10/08/2021

Learning Objectives
Stress and Coping 1. Describe the different conceptualizations of stress
and the stress response.
2. Summarize the relationship between stress and
Rachael Heckenberg health.
PSY1APP@latrobe.edu.au 3. Understand and apply the Stress and Coping model
and define its components.
Week 4 4. Identify different coping techniques and differentiate
PSY1APP between problem focused and emotional focused
coping.
5. Define positive stress and cognitive reappraisal.

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Stress
“If you’re a normal mammal, what stress is about is three
minutes of screaming terror, after which either it’s over with,
or you’re over with”
What is Stress?
• Stress has been conceptualized in many different ways.
• Hans Selye’s original definition:
"A set of bodily defenses against harmful stimuli”

Robert Sapolsky
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):
Dr. Robert Sapolsky - Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers - YouTube ▪ Describes the body’s short- and long-term response to stress
▪ It’s derived from Cannon’s “fight or flight” response and,
▪ The concept of homeostasis

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Stress Response General Adaptation Syndrome

• Sympathetic-Adreno-Medullary System (SAM): • Phase 1 Alarm: The first reaction
to stress. Resources are
▪ Epinephrine and norepinephrine- heart; mobilised -  heart rate,
pupils; large muscles; gastrointestinal respiration, perspiration,  blood
to voluntary muscles, stress
hormones released.

• Phase 2 Resistance: Body copes

with the stressor - bodily
adaptation: normal respiration
• Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA): and heart rate but glucose levels
▪ Cortico-steroid hormones mobilise energy and some stress hormones high
resources, reduce inflammation in case of
• Phase 3 Exhaustion: Reserves
injury (but also suppress the immune become depleted - Increased
response) vulnerability to infection/disease,
decreased stress tolerance,
fatigue.

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Does Sex Moderate the Stress Response?

Selye criticised because…
• Cannon’s fight-or-flight response.

oxytocin Sex
• We now know different stressors result in different responses
Stressor Fight/Flight • His model ignores individual role of cognitive appraisal, (what people think of
their situation)
• Researchers have avoided using women in their studies
• Transactional model of stress emphasises cognitive appraisal as a moderator
• Women and men often respond differently to stressors of the effects of a stressor
▪ It is possible that the release of oxytocin during social stress encourages • Primary appraisal - assessment of harm (damage already done) and threat
women to affiliate with, or befriend, others (Taylor, Saphire-Bernstein, & (possible future damage).
Seeman, 2010)
• Secondary appraisal - evaluation of resources and re-evaluation of situation.
Stressor Tend-and-befriend response

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The Stress and Coping Model

Stress Re-defined
• Stress is “a particular relationship between the person
and an environment that is appraised by the person as
taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering
his or her well-being” (Lazarus & Folkman)

Transactional Stress/Coping Model Developed by Lazarus and

Folkman (1984). Source: Schuster, Hammitt, & Moore, 2006.

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Chronic Stress
• Chronic stress broadly encompasses a variety
of difficulties and conditions, varying in form
and severity.
• These difficulties may be a big event that has
long lasting effects, or repeated hassles that
cause a prolonged stress response.
• Chronic stress impacts physiological systems
differently to acute stress.
▪ For example, a flattened diurnal cortisol
response, impaired immunity.
Photo by Jeppe Hove Jensen on Unsplash

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Direct stress-induced
physiological changes Immune System Effects
• SAM effects the cardiovascular system • Prolonged stress reduces immune
• HPA suppression of the immune system – functioning.
psycho-neuro-immunology ▪ Healthy volunteers had cold viruses
• Role of the immune system is to swabbed into their noses. Those
eradicate bacteria, & viruses, eliminate who reported the highest levels of
abnormal cells, and facilitate repair of stress prior to exposure developed
damaged tissues;
worse cold symptoms than those
• Prolonged stress reduces immune who reported being less stressed
functioning leaving individual susceptible (Cohen et al., 1991).
to disease and chronic illness.

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Effects on Cardiovascular Health Stress and Mental Health

• Stress has a direct effect on cardiovascular health through increased blood
pressure and decreased heart-rate variability.
• Sustained release of cortisol can also lead to a buildup of plaque on artery
walls
• Therefore, chronic stress is associated with a number of conditions, including
cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and coronary heart disease.
• Greater stress reactivity and dispositional characteristics, such as hostility are
associated with a greater risk of poor cardiovascular health.
• Chronic stress has consistently been linked to poorer mental health and wellbeing.
• Increased stress is associated with mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder
and anxiety disorders.
• Stress is also associated with increased relapses for people diagnosed with mood
disorders, such as bipolar disorder, and people with substance abuse issues.
• The Vulnerability-Stress-Coping model can help to explain how this occurs.
• There is a relationship between stress hormones such as cortisol and mental health
outcomes, however these are yet to be fully understood in the literature.

