LESSON 1
• Volcano
- A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object,
such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash,
and gases to escape from a magma chamber below
the surface
- Most often found where tectonic plates are
diverging/converging, and most are found
underwater
• Anatomy of Volcano
- Crater – mouth of the volcano
- Lava – magma that has reached the surface
through eruption
- Side Vent – opening/branches that originate from
the main vent
- Magma Chamber – reservoir of magma within
the planetary crust especially below the volcano
- Eruption/ash cloud – column of gases, ash, and
large rocks rising from the crater
- Summit – apex or the highest part of a volcano
- Main Vent – opening in the Earth’s surface
through which magma issue forth
- Dike/Sill – volcano without external feature
(magma escapes)
- Conduit – channel that conveys the magma
• PHIVOLCS – Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology
• Classification of Volcanoes (based on activity
determined by PHIVOLCS)
 Active Volcanoes
- erupted within historical times (within the last
600 years)
- accounts of these eruptions were documented by
man erupted within the last 10,000 years based
on the analyses of material from young volcanic
deposits
- There are 24 active volcanoes in Philippines
- Examples:
 Mt. Mayon – Albay, Bicol Region in Luzon;
most active Philippine Volcano
 Mt. Taal – Batangas in Luzon; 2 nd most
active volcano in Philippines
 Mt. Pinatubo – Boundaries of Pampanga,
Tarlac, & Zambales in Luzon
 Mt. Kanlaon – Negros Oriental & Negros
Occidental in Visayas; 3rd most active
volcano in the Philippines
 Potentially Active Volcanoes
- Morphologically young-looking but no historical
or analytical records of eruption
- Examples:
 Mt. Apo – between Davao City, Davao del
Sur, and Cotabato
 Mt. Arayat – Pampanga on the island of
Luzon
 Mt. Labo – Camarines Norte, in the Bicol
Region
 Inactive Volcanoes
- No recorded eruptions physical form has been
- intensively weathered and eroded, bearing deep
and long gullies
- Examples:
 Mt. Balungao – Pangasinan, Ilocos Region
 Mt. Batulao – Nasugbo, Batangas
 Mt. Pan de Azucar – Concepcion, Iloilo on
Panay Island
• Classification of Volcanoes (based on formation)
 Composite Volcanoes / Stratovolcanoes
- Have relatively steep sides; more cone-shaped
- Formed from viscous/sticky lava that doesn’t flow
easily
- Lava builds up around the vent forming a volcano
with steep sides
- More likely to produce explosive eruptions due to
gas building up in the viscous magma
- Examples:
 Philippines – Mt. Mayon, Mt. Apo, Mt.
Arayat
 Indonesia – Mt. Kyakatoa
 Italy – Mt. Vesuvius
 Shield Volcano
- When a volcano produces low viscosity, runny
lava, it spreads far from the source forming a
volcano with gentle slopes
- Most shield volcanoes are formed of fluid
basaltic lava flows
- Examples:
 Philippines – Mt. Biliran, Mt. Kanlaon, Mt.
Mareveles
 Hawaii – Mt. Mauna Kea, Mt. Mauna Loa
 Caldera
- Magma is stored beneath a volcano in a magma
chamber
- When a very large explosive eruption occurs,
which empties the magma chamber, the roof of
the magma chamber can collapse forming a
depression (bowl on the surface which has very
steep walls)
- Could be volcanoes formed during an eruption
that removes the summit of a single
stratovolcano
- Caldera-forming eruptions can remove massive
portions of a single stratovolcano
- Examples:
 Philippines – Mt. Taal, Apolaki Caldera
(world’s largest caldera discovered in 2019)
 USA – Yellowstone Caldera
 Indonesia - Mt. Karakatoa
 Lava Dome
- A volcano that has gone through phases of
growth and collapse
- As viscous lava is not very fluid, it cannot flow
away from the vent easily when it is extruded.
