Volcano - A landform that is
-Produces fast-flowing lava
formed from a crack, an
opening, or a rupture on the
surface of the crust of the Earth
through which magma (molten
rock), ash and larger particles
and/or gaseous materials are
ejected from beneath the
surface of the earth.
-Are sources of geothermal
energy.
-May undergo eruption.
-Map of the world’s active
volcanoes, showing that the
majority of active volcanoes
(about 66%) occur in the Pacific
Ring of Fire.
PACIFIC RING OF FIRE
-An area characterized by
frequent earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
SUBDUCTION
A process where the tectonic
plates that comprise the crust
are in constant but slow
motion, moving towards each
other, drifting away from each
other.
MAGMA
-Molten rock beneath the
surface of the earth.
LAVA
-A magma that has been
extruded during an eruption.
*VENT- the vent is the
opening from which lava flows.
Dust, ash, and rock particles
can also be thrown out of the
vent!
*Crater- the top of the
volcano. It is a funnel shaped
pit. It is formed when the
material explodes out of the
vent!
*Volcanic cone- is the pile of
lava, dust, ashes, and rock
around the vent. It can be
found in different shapes!
*Fissure- elongated fracture or
crack on the earth’s crust
from which lava flows.
*Conduit- passageway -Not explosive (mostly) !!
through which magma travels Shield Volcano
to reach the earth’s surface -Layers of cooled lava
*Flank- side of a volcano -Eruptions can occur at
*Magma chamber or reservoir summit and side vents
– underground Compartment -Largest volcanoes on Earth
where the magma is stored. DOME VOLCANO
TYPES OF VOLCANO -Are mounds of viscous(slower
According to Appearance flowing) lavas.
-They have smaller and steeper
1. Steep slopes
sides than startovolcanoes
2. Gentle slopes
-They have a domeshaped mass
According to Eruption
within the crater
1. Explosive (violent) CALDERA VOLCANO
-Viscous lava -Are large depressions due to
→ Steep slopes withdrawal of magma from
2. Quiet (non-violent) beneath the volcano.
-Fluid lava flows easily -The diameter of the crater of
→ Gentle slopes these volcanoes are much larger
According to Shape than the other types, spanning
Composite cone /Stratovolcano many tens of kilometers across.
-Classic volcano look VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
-Formed by highly viscous or -ACTIVE - (has erupted in the last
thick,slow-moving lava. 10,000 yrs)
-It has steep upper slopes and -INACTIVE/DORMANT - (no
relaxed lower slopes, a small activity during the last10,000 yrs)
crater at its summit, and is -EXTINCT - (no written records of
packed with a large reservoir of activity; considered unlikely to
magma . erupt again)
-They are the most dangerous. ACTIVE VOLCANOES IN THE
PHILIPPINES
When they explode, an area
MT. BANAHAW
may collapse forming a larger
-LAGUNA, QUEZON
crater called CALDERA.
MT. CABALIAN
Cinder Cones/Scoria
-SOUTHERN, LEYTE
-Formed by fluid lava that is MT. BILIRAN
ejected because of high -BILIRAN, ISLAND
pressure that builds up in the MT. BUD DAJO
magma chamber. -SULU
-Has tall, very steep sides. MT. BULUSAN
-Has explosive violent eruptions -SORSOGON
eruptions. MT. CAGUA
-This eruption produces a lot of MT. CAMIGUIN DE BABUYANES
cinder and ash. MT. DIDICAS
Shield Volcano MT. BABUYAN CLARO
-Formed by loose and fluid lava -CAGAYAN
that flows over each other. MT. MAKATURING
-Usually low and broad, -LANAO DEL SUR
resembling a warrior’s armored MT. IRAYA
shield or a gigantic blob. -BATANES
-Wide base, shallow sides
MT. HIBOK-HIBOK EXAMPLES OF LAVA FLOW
-CAMIGUIN MATERIALS
MT. IRIGA 1. AA - is a kind of lava that has
-CAMARINES SUR rough, spiny and clinkered
MT. KANLAON texture.
