Bautista of convection currents in the

Science: Third Periodical Exam Reviewer asthenosphere.

- Separated by a valley called rift.
 Volcanism – Any phenomenon of eruption of  Asthenosphere – A zone consisting of weak
molten lava onto the surface. materials that lie below the lithosphere.
- This happens when underground molten rocks - The rocks within this zone are easily
caked magma find a path through the lithosphere to deformed.
the surface.  Rift – A valley.
 Magma – A molten rock found underneath  Mid-Atlantic Range – A ridge system
Earth. located in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
- Since molten rocks are generally less dense - Where seafloor spreading is believed to be
than solid rocks, they have a natural tendency active.
to rise.  Hot Spots – Believed to be beneath the island
- A magma chamber may be squeezed by of HawaiI
tectonic forces, then moves upward due to - Where volcanoes form.
pressure. - Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Hawaii
 Lava – Magma that reaches the surface.  Hot plumes
 Parts of a Volcano  The Nature of Magma
 Volcano – A hill, mountain, or fissure from  Viscosity – The resistance of fluid to flow.
which molten rocks, hot gases, and ash are - The more viscous a material is, the greater its
ejected. resistance to flow.
- Means a crater formed by the removal of - High-viscosity magma flows more lowly than
preexisting materials, or a hill or a mountain low-viscosity magma.
formed from the accumulation of ejected
Property Basaltic Andesitic Granitic
materials.
Silica Least 50% Least 50% Most 70%
 Guyot – A volcano formed underwater.
content
 Vent – The central opening of volcano. Viscosity Least Intermediate Most
 Magma chamber – Where the heated magma Tendency Highest Intermediate Least
rises underneath. to form
 Fissures – Long narrow cracks in the crust. lava
 Fumaroles – The secondary vents that emit only Tendency Least Intermediate Highest
gases. to form
pyroclastic
 Crater – A nearly circular depression that
materials
surrounds the vent.
 Granitic – Most silica content and highest
- Calderas – Large depressions caused by the
viscosity.
collapse of the summit of a volcano.
 Basaltic – Least silica content and is the
- Believed to form when the summit of a volcano
least viscous.
collapses as the source of magma is used up.
 Andesitic – Has characteristics that are
 Where Volcanoes Form – May be formed when
intermediate between granitic and basaltic
there is a rich source of magma.
magma.
- They may be formed underwater.
 Volcanic Eruption –
 Convergent Plate Boundaries – Oceanic and
 Explosive or Quiet?
continental crust move toward each other.
 Exposive and Violent – Highly viscous
 Subduction Zones – Where a heavier plate
magma inside the vent easily solidifies.
moves under another.
- It forms a blockage in the crater of a
 Compressive forces – May cause dense
volcano and prevents the release of gases
plates to slide and descend into the mantle.
from the magma below, increasing the
 Trench – A narrow depression.
pressure inside the vent.
 Pacific Ring of Fire – A narrow zone
- When the pressure builds up, the gases will
encircling the Pacific Ocean where most of
be released, causing semi-molten rocks
the active volcanoes are located.
from the volcano to be ejected.
 Divergent Plate Boundaries – Plates move
- Most volcanoes in the Philippines erupt
apart from each other.
violently.
 Ridge – A long, narrow chain of folds in the
oceanic crust produced by diverging forces
  Quiet and Specular – Very fluid magma
allows the expanding Gses to move upward
and escape easily from the vent.
- Magma that is ejected with the escaping
gases can reach hundreds of meters into
the air.
- Volcanoes found in the ridge system erupt
quietly.
 Types of Volcanic Eruption
 Phreatic – An explosion driven by steam
produced when groundwater is heated due
to an underlying heat source.
- Involves only water, steam, and ash with
other rock fragments derived from
preexisting rocks, without ejection of fresh
magmatic materials.
- Mayon Volcano in 2006.
 Vulcanian – An eruption resulting from the
release of large quantities of accumulated
magmatic gas, which lifts fine ash with great
force high into the air, forming voluminous
cauliflower clouds.
- Batu Tara Volcano in Indonesia in 1998.
 Strombolian – A week to violent eruption
characterized by lava fountains and
outbursts of molten lava.
- Typical materials ejected are egg shaped,
- Ash is relatively scarce and the eruption is
generally yellowish to white.