Instead, it piles up on top of the vent, forming a
large dome-shaped mass of material
- Examples:
 Philippines – Mt. Musuan (Bukidnon),
Amorong Volcano
 USA – Mt. Lassen Peak
 Japan – Mt.Hokujin
 Cinder Cone
- Simplest type of volcano
- Built from particles & blobs of congealed lava
ejected from a single vent
- As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into
the air, it breaks into small fragments that
solidify and fall as cinders around the vent to
form a circular/oval cone
- Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at
the summit and rarely rise more than a thousand
feet or so above their surroundings
- Examples:
 Philippines – Mt. Babuyan (Babuyan
Islands), Mt. Taal
 USA – Capulin Volcano National
Monument
• Classification of Volcanoes (based on eruption)
 Icelandic Eruptions
- Characterized by effusions of molten basaltic lava
that flow from long, parallel fissures
- Such outpourings often build lava plateaus
 Hawaiian Eruptions
- Similar to the Icelandic variety
- Fluid lava flows from a volcano’s summit and
radial fissures to form shield volcanoes, which are
quite large and have gentle slopes
 Strombolian Eruptions
- Involve moderate bursts of expanding gases that
eject clots of incandescent lava in cyclical or
nearly continuous small eruptions
- Because of such small, frequent outbursts,
Stromboli volcano, located on Stromboli Island off
 the northeast coast of Italy, has been called the
“lighthouse of the Mediterranean”
 Vulcanian Eruption
- Named for Vulcano Island near Stromboli
- Generally involves moderate explosions of gas
laden with volcanic ash
- This mixture forms dark, turbulent eruption clouds
that rapidly ascend & expand in convoluted shapes
 Pelean Eruption
- Associated with explosive outbursts that generate
pyroclastic flows, dense mixtures of hot volcanic
fragments and gas, and other hazards
- Pelean eruptions are named for the destructive
eruption of Mt. Pelée on the Caribbean Island of
Martinique in 1902
- The fluidisized slurries produced by these
eruptions are heavier than air but are of low
viscosity and pour down valleys and slopes at
great velocities
- Extremely destructive
 Plinian Eruption
- Intensely violent; exemplified by the outburst of
Mt. Vesuvius in Italy
- Gases boiling out of gas-rich magma generate
enormous and nearly continuous jetting blasts that
core out the magma conduit and rip it apart
- The uprising gases & volcanic fragments resemble
a gigantic rocket blast directed vertically upward
- Its clouds can rise into the stratosphere; sometimes
continuously produced for several hours
- Lightning strikes caused by a buildup of static
electricity are common close to Plinian ash clouds,
adding one more element to terror to the eruption
• Why volcanoes erupt
- Volcanoes are a natural way for planets to cool off
and release internal heat and pressure
- They erupt because of density and pressure
- The lower density of the magma relative of the
surrounding rocks causes it to rise (like air bubbles
in syrup)
- It will rise to the surface or to a depth that is
determined by the density of the magma and the
weight of the rocks above it
- As the magma rises, bubbles start to form from the
gas dissolved in the magma
- The gas bubbles exert tremendous pressure which
helps to bring the magma to the surface and forces
it in the air, sometimes to great heights
LESSON 2
• Magma
- Hot fluid/semi-fluid material beneath Earth’s crust
- Contains some dissolved gases – H2O (water
vapor), CO2 (carbon dioxide), SO2 (sulfur
dioxide). These gases have a critical effect on
eruption style and help the magma rise toward the
surface
• Volcanic Eruption
- All the magma is created in the asthenosphere
(layer of molten rock just beneath the continental
plates)
- The magma slowly rises through the lithosphere. It
rises because it is hot, less dense, and because of
the increased pressure below
• Factors Affecting Lava Eruption
- Magma’s silica content – the higher the silica
content, the more viscous the magma is; the more
explosive the eruption
- Magma’s water content – the more water
content, more gases expand, the more explosive
the eruption
• Types of Lava
- Silicic (Felsic/Granitic) Lava - 70% silicon
dioxide. This type has formed most of the
continents
- Mafic (Basaltic) Lava – has the least amount of
silicon dioxide, less 50%. It has a lot of Fe and
Mn. This type makes up most of the rocks at the
bottom of the ocean
- Intermediate (Andesitic) Lava – has percentage
of silicon substances between (1) and (2). This
makes up the edges of the continent
• What a volcano releases
 Lava – molten rock flowing downslope from the
vent
 Pyroclastic material – a flow of hot, dry mass of
gases ang fragments
• Volcanic Gases
- At depth, various gases are dissolved in magma
- Examples in general order of abundance: H 2O,
CO2, SO2, H2S, H2, CO, HCI, HF, He
• Beneficial Effects of Volcanic Eruption
 Produces Fertile Soil
- Volcanic soils are some of the most fertile soils
- Volcanic rocks are made of minerals that contain a
wide variety of elements that are important to plan
growth
 Volcanic Rocks for Construction
- Basalt and pumice are often used in the
construction of roads and bridges and in the
production of concrete
 Renewable Energy Source
-Magma heats the rocks that surround it. These
rocks often hold water that also becomes heated.
