ALPHA DECAY Saikiran Vadavalli

PLAN OF LECTURE

Alpha Decay
Properties of alpha particles
Geiger Nuttal Law
Range and Energy of Alpha Particles
Gamow’s Theory of Alpha Decay
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation
Experiments suggested that radioactivity was the result of the decay, or
disintegration, of unstable nuclei
Three types of radiation can be emitted
 Alpha particles
 The particles are 4He nuclei
 Beta particles
 The particles are either electrons or positrons
 A positron is the antiparticle of the electron
 It is similar to the electron except its charge is +e
 Gamma rays
 The “rays” are high energy photons

8/7/2023 3
ALPHA DECAY
When a nucleus emits an alpha particle it loses two protons and
two neutrons
 N decreases by 2
 Z decreases by 2
 A decreases by 4
A −4
Symbolically
A
Z X→ Z −2 Y+ He 4
2

 X is called the parent nucleus

 Y is called the daughter nucleus

8/7/2023 4
 ALPHA DECAY -- EXAMPLE
Decay of 226Ra
226
88 Ra→222
86 Rn + 4
2 He

Half life for this decay is 1600

years
Excess mass is converted into
kinetic energy
Momentum of the two particles is
equal and opposite

8/7/2023 5
Question
If a nucleus such as 226 ra that is initially at rest undergoes alpha decay,
which of the following statements is true?
(a) The alpha particle has more kinetic energy than the daughter nucleus.
(b) the daughter nucleus has more kinetic energy than the alpha particle.
(c) the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle have the same kinetic
energy.

(a). Conservation of momentum requires the momenta of the

two fragments be equal in magnitude and oppositely
directed. Thus, from KE = p2/2m, the lighter alpha particle
has more kinetic energy that the more massive daughter
nucleus.
8/7/2023 6
Properties of alpha particles
• Alpha particles are 2He4 nuclei with 2 units of positive charge and mass of 4 amu.
• Because they are charged particles so they can be deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
• They ionize the medium through which they pass. Their ionizing power is much
higher than β-and ν-rays.
• Because of the high-ionizing power, they can be easily absorbed by few
centimetres of air or fraction of millimetre thick aluminium.
• Naturally occurring α-emitters emit α-particles with energy in the range of 5 MeV
to 10 MeV.
• Alpha particles when fall on certain materials like ZnS, barium platinocynide, etc.
emit flashes of light called scintillations. This property of scintillation was initially
used to detect α-particles.
• Long exposures to α-emitters produce harmful effects on the human body.
 • Alpha particles have spin zero and parity positive
• e/M of α particles is 4.826x107 C/kg (doubly ionized He atoms)
3
• Geiger showed the range of alpha particle is related to energy as 𝑅 = 𝑘 𝐸 2

Velocity and energy of alpha particles

A− 4
A
Z X→ Z −2 Y + He + Q
4
2
• where Q is the total energy released in this decay process and is called the
disintegration energy.
• To evaluate Q let us assume that Mp is the mass of parent nucleus Md is the mass
of daughter nucleus and mα is the mass of α-particle.
• The parent nucleus is at rest before the emission of α-particle, i.e. its kinetic
energy is zero.
• When α-particle is emitted with velocity vα, to conserve momentum, the
daughter nucleus must recoil with velocity Vd. Therefore, by applying law
of conservation of momentum [Initial momentum = final momentum]
 Alpha particle and daughter nucleus move
0 = 𝑀𝑑 𝑉𝑑 − 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 in different directions

𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼
𝑉𝑑 =
𝑀𝑑
Energy evolved or Q-value of the decay is defined as

𝑄 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐸 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝐸

1 2 1
Q = 𝑀𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2 − 0
2 2
1 2 1
Q = 𝑀𝑑 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2
2 2
1 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 1
Q = 𝑀𝑑 ( ) + 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2
2
2 𝑀𝑑 2
1 2
𝑚𝛼
Q = 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 1 +
2 𝑀𝑑
 1
Let the KE of α particle is 𝑘𝛼 = 2 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 2