- Mount Etna in Italy in 2002.
 Pelean – An eruption that occurs when gas-
rich pasty lava accumulates to form a dome
on the volcano edifice or beneath its
surface.
- The dome bursts with explosive violence.
- The liberated gas propels ash and other
pyroclastic materials at great velocity and
may cause the formation of a tall eruption
column
- A glowing avalanche or nuée ardent can be
seen rapidly moving toward the lower
slopes and base of the volcano.
 Phreatomagmatic - An eruption that results
from an ejection of magmatic gases and
steam produced by the conversion of
groundwater to steam by ascending
magma.
- The gases and steam are mixed with fine
ash with or without accretionary lapili and
variably-sized volcanic bombs fragmented
from preexisting rock formations and fresh
magmatic ejecta.
- The eruptions form a high eruption column
with a radially spreading, ring-shaped
horizontal cloud at the base,
- Kavachi Volcano in Soloman Islands in 2000.
 Accretionary Lapili - Small sized
volcanic rocks glowing in size.
 Plinian – A violent explosion characterized
by voluminous ejection of pumice and by
ash flows.
- The release of gas-rich siliceous magma is
commonly accompanied by the collapse of
the top of the volcanic cone, or by the
collapse of a broader region/
- May result in the formation of caldera or
volcano-tectonic depressions.
- Mount Vesuvius in Italy in 1779.

 Types of Volcanoes
 Composite Cone Volcanoes – Stratovolcanoes.
- Produced when viscous lava of andesitic
composition flows out over a long time.
- The volcano ejects pyroclastic materials that
flows out over a long time.
- The volcano ejects pyroclastic materials that fall
near the summit.
- This build a steep sided mound of cinders.
- Mayon Volcano, Mount Fuji.
 Cinder Cone Volcanoes – Built from ejected
lava fragments.
- They are small and usually less than 300 m high.
- Formed near or inside large volcanoes.
- Frequently occur in forups.
- Paricutin.
 Shield Volcanoes – Formed by less viscous
basaltic lava flows.
- Volcanoes formed have a really wide base and
are slightly domed.
- Kilauea, and Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
 Volcanoes in the Philippines
 Active – Considered active if they have erupted
within the last 600 years based on historical
accounts.
- Volcanoes that have erupted within the last
10,000 years based on analyses of datable
materials are also considered active.
- Bulusan, Didicas, Hibok-Hibok, Kanlaon
(Malaspina), Makaturing, Mayon, Ragang,
Smith, Taal.
 Inactive Volcanoes – Volcanoes with no known
record of eruption.
- Some volcanoes that are considered inactive
may erupt with little to no warning.
- Arayat, Banahao de Lucban, Bulalo, Lake Bunot,
Naujan, Sampaloc Lake, Talisay Caldera.
 Volcanic Materials and Hazards
 Pyroclastic flow – The fast movement of a
turbulent mass of fragmental volcanic materials
mixed with hot gases down the slope at speeds
more than 60 km/h.
 - The high temperature of pyroclastic flows can
burn everything along their path.
 Lava – A streamlike flow of incandescent,
molten rock materials erupted from a volcano.
- Areas that are buried by lava flow will be
unusable for long periods of time as the lava
solidifies.
 Ash fall or tephra fall – A shower of fine-to-
coarse-grained volcanic materials and other
airborne products of a volcanic eruption.
- Ash fall distribution or dispersal is dependent
on the prevailing wind direction.
- When inhaled, these fine ash particles can
cause respiratory problems.
- The accumulatation of ashfall can result in the
collapse of residential roofs.
 Lahar – A rapid-flowing thick mixture of
volcanic material and water, usually generated
along river channels by extreme rainfall.
 Volcanic gases – Refer to the high-temperature
mixture of water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride,
and hydrogen fluoride released into the
atmosphere.
 Debris avalanche or volcanic landslide – The
massive collapse of a huge portion of a volcano,
usually triggered by an earthquake or volcanic
eruption.
 Tsunamis – Waves brought about by the
sudden displacement of water during volcanic
eruptions.
- Could be the result of undersea eruptions or by
debris avalanches.
 Secondary explosion – A noneruptive event
generated when groundwater comes in contact
with hot pyroclastic flow deposits at the slope
of a volcano and converts it into steam.
