23

Lighthill
and Whitham's Th
7
heor-
to understand traf
of the attempts
23-1. One of luids
fluids and
and the
the;
flow has
a has
to draw an analogy
between the
1)
flow
have contributed to
low of t been
tra
Whitham (Ref. th
Lighthill and on kinematic waves. The s
topie h
which is is based
their theory the 'continuous flow' mitatio
the theory is
fluid dynamics
that
and
it is based on
it thus represents the limiting
heproach approach
population', which in this of a
stochastic process for a large ase is
vehicles. Therefore, it is applicable to i sththe
ble to
total number of
problems only, and principally to the distribution of traffic large-scal
on
e
crowded roads. long
23-2. The assumptions in the derivation ofthe equations
the en.
of
the theory are:
) The equation of continuity, i.e., law of the conservation
ation of
vehicles, holds good. Thus:
Inflow = outflow t storage
(ii) At any point on the road, the flow Q is a function of the
concentration K.
23-3. Consider a length of road AB with a stationary observer
O at the mid-point, Fig. 23-1.
A B

Ut

Fig. 23-1.
There are n number of vehicles in the the

observer starts length OB when

the
counting the number passing him. The coun the
at expiry of time t when all the n vehicles have
observer. pas
 THILL AND WHITHAMs THEORRY
L I G H

A 561
the same instant when the
amoving stationary observer
coun
countin
observer starts at O and travels with starts
the stream
U, which
speed U, isless than
Vs, the space-mean speed of
A
at
and counts the vehicles passing him. The count the
stref
stream,

time when all the n vehicles have

piry of time stops at the
passed O. The
epor has travelled a distance OC in time t given by OC moving
oD5 nt will be less than the count of the =U. t.
the number of vehicles in the length OC.
stationary observer by
Number counted by the moving observer
Number in lengthl-Number in length OC
=
Q.t.n; but = Kx

Q.t- K.U.t
Flow relative to the moving observer
Q-K. U.
Suppose two moving observers are travelling at speed U at
time t apart.
Suppose the flow and concentration change with time, the
changes being relatively small ; but the observers have been told to
adjust their speeds U so that the vehicles which pass them minus
the vehicles which they pass is, on the average, the same for each.
That is
-K. U is the same for each.
For observers 1 and 2,
1-K1 U= Q2 -K2 U

U=1-e2 ..(23-1)
K-K2
and K2
In the above equation, Q1 and Q2 are the flows and Ki
ne concentration observed by the observers at time t apart.

AQ and AK
Calling the changes in flow and concentration as

Tespectively,
..(23-2)
AK

between the observers must re-

ut the number of vehicles any point
same. And the number of vehicles passing
bet e it is Qt. As t is fixed,
een the times
it lfollowshe times at which the observers pass
of the
unchanged along the path
that the flows remain
changes in
obse
observe U. In other words, when
with speed the
ow arravelling
are such changes through
the w a v e s which
strea occurring,
carry
ream of vehicles travel at a velocity given by the equation:
 AND TRANSPORT

562
TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
PLANNING
UK
This velocity, relative to
aay
the road, may
speed.
positive
be
be positiveor
or
negative
r

space-mean
exceeds vs, the
but it never
then small changee:
changes in flow
functionally related,
.

IfQ and K are

are propogated at the speed:

2 ..23-3)
On the fundamental
diagram of traffic flow, this impliess #that
tangent to the curve, Fig. 23-2.
i s the slope of the SPEE0, Vsf
dK cMEAN FREE
PROPOGATION
SPEED OF WAVE

K=dQ/d

Vs
K
CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-2. Flow-concentration curve.
But Q K.vs
dQ.do
+
dK dK

0+K. d
.(23-4)

dK
lt
may be noted that the speed of the wave at the
zero.

cres* front
Consider a stretch of
road where the traffic is dense
CA) and less dense behind
(B), whose m traf o ft r a f t i c

is
flow given in Fig, 23-3. The fundamental
aiag at B ths
at A. The slope of the curve is steepera the
speed of wave propagation of than than

speed of propagation of Qa at A. A Qa at B is greate generated

ifthe flow changes shock wave will noweed e e d o fthe

o
generhe
shock wave discontinuously
from A to B. Tn
spee
 GHTHILL AND WHITHAMS THEORY
663

AQA-Q»
AK KA -
KB
=
slope of the chord AB ..(23-5)
SPEED OF WAVE AT 8
MEAN FREE -SPEED OF WAVE
SPEED 7 ATA

QA A

SPEED OF SHOCK
WAVE

KA KB
CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-3.

