Manifestations, Enablers and Inhibitors of Vernacular Architecture of the Pokomo People of

Kenya
1
Mwaka E., 2Omenya A.

Abstract

This paper examines the vernacular architecture of the Pokomo people, who live off the Coast of Kenya
and Tanzania. The Pokomo had a distinct traditional and vernacular architecture, which remains
undocumented, limiting insights that can be gleaned from it for the reference of current and future
generations. The paper examines the manifestation of Pokomo traditional architecture; factors that
contributed to development of specific aspects of the same; factors that inhibited its development and
lessons that architects can learn from the transformation of Pokomo traditional architecture to the current
vernacular forms. The paper identifies five forms of “The Pokomo House”, namely: “Nyumba ya Kitondwe;
Nyumba ya Kukandika; Nyumba ya Vidonge, Nyumba ya Mtomo” and “Nyumba ya Mawe”. “Nyumba ya
Kitondwe and Nyumba ya Vidonge” are almost extinct. The paper explains why the two typologies failed to
adapt. The other three, namely: “Nyumba ya Kukandika; Nyumba ya Mtomo” and “Nyumba ya Mawe”
have been adapted with different degrees of success, which the paper elucidates. The paper ends with
recommendations of how these traditional and vernacular forms of buildings can be adapted for improved
functional, environmental and technological performance.

1
Eunice Mwaka is a graduate architect from Kenyatta University. Contacts: hasamwaka@gmail.com
2
Prof. Alfred Omenya is the Architecture Programme Leader at Kenyatta University, Member of the College of
Fellows of the Architectural Association of Kenya, Founder of Eco-Build Africa, Member of the International Building
Quality Centre (IBQC, Australia) and Adjunct Professor of the University of Canberra Australia. Contacts:
aomenya2002@yahoo.co.uk