-NEGROS, ORIENTAL 2. PAHOEHOE - is a very fluid
MT. LEONARD KNIASEFF lava flow. When solidified, it is
-DAVAO, DEL NORTE characterized by smooth,
MT. MATUMTUM
billowy and ropy surfaces.
MT. RAGANG
3. BLOCKS - are fragments of
MT. PARKER
lava or rocks which are
-COWTABAWTO
MT. MAYON
larger .than 64 mm and form
-ALBAY due to fracturing of viscous lava
MT. MUSUAN flow surfaces.
-BUKIDNON 4. LAVA FLOW - is a stream of
MT. SMITH molten rock which is ejected
-CAGAYAN nonviolently from a volcano
MT. PINATUBO and moves downhill slowly.
-ZAMBALES 5. PILLOW LAVA- is formed
MT. TAAL when fluid lava erupts or flows
-BATANGAS underwater. They are referred
HAWAIIAN ERUPTION - The least as “pillows” because the
violent type, with highly fluid or structures are shaped like sacks
runny lava flowing out several or pillows in their cross-section
vents. view.
VULCANIAN ERUPTION - A think -Lava Flow - It is not just
viscous magma flows around the explosive volcanic activity that
vent as solid lava and just are can be hazardous. Effusive
ejected.
(lava) activity is also dangerous.
PLINIAN ERUPTION- The most
Lava Flow - Heimaey, Iceland
violet and explosive type of
-Iceland, January 23,1973.
eruption which is caused by build
-Large fissure eruption
up of viscous magma and
threatened the town of
dissolved gases. It is
accompanied by fast-flowing Vestmannaeyjar.
pyroclastic debris and lahars. -The lava flows caught the
STROMBOLIAN ERUPTION - inhabitants by surprise
violent eruption, featuring -Before the eruption was over,
continuous ejection of magma approximately one-third of the
and gas. It results in the town of Vestmannaeyjer had
formation of volcanic bombs and been destroyed
cinder cones. -However, the potential damage
was reduced by spraying
seawater onto the advancing lava
TWO DIVISIONS OF VOLCANIC
flows.
MATERIALS
-This caused them to slow and/or
LAVA FLOW MATERIALS
stop, or diverted them away
-are those coming from the lava
from the undamaged part of the
ejected during the eruption town.
PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS
EXAMPLES OF PYROCLASTIC
- are composed mainly of hot MATERIALS
ash, gas and rock AGGLUTINATES - are cinders,
scoria, or pumice fragments
which are welded together
partially to create a cohesive
mass.
2. VOLCANIC ASH - are fragments
of lava or rock less than 2 mm in
diameter which are expelled into
the air during eruptions.
3. BLOCKS - are solid fragments
of lava or rock which are larger
than 64 mm in size and are sent
into the air during volcanic
eruptions.
4. BOMBS - are fragments of fluid
or partially fluid lava which are
larger than 64 mm in size and are
ejected into the air during
5. CINDERS-are vesicular lava
fragments which have size of 1
cm or larger.
6. LAPILI - are fragments of lava
or rocks with size ranging from 2
to 64 mm. They are expelled into
the air by eruptions.
SPECIAL TYPES OF ROCK
MATERIALS
1. PUMICE-is a light-colored,
frothy, vesicular rock that is
commonly composed of light-
colored volcanic minerals formed
by the expansion of gas in
exploding lava.
2. SCORIA - is a dark to reddish-
colored kind of vesicular volcanic
rock commonly composed of
dark-colored volcanic minerals.
Pyroclastic Flow - lahars
-Hot volcanic activity can melt
snow and ice
-Melt water picks up rock and
debris
-Forms fast flowing, high energy
torrents
-Destroys all in its path
Pyroclastic Fall
-Ash load
-Collapses roofs
-Brings down power lines
-Kills plants
-Contaminates water supplies
-Respiratory hazard for humans
and animals.

-MT. Pinatubo erupted on June
15, 1991
-Pinatubo is a stratovolcano, a
volcano comprised of layers of
lava flows and pyroclastic
material that gradually
accumulated over time.
-Ancestral Pinatubo was an
andesite and dacite
stratovolcano whose center was
in roughly the same location as
the modern Pinatubo.