It may be noted that in the experiment of two observers

mentioned earlier, the speed of the shock wave will be U, the speed
at which the two observers travelled.
23-4. An example of the shock wave can be the approach to a
S1gnalised intersection, where the vehicles are brought successively

SLOPE OF LINE AB
=SINGLE OF SHOCK WAVE
= -K,-*aA

3
KA CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-4.
564
TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
NSPORT
AND TRANSPOPm

In
PLANNI
PLANNI NG
Ka. the.

toa halt,
flow Q at a
from a
concentration

io10on
and the concentration is ation region of the
the flow is zero
halted hip e the
halted vehicles,

almost reaching
the jamming
backward by
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is propagated
of hale
value. This region of
low hig
flowhest
ans and
,
high
speed is given by the slope
of the line AB oof a
shockwave, whose in
23.4
Fig
of the application of the aho.ve theory
23-5. Another example when one lane
bottlenecks, say of aa fo
lane of
is in dealing with four
divided carriageway is
closed for repairs. Three possibilit lan
ilitjes lanebe
considered
Case 1. Flow less than capacity of the bottleneck.

-Mean free speed, Kf

dad away
Speed of wave on
from bottleneck
m a-K Curve on road
away from bottle-
1 Speed of wave\
neck

on bottleneck

---

a-K Curve on bottleneck Speed of

wave on
leaving
K K
Concentration, K -
Fig. 23-5. Q-K curve of bottleneck, with flow less
than bottleneck capacity.
Let
eA represent the flow, which is less than
of the bottleneck. On entering the Q the capau tion
increases from K to bottleneck, the concentra
Kg. The mean speed of vehicles in tne road,
KA drops
down to No shock wavé is
KB formed.
Case 2. Flow
equal to the capacity of the
This is similar to
bottleneck.
maximum capacity of case 1, except that the flow is equa a t the
centre of the the bottleneck. at t
The speed of the ve

bottleneck is zero. wa
Case 3. Flow
greater than the capacity of the bottleneck.
capacity Do
 THILL AND VHITHAMs THEORY
565
Mean free speed, Vst
Speed of wave
from bottle neckon road away
a-K Corve on road
away from bottleneck

Speed of wave at
centre of bottleneck
0

Q-K Curve on bòttleneck

Speed of wave
on leaving
- bo>Hneck
K K
Concentration
ig. 23-6.Q-K curves of bottleneck with flow equal to bottleneck cayacity.
-MEAN SPEED OF VEHICLES
IN INCOMING TRAFFIC
MEAN FREE
SPEED SPEED OF WAVE ON ROAD
AWAY FROM BOTTLENE
CK
m
-Q-K CURVE ON ROAD0
SPEED OF AWAY FRO BOTTLENECK
VEHICLES IN
BOTTLENEÇK AVERAGE SPEED OF
VEHICLES IN CRAW
BEHIND SHOCK WAVVE

SPEED OF SHO CK WAVE

a-K CURVE
I ON BOTTTLE SPEED OF WAVE
NE CK ON LEAVING
BOTTLENECK
Kj
CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-7. Q-K curves of bottleneck, with flow
greater than bottleneck.
than e point A represents a traffic condition with flow QA greater
DOttleneck capacity Q maximum. The speed of the vehicles
hrough the bottleneck drops from At to max. The points B
K
KA K
esents the flow condition on the second half of the Q-K curve of
toad away from
leney from the bottleneck, with a concentration equal tothe
tleneck capa ty Q maximum. The crawl speed of traffic behind
 ENGINEERING
ND TRANSPORT
AND TRANSPORT PLANNING
TRAFFIC