This heated water (geothermal water) may reach
temperatures of hundreds of degrees Celsius. As a
result, the water contains large amounts of heat
energy
 Tourism
- Tourists are attracted to areas of volcanic activity
which provides money for the local economy
• Negative Impact of Volcanic Eruption
 Loss of human life and devastation of wildlife
habitat
- Lives are instantly destroyed once pyroclastic
materials or lava reaches a living organism
 Lowering of Global Temperature
- When Mt. Pinatubo erupted, its ashes spread all
over the world, lowering average temperatures by
about 1 degree
 Acid rain
- Large quantities of volcanic gases (So 2, HCI, HF)
react with atmospheric water to produce acid rain
 Mud flow (lahar)
- Constantly present during heavy rains which may
destroy lives and properties
• Preparation for a Volcanic Eruption
 Before
- Pack an Emergency Kid – canned goods, battery
powered radio, flashlight, masks, water, clothes,
spare change/money, first aid kit
- Make a Family Emergency Plan – agreed meeting
place, how to contact one another
 During
- Watch news or listen to the radio for important
announcements. Follow advisories issued by
authorities
- Avoid rivers/streams so that you will not
encounter mudflow
- Stay inside evacuation centers and do not go out
 After
- Do not go home immediately unless otherwise told
to do so. Lava does not cool off so easily
- Check for announcements using radio or tv
LESSON 3
• Crust – uppermost portion of the lithosphere; the solid
parts of the earth which are constantly moving
• Forces that deform the Earth’s crust
 Undeformed beds – no stress
 Tension – a force that pulls/stretches an object from
opposite sides
 Compression – a force that pushes an object from
opposite sides
  Shearing – forces applied to an object in different
directions
• Fault
- A large break/crack on the Earth’s crust where one
part of the crust has moved against another part
- This movement means that faults proved that the
Earth is an active place. These are signs of
powerful forces deep underground
- Active fault – has moved in the past and is
expected to move again; has generated
earthquakes before and can cause more movement
in the future
• Parts of a Fault
 Fault Plane – flat surface that may be vertical of
sloping
 Fault Line – line on the Earth’s surface (crust
 Fault Scarp – feature on the surface of the Earth
that looks like a step caused by slip on the fault
 Hanging Wall – moving block of a fault
 Footwall – stable block of the fault
• Types of Faults
 Normal Fault
- Creates space; two blocks of crust pull apart,
stretching the crust into a valley
- The hanging wall goes down due to tensional
force
 Strike-slip Fault
- Indicates rocks are sliding past each other
horizontally, with little to no vertical movement
 Reverse Fault / Thrust Fault
- Slides one block of crust on top of another
- Commonly found in collisions zones, where
tectonic plates push up mountain ranges
• Active Fault
- Areas along which all shallow earthquakes occur
- Displays seismic activity within the last 10,000
years
• Inactive Fault
- Areas which had not displayed any seismic
activity for more than 10,000 years
• Earthquake
- Trembling/shaking of the Earth’s crust
- Caused by sudden stress changes on the Earth
- Usually occurs at or near plate boundaries
- Some are strong that can be felt on the surface,
some are weak that can only be determined by a
seismograph
• Elastic Rebound Theory
- All rocks have an elastic limit
- If the forces acting on these rocks exceed this limit
or overcome the friction between blocks, the crust
snaps and an earthquake occurs
• Epicenter
- The point on the surface of the Earth directly
above the focus of an earthquake
• Focus
- The point inside the Earth’s crust where rocks first
break or move
• Intensity of an Earthquake
- Intensity scales measure the amount of shaking at
a particular location
- An earthquake causes many different intensities of
shaking around the epicenter where it occurs.
