA = OB = OC = OP = R (Radius of arch).

In triangle ODA, OA2 = OD2 + DA2

In parabolic arch, AB = L (Span of

At x = L/2, y = r. So, r = KL/2 × (L ‒ L/2) = KL2/4 Or, K = 4r/L2

Equation of parabola: y = 4rx/L2 (L ‒ x)

Slope of the arch rib = tanθ = dy/dx = 4r/L2 (L ‒ 2x)

The Primary Design Parameter for Reinforced Concrete Arch

The moment M at any section x of an arch is given by:

Where M1 = Moment considering the arch as a simply supported

• Arches may be fixed, hinged or tied at the supports. Due to the

• In two and three hinged arches, only axial forces are

• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads

• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation

• Forces and Moments due to Arch Rib Shortening

• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete

• Forces and Moments due to Temperature Variation:

Temperature variation causes thrust and moment in the reinforced

Arch Rib Shortening is caused due to compressive strain of the

• Forces and Moments due to Shrinkage of Concrete:

The volumetric changes of concrete structures due to the loss of

Shrinkage can further be reduced by pouring concrete in arch ribs

• Forces and Moments due to Plastic Flow/ Creep of Concrete:

Plastic flow/ creep of concrete is a phenomenon which causes a

Similar to shrinkage strain, creep strain is maximum at the initial

Plastic flow/ creep can be minimized by adopting high grade

• Forces and Moments due to Dead and Superimposed Loads:

Therefore, two-hinged arch

From ∑M = 0 about point A, VB × L ‒ W × a = 0 Or, VB = Wa/L

VA = W ‒ VB = W ‒ Wa/L = W(1 ‒ a/L)

The fourth equation can be derived from the displacement

Castigliano’s first theorem states that the partial derivative of the