1
1. INTRODUCTION
Globally, communities craft vernacular
architecture aligned with their environment.
Yet, East African research on built
environment's cultural role is limited, often
overshadowed by belief in developed world's
architectural prowess. This study thus focuses
on Pokomo Vernacular Architecture, aiming to
embody Pokomo identity via traditional
structures. Drawing from available literature
and related projects, it seeks to illuminate the
Pokomo people's essence through their
architectural heritage.
The Pokomo are a Bantu ethnic group that
lives primarily along the coast in parts of
Kenya and Tanzania. The modern landscape
has given rise to a new vernacular
architecture. Contemporary architecture lacks
the sense of place and culture that are
essential to peoples' identities. The goal of this
paper is:
• To examine the current manifestation of
Pokomo Vernacular Architecture in
Kenyan Coastal Settlements.
• To determine factors that have enabled
the development of Pokomo Vernacular
Architecture.
• To determine factors that have inhibited
the growth of Pokomo Vernacular
Architecture.
• To identify the lessons that architects
can learn from Pokomo Vernacular
architecture.
The Pokomo historically made use of materials
found in their immediate surroundings, such as
wood, thatch, stone, lime, sand, and reeds.
Additionally, they make use of components
from nearby communities that are traded as
scrap metal and glass.
Initially, Ngao village's Pokomo settled on the
river's northeastern bank before relocating to
the southeastern side for homestead
construction. A typical Pokomo homestead
includes a main house with rooms, an outdoor
bathroom, toilet, kitchen, and elevated areas
for goat or poultry keeping. Outdoor bathrooms
are typically basic structures crafted from
thatch, iron sheets, or earthen walls.
The Pokomo have 5 distinct construction
typologies:
• Nyumba ya Kitondwe: It is a circular
dome like structure with a grass
covering on its facades.
• Nyumba ya Kukandika: It is a
rectangular structure made of mud walls
and thatch roof that is supported on a
wooden frame.
• Nyumba ya Vidonge: It is a wooden
structure in a rectangular layout, with
sun dried clay brick walls and thatch
roof.
• Nyumba ya Mtomo: It’s a building that is
characterized by its walls made of
pebbles and stones that are joined
using a lime or concrete mortar. The
floor could be concrete slab or just earth
and the roof is usually either thatch or
iron sheets.
• Nyumba ya Mawe: This structure is a
typical masonry block construction with
stone walls, concrete slabs, beams and
columns and iron sheet or tile roofing.
The Nyumba ya Kitondwe, the original form of
construction among the Pokomo, is no longer
widely used. Nyumba ya Mawe is the most
recent variation. The paper focuses on Ngao
Village as the case study. The building
typologies are distributed as follows: Nyumba
ya Kukandika - 47.4%, Nyumba ya Mawe -
28.5%, Nyumba ya Mtomo - 14% and Nyumba
ya Vidonge - 0.003%. Nyumba ya Kitondwe is
not present in the village of Ngao.
2
2. PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY
2.1 Studying African traditional settlements
3
According to Opaluwa Ejiga et al. it is a
generally held view that, in tropical countries,
traditional houses are more sympathetic to the
prevailing climate and provide comfortable
interiors. A typical traditional building of earth,
maintains a high level of internal thermal
comfort, regardless of prevailing solar radiation
outside.
In the book Exploring Vernacular East African
Architecture: Lessons for the Modern World 4,
Buccellato, A. et al draws the relation of the
vernacular architecture in East Africa and the
influence of European architecture and how
this has established a trend in African
development that promotes the elevation of
non-African architecture above vernacular
tradition. This is one of the reasons that
explain the observation of a large percentage
of contemporary forms built in East Africa
having no relation to traditional and regional
architecture.
According to Wanti A. K. et al. the fundamental
purpose of buildings is to provide man with a
comfortable working and living space,
protected from the extremes of climate. In
these days of fuel crisis, it is important that
such comforts be provided with as little
expenditure of energy as possible. Vernacular
architecture with hundreds of years of
experience behind it has evolved appropriate
building methods for each type of climate5.
African architecture seeks to combine
traditional knowledge with contemporary
viewpoints and resources, which can easily
3
Ejiga, O., Paul, O., & Cordelia, O. (2012).
Sustainability in traditional African architecture: a
springboard for sustainable urban cities. June
Sustainable futures: architecture and urbanism in global
south Kampala, Uganda, 27-30.
4
Buccellato, A., & Reineccius, M. (2013). Exploring
Vernacular East African Architecture: Lessons for the
Modern World. Subtropical Cities, 55-64.
5
Wanti, A. K. J., Swamy, V., & Sakri, S. (2020).
Vernacular Passive Cooling techniques-A case study of
a Vernacular House in Allur Village, Kalaburagi,
India. Int. J. Eng. Research & Technology
(IJERT), 9(08), 334-341.
lead to a variety of fresh and innovative
architectural developments that challenge
Western perceptions of aesthetics and
functionality while providing a culturally
appropriate, effective, and long-lasting solution
to the area's current needs. Therefore, in
contemporary contexts, vernacular
architecture can be a useful point of reference.
6
Steyn G. et al. create a set of parameters in
their study of Two Traditional African
Settlements-context and configuration that are
used to broadly categorize the observations.
With a focus on the effects of outside
influences, these are (1) Origin, (2) Economic
activities, (3) Family Organization, (4) Material
Culture, (5) Sanitary arrangements, (6)
Settlement form, and (7) Construction.
The paper explores the parameters on table 1
below:
Table 1: Analysed parameters
PARAMETER CRITERIA
Origin Brief history of the origin of the Pokomo
people
Economic A list and analysis of economic activities
activities practiced by the Pokomo
Family An analysis of the family structure of the
Organization Pokomo and how it affects the homestead.
Material Culture A list and analysis of the materials used by
the Pokomo with an overview of their
sources.
Settlement form An analysis of the settlement pattern of the
Pokomo village highlighting various levels
from the entire village layout to the
homestead layout.
Construction – An analysis of the construction of Pokomo
with special vernacular architecture with case studies
emphasis on the highlighting the typologies and materials
impact of used for the floors, wall, roofs and artifacts.
external
influences.
6
Steyn, G., & Roodt, A. (2003). Two traditional African
settlements-context and configuration.
3
2.2 Origin of the Pokomo
The paper is based on a study of Ngao village
in Tana River that is one of the Pokomo
settlements. The Pokomo are a Bantu group in
Southeastern Kenya, numbered about
112,075 in 2019. Divided into Upper Pokomo
(75%) and Lower Pokomo (25%), they thrive
as farmers and freshwater fishermen along
River Tana in Tana River County. Their
language is Pokomo or 'Kipokomo.' Pokomo,
Nyika, and Taita share composite origins.
According to tradition, many descend from
Bantu immigrants of the legendary city
S(h)ung(w)aya. Wasanye/Waboni hunters
occupied Tana forests, while a Nyika country
migration, possibly Rabai, formed another
component. Shungwaya was the ancestral
home for several clans, including Pokomo,
Teita, Dlgo, Giryama, SegeJu, and perhaps
Pare and Duruma tribes.
Fig 1. Location
2.3 Economic Activities
The Pokomo engage in diverse economic
pursuits: Farming, Foraging, Fishing, Livestock
and poultry raising, Beekeeping, Coconut oil
production, Charcoal production, Brewing
Mnazi (Coconut Liquor), Hunting, and Sand
harvesting.
Historically agriculturists, Pokomo strategically
position farms along River Tana for irrigation.
They cultivate rice, maize, and regionally
abundant crops: coconut and plantain groves,
areca-nut trees, millet, Indian corn, beans,
sweet potatoes, pineapples, and tomatoes.
River water and rising levels enable irrigation
via farm channels.
Recent drought fully dried the river, causing
farming hardships. Most farms lay barren,
devoid of activity. The few remaining farms
were only being used to grow red chilies which
required little irrigation to survive. There is an
arrangement with a wholesale buyer that
comes every day to weigh and buy the chilies
from the farmers at a rate of 50ksh per kg.
There are a lot of fruit trees that are
indigenous to the area and have been growing
naturally since before the Pokomo migrated
into the region. These are mainly mango and
coconut trees.
In interviews with Pokomo farmers, it was
discovered that the trees produced enough to
feed the community in the fruiting seasons.
However, a recent trend has emerged where
the local community members are picking the
fruits to sell for profit, which has created a new
dynamic of hoarding and shortages.
Fig 2: Fish basket
The Pokomo actively fish for sustenance as
well as to sell. Rice/ bananas and fish are a
staple meal for the Pokomo. The Pokomo are
excellent swimmers and they frequently use
fishing spears and baskets to catch fish.
2.4 Materials
The Pokomo primarily use materials obtained
from their direct environment which include,
wood, thatch, stone, lime, sand, and reeds.
They also use materials such as glass and
metal that are traded as scrap from
neighboring communities.