- The intensity of an earthquake will vary depending
on your location
• Magnitude vs Intensity
 Intensity
- Measures the shaking in a certain location
- Earthquakes that are shallow and near urban areas
can be greatly felt even if they are weak
 Magnitude
- Measures the energy released at the source of the
earthquake
- Earthquakes that are small in magnitude and for
from urban areas were barely felt, but are recorded
in seismographs
• Modified Mercalli Scale
- Composed of increasing levels of intensity that
range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic
destruction
- Is designated by Roman numerals
- Does not have a mathematical backing, instead it
is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects
• Magnitude of an Earthquake
- Magnitude scales, like the moment magnitude,
measure the size of the earthquake at its source
- An earthquake has one magnitude that doesn’t
depend on where the measurement is made
• Richter Magnitude Scale
- A measure of the strength of earthquakes,
developed by Charles Francis Richter and
presented in his landmark 1935 paper, where he
called it the “magnitude scale”
• Seismograph
- A sensitive instrument that measures and records
seismic waves
• Tsunami
- A series of ocean waves that sends surges of water
sometimes reaching heights of over 100 ft. onto
land
- These walls of water can cause widespread
destruction when they crash ashore
• What causes a Tsunami
- Typically caused by large, undersea earthquakes at
tectonic plate boundaries
- When the ocean floor at a plate boundary rises or
falls suddenly, it displaces the water above it and
launches the rolling waves that will become a
tsunami
LESSON 4
• Seismic Waves
- Waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of
rock within the Earth or an explosion
- The energy that travels through the Earth and is
recorded on seismographs
• Types of Seismic Waves
 Body Waves – Primary Waves, Secondary Waves
- Travelling through the interior of the Earth, body
waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by
an earthquake.
- These waves are of higher frequency than surface
waves
- Primary Waves / P- Waves / Compressional
waves
- Fastest kind of seismic waves; first to arrive at a
seismic station; can move through solid rock and
fluids, like water/liquid layers of the Earth
- Pushes & pulls the rock it moves through just
like sound waves push & pull the air
- Particles move in the same direction the wave is
moving in, which is the direction of the energy is
travelling in and is sometimes called the
“direction of wave propagation”
- Secondary Waves / S-Waves
- The second wave you feel in an earthquake;
slower that P-wave; can only move through solid
rock, not through any liquid medium. This
property of S-waves led seismologists to
conclude that the Earth’s outer core is liquid
- Moves rock particles up & down, or side-to-side
—perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
travelling in (the direction of wave propagation)
  Surface Waves – Love Waves, Rayleigh Waves
- Travels only through the crust; has lower
frequency than body waves; easily distinguished
on a seismogram; arrives after body waves
- Responsible for the damage and destruction
associated with earthquakes.
- Its damage and strength are reduced in deeper
earthquakes
- Love Waves / L-Waves
- Named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the
mathematical model for L-Waves in 1911
- Fasted surface wave and moves the ground from
side-to-side
- Confined to the surface of the crust; produces
entirely horizontal motion
- Rayleigh Waves / R-Waves
- Named for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh,
who mathematically predicted the existence of
this kind of wave in 1885
- Rolls along the ground like a wave rolls across a
lake/ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground
up and down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving
- Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is
due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much
larger than the other waves
• What’s inside the Earth
- When an earthquake occurs, vibrations or seismic
waves start off from the focus and travel in all
directions. The seismic waves travel through the
Earth and carry information from the interior to
the surface.
- When seismic waves encounter a layer within the
Earth, they are reflected. They are also refracted or
bent. This is how we know that the Earth has a
crust, mantle, and core.
- Rocks get denser with depth because the seismic
waves speed up as they pass through these rocks.
- Scientists have found out that s-waves cannot
travel through liquids. Since s-waves disappear
when they reach the core, that means the outer
core must be molten (liquid).
- Scientists know about the Earth’s interior because
of the occurrence of earthquakes.
