2023 – 2024

DESIGN OF EX-OR GATE USING

DIODE CIRCUIT
PHYSICS INVESTIATORY PROJECT
Submitted by: Thiruselvam.B

Regd. No:

To the faculty of Physics

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the project work of

GRADE XII

BRANCH OF PHYSICS

SRI NACHAMMAL VIDYAVANI SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

(CBSE)

BATCH: 2023- 2024

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

 2023-2024

SRI NACHAMMAL VIDYAVANI SENIOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL

Affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi

Devarayampalayam, By Pass Road, Avinashi, Tirupur – 641654

Phone: +914296291744, 7708007968

Email:info@nachammal.com

INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT 2023-2024

042-PHYSICS

NAME : Thiruselvam.B

CLASS : XII - B

REGISTER NO :
 2023-2024

SRI NACHAMMAL VIDYAVANI SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

PHYSICS Investigatory Project

2023-2024

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certificate to be the bonafide work done

by

Thiruselvam.B

Of class XII in Sri Nachammal Vidyavani Senior Secondary School, Physics department during
the academic year 2022-2023.

DATE: TEACHER INCHARGE

Submitted for the practical examination held on ..................... at Sri Nachammal Vidyavani
Senior Secondary School, Devarampalayam, Avinashi.

NAME OF CANDIDATE Thiruselvam B

REGISTER NO

CENTRE CODE

EXTERNAL EXAMINER SCHOOL SEAL PRINCIPAL

 CONTENTS

S.NO CONTENT PAGE

01 INTRODUCTION 01

02 AIM 01

03 APPARATUS REQUIRED 01

04 PROCEDURE 01

05 DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL 02
USED

06 OBSERVATION 13

07 CONCLUSION 15

08 BIBILIOGRAPHY 16
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“Showing gratitude is one of the simplest yet most powerful things

human can do for each other”.

First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me
the strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this
research study and to persevere and complete it satisfactorily.

I respect and thank our Correspondent, for providing me an

opportunity to do the project work in Sri Nachammal Vidyavani
Senior Secondary School and giving us all support and guidance made
me to complete the project duly.

I owe my deep gratitude to our Principal Ms. V. Sharmila Sunitha

M.Sc., M.Ed., who took keen interest in my project work and guided
us all along till the completion of my project.

I am thankful and fortunate enough to get constant encouragement,

support and guidance from my PHYSICS Teacher Mr. M.
Santhanaraj who helped me in completing my project successfully.

I would like to thank my Parents and Friends who helped me a lot in

finalizing this project and helped me in completing the project.

Finally I would like to thank CBSE for giving me this opportunity to

undertake this project.
 2023-2024
DESIGN OF EX-OR GATE USING DIODE CIRCUIT

INTRODUCTION:
An XOR gate (also known as an EOR, or EXOR gate) – pronounced as Exclusive OR gate
– is a digital logic gate that gives a true (i.e. a HIGH or 1) output when the number of true
inputs is odd. An XOR gate implements an exclusive OR, i.e., a true output result occurs if
one – and only one – of the gate’s inputs is true. If both inputs are false (i.e. LOW or 0) or
both inputs are true, the output is false.XOR represents the inequality function, i.e. the output
is true if the inputs are not alike; otherwise, the output is false. A common way to remember
the XOR is “must have one or the other, but not both”.

AIM:

To design the circuit of EX-OR gate using Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENT NAME SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Battery 9V 1
2. Zener Diode IN4148 4
3. Resistor 10 KΩ 1
4. Connecting wires Single Strand 2m
5. Bread Board -- 1
6. Light Emitting Diode 3V 1
7. Transistor 2N3906 1
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect terminals of Zener diode in the form of a bridge as shown in figure.
2. Logic inputs are given to two terminal ends of diodes.
3. End terminal of the resistor is connected to the emitter of the transistor.
4. Output indicator i.e LED is connected from the collector of the transistor to the Ground.
5. Ground is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

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DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL USED: ELECTRIC

WIRES:

A wire is a flexible strand of metal.Wire is commonly formed by drawing the

metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in various standard sizes, as
expressed in terms of a gauge number.Electrical wires are usually covered with insulating
materials, such as plastic, rubber-like polymers, or varnish. Insulating and jacketing of wires
and cables is nowadays done by passing them through an extruder. Formerly, materials
used for insulation included treated cloth or paper and various oil-based products.

FORMS

SOLID

Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one piece of metal
wire. Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture than
stranded wire and is used where there is little need for flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also
provides mechanical ruggedness; and, because it has relatively less surface area which is
exposed to attack by corrosives, protection against the environment.

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STRANDED

Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped together to

form a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire of the same total
cross-sectional area. Stranded wire is used when higher resistance to metal fatigue is
required. Such situations include connections between circuit boards in multi-printed-circuit-
board devices, where the rigidity of solid wire would produce too much stress as a result of
movement during assembly or servicing; A.C. line cords for appliances; musical instrument
cables; computer mouse cables; welding electrode cables; control cables connecting moving
machine parts; mining machine cables; trailing machine cables; and numerous others. At
high frequencies, current travels near the surface of the wire because of the skin effect,
resulting in increased power loss in the wire.