-Before April 2, 1991,
volcanologists considered
Mount Pinatubo to be an
inconspicuous, currently
inactive volcano that had once
been active a millennium ago.
The Climactic Eruption
Typhoon Yunga hit Luzon on the
same day, obscuring direct view
The eruption ended 9 hours later
at 22:30
VOLCANO HAZARDS CAN HAVE
FAR REACHING IMPACTS
-VERTICAL PLUME (can affect
jet aircraft)
-ASH AND TEPHRA
-LATERAL BLAST
-PYROCLASTIC CLOUDS, BURSTS,
AND FLOWS
-LAVA FLOWS
-LAHARS (can bury villages)
-EARTHQUAKES (related to
movement of lava)
-“VOLCANIC WINTER” (causing
famine and mass extinctions)
LOCAL IMPACTS
-In the first three months after
the enormous eruption, >200
lahars occurred
-About 300 people were killed, -Lahars are more dangerous than
mostly by roofs collapsing under pyroclastic flows because they
wet ash are more common, and they
can occur at any time (not just
-364 communities and 2.1 million during an eruption).
people were impacted
>8,000 homes completely
destroyed
-Pyroclastic flows filled river
valleys with hot volcanic rocks,
which killed vegetation and
rendered land infertile
-The GDP fell by 3% in 1991
-Every rainy season, lahars return
-The evacuation effort organized
by PHIVOLCS and USGS saved
tens of thousands of lives
-This was a great success for
volcanology and the prediction of
volcanic eruptions
-The indigeneous Aeta people
were hardest hit; many were
relocated permanently
-Mt. Pinatubo is now a popular
eco-tourism
-Lahars are fast-moving mud
flows.
Two things together make a
lahar: Thick, loose deposits of
volcanic ash and water.
-The water can come in several
ways:
- A major rainstorm dumps water
on the volcano.
- An eruption melts large
amounts of snow and
ice on the flanks of the volcano.
Climate Change - Refers to any
significant change in the measures of
climate lasting for an extended
period of time
Global Warning - Refers to the long-
term average increase in global
temperature.
GLOBAL WARMING - causes Extreme
changes in WEATHER
And CLIMATE.
WEATHER
day-to-day state of theatmosphere
-Short term changes in atmospheric
variables such as temperature and
rainfall.
-Can change rapidly Weather is what
is happening outside right now.
CLIMATE
-cumulative pattern of weather in a
particular place over time.
-Long term state of atmospheric
variables like rainfall and
temperature.
-Climate occurs over seasons or
longer.
CLIMATE-The Average of all the
weather conditions of an area over
long period of time (at least 30
years)
WEATHER- The condition of the
atmosphere at a patricular time and
place.
WEATHER conditions
-AIR TEMPERATURE
-AIR PRESSURE
-HUMIDITY
-NUMBER OF DAYS OF SUNLIGHT
EXPOSURE
TROPICAL - occurs in places where
sunlight hits the earth most directly,
these are countries located in
EQUATOR.
TEMPERATE CLIMATE
Countries located in these areas
experience winter, spring, summer
and autumn or fall.
-these countries receive more
sunlight.
LOCATED IN THE TEMPERATE ZONE
Countries located in these areas
experience winter, spring, summer.’
-POLAR CLIMATE - Occurs in the
polar zones of the earth. These
regions are always cold because they
receive the least sunlight.
-KOPPEN CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM - a more detailed way of
identifying climate by measuring the
amount of rainfall, the average
temperature of the place, and other
related categories of measurements.
7 KINDS OF CLIMATES
1. TROPICAL HUMID - is
characterized by long periods of
intense rains when the sun is directly
above the equator.
-this rainy period lasts about
10months every year, resulting to
humid climate.
-rainforest thrive in this kind of
climate.
2. DRY CLIMATE - characterized by
very little rainfall throughtout each
year.
-the amount of evaporation of water
is greater than the amount of
precipitation, therefore making the
place dry, many desserts experience
this.
3. SUBTROPICAL - can be found next
to tropical areas.
-savannas and some deserts
experience this climate.
4. TEMPERATE - this climate does not
have the characteristic of extreme
temperature and precipitation.