(a) Wood
Wood is a material that is commonly used by
the Pokomo for building as well as creating Fig. 4 Thatched roof, Tana River, 2022
artifacts and items of use. The type of wood Source: Author
chosen depends on the required stiffness or
malleability. It was observed that wood is (c) Rope and Twine
commonly used for carving tools and furniture
as well as an important building material. The
hardwood is from local trees that include:
Mkoko, Mwalango, Kokoa, Kurubo,
Kikwambiko.

(b) Stone
Stone is a material that is commonly used by
the Pokomo people and it is particularly coral
stone that is indigenous to this region. It was
observed that stone was primarily used as a
building material by the Pokomo. The stone
can be sourced in small quantities around the Fig. 5: Woven Band Source: Author
Tana River region. It is sourced in large scale
from Kilifi where it is mined commercially. Twines form woven bands, crafting mats, bed
covers, furniture, baskets, sieves, and various
tools. Fibers and ropes serve as fasteners
during wooden structure construction. Primary
sources are river reeds along the banks and
young Mkindu tree plants scattered across
Tana River's vicinity.

Fig. 3 Pile of coral stones Source: Author

(b) Thatch
It is used as a roof covering as well as wall
material when making Pokomo bathrooms. Fig. 6: Young Mkindu Plant Source: Author
The main source of thatch in this region is the
mkindu tree. Its leaves grow in a fan like (d) Metal
structure that is ideal for roofing when dry. Scrap metal is melted down to make farming
and hunting tools. Iron sheets are used as a
building material for roofs and walls. Mild steel along River Tana's banks. Historical note:
is usually used for windows and doors German settlers among Pokomo utilized clay
to create bricks for constructing their Methodist
Church and residence.