𝑚𝛼
Q = 𝑘𝛼 1+
𝑀𝑑
𝑚𝛼 𝐴
1+ ~
𝑀𝑑 𝐴 − 4

𝐴 𝐴−4
Q = 𝑘𝛼 𝑘𝛼 = 𝑄
𝐴−4 𝐴

Ex:
q/M of alpha particles
Allow alpha particles to enter perpendicular to the magnetic field B
they take circular path of radius r
𝑀𝑣 2
Then 𝐵𝑞𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑣
It can be changed to = or =
𝑀𝑣 𝑟𝐵 𝑀 𝑟𝐵

P1

S B
2d

P2
a
b

For small angle deflection we get

𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑞 𝑣 2𝑑
2𝑑 𝑟 = 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑏 or 𝑟 = =
2𝑑
𝑀 𝐵 𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
q/M = 4.826x107 C/kg
Range of alpha particles
• If α-particles emitted by a radioactive source are counted by counting the number
of scintillations produced on ZnS screen, it is observed that the number of α-
particles hitting the screen are practically constant up to a certain distance R from
the source and then suddenly drop to zero.
• This distance R is called the range of α-particles.
• Range is defined as the distance moved by an a-particle in a given material
before it comes to rest.
• It is related to the initial energy of α-particles. Greater the initial energy of a-
particles, greater is the range and vice versa.
• If instead of air, we take some other material like aluminium or iron, etc. the
range R is different.
• Empirically, it has been found that the range of α-particles in a medium is
inversely proportional to the density of the medium and directly proportional to
the atomic weight of the medium.
Range and velocity of alpha particles (RELATION)

• Geiger experiments with mica shows that the range and velocity of α particles are
related as 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑣0 3 (Geiger’s Law)
• But initial KE is 𝐸0 ∝ 𝑣0 2
3
• Therefore 𝑅 = 𝑏 𝐸0 2

• This is valid in medium ranges but experimentally for low Ranges

• 𝑅 ∝ 𝑣0 3/2 and 𝑅 ∝ 𝐸0 3/4
• At high ranges 𝑅 ∝ 𝑣0 4 and 𝑅 ∝ 𝐸0 2
• Later Geiger and Nuttal derived a relation between half-life of an α emitter and
the range of α particles known as Geiger Nuttal Law
• They showed that log(λ) was plotted against log(R).
• Plots for members of the three naturally occurring radioactive series were found
to fall along three parallel straight lines.
• One line for each series as shown in Figure These straight lines are expressed
by Geiger–Nuttal law which is given by 𝑙𝑜𝑔λ = 𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅 + 𝐵
• where A and B are constants. Value of A is nearly the same for all the three
lines but B has different values.
• Geiger–Nuttal law is 𝑙𝑜𝑔λ = 𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅 + 𝐵
• where A and B are constants. Value of A is nearly the same for all the three
lines but B has different values. λ is the decay constant and related to half-life
time
3/2 3
• In terms of energy 𝑙𝑜𝑔λ = 𝐴 log 𝐸0 +𝐵 𝑙𝑜𝑔λ = 𝐴 log 𝐸0 + 𝐵
2
Alpha decay Spectrum
• There are only two products in the decay of parent nucleus daughter nucleus and
α-particle.
• Therefore, energy evolved in α-decay or Q-value is shared by these two particles
in the inverse proportion to their masses. Thus, α-particle carries more energy as
compared to the daughter nucleus.
• As an example, suppose disintegration energy in the decay of a nucleus is 5.085
MeV, the energy carried by the α-particle is 5.000 MeV, while the daughter
nucleus carries 0.085 MeV energy.
All the α-particles emitted in α-decay have the same energy. If we plot a curve
between the energy of α-particle and their number, it is a straight line as shown in
Figure. This curve is known as energy spectrum or simply α-spectrum.