5. BOREAL - this climate can also be
referred to as subarctic climate due
to its proximity to places that have
polar climate.
-many experience extreme
temperature variation.
6.POLAR - it is chiefly distinguished
by its lack of warm summer season.
-animals such as penguins and
Polar bears, thrive in this climate.
7. HIGHLANDS/MOUNTAINOUS
- from the name itself,climate, can
be found in areas of high elevation.
-also referred to as allpine climate.
CLIMATES IN THE PHILIPPINES
TYPE I - There are two distinct
seasons for this type: the dry season
from november to april and
the wet season from may to october.
TYPE II - There is no definite dry
season, and there is usually a heavy
rainy season from november to
january.
TYPE III - There are no definite
seasons. The place is relatively dry
from november to april, and wet
during the other months of the year.
TYPE IV - The amount of rainfall is
more or less evenly distributed
throughout the year.
NATURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT
CLIMATE
CONTINENTALITY - This is the
distance of a certain area from the
sea or ocean.
-places located by the seaside are
much cooler and wetter than those
that are landlocked.
OCEAN CURRENTS - this factor
affects climate by reducing or
increasing the temperature or
affected areas.
WIND DIRECTION - the blowing
winds can also affect climate, winds
coming from the sea are likely to
bring rains while winds coming from
dry places such as deserts, only bring
dry and warm winds.
LAND SHAPE/ TOPOGRAPHY AND
ELEVATION - it is mainly influenced
by the location of the place on top of
the mountains or plateaus.
DISTANCE FROM THE EQUATOR
The distance of a place from the
equator has an effect on its climate.
-those located near the equator will
most likely experience the heat or
tropical climate.
ALBEDO - the reflectivity of the
surface influences global climate.
-land have low albedo while oceans
have high albedo.
EL NINO PHENOMENON - is an
ocean-athmosphere phenomenon
that brings warning of the pacific
between south america and
australia, including the phillipines.
-it results in less rainfall, drouths and
forest fires.
LA NINA - it is where there an
increase iin rainfall resulting to
flooding and landslides.
MAN-MADE FACTORS THAT AFFECT
CLIMATE
USE OF FOSSIL FUELS - Using of coal,
oil and natural gas for daily living.
DEFORESTATION - large scale tree
cutting deprives the atmosphere of
natural air purifiers and reducers or
carbon dioxide.
AGRICULTURE - planting crops and
raising cattle for meat and dair
produts to feed the world population
increases the amount of greenhouse
gases.
Greenhouse gases are increasing!
CO2 to Atmosphere
-Human Activity
-Combustion: Burning of coal and
fossil fuels.
-Deforestation
Methane to Atmosphere
-Human Activity
-Landfills
-Agriculture (rice)
-Livestock
Other gases to atmosphere
-Human Activity
-Ozone from car exhausts
-CFC’s from aerosols
GLOBAL WARMING TOP 5 CAUSES
1. Carbon dioxide emissions from
burning gasoline for transportation.
2. Carbon dioxide emissions from
fossil burning power plants,
3. methane emissions from animals,
agriculture such as rice paddies, and
from arctic seabeds.
4. Increase in usage of chemical
fertilizers on croplands.
5. Deforestation especially tropical
forests for wood, pulp and farmland.
GLOBAL WARMING - is evidenced by
Increase in temperature, extreme
weather events.
-RISING SEA LEVELS
-OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
The earth has warmed
-The earth’s average temperature
has increased by 0.74°C over the
past century.
Rainfall patterns have changed
-The world has seen changes in
amount, intensity, frequency and
type of precipitation.
-Rainfall strongly characterized by
variability –year to year variations.
Global Sea Levels have risen
-During 20th century average
increase was 4.8 to 8.8 inches per
century (1.2-2.2 mm/year)
-Due to the expansion of ocean
water
-melting of mountain glaciers and
small ice caps.
More extreme weather
-Tropical storm and hurricane
frequencies vary considerably from
year to year. However, evidence
suggests substantial increases in
intensity and duration since the
1970s.
-Caribbean temperatures will
continue to increase to 2099.
-Computer models suggest the
Caribbean will warm by 1 to 5oC
by the end of the century.