• Emergency Preparedness for Earthquakes
 Before
- The key effective disaster prevention is
planning:
- Know the earthquake hazards in your area
- Follow structural design and engineering
practices when constructing a house of building
- Evaluate the structural soundness of the
buildings and houses; strengthen/retrofit if
necessary
- Prepare your homes, workplace, or schools
- Strap/bolt heavy furniture/cabinets to the walls
- Check the stability of hanging objects like
ceiling fans and chandeliers
- Breakable items, harmful chemicals and
flammable materials should be stored properly in
the lowermost secured shelves
- Familiarize yourself with the exit routes
- Know where the fire extinguishers, first aid
kits, alarm, and communication facilities are
located. Learn how to use them beforehand
- Prepare a handy emergency supply kit with first
aid kit, canned food and can opener, water,
clothing, blanket, battery-operated radio,
flashlight and extra batteries
- Conduct and participate in regular earthquake
drills
 During
- Stay calm
- When you are inside a structurally sound
building or home, stay there
- Do the “Duck, Cover, Hold”
- If possible, quickly open the door for exit
- Duck under a sturdy desk or table, and hold on
to it, or protect your head with your arms
- Stay away from glass windows, shelves,
cabinets, and other heavy objects
- Beware of falling objects. Be alert and keep your
eyes open
- If you’re outside, move to an open area
- Stay away from trees, powerlines, posts, and
concrete structures
- Move away from steep slopes which may be
affected by landslides
- If you’re near the shore and feel an earthquake,
especially if it’s too strong, more quickly to
higher grounds. Tsunamis might follow
- If you’re in a moving vehicle, stop and get out.
Do not attempt to cross bridges, overpasses, or
flyovers which may have been damaged
 After
- Be prepared for aftershocks. Once the shaking
stops, take to fastest and safest way out of the
building
- Don’t:
 use elevators
 enter damaged buildings
 use telephones unless necessary
 panic
- Check:
 Yourself and others for injuries
 Water and electrical lines for damages
 For spills of chemicals, toxic, and flammable
materials. Control fires which may spread
Lesson 5
• Major Mountain Belts
- North American Cordillera
- South American Cordillera
- Appalachians
- Caledonides
- Indosinian Orogeny
- Himalayas
• Pacific Ring of Fire / Circum-Pacific Belt
- Path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by
active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
- Majority of Earth’s volcanoes and earthquakes
take place along the Ring of Fire
- Length is approximately 40,000 km.
- It traces boundaries between several tectonic
plates – including Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cosos,
Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American,
Philippine Plates
• Divergent Boundary / Constructive Boundary
- Zone where 2 lithospheric plates move apart from
each other
- Characterized by tensional stresses that normally
produce long rift zones, normal faults, and basaltic
volcanism
• Convergent Boundary / Destructive Plate Boundary
- Occurs when 2 plates are pushing toward each
other
- The crust is destroyed and recycled back into the
interior of Earth while one plate dives under
another
- Ex. Himalaya Mountains
• Transform Fault Boundary / Conservative Boundary
- Zone between 2 plates that slide horizontally past
one another
- Neither creates nor destroys a crust
- Ex. San Andreas Fault
• Converging Oceanic Crust Leading Plate &
Continental Crust Leading Plate
- Gives rise to the formation of a volcanic arc near
the edge of a continental leading plate because the
denser oceanic crust undergoes subduction
process (bending of the crust towards the mantle)
- Since the mantle is hotter than the crust, the
subducted crust melts forming magma
- Addition of volatile material (like water) will
cause magma to become less dense, so it rises and
 reaches the crust once again, causing volcanic
activities on the continental leading plate
• Convergence of Oceanic Plates
- Trench / submarine valleys – a geologic featured
formed by oceanic crust
- Ocean trenches – deepest part of the ocean;
- Tsunamis – strong underwater earthquakes;
“harbor waves”; series of ocean waves with very
long wavelengths (typically hundreds of
kilometers) caused by large-scale disturbances of
the ocean
• Two Continental Plates Converging
- When 2 continental plates converge, a collision
zone is formed
- No trench, volcano, or island arc is created during
this process, instead a mountain range is created
• Divergence of Plates
- Formation of rift valleys and oceanic ridges are
indications that the crust is spreading or splitting
apart
- The plates are forming divergent plate boundaries
wherein they tend to move apart
- Most divergent boundaries are situated along
underwater mountain ranges (oceanic ridges)
- As the plates separate, new materials from the
mantle ooze up to fill the gap which will slowly
cool to produce new ocean floor
• Transform Fault Boundaries
- Cuts through the continental crust; movements
along the fault system trigger earthquake activities
• Hot Spot
- Volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying
mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the
surrounding mantle
- Its position on the Earth’s surface is independent
of tectonic plate boundaries
- Creates a chain of volcanoes as the plates move
above them
• Earth’s interior
 Crust
- Thinnest and outermost layer of the Earth that
extends from the surface to about 32 km. below
- Subdivided into 2 regions: continental & oceanic
crust
 Mantle
- Extends to about 2,900 km. from the Earth’s
surface
- Makes up about 80% of the Earth’s total volume
and about 68% of its total mass
- Mainly made up of silicate rocks; both S-Waves
and P-Waves pass through it
 Outer Core
- 2,900 km. below the Earth’s surface; 2,250 km.