𝐴−4
𝑘𝛼 = 𝑄
→ Number of α particles

2 4 6 8
→ Energy of α particle (in MeV)
line spectrum or discrete spectrum
The energy spectrum of α-particles is also known as line spectrum or discrete
spectrum. In actual experiment instead of straight line we observe a broad peak with
a maxima at 5 MeV. This broadening is explained on the fact that detection of α-
particles in a detector is a statistical process. This means that there is a finite
probability that all the α-particles may not produce same number of electron-ion
pairs in the detector medium. It is due to this variation in the number of electron-ion
pair produced that the straight line gets broadened.
Gamow’s theory of Alpha decay

• According to classical mechanics an α-particle having energy 5–10 MeV inside

the nucleus cannot cross the potential barrier and escape, if its energy is less than
the maximum height of the Coulomb barrier which is about 25 MeV,.
• But quantum mechanics predicts that there is a definite but small probability that
such a particle from the interior can be found outside the nucleus.
• In other words, here is a definite probability that the α-particle can escape from
the nucleus even when its energy is less than that of the top of the potential
barrier.
• Thus, quantum mechanically, there is finite probability that α-particle leaks
through the potential barrier, as if there are holes in the potential barrier.
• This effect is called quantum mechanical tunnelling or simply tunnelling.
• If an alpha particle is approaching a daughter nucleus the coulomb repulsion
force between the alpha particle (2e) and daughter nucleus [(Z-2)e] is given by (at
the closest distance of approach)

• This barrier prevents the entry of the alpha particle from outside the nucleus.
• Then the same should prevent the emission of alpha particle from the
interior of the parent nucleus
• Hence the minimum energy needed by the α particle to come out is 28 MeV
in order to escape the U-238 nucleus
• But the emitted α particles have less energies (< 10 MeV) WHY ????
Gamow made the following assumptions:
• An α-particle may exist as an α-particle within a
heavy nucleus.
• Such an α-particle is in constant motion and is held
in the nucleus by a potential barrier.
• There is a small but definite likelihood that the α-
particle may tunnel through the barrier (despite the
height of the barrier) each time it collides with the
barrier.
• we consider only one-dimensional rectangular potential barrier of width R and height V,
which is greater than the kinetic energy of α-particle.

There are three regions of interest

Tunnelling marked as I, II, and III. In region I,
incident and reflected α-particles or
waves associated with α-particles
Incident Transmitted are present. In region II, both
Reflected forward moving transmitted waves
and reflected waves from the other
side of the barrier are present. In
region III, only forward moving
transmitted waves are present.
r=0 r=a
Mathematically, the rectangular potential is defined as

One dimensional time independent Schrödinger equation is given as

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚
+ 2 𝐸−𝑉 ψ=0
𝑑𝑟 2 ℎത

In regions I and III, V = 0, so one-dimensional time-independent Schrödinger equation

becomes
𝑑 2 ψ 2𝑚𝐸
+ ψ=0
𝑑𝑟 2 ℎത 2
𝑚 𝑀
Where m is reduced mass of the α particle and residual nucleus given by 𝑚 = 𝑚 𝛼+𝑀𝐷
𝛼 𝐷
In region II one-dimensional time-independent Schrödinger equation becomes (where E < V is)

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚 𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚
+ 2 𝐸−𝑉 ψ=0 − 2 𝑉−𝐸 ψ=0
𝑑𝑟 2 ℎത 𝑑𝑟 2 ℎത
The solutions are given by
2𝑚𝐸
ψ1 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑟 + 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑟 𝒌𝟏 2
= 2
ℎത

ψ2 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑟 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑟 𝒌𝟐 2 =
2𝑚(𝑉 − 𝐸)
ℎത 2
ψ3 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑟
we apply certain conditions known as boundary conditions at at r = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑎

𝑑ψ1 𝑑ψ2
at r = 0 ψ1 = ψ2 and =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝑑ψ2 𝑑ψ3
at r = 𝑎 ψ2 = ψ3 and =
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
By using solutions in the boundary conditions we get below equations

𝐴1 + 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
𝑖𝑘1 𝐴1 − 𝑖𝑘1 𝐵1 = 𝑘2 𝐴2 − 𝑘2 𝐵2
𝐴2 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑎 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝑘2 𝑎 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑎

𝐴2 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑘2 𝑎 − 𝐵2 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝑘2 𝑎 = 𝑖𝑘1 𝐴3 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑎

Solving above equations we get the constants as below
1 𝑘2 1 𝑘2
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 1 + + 𝐵2 1 −
2 𝑖𝑘1 2 𝑖𝑘1
1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 −𝑘 )𝑎
𝐴2 = 𝐴3 (1 + )𝑒 1 2
2 𝑘2
1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 +𝑘 )𝑎
𝐵2 = 𝐴3 (1 − )𝑒 1 2
2 𝑘2
As the velocity α-particle is same in regions I and III (Since regions I and III are
force free), the transmission probability of incident α-particle is given by