-The Caribbean and Jamaica will be
drier by 2099.
-Drying will be between 25% and
30% in the mean for the Caribbean.
-Drying will be most severe between
May and November.
Sea level rise
-Caribbean sea level rise may be
higher than in other regions because
of its closeness to the
equator.
Hurricanes
-Storms will likely be more intense,
with higher rainfall rates and
increased maximum winds.
-Reported cases of dengue are
related to both temperature and
rainfall, with warming of early
months of the year bringing earlier
onset of reported dengue cases and
epidemics e.g. Jamaica 1998.
-A devastating coral bleaching event
in 2005 was caused by higher than
normal sea surface in the
Caribbean.
-There is need to adoptmitigation
measures to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions at their source or enhance
their removal from the atmosphere.
These should include using
renewable energy and planting more
trees.
-We must adjust to the changing
climate to reduce the negative
effects of climate change or exploit
the positive ones. Adaptation
measures may include technological,
behavioral, managerial or policy.
Star - The objects that heat and
light the planets in a system
•A star is a ball of plasma held
together by its own gravity
-Nuclear reactions occur in stars
(H 🡪He)
-Energy from the nuclear
reactions is released as
electromagnetic radiation.
Stars are characterized by:
COLOR
SURFACE TEMPERATUTE
SIZE
BRIGHTNESS
COMPOSITION
Characteristics of Stars
Magnitude (brightness)
-A measure of brightness of
celestial objects.
-Smaller values represent
brighter objects than larger
values.
Apparent magnitude (1-6)
-How bright a star appears to be
from Earth
Absolute magnitude (luminosity)
-How bright a star actually is
DISTANCE
-Measured in light-years
-The distance which a ray of light
would travel in one year
-About 6,000,000,000,000 (6
trillion) miles
-186,000 miles per second
Temperature & Color
-The color of a star indicates
the T of the star.
-Stars are classified by T
-Decreasing T (bright to dim)
-O, B, A, F, G, K, M [Oh Be A Fine
Girl, Kiss Me ]
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Main Sequence Stars
-A major grouping of stars that
forms a narrow band from the
upper left to the lower right
when plotted according to
luminosity and surface
temperature on the Hertzsprung-
Russell diagram
Types of Stars
Classification
STAR SIZE
DWARF STARS – are very small,
about 75- 80% the size of the
sun.
GIANT STARS - are twice to 10
times larger than our sun
SUPER GIANT STARS – are more
than 10 times the size of our sun.
LIFE CYCLE OF STARS
-Begin their lives as clouds of
dust and gas called nebulae.
-Gravity may cause the nebula to
contract.
-Matter in the gas cloud will
begin to condense into a dense
region called a protostar.
-The protostar continues to
condense, it heats up. Eventually,
it reaches a critical mass and
nuclear fusion begins.
-Begins the main sequence phase
of the star
-Most of its life is in this phase
Life span of a star depends on its
size.
-Very large, massive stars burn
their fuel much faster than
smaller stars
-Their main sequence may last
only a few hundred thousand
years
-Smaller stars will live on for
billions of years because they
burn their fuel much more
-Eventually, the star's fuel will
begin to run out.
-It will expand into what is
known as a red giant.
-Massive stars will become red
supergiants.
-This phase will last until the
star exhausts its remaining fuel.
-At this point the star will
collapse.
-Most average stars will blow
away their outer atmospheres to
form a planetary nebula.
-Their cores will remain behind
and burn as a white dwarf until
they cool down.
-What will be left is a dark
ball of matter known as a black
dwarf.
-If the star is massive enough, the
collapse will trigger a violent
explosion known as a supernova.
-If the remaining mass of the
star is about 1.4 times that of our
Sun, the core is unable to
support itself and it will collapse
further to become a neutron star
-The matter inside the star will be
compressed so tightly that its
atoms are compacted into a
dense shell of neutrons. if the
remaining mass of the star is
more than about three times that
of the Sun, it will collapse so
completely that it will literally
disappear from the universe.
What is left behind is an intense
region of gravity called a black
hole.

Constellation
-As early as 5000 years ago,
people began naming patterns of
stars, called constellations, in the
honor of mythological characters
or great heroes.