Fig. 7: Hoe Source: Author

Metal was traditionally obtained from trading Fig. 9: The Methodist Church made with fired
with neighboring communities. At this time it is clay bricks - Source: Author
bought at the local hardware. Sometimes the
local residents find and reuse scrap metal for (g) Sand
building. Sand is a commonly used building material.
It’s mixed with concrete and ballast to make
(e) Glass mortars and building stones.
Glass is used as a building material although it
is not a common choice. Glass is also used to
craft decorations and artifacts. Glass was
traditionally obtained from trading. Currently it
can be ordered and purchased at the local
hardware.

(f) Coconut Husks

Coconut husks are used as storage
containers. They are also used to make
kitchen utensils that are used for frying fish
and serving and mixing stews.
Fig. 10: Collected Sand on the river bank
Source: Author
The sand is obtained from sand deposits along
the river basin of River Tana.

Fig. 8: Kibago - Kitchen Utensil made with

coconut husk - Source: Author

(f) Clay

Clay serves for crafting water-storage and

cooking pots. Sourced from clay deposits
3. BUILDING TYPOLOGIES
Initially, Ngao village's Pokomo settled
northeast of the river. Fearing raids from
Somali in the North-East, they moved to the
strategic southwest side, nestled between
Lake Shakabobo and River Tana, forming a
natural defense. Ngao, meaning 'shield,' aptly
reflects this safeguarding role.

The Pokomo's adept swimming and sailing

contrasted Somali skills. When raided,
Pokomo fled via river and lake. Ngao village
boasts 350 homesteads, 10 businesses, 2
schools, 2 churches, a hospital, and a social
hall. Commercial units line the main road,
while social facilities cluster near the village
entrance.
Fig. 11: Nyumba ya kitondwe
This is the original Pokomo architecture – a
circular, dome-like structure. The dome is
fashioned from bendable branches (witi)
woven together using river reeds.

The homesteads are spread outwards from

the river and road. A Pokomo homestead
usually consists of the main house that has
rooms, an outdoor bathroom and toilet, an
outdoor kitchen and a raised goat pen and/or
poultry coop

The Pokomo have a very unique style and

method construction that is traditionally bound
to locally sourced material. Over time Fig 12: Weaving of nyumba ya kitondwe
construction has evolved into a new
vernacular form that combines traditional A sturdy central post (mwau) and interval
techniques and materials with contemporary columns (kumbuu) support the structure.
materials and techniques. These are buried and attached to the ceiling's
The Pokomo have 5 distinct housing center branches. External top portions are
typologies: typically layered with grass thatch for
• Nyumba ya Kitondwe waterproofing.
• Nyumba ya Kukandika The earthen floor is dampened to control dust.
• Nyumba ya Vidonge The sole entrance is the 'kinza,' originally
• Nyumba ya Mtomo crafted from Mkindu tree bark. This door is
• Nyumba ya Mawe acclaimed as weatherproof and mosquito-
resistant.
3.1 Nyumba Ya Kitondwe

Fig. 13:!Section Sketch - Nyumba ya Kitondwe

- Source Author!
In this type of construction the spaces included
inside are only the bed area and living room
area. These spaces are organized vertically
with the living room area underneath a custom
built raised bed.

Fig. 16: Custom Pokomo bed - side view

sketch - Source; Author

Fig. 14:! Plan Sketch - Nyumba ya Kitondwe -

Source Author

Fig. 17:! Custom Pokomo bed - Top view

sketch - Source; Author

In Ngao village, this architectural style is

absent today. However, the neighboring
Oromo community has embraced and still
employs this typology.
Fig. 15: Section Sketch - Nyumba ya Kitondwe Several factors contribute to its disuse:
- Source Author • Shift to Modern Materials: The Pokomo
adopted more reliable, lasting
The bed is made of wooden poles and various construction materials.
layers of woven mats in different grades of • Thatch Restrictions: Forest
softness. The structure entails: conservation laws limit large-scale
• Kijinji thatch collection.
• Thatch Commercialization: Thatch
• Mwau
• Pongoo harvesting for profit hinders
affordability, pushing locals toward
• Tandiko
economical iron sheets.
• Pfayo
• Poverty Stigma: Associated with
• Yutsatsa poverty, the Pokomo find this typology
• Musala undesirable, a major reason for its
decline.