2
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐴3
𝑇= = 2
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐴1
But
1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 −𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2 1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 +𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2
𝐴1 = 𝐴3 (1 + )𝑒 1 2 1+ + 𝐴3 (1 − )𝑒 1 2 1−
4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1

𝐴1 1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 −𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2 1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 +𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2

= (1 + )𝑒 1 2 1+ + (1 − )𝑒 1 2 1−
𝐴3 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1

𝐴1 1 𝑖 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 −𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2 1 𝑖𝑘1 (𝑖𝑘 +𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2

= [ + (1 + )𝑒 1 2 1+ + (1 − )𝑒 1 2 1−
𝐴3 2 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1

∗
𝐴1 1 𝑖𝑘1 (−𝑖𝑘 −𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2 1 𝑖𝑘1 (−𝑖𝑘 +𝑘 )𝑎 𝑘2
= (1 − )𝑒 1 2 1− + (1 + )𝑒 1 2 1+
𝐴3 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1 4 𝑘2 𝑖𝑘1
 2 ∗
𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐴1
2
=
𝐴3 𝐴3 𝐴3

2𝑚𝐸
𝑘2
2
𝑉−𝐸 𝒌𝟏 2 =
= ℎത 2
𝑘1 𝐸
2 2 2𝑚(𝑉 − 𝐸)
𝐴1 1 𝐸 𝑉−𝐸 𝒌𝟐 =
2
=1+ + + 2 sin ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑎 ℎത 2
𝐴3 4 𝑉−𝐸 𝐸
2
𝐴1 𝑽𝟐
2 =𝟏+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒉𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒂
𝐴3 𝟒𝑬(𝑽 − 𝑬)

Therefore the transmissivity of the barrier is given by

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐴3 2
𝑇= = 2
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐴1
 2 2 −1
𝐴3 𝑉
𝑇= 2
= 1+ sin ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑎
𝐴1 4𝐸(𝑉 − 𝐸 )

−𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝒌 𝒂 −𝟐𝒌𝟐 𝒂
𝟏
𝑻= 𝟏+ 𝒆 𝟐 +𝒆 −
𝟒𝑬(𝑽 − 𝑬) 𝟒 𝟐

In the limit of thick barriers 𝑘2 𝑎 ≫ 1 𝟏 𝟐𝒌 𝒂

sin ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑎 = 𝒆 𝟐
𝟒

−𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝒌 𝒂
𝑻= 𝟏+ 𝒆 𝟐
𝟒𝑬(𝑽 − 𝑬) 𝟒

Now, V > E and 𝒆𝟐𝒌𝟐 𝒂 >> 1, so we can neglect 1 in comparison to the second
term of the above equation. So, we have
−𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝟐𝒌 𝒂 𝟏𝟔𝑬 𝑽 − 𝑬 −𝟐𝒌 𝒂
𝑻= 𝒆 𝟐 = 𝟐
𝒆 𝟐
𝟒𝑬(𝑽 − 𝑬) 𝟒 𝑽
When 2𝑘2 𝑎 ≫ 1 the most important factor in the above equation which is
exponential will then become extremely small. The factor before the exponential
term is usually of the order of magnitude of unity. Therefore

𝑻~𝒆−𝟐𝒌𝟐 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑻 = −𝟐𝒌𝟐 𝒂

The equation represents the fraction of α-particles that will penetrate the barrier
of width a and height V (>E). If the potential is not constant in the region o<r<a,
we can approximate the potential into small steps each with constant potential.
The total probability is the product of individual probabilities, we get sum in the
power of exponential term. For smaller intervals we can use integral in place of
sum
−𝟐 ‫𝒓𝒅 𝟐𝒌 ׬‬ 2𝑚(𝑉−𝐸)
𝑻~𝒆 Where 𝒌𝟐 2 =
ℎത2

2𝑚(𝑉−𝐸)
−𝟐 ‫׬‬ ത2
𝒅𝒓
𝑻=𝒆 ℎ

This is known as Gamow’s Formula