566
Qmax. which
which i8
ia
very much
much low
r e p r e s e n t e d by
wave is KB
theshock itsel
vehicles through
of
the
bottleneck

tleneck itsale
the bottleneck itself is
Thia show
than the speed vehicles through
that the speed
of
crawl behind.
The speed of the
of the shock
wave is
higher
of
than the speed of the line AB
r e p r e s e n t e d by
the slope
Q A - 'maximum
KB - KA

illustrate the above theory

A few examples will
road consists lanes, of 4 2 in e n c h
Probolem 23.1. A
rection is 2000
2 lanes in one direction 2000 direction.
The maximum capacity of
mming conditcl
stationary in a Jamming condition the ehiclel
hour. When vehicles are
a vehicle is 6-25
6-25 m. During , th During a,
by
observation, theoccupied
average length actual volume of traffic in one direction is steady at
the rate of 1200 vehiclelhour. This ftow is brought to a halt when a
red and a queue forms.
traffic signal turns
Find the time in seconds which elapses from the moment the
turns red until the stationary queue
reaches another intero
signal
tion 75 m from the signal. Assume a linear relationship betwen
speed and concentration.
Solution. Since the relationship between speed and concen
tration is linear, the Q-Kcurve will be parabolic. Fig. 23-8 indicates
the Q-K diagram.
maximum =2000 vehicles/hour (for 2 lanes)
K 1000
6-25
= 160 veh/km per lane
320 veh/km for 2-lanes.
Q 1200 veh/hour (for 2 lanes)

2000

1
1200

U B
KS&8 K160 20

CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-8. Q-K curve.
 IGHTHILL AND WHITHAMS THEORY
667
Since the parabola
d
is 8ymmetr
18
symmetrical about the optimum value of
c o n c e n t r a t i o n K.
Ko ==160.
2
The slope of the line AB represents the velocity of the shock
ethat is formed when the traffic is brought to a halt.
From the property of the parabola,
800
=
(160)2 2000 2000

800 x 160 x 160

=
1012
2000
KA= 160- 101-2 = 58.8
. Slope of the line AB
120 12004.6.
320 58-8 2612
Speed of the shock wave
= 4-6 K.P.H.
Time in seconds to reach a distance of 75 m
75x 3600 587 sec.
-

4.6x 1000
is
Problem 23.2. One lane of a 2-lane one-way carriageway
under conditions of
closed for repairs. 7he maximum mean free speed
conditions of low
low flow in the 2-lane portion is 65 K.P.H. Under
maximum mean free speed in the
fLow, observations show that the when vehi-
bottleneck is also 65 K.P.H. The average space headway
on the 2-lane road
cles are stationary is 12-5 m. The volume oftraffic
relation is
1800 veh/hour. that the speed-concentration
Assuming
6
linear, find: bottleneck caused by
the
(4) the mean speed of traffic through
the closure of one lane;
conditions imme
() the speed of traffic in the congested
mean

Ltely on the approach to the bottleneck ; clear of the

on the carriageway
Z)the mean speed of traffic
Unfluence of the bottleneck; entering
ofthe congested traffic
U) the rate at which the queue
the bottleneck grows.
Solution. The speed-concentration #he
curves
hottleneck
and theare
flow-con
shown
are shown
and the bottleneck
inCentration
Fig. 23.9.curve
2-lane road
ves for the
 TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
AND
NSPORT PLANNING
TRANSPOD

568
for 2-lanes
K, =125 x 2=160vehykm
lane
100080 vehykm for single
K 125
Kj x Dsf (Eq. 23.1)
Qmaximum) 4
160x 65= 2600 veh/hour
4
65

-2-LA NE ROAD

B0TTLENECK

K=80 K=160
CONCENTRATION, K

FREE MEAN SPEED 55

=

=2600
m

y=800 1300

1800
1900
2-LANE
ROAD
BOTTLE NECK
0
KA35-5 K=40 K-80 K 1365 K,160
CONCENTRAT ION, K
Fig. 23-9.
masimmj*Df
maximum 80 x65
4
= 1300 veh/hour.

The observed volume is 1800 and is indicate

point A on the Q-K curve. The pointveh/hour
B corresponds the flow
the flow

corresponding to the bottleneck capacity.