thick
- Made up of iron and nickel; temperature reaches
up to 2000oC where iron and nickel melt
 Inner Core
- Made up of solid iron and nickel; has a radius of
1,300 km; temperature reaches up to 5,000oC
- Could melt iron and nickel but it is solidified as a
result of pressure freezing, which is common to
liquids subjected under tremendous pressure
• Continental Drift Theory
- Alfred Wegener, 1912, German meteorologist
- The continents were once one large landmass
- “Pangaea” – Greek word which means “All
Earth”; it
- broke into 2 smaller supercontinent (Laurasia and
Gondwanaland) during Jurassic Period
- The smaller supercontinents broke into the
continents which drifted apart since then
• Evidence: Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
- The edge of one continent matches the edge of
another
- South Africa and Africa; India, Antarctica and
Australia; Eurasia and North America
• Evidence: Fossils (Antonio Snider-Pellegrini)
- Fossils – preserved remains or traces of organisms
(plants & animals) from the remote past
- Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant “Glossopteris”
were located in the continents of Southern Africa,
Australia, India, and Antarctica, which are
separated from each other by wide oceans
• Evidence: Rocks
- Rocks formations in Africa line up with that in
South Africa as if it was a long mountain range
• Evidence of Coal Deposits
- Antarctica must have been positioned in a part of
the Earth where it once supported large quantities
of life. Antarctica once experienced a tropical
climate; thus, it might have been closer before to
the equator.
• Magnetic Reversal
- Magnetic ‘flip’ of the Earth
- When the North Pole is transformed into a South
Pole and the South Pole becomes the North Pole
- Due to the change in the direction of flow in the
outer core
• Seafloor Spreading Theory
- Harry Hess, and Robert Dietz
- “Hot, less dense material from below the Earth’s
crust rises towards the surface at the mid-ocean
ridge
- This material flows sideways carrying the seafloor
away from the ridge, and creates a crack in the
crust
- The magma flows out of the crack, cools down,
and becomes the new seafloor
- Findings that support this theory:
- Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge
- Rocks far from the mid-ocean ridge are older
- Sediments are thinner at the ridge
- Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those
at the continents
- Contradicts a part of the Continental Drift
Theory
- Continents moved through unmoving oceans and
that larger, sturdier continents broke through the
oceanic crust. Whereas the seafloor spreading
shows that the ocean is the actual site of tectonic
activity.
• Plate Tectonic Theory
- Provided an explanation about the movement of
lithospheric plates
- Evolved from the 2 former theories; first
developed during the first decades of the 20 th
Century
• Convection Current
- As a substance like water is heated, the less dense
particles rise while denser particles sink. Once the
hot less dense particles cool down, they sink, and
the other
- less dense particles rise.
- The hot, less dense rising material spreads out as it
reaches the upper mantle causing upward and
sideward forces
- Because of convection current, the tectonic plates
can move slowly along the tectonic boundaries,
pushing each other, sliding past each other, and
drifting away from each other
LESSON 6
• Etymology – “tekton” means “builder” or “maker”
• Plate Tectonics
- Theory that Earth’s outer shell is divided into
several plates that glide over the mantle (rocky
inner layer above the core
- Science that explains the movement of Earth’s
crust
• Tectonic Plate / Lithospheric plate
 - Massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock;
composed of both continental & oceanic
lithosphere
• Layers of Earth (Composition)
 Crust
- Outermost solid layer of a rocky planet or natural
satellite; chemically distinct from the underlying
mantle; 0-100km (silicates)
 Mantle
- Layer between the crust and the outer core;
chemically distinct from the crust and the other
core
- Made up of ductile/plastic not liquid; can flow on
very long time scales and under pressure
- Composed of aluminum and silicates
 Core
- Innermost layers of the Earth; not chemically
distinct from each other but chemically distinct
from the mantle
- Outer core (liquid); Inner core (solid)
- Composed of nickel & iron
• Layers of Earth (Mechanical)
 Lithosphere
- Outer solid part of the planet including Earth’s
crust and the underlying cool, dense, and rigid
upper part of the upper mantle
- Extends from the surface of Earth to a depth of
about 70-100 km.