Stranded wire might seem to reduce this effect, since the total surface area of the
strands is greater than the surface area of the equivalent solid wire, but ordinary stranded
wire does not reduce the skin effect because all the strands are short-circuited together and
behave as a single conductor. A stranded wire will have higher resistance than a solid wire of
the same diameter because the cross- section of the stranded wire is not all copper; there are
unavoidable gaps between the strands (this is the circle packing problem for circles within a
circle).

A stranded wire with the same cross-section of conductor as a solid wire is said to
have the same equivalent gauge and is always a larger diameter. However, for many high-
frequency applications, proximity effect is more severe than skin effect, and in some limited
cases, simple stranded wire can reduce proximity effect. For better performance at high
frequencies, litz wire, which has the individual strands insulated and twisted in special
patterns, may be used.

The more individual wire strands in a wire bundle, the more flexible, kink- resistant,
break-resistant, and stronger the wire becomes. However, more strands increases
manufacturing complexity and cost. For geometrical reasons, the lowest number of strands
usually seen is 7: one in the middle, with 6 surrounding it in close contact. The next level up
is 19, which is another layer of 12 strands on top of the 7. After that the number varies, but
37 and 49 are common, then in the 70 to 100 range (the number is no longer exact). Larger
numbers than that are typically found only in very large cables. For application where the
wire moves, 19 is the lowest that should be used (7 should only be used in applications
where the wire is placed and then does not move), and 49 is much better. For applications
with constant repeated movement, such as assembly robots

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and headphone wires, 70 to 100 is mandatory[citation needed]. For applications that need
even more flexibility, even more strands are used (welding cables are the usual example, but
also any application that needs to move wire in tight areas). One example is a 2/0 wire made
from 5,292 strands of No. 36 gauge wire.

The strands are organized by first creating a bundle of 7 strands. Then 7 of these
bundles are put together into super bundles. Finally 108 super bundles are used to make the
final cable. Each group of wires is wound in a helix so that when the wire is flexed, the
part of a bundle that is stretched moves around the helix to a part that is compressed to allow
the wire to have less stress.

Prefused wire is stranded wire made up of strands that are heavily tinned, then fused
together. Prefused wire has many of the properties of solid wire, except it is less likely to
break.

BRAIDED
A braided wire consists of a number of small strands of wire braided together. Braided
wires do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are often suitable as an electromagnetic
shield in noise-reduction cables.

CARBON RESISTORS:

Carbon resistors are one of the most common types of electronics used. They are
made from a solid cylindrical resistor element with embedded wire

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leads or metal end caps. Carbon resistors come in different physical sizes with
power dissipation limits, commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8 watt.

There are many materials used to produce resistance, particularly metals and alloys
like nichrome, brass, platinum and tungsten alloys. However, most of these metals have low
electrical resistivity, unlike carbon resistors, which makes it difficult to produce high
resistance without becoming bulky. We already know that:
R 𝖺 1/A
They may, however, give extremely precise resistance measurements and are hence
commonly used to calibrate and compare resistances.

USES OF CARBON RESISTORS

The carbon resistor contains carbon coated onto a ceramic core. A spiral is etched on the
deposited carbon, which turns it into a wire wound on a ceramic core.

Depending on the resistance required, pitch, diameter and length of the carbon spiral vary.
Nickel caps are attached to both ends of the core so as to create good contact between the
carbon and lead. The leads are soldered onto the nickel caps and the entire resistor is coated
with lacquer for electrical insulation.

For small resistances required for small currents, the metal caps act as heat sinks to carry
away heat dissipated by the resistor.

For larger current requirements, a metal heat sink is separately attached to carry away excess
heat and to prevent the resistor from burning up.

Carbon resistors are specially colour-coded to identify the resistance.

PARTS OF A CARBON RESISTOR

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. The different parts of a

carbon resistor are:
 Ceramic Core
 Nickel Cap
 Lead
 Carbon Film
 Protective Lacquer

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The internal structure of a carbon resistor is shown in the image above.

LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when

current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes,
releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band
gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors
or a layer of lightemitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs
include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, inability
to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and
lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature.

In contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to intrinsically run at virtually

any supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC current interchangeably, and will provide
steady illumination when powered by AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as 50
Hz. LEDs usually need electronic support components to function, while an incandescent
bulb can and usually does operate directly from an unregulated DC or AC power source.

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BLUE LED

The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride. Today,

magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and
laser diodes. In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research
into gallium nitride devices slowed.

In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED based on
the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).SiC LEDs had very low
efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light
spectrum.

In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p- type doping
ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this
foundation, Theodore Moustakas at Boston University patented a method for producing
high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two- step process in 1991.

DIODE:

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity primarily in

one direction. It has high resistance on one end and low resistance on the other end. In this
article, let us understand in detail about what is diode and diode symbol.

Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC
into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the
diodes. Even though they transmit current in a single direction, the way with which they
transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and each type has its own applications.

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see
that there are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the
anode that represents the direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased
condition. The other end is the cathode.

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DIODE CONSTRUCTION

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and
germanium. When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage, the diode is
said to be forward-biased, and it conducts readily with a relatively low-voltage drop.
Likewise, when the cathode voltage is more positive than the anode, the diode is said to be
reverse-biased. The arrow in the diode symbol represents the direction of conventional
current flow when the diode conducts.

Types of Diodes
 Light Emitting Diode
 Laser diode
 Avalanche diode
 Zener diode
 Schottky diode
 Photodiode
 PN junction diode

DIFFERENT DIODES AND THEIR NOTATION

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is
produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current
passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there are frequency
levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. There are tricolour
LEDs that can emit three colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the
semiconductor used.

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LASER DIODE

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD

drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper
when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.

AVALANCHE DIODE

This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect.
When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of avalanche
takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for photo
detection.

ZENER DIODE

It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These
are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If current
passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely
used in power supplies to provide a reference voltage.

SCHOTTKY DIODE

It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be
seen where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4 volts.
These are constructed differently in order to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are
highly used in rectifier applications.

PHOTODIODE

A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting

from the light. These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode
and used in solar cells and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.

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P-N JUNCTION DIODE

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for the
rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N junction diode
includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the semiconductor material is doped
with P-type material and the other layer with N- type material. The combination of these
both P and N-type layers form a junction known as the P-N junction.Hence, the name P-N
junction diode.

P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the
flow of current in the reverse direction.

BATTERY:

Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions create a flow
of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic components: an anode (the '-'
side), a cathode (the '+' side),and some kind of electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts
with the anode and cathode).

When the anode and cathode of a battery is connected to a circuit, a chemical reaction
takes place between the anode and the electrolyte. This reaction causes electrons to flow
through the circuit and back into the cathode where another chemical reaction takes place.
When the material in the cathode or anode is consumed or no longer able to be used in the
reaction, the battery is unable to produce electricity. At that point, your battery is "dead."

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Batteries that must be thrown away after use are known as primary batteries.
Batteries that can be recharged are called secondary batteries.

Lithium polymer batteries, for example, can be recharged Without batteries, your
quadcopter would have to be tethered to the wall, you would have to hand crank your car,
and your Xbox controller would have to plugged in all the time (like in the good old days).
Batteries offer a way to store electrical potential energy in a portable container.

Batteries come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and chemistries. The invention of the
modern battery is often attributed to Alessandro Volta. It actually started with a surprising
accident involving the dissection of a frog.

BREADBOARD:

Breadboard which is also known as prototyping board or solderless board is one of the
most fundamental equipment required when learning how to build circuits and also in
Research and development, or in the laboratory. Since solderless board does not require
soldering, it is reusable creating temporary prototypes and experiments in circuit design.
These Breadboards are extremely popular with students and educational institutions.

Breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous nickel alloy spring
clips under the perforations. The clips are often called tie points or contact points. This
breadboard has 840 tie points and multiple breadboards can be hooked up together making it
a larger board with more tie points

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FEATURES

 640 tie points for connections with 5 connected terminals in each row
 200 connections with 5 connected terminals in four columns for power connections
 Good to prototype DIP IC's, Transistors, Diodes, LED's, Resistors, Capacitors pots and
most other electronic components
 Adhesive sheet on the back side of the board to stick on your working table

SPECIFICATIONS

 Nickel Plated 840 Points Breadboard for Prototyping circuits

 840 Tie Points - 128 groups of 5 connected terminals, 8 bus of 25 connected terminals
 Useful to build a prototype of an electronic circuits
 Quick connection to transistors, diodes, LEDS, resistors, capacitors and almost all
types of components
 Adhesive sheet on the back side of the board
 Multiple breadboards can be spliced together to make a bigger board

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B A .B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

OBSERVATION:

CASE I:
When A=1 and B=0, The output =1.

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CASE II:
When A=1 and B=1, The output =0.

CASE III:
When A=0 and B=1 ,The output=1.

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CASE IV:
When A=0 and B=0,The output =0.

CONCLUSION:
The Exclusive-OR gate gives an output given by the expression “A or B not Both”. It means
that the output of the Exclusive-OR gate is low when both inputs “A” and “B” are at the
same logic level i.e. both “HIGH” or “LOW”. In the case of, either “A” or “B” that is “01” or
“10” the output of the Exclusive-OR gate will be “HIGH”.

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 BIBILIOGRAPHY:

1.EX-OR gate - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › AND_gate

2.Textbooks PDF (I-XII) - NCERT

https://ncert.nic.in › textbook

3.logic gate (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR)
https://www.techtarget.com › whatis › definition › logic-g...

4.Logic Gates - Tutorialspoint

https://www.tutorialspoint.com › logic_gates