 Climate Change
 The Role of PHIVOLCS in Disaster Risk
Management
- Monitors volcanic, geologic, and seismic activities in
the Philippines.
- Uses different methodologies to monitor volcanoes
and predict their eruption.
- In Seismic monitoring, sensors are placed on
the volcanoes.
- In Geophysical technique, changes in the
electromagnetic field due to the activity of
magma are measured using special instruments.
- Monitors the emission of gases.
- Employs an alert level scheme that describes the
current condition of a volcano.
- Summarized as:
- Predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions
and earthquakes in the Philippines.
- Determine how volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes occur.
- Determine areas that are likely to be affected
- Generates sufficient data for forecasting
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
- Formulate appropriate disaster preparedness
and plans to lessen the possible effects of
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
 Benefits from Volcanoes
- Plants grow well near volcanoes.
- Geothermal energy
- Types of Geothermal Resources:
 Liquid-dominated or Hot water reservoir: The
resource is hot water at temperatures reaching
up to 370˚C.
- Harnessing Geothermal Energy : They can be
harnessed by drilling wells into productive zones.
Pros and Cons of Volcanoes
Pros Cons
Create new island and Destroy old habitat and
land crops
Provide habitat to pioneer Destroy cities, towns, and
species communities
Create economic mineral Displace populations
deposits
Create beautiful Kill people and other
landscapes animals
Generate tourism Disrupt commerce
Gives geothermal energy Generate tsunamis
 Understanding Climate
 Weather – The change in the condition of the
atmosphere at a particular place over a short
period of time.
 Climate – The average weather of a region over
several years.
 Atmospheric Temperature
 Incoming solar radiation/ insolation –
 Solar latitude – The angle of the sun above the
horizon.
 PAGASA – Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical,
and Astronomical Services Administration.
- The government agency that handles
climatology and meteorology in the Philippines
 Thermometer – An instrument that operates on
the principle of thermal expansion of liquids
such as mercury and alcohol, which are
sensitive to changes in alcohol.
 Thermograph – An instrument that records air
temperature on a graph paper.
- Consists of a cylinder that is made to revolve
once a week.
- The temperature curve is recorded on a sheet
of graph paper fastened to the outside of the
cylinder.
 - A pen point traces the curve according to the
expansion and contraction of a sensitive
metallic.
 Precipitation – The condensed water vapor that
falls to Earth’s surface.
 Water vapor – A never-ending cycle of
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.
 Evaporation – Liquid to Gas
 Condensation – Gas to Liquid
 Hail – Big pieces of ice.
- Large hailstones can damage property or injure
people or animals.
 Atmospheric Pressure – The force per unit area
exerted by air due to its weight.
- Millibars or Millimeter of Mercury (mm Hg)
- It is measured in terms of the height of the
column of mercury in a barometer.
 Barometer – An instrument used to
measure atmospheric pressure.
 Pascal – N / m 2
- The SI unit of atmospheric pressure.
 Coriolis effect – Named after Gaspar
Coriolis
- The result of earth’s rotation.
- It causes all free-moving objects, including
the wind, to deflect to the right of its path
in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left
of its path in the Southern Hemisphere.
- This causes the wind to be deflected at right
angles to the direction of air flow.
 Atmospheric Humidity – Referred to as relative
humidity.
 Humidity – The amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere.
- A useful indicator in forecasting rain.
 Relative Humidity – The ratio of the air’s actual
vapor content to its water vaport capacity at a
given temperature.
- ocean.
actual water vapor content
Relative humidity=
water vapor capacity
- A relative humidity of 100% indicates that the
air is saturated and can no longer hold
additional water vapor.
 Sling psychrometer – The difference between
the thermometer readings are checked against
a chart to determine the relative humidity.
 Bulb – The portion of the glass tube where
mercury is stored.
 Wet Bulb Thermometer – A wick is
wrapped around its bulb.
- The wick is dipped in water before the
psychrometer is used.
 Dry Bulb Thermometer – It is spun in the air
until the temperature of the wet bulb
thermometer stops declining.
 Hair hygrometer – Uses human hair eith its oil
removed using ether.
- The length increases with relative humidity, and
the change in length is multiplied by a lever and
registered by a needle on a dial.
 Hygrothermograph – Has a thermograph and a
hygrometer that is used to record both the
relative humidity and temperature on a graph
paper.