3.2 Nyumba ya Kukandika

Fig. 18:!Nyumba ya Kukandika - Ngao Village - Fig. 20 Nyumba ya Kukandika under
Source: Author construction - Source: Author

This is the prevalent Pokomo architecture Infilling the roof (Paa la Nyumba)
today: a rectangular structure with mud walls,
thatch roof, and wooden frame support.
Building was a communal endeavor, typically
spanning 2-3 days, a practice known as
"walo," with these steps:
• Site Preparation: Measurement by
estimation, marking with interval holes.
• Column Fixing: Wooden columns
planted in holes.
• Beam Placement: Beams positioned at
mid and top levels, termed "kumbuu,"
usually of hardwood like Mwarubaine.
• Horizontal Branches: Thinner branches Fig. 21: Nyumba ya Kukandika under
(Fito) horizontally placed, filling gaps construction II - Source: Author
and tied with twine.
• Roof Construction: Main supports The roof is structures with horizontal sticks
(Kumbuu, Mwau) laid first, followed by called Fito then covered in Thatch or grass
other Fito branches. with specific techniques based on the material.

Fig. 22: Structure sketch 2 - Nyumba ya

Fig. 19: Structure sketch 1 - Nyumba ya
Kukandika - Source: Author
Kukandika - Source: Author

Fig. 23: Structure sketch 3 - Nyumba ya
Kukandika - Source: Author
There are three types of that used for this and
each has a different technique of application.
• Marara
• Nyasi
• Maramba
Infilling the walls
The walls are then filled in with and earth,
water and rock composite that is stuffed
around the supporting structure.
• Wooden columns fixed in holes.
• Wooden beams secured to columns at
mid and top levels.
• Thinner branches horizontally tied with
twine to fill gaps.
• Roof structure erected.
• Roof composed of Fito and layered with
thatch or grass, applying material-
specific methods.
Wall Infilling: In this variation, walls are filled
with sun-dried earth bricks bound by clay mud
mortar. Bricks manually molded from earth-
water mix and compressed, then sun-dried.
This traditional Pokomo method is less
common today.

Fig. 26: Structure sketch 1 - Nyumba ya

Vidonge - Source: Author

Table 2: Construction materials and source

MATERIALS SOURCE
Fig. 24: Structure sketch 4 - Nyumba ya Floor Concrete Slab Kilifi
Kukandika - Source: Author Walls Hand cut coral Kilifi
stone Tana River
Cement + Lime + base
Sand mortar
Sun dried earth
bricks
Windows Steel Frame Malindi
Mosquito mesh
screen
Doors Steel exterior Malindi
doors
Wooden interior
doors
Roof Wooden rafter Malindi
Fig. 25 Window and wall – Nyumba ya Iron sheets
Kukandika

3.3 Nyumba ya Vidonge In Ngao village, merely two structures remain

built using this technique, which seems to
This architecture is akin to Nyumba ya have derived from German influence during
Kukandika but differs in wall infilling technique. their stay.
Construction Process: Reasons for Disuse:
• Site measured by estimation; holes dug • Labor-Intensive: Labor intensiveness
at 1-2 feet intervals. deters adoption, particularly as
 contemporary building is often a solitary
effort, unlike the communal Pokomo
tradition.
• Skill Rarity: Scarce knowledge; primarily
retained by elderly participants from
colonial-era building.
• Desirability: Nyumba ya Mawe is most
preferred; Pokomo aim to upgrade,
rendering effort for this technique
seemingly futile.

3.4 Nyumba ya Mtomo

Fig. 28 Main House and Tank - Elijah
This style is common among Pokomo and Madoke’s Homestead- Source: Author
upgrades the initial two typologies. It employs
coral pebble stones from the landscape, joined
using lime or concrete mortar. Flooring varies
by owner's finances: concrete slab or earth.
Roof options are thatch or iron sheets.