 WHITHAMS THEORY
THILL AND
569
(") 1300
(80) 2600
x 8 0 0.5 = 565
KB 80+ 56-5 = 136.5

800
2600
x80 x
0308 445
KA = 80- 44.5 355.
Mean speed of tratlic through bottleneck
Slope of line OC
-1300
40
325 K.P.HA.
Mean speed of trafic in the congested conditions immediately
on the approach to the bottleneck
=
Slope of line OB
13009.5
13-6
K.P.H.
Mean speed of traffic on carriageway clear of the influence of
bottleneck
Slope of line OA

180050-7
35-5
K.P.H.
Rate at which queue of congested traffic grows
Slope of line AB
1800 1300
136-5-355

500495
101
K.P.H
2-lane
23.3. The maximum capacity of
a
roblem
is 2000 veh/hour. Due to
riageway ofa
ieay of four-lane
a dual carriageway is re
Pipe-laying
da n operations the width of the 2-lane carriageway
duced,
low restricting the
ou maximum
bottleneck
When the
capacity to 1100
veh/hour.
is reasonaby
e dyupstream beyond the influence of the
and free-flowing at 1500 veh/hour, find:
() the mean speed of traffic in the bottleneck;
conditions outside
i) ethe rate
rate at which the queue of congested
 TRAFFIC ENU

570 headway when the

he ANNING
bottleneck grows.

stationary is 8 m.
The
The
mean

relation
space
betuween speed and yehicles
ncentration a
i
linear.

CONCENTRATION, K- K=250
FREE MEAN SPEED =32 KPH

2000

= 5001
"900
4=1500
C
1100
FREE 2LANE
ROAD
RESTRICTED
2-LANE
ROAD
a209
K625 K=125 Ki=250
CONCENTRA TION, K-
Fig. 23-10:Q-K and os -

K curve Problem 23-3.

for the conditions in
Solution. Since the
ear, the
speed-concentration relationship 15 ndi
flow-concentration will be
parabolic.
curve These are
cated in Fig. 23-10. It ns
may be noted that the pipe-laying ope
have just reduced the not

width of the 2-lane carriageway and

indicated that one entire lane ":
is closed. So it will be assun
the bottleneck will be
of 2 lanes, but with widtn. reduced
=2000
x 2
8
250 veh/km.
max) Kjx UsfL
4
2000 250 x Usf
4
 THILL AND
HITHAMs THEORY
LIGH 571
Dsf the free mean speed

2000x432 H.P.H.
250

( 500
1000

*'= 125x.6 2 5

900
125 2000

"125x
=84
x20 125x 447
KB 125+84 209.
Mean speed of traff+c in the bottleneck
= Slope of line OC

11008.8
125
K.P.H.
Rate at which the queue of the congested conditions grows
= Speed of shock wave = Slope of line AB

(1500 1100) 400 2.73 K.P.H.

(209 625) 146-5
it is
Problem 23-4. As a part of traffic managenment measure,
street. It has been ob-
proposed to ban the private car from a city direction is 50
served that the maximum free speed of traffic in one
concentration upto
KP.H., and this speed is unaffected for values of vehlhour
per lane,
including 20 vehlkm. The present flow is 1200
and
the composition being (in percentage terms):

Private cars 80
Commercial vehicles 18

Buses 2
vehicles is:
ne average occupancy of the
car
Private cars 1-51-5 persons per
bus.
Buses 30 persons per
that one-half of
the private cars are banned, it is expected
er
the persons c a r transfer
to buses, the average
previously travelling by occupied by each
occupancy
type
pe remaining the same. The average space
condition is:
fvehicle when stationary in the jammed
 ENGINEERING
AND TRANSPOB
572
TRAFFIC

7 metres ANNING
Private c a r
12 metres
Commercial vehicle
10 metres
Buses
relation
between and concentration to be
speed and concentre
Assuming the

linearfind: capacity ofthe

street before the
the iimposition of
maximum
(i) the
cars;
the ban on private
capacity of the
street the imposition
after the im of
(ii) the maximum
the ban on private cars
in km/hour before the im.
(ii) the mean speed of traffic position
cars ,
of the ban on private in km/hour after the imnooie:
(iv) the mean speed oftraffic tion of
the ban on the private
cars.