 Factors that Affect Climate
 Latitude – The distance from the equator.
- The climate gets cooler as you move farther
from the equator.
- The poles experience a period of total darkness
during winter. The sun cannot be seen within 24
hours.
- At the equator, the day length varies only by as
much as 2 minutes.
 Altitude – The measure above sea level.
- Temperature decreases as altitude increases in
the troposphere.
 Distance from the Sea - Coastal areas have
lower temperature ranges.
- Winters are milder and summers are cooler
than inland.
 Ocean Currents and Circulation – The ocean
redistributes large amounts of heat all over
Earth through global ocean currents and deep
ocean circulations.
 Surface Current – The force exerted by the
wind that causes the water to move.
- Includes the north and south equatorial
currents, equatorial countercurrent, gulf
stream, and north Atlantic drift.
- They mix and redistribute water in the
 Upwelling – The vertical movement of
water caused by winds.
 Deep ocean circulation – Also called
Thermohaline circulation
- This is caused by the difference in water
density and gravity.
(1) Surface water becomes denser and
sinks to the bottom of the ocean,
replacing the less dense water.
(2) The surface water is replaced by the
warmer water from the lower latitude.
(3) As the warmer water from the lower
latitude moves towards the poles, it
become colder.
(4) The cold water sinks again and is
replaced by the warmer water.
(5) Cycle repeats.
 Prevailing Winds – The dominant wind systems maximum rain period
that affects the climate of a region. from June to
 Northeast monsoon/ Amihan – The September.
prevailing wind from November to April. II No dry season,
maximum rainfull
- Brings the cold and dry weather.
occurs in December
 Southwest monsoon/ Habagat – The and January
prevailing wind from May to October. III No pronounced
- Brings hot and humid weather. maximum rain period,
 Global Wind Patterns – Also known as General short dry season.
Circulation. IV Uniform distribution of
- The worldwide pattern of wind and weather. rainfall
 0˚ – 30˚ - The prevailing winds are
 Global Climate Phenomena – The movement of
northeasterly winds and southeasterly
air masses determines weather and climate.
winds that originate from northeast and
- Atmospheric circulation results primarily from
southeast.
Earth’s rotation and the differential heating of
 Trade winds – Converge approximately
Earth’s surface.
at the equator.
 Global Warming – A natural and human-
 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
induced increase in the average global
– The zone where trade winds
temperature.
converge.
- Linked to an increase in the carbon dioxide and
 30˚ – 60˚
other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
 Westerlies – Orifginate from southwest
 Climate Change
in the Northern Hemisphere and
 Rise in Sea Level – Causes:
Northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Thermal expansion
 60˚ – 90˚
 Melting of Glacial Ice
 Polar Easterilies – Originate from
 Land subsidence, groundwater deflection,
northeast in the Northern Hemisphere
natural climate variation.
and southeast in the Southern
 Adapting Climate Change
Hemisphere.
 Using scarce water resources efficiently
 Topography – When airs passes over a
 Building flood defenses
mountain range, it loses moisture and cools as
 Developing drought-tolerant crops
it rises.
 Choosing tree species and forestry practices
 Windward side - the direction upwind from
that are less vulnerable to storms and fires.
the point of reference
 Increasing efforts to reduce emission of
 Leeward side – the direction downwind
greenhouse gases by turning to alternative
from the point of reference
sustainable energy sources.
 Rain shadow – Where mountains are
 Increasing tax for fossil fuels
formed.
 Providing incentives to increase the use of
 Koppen Climate Classification System – The
mass transportation
most widely used system for classifying the
 Minimizing burning of forests
world’s climate.
 El Nino & La Nina
Climate Description  El Nino – The irregular warming of surface
Type water in the Pacific Ocean/
A Average temperature above 18C - The warmer water pumps energy and
B Dry climate, precipitation is deficient. moisture into the atmosphere, altering the
C Below 18C but abover -3C global wind and rainfall patterns.
D Average temperature of the coldest - “The boy child”
month is below -3C and the warmest
 La Nina – Brings extreme weather.
monthly average exceeds 10C
E Average temperature of the warmest - “The girl child”
moth is below -10C
 Modified Corona’s Classification of Climate –
The climate in the Philippines.

Climate Type Description

I Dry and wet, with