 Asthenosphere
- Highly viscous, hotter, and ductile region of the
upper mantle that is involved in plate- tectonic
movement and isostatic adjustments.
 Mesospheric Mantle
- Mantle in the region under the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere, but above the outer core.
 Outer Core
- Second largest layer and made entirely out of
liquid magma; 2200 km thick
 Inner Core
- Solid hot ball that is submerged in the liquid outer
core
- 70% as wide as the moon; spins at its own rate,
0.2% longitude per year faster than Earth above
• Major Tectonic Plate
- Any plate with an area greater than 20 million km2
- North America Plate, South America Plate, Pacific
Plate, Africa Plate, Eurasia Plate, Australia Plate,
Antarctic Plate
• Minor Tectonic Plate
- Any plate with an area less than 20 million km 2
but greater than 1 million km2
- Arabian, Burma, Caribbean, Caroline, Cocos,
Nazca, New Hebrides, Philippine, Scotia, Somali
• Theory of Isostacy (Clarence Edward Dutton)
- The lighter crust must be floating on the denser
underlying mantle
- Invoked to explain how different topographic
heights can exist on the Earth’s surface
- Blocks of same mass, different densities
- Blocks of same density, different masses
• Mantle Convection Theory (Arthur Holmes)
- Very slow creeping motion of Earth’s solid silicate
mantle caused by convection currents carrying
heat from the interior to the planet’s surface
- The Earth's surface lithosphere rides atop the
asthenosphere and the two form the components of
the upper mantle
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge Studies (Drummond Matthews
& Frederick Vine)
- “Magnetic anomalies over oceanic ridges” became
“Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis”
- First scientific test of sea floor spreading, and a
crucial development in the theory of Plate
Tectonics.
- Mid-Atlantic Ridge was formed due to the
separation of tectonic plates on both sides of the
ocean
• Major Landforms as an effect of Plate Tectonics
 Geomorphology
- scientific study of landforms and the processes
that shape them
- focuses on understanding landform history and
dynamics and predicting future changes through
observations, experiments, and modeling
 Dunes
- Mounds/ small hills made up of sand
 Loess
- Predominantly silt–sized sediment formed by the
accumulation of windblown dust
 Mushroom Rock / Rock Pedestal
- Natural occurring rock that resembles the shape of
a mushroom; formed by earthquake or glacial
action
 Mesas / Table Mountains
- Elevated areas of land with a flat top and sides that
are usually steep cliffs
 Buttes
- Has a flat–topped hill and steep sides; formed in
arid to semi – and desert conditions.
 Canyons / Gorge
- Deep ravine between cliffs that is often carved
from the landscape by a river, wind, or glacier
 Volcanoes
- Landforms that are controlled by geological
processes that form them and continually act on
them after their formation
 Hills
- Elevated portions of land that are formed by
geologic activities such as faulting
 Valley / Dale
- Low–lying area of land situated between hills or
mountains; usually formed by the actions of rivers
and glaciers
 Glaciers
- Huge slow–moving bodies of ice
 Delta
- Low–lying triangular area located at the mouth of
rivers where it meets an ocean, a sea, or an estuary
 Peninsula / Byland / Biland
- Piece of land that projects into a body of water;
connected with the mainland by an isthmus;
formed by lithospheric movement, water
elevation, and erosion
 Meander
- Bend in a sinuous watercourse of river; formed
when moving water in a stream erodes the out
banks then widens its valley
 Sea Cliffs
- High rocky coasts that plunge down to the edge of
the sea; results of erosional actions of water and
wind
 Plains
- Flat and broad land areas that have no great
changes in elevation when measured with
reference to the mean sea level
 Plateaus / Table Lands / Flat-topped Mountains
- Portions of land elevated thousands of feet above
their surroundings
 Mountains
- Large landform that rises above the surrounding
land in a limited area, usually in the form of a
peak; generally steeper than a hill
- Formed through tectonic forces or volcanism.
These forces can locally raise the surface of the
earth.