-Today, 88 constellations are
recognized.
-They divide the sky into disjoint
units.
-Every star in the sky is in one of
these constellations.
-Astronomers label stars within a
constellation based on their
apparent brightness,
-brightest = alpha α,
-second brightest = beta β,
-Some of the brightest stars have
actual names, like Rigel &
Betelgeuse (both in the
constellation Orion)
Ursa Major
-Ursa Major, the Great Bear, is
visible in the Northern
Hemisphere all year long.
Ursa Minor
-Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, is
visible in the Northern
Hemisphere all year long.
-Ursa Minor is mostly known for
Polaris, the North Star, which
may be found at the end of the
handle.
Cepheus The story behind it:
Cepheus was the King of
Ethiopia. He married Cassiopeia
and they had a daughter
Andromeda. Cassiopeia was
incredibly beautiful but
immensely vain. She was also
proud of her daughter's beauty.
In fact she continually boasted
that the two of them were more
beautiful than any of the fifty sea
nymphs who attended
Poseidon's court.
slowly.
-These nymphs (the Nereids)
complained to Poseidon, who felt
he had to defend his own
reputation. So he sent a flood to
devastate Cepheus' kingdom. The
oracles told Cepheus that in
order to save his people he
must sacrifice his daughter to a
great sea monster: Andromeda
was tied to a rock along the
coastline, dressed only in her
jewelry. The monster would be
along in due time to take his
prize.
-At that moment Perseus came
flying by. He had just killed the
Gorgon Medusa and was carrying
the severed head back to Athene.
To make a long story short, he
saved her then turned everyone
into stone by showing them the
severed head.
-Poseidon then put the stone
frozen Cepheus and Cassiopeia
into the heavens, but with a
twist: he made the vain
Cassiopeia spin around on her
chair, spending half the year
upside down. As for Cepheus,
Poseidon gave him a number of
medium sized stars that go to
make his square face with a
pointed crown.
Draco, the Dragon, used to hold
special significance as the
location of the pole star, but
due to the Earth's precession, the
pole has shifted to Polaris in Ursa
Minor.
Orion is the master of the winter
skies. He lords over the heavens
from late fall to early spring, with
his hunting dog Sirius trailing at
his feet.
The story behind it: (Orion
holding an animal)
-Orion was known as the
"dweller of the mountain", and
was famous for his prowess both
as a hunter and as a lover. But
when he boasted that he would
eventually rid the earth of all the
wild animals, his doom may have
been sealed. The Earth Goddess
sent the deadly scorpion to Orion
to kill him. Orion engaged the
scorpion in battle but quickly
realized its armour was
impervious to any mortal's
attack. Orion then jumped into
the sea and died. In his eternal
hunting, Orion is careful to keep
well ahead of the scorpion. Orion
disappears over the horizon by
the time Scorpio rises in the east,
as it becomes his turn to rule the
evening sky.
-Orion Not a circumpolar
constellation, but a seasonal
Constellation Betelgeuse, the
right arm of Orion (or "armpit" as
the name suggests), glows with a
dull red. Rigel, in the opposite
corner of the constellation, is
blue and much brighter.
WINTER
•On the left: The Hunter - Orion
•In the middle: Name: The Bull -
Taurus
•On the right: Name: The
Greater Dog - Canis Major
SPRING
•On the left: The Lion - Leo
•In the middle: The Herdsman -
Böötes
•On the right: The Virgin - Virgo
SUMMER
•On the left: The Crab - Cancer
•In the middle: The Scorpion -
Scorpio
•On the right: The Archer -
Sagittarius•
AUTUMN
•On the left and in the middle:
Andromeda
-The Andromeda constellation is
famous for containing the
Andromeda Nebula, the closest
galaxy to our Milky Way.
•On the right: The Fishes, Pisces

Ecliptic Constellations &

Zodiac Signs
A band of 12 constellations
around the sky entered on the
ecliptic (apparent path of the sun
on the earth as the earth
revolves around it).

Aries, Leo, Sagittarius, Taurus,

Virgo, Capricorn, Gemini, Libra,
Aquarius, Cancer, Scorpio, and
Pisces.