Solution. Before the imposition ofthe ban on private care.

vehicles
The weighted spacing of
= 7x 0-8 +12 x 0-18+ 10 x 0-02
7-96
= 5-6 +216 +0-2 = m

Jamming concentration before,

1000
K 7-96
= 126 veh/hr.
The v,-K curve and Q-K curve before the imposition of the ban
are given in Fig. 23-11.

max) KxUsf
4 (Eq.229)
126 x 50_1575 veh/hour/lane.
4
For a flow corresponding to 1200 veh/hour, it is required w

find the mean speed. This is given by the slope of the line OA.
2

( 375
1575

x=63 x 37563
1575 4-2

2-05 63308
KA = 63 - 30-8 32.2
Mean speed of traffic
=
Slope of line OA
 AND HITHAMS THEORY
THILL 573
L I G h

1200 37.3 K.P.H.

322

CONCENTRATION, K " = 7 6

1575E-

-375 1
1200--

KF322 K=63 R=126

CONCENTRATION, K
the
Fig. vs-K and Q-K c u r v e s for problem 23.4 before
23-11.
imposition of ban on private cars.
After the imposition of the ban on private cars:
ban
The number of persons travelling by car before the
= 1200 x 0.80 x.1-5
= 1440 persons/hour.
to buses
he number of persons now switching over
= 50% of 1440

720 persons/hour
. No. of extra buses needed

720
30
24/hour.
N of buses originally present
= 1200 x =24/hour
100
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
AND TRANSPODr
ORT
574
PLANNIN

CONCENTRATION, K 03

1038 1.

264 8

g S7 41.5 K =83
CONCENTRATION, K
Fig. 23-12. vs-K and Q-K curves for problem 23.4 after
the imposition of ban on private cars.

Totai No. of buses after the ban

= 48/hour
No. of commercial vehicles
1200 x 0-18 216/hour
Total flow 48+ 216
264 vehicles/hour.
Weighted spacing of vehicles now
12 x21610 x 48
264 264
9-8+182 1162, say 12 m.
Jamming concentration now
1000 83 veh/km/lane.
12
The v-K and
given in Fig. 23-12. Q-K curves after the imposition
 LIGHTHIL
AND WHITHAMS THI
CHTHILL 576
(ma)IxUa (Eq. 229)
83x50=1038 veh/hour/lane
4

.1038-264264 774
1038 1038

416=41
*134 1.16 =358
Kg 416-35-8 5-7
Mean speed of traftic after imposition of ban on private cars
- Slope of line OB

= 64 46-5 K.P.H.
Z04=
5-7
Problems 23-5. On a lane of a highway, the free speed of
trafic is observed to Bbe 60 K.M.P.H. and the jamming concentration
observed to be 200/km. Under light flow conditions, it is observed
that there are 1000 vehicles per hour. A large truck travelling at 12
K.M.P.H. enters the stream, forcing the vehicles behind to queue up
and move in a platoon. Find:
1. the speed at which the platoon growws.
2. the flouw in the platoon.
3. the speed under light flow conditions.
If the truck leaves off the main highway to a side road after
travellingfor 2 km, find;
4. the length of the platoon by the time the truck forks out to the
side road.
5. the speed at which the platoon vanishes and the time taken
to vanish.
Solution. K = 200
Uaf 6 0

max 200 x603000

4
O1nt
is 1000
A represents the
veh/hour
free-flowing conditions when the flow

2000
100 3000

100 067 819

Speed under light flow conditions
1000
100-819
 676
TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING

congested.
AND

tlow
TRANSPORT PLAN
condition.
flow at B ons8 when
the
Let B represents represent the
K.M.P.H. Let y
speed is 12
3000
3000
- 100
= 12
Also 100+"
y 1200+ 12x"

Substituting,
3000-1200- 12x"