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Stress and Health

• Stress is also associated with a number of other health conditions
including:
▪ Sleep disturbances
▪ Gastrointestinal issues
▪ Metabolic syndrome
▪ Memory and other cognitive impairment
▪ Diabetes mellitus
▪ Musculoskeletal disorders
▪ Rheumatoid arthritis

Image source: https://www.effectiveliving.com.au/what-causes-psychosis/

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The Role of Appraisals

Indirect Effects of Stress on Health Appraisal Response
Threat:
• Stress is also associated with a number of health behaviours that “Yikes! This is Panic, freeze up
can increase the risk of different illnesses, such as: beyond me!”
▪ Poorer diet and eating habits
▪ Decreased exercise Stressful event:
▪ Smoking (tough psych quiz)
▪ Alcohol consumption Challenge:
▪ A decrease in self-care activities and other health promoting activities “I’ve got a chance Aroused, focused
to apply
all I know”

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The Role of Emotions Positive Stress and Cognitive Reappraisal

• Positive stress or eustress is a
• We know that how we perceive a stressor impacts on positive cognitive response to a
our response to the stressor. stressor and is associated with
• Emotional responses can also impact on the positive feelings and a healthy state.
physiological reactions to stress. • A clear distinction between eustress
• For example, negative affect (e.g., anxious or and distress is that eustress leads to
depressive mood states) has been found to moderate adaptation.
the relationship between stress and ill-health. • Cognitive reappraisal can change
how we respond to a stressor.
• The type of stressor may also influence the
▪ Downward comparisons
physiological response. For example, social stressors
▪ Giving positive meanings to everyday
are associated with greater cortisol release. events
• However, research in this area is inconsistent. ▪ Switching the focus to personal growth
▪ Changing priorities
Photo by Tengyart on Unsplash

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Hardiness Locus of Control

• Hardiness is considered a personality trait and is thought to be a protective factor against stress.
• Hardy people are capable of adapting to life changes by viewing events more constructively
(Kobasa, 1979).
• It incorporates three elements:
• Commitment – the tendency to see the world as interesting and meaningful
• Control – belief that one has control or influence over events
• Challenge – seeing change and new experiences as exciting opportunities to learn and
develop
• Hardy people show greater emotional flexibility and recover quicker from threats (Tugade &
Fredrickson, 2004).
• People can learn to become more resilient – e.g. regulation of positive and negative emotions
• Locus of control refers to the degree to which individuals believe they have control over events
in their lives.
▪ Internal locus of control – perceive events as contingent on their own behaviour
▪ External locus of control – perceive events as outside of their control (due to luck, chance
or the control of powerful others)
• Increased external locus of control is associated with increased stress and poorer health
outcomes.
• While increased internal locus of control is associated with lower levels of stress.
• Maladaptive locus of control is also associated with maladaptive coping and poorer mental
health
• While adaptive locus of control is associated with adaptive coping and improved mental
health.

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The Role of Coping

• Coping is a reaction to the circumstances of a stressor and the emotions it produces. ‘‘Problems are not the problem;
• Folkman and Lazarus’ (1988) two general coping categories:
▪ Emotion-focused coping: a type of coping in which people try to prevent having
coping is the problem.’’
an emotional response to a stressor
▪ Problem-focused coping: a type of coping in which people take direct steps to
confront or minimize a stressor
Virginia Satir
▪ Most people report using both emotion-focused coping and problem-focused
coping

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Adaptive Coping Maladaptive Coping

• Adaptive mechanisms are constructive and help
people to manage stress.
• Adaptive coping typically uses approach strategies
• People using adaptive coping will actively try to change
the problem or regulate their emotions.
• For example, through,
▪ Attempting to solve the problem
▪ Seeking support
▪ Using humour
▪ Positive or cognitive reappraisal
▪ Strategies to promote greater self regulation, e.g.,
mindfulness, acceptance, pausing)
• Adaptive coping is associated with better psychological
and physical health outcomes.
• Maladaptive coping are typically counterproductive or
lead to negative outcomes.
• This type of coping is associated with more avoidant
strategies, which can help in the short-term but do little
to address the stressor.
• Avoidant coping is also associated with poorer physical
and mental health.
• For example:
▪ Distractions (drinking and substance use)
▪ Denial or distancing
▪ Suppression of emotions
• Maladaptive coping can also include repetitive thought or
perseverative cognition, such as worry and rumination,
Photo by Max van den Oetelaar on Unsplash which are both associated with poorer physiological
regulation, and greater risk of ill-health.

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Next Week

Thank you
Psychology in the Workplace

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