3000
1800 12x'=0-3x"2
Solving the quadratic equation, we have

Ey 144+4 x 1800 x 03
2x 0-3
-
12 48 36- 60
0-6 0-6
y= 1200+ 12 x 60 = 1920.
Flow in the platoon
= 1920 veh/hour.
Speed at which the rear of the platoon moves forward
speed of shock wave
slope of AB
1920 1000 720
160 18-1 141-9
5-07 K.M.P.H.
Thus the front of the
KM.P.H. whereas the rearplatoon moves forward at a speed of 12
KM.P.H. moves forward at a speea o5-07
The platoon grows in size at
speed
12-5-07 6-93 K.M.P.H.
=
a of:
Inthe 2 km trip, the platoon
grows to a length ot
x
=1-16 km.6-93 km
12
When the truck
travel at the forks out to the side ehicles will

maximum road, tnehis

represented by C. The capacity, which is 3000 veh/hr. *at apoin
given by the front of the spex
slope of the line CB. platoon then mo moves

Slope of line CB 3000 - 1920

160 1000 108018 K.M.P.H
1 8 K.M.P.H.
60
 IGHTHILL AND WHITHAMS THEORY

with the front of the 677

platoon moving to the rear at this
and the rear of the platoon
and
moving forwardof aat aaat thisofspeed
K.M.P.HL, the' platoon will vanish at a speed speed of 6-07 speed 5-07
-
18 +5:07 = -12-93
KM.P.H.
Since the length of the platoon is
1-16 km, this is achieved
(116/12.93) =
0-0897 hr =
6-382 minutes.
in

3000

1920

1000

181 100 160 200

K
Fig. 23-13.
23-5. Greenberg's Extension of the
Law of Continuityy
23-5-1. The law of continuity which
tion in Lighthill and Whitham's forms the basic assump
others. Among them, the work of Theory
has also been applied
by
Greenberg deserves mention (Ref.
2, 3). Greenberg's approach yields very useful equations describing
the relations between
speed, flow and concentration.
23-5-2. The equation of motion for a
ous fluid is one-dimensional continu-

0 C , OK ..(23-6)
dt Ox
where UgSpace mean speed
K Concentration
*= Distance
t Time to travel a
distance *
C Constant.
olnce speed is a function of time (t) and distance (x),

dos d , OU dt
dt dt ot dt

oUs xOs+ 23-7)

Ox Ot
Substituting Eq. (23-6) in Eq. (23-7)
 TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT pra
TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
AND
PLANNING
578
...23.8)
dx continuity
of flow,
equation
of the
From the

OK = o 23.9
Ot
the flow.
whereQis
Q= DK
(From Eq. 22.1)
..23-10)
But
speed is only a
function ofconcent
*ration,
solved to yield
assumed that
Ifit is (23.10) may
be
(23.9) and
the Eqs. (23-7),
O, =C loge .(23-11)
K= Jamming concentration.

where 23.11 gives,

Since
=Ds, K, equation
Q=CK loge .(23-12)
obtained by the bound.
23.5-3. The above equation c a n also be
ary condition approach.
Q K.Vs
to K.
Differentiating with respect
dQKx dus D, x
dK d dK
...(23-13)
dKxUT,
dk dK

Let
d-C dK
..(23-14)

Then from Eq. (23.13).

dQ-, =C
dK
the
This expresses the hypothesis that the difference between 1)
spèed of propagation of the wave {Lighthill and n's(Ref.
this
Kinematic wave] and the space-mean speed is a constant. WIo
assumption, Equation (23.14) can be re-written as . . ( 2 3 . 1 5 )

dK
Integrating both sides with respect to K,
K =K7 du K =Kj
K K dk C dK
dK R-K K
 THILL AND WHITHAMS THEORY
LICHTH

[o,K- K-ö, K= 579

But when K K,
K]=c[log. K, -

log. K]
.(23-16)
-D, =C loge
A
K
.(23-17)
It is possibleto rewrite Eq. (23-17)
constantCis properlytaken care of:
as below if the sign of
the

K ..(23-18)
Multiplying by K yields
Q CK loge
K ..(23-19)
This is the equation of the
fundamental
be shown that the value diagram of traffic
can
.
of C is equal to the stream
velocity for maximum flow.

23-5-4. Plotting against, the curve in Fig. 23-14 is

Kj
obtained, which has a maximum value of at a value of
CK e
1/e .---

1/e 1.0
NORMA LISED ONCENTRATION KIK;
Fig.23-14. Curve of against K
Kj