Construction process
• Floor: Earth leveled for earth floor; coral
rocks, lime/cement, sand, and water
mixture cast for slab.
• Columns: Coral rocks, lime/cement,
sand, water mix used for corner
columns.
• Roof: Wooden rafters support roof, Fig. 29: Main Entrance - Elijah Madoke’s
covered with thatch or iron sheets. Homestead- Source: Author

Fig. 27: Sketch 1 - Nyumba ya Mtomo
In this typology the walls are in filled using a
mixture of coral rocks, lime/ cement, sand and
water. The walls are usually thinner that the
columns creating an indented feature.
Fig. 30 Main House Side view 1 - Elijah
Madoke’s Homestead- Source: Author
In Ngao village, this typology is highly
prevalent, constituting around 30% of the
buildings. While most employ iron sheet
roofing, some retain thatched roofs. Partial
transition from Nyumba ya Kukandika to
Nyumba ya Mtomo is common among
Pokomo, exemplifying the upgrade process.
Reasons for Common Usage:
• Material Availability: Earth, rocks, and
forest branches serve as accessible
resources.
 • Cultural Familiarity: Building technique
ingrained in local culture, facilitating
family and community collaboration.
• Adequate Shelter: Satisfies Pokomo's
shelter needs while harmonizing with
the region's natural conditions.
• Structural Strength: Yields robust and
enduring constructions, bolstering its
appeal.

3.5 Nyumba ya Mawe

This architecture is the most coveted, Fig. 32: Pile of coral building stones in Mwaka
accessible to those with substantial financial Mungatana’s Homestead
means. Typically, it features concrete slabs,
stone walls, and either iron sheet or terracotta
tile roofing.
Construction Process:
• Floor: Earth floor leveled or concrete
slab cast with cement, ballast, and sand
mixture.
• Foundation: Strip foundation, stones
laid with concrete mortar.
• Walls: Built with 200mm thick stones,
united by concrete mortar.
• Roof: Wooden rafters structure the roof,
covered with thatch, iron sheets, or clay Fig. 33: Mungatana’s Homsetead
tiles.

Fig. 34: Jilo Levy’s Homestead

Fig. 31: Sketch Nyumba ya Mawe
Table 3: Construction materials and source
Types of stone MATERIALS SOURCE
There are 3 major types of stone evident in the Floor Concrete Slab Kilifi
Pokomo architecture: Coral stone, concrete Walls Hand cut coral Kilifi
block and Fired clay brick. stone Tana River
Cement + Lime + base
The coral stone. Sand mortar
Windows Steel Frame Malindi
The prevalent stone for contemporary Glass
construction is sourced from Kilifi, transported Doors Steel Malindi
from Malindi. It comes in two forms: machine- Roof Wooden rafter Malindi
Iron sheets
cut or hand-cut.
 sole 100-year-old Pokomo house, soon to be
Concrete Blocks demolished.
These blocks are made using a mixture of
concrete, sand and lime. The mixture is cast
into and wooden molds and dried. These
blocks are usually made by the local residents
themselves for their own future constructions.
Homeowners make the blocks and accumulate
them over time with the aim of upgrading their
existing mud structures.

Fig. 36: German missionary residence - Built

Table 4: Construction materials and source Early 1900's
MATERIALS SOURCE
Floor Concrete Slab Kilifi
Walls Hand cut coral Kilifi
stone Tana River
Cement + Lime + base
Sand mortar
Windows Steel Frame Malindi
Glass
Doors Steel Malindi
Roof Wooden rafter Malindi
Iron sheets Fig. 37: German Methodist Church - Tana
River
In Ngao village, this typology holds relative
prominence and is highly desirable,
constituting roughly 20% of buildings. While
iron sheet roofs are common, some retain
thatched roofs. Partial transitions from
Nyumba ya Kukandika to Nyumba ya Mawe
are frequent. Economic capacity
predominantly dictates material preference.

Fig. 35: Pauline H. Theophilus’s Homestead

Fired clay bricks

During the early 1900s, German colonizers in

Ngao employed these bricks. Extracted from
Tana River deposits, clay combined with loam
soil formed bricks that were fired in pits. This
technique constructed the Methodist church Fig. 38: Nyumba ya Kukandika upgrading to
(now abandoned) and a residence (currently Nyumba ya Mawe
inhabited by squatters). They shared this
method with the Pokomo, who adopted it for Typically, Pokomo evolve from original mud
some of the earliest stone buildings. Most huts to this architecture. Upgrading involves
were replaced by newer structures, leaving a exterior wall construction while maintaining the
existing structure, followed by interior
demolition and roof establishment on new
stone walls.
Reasons for Common Usage:
1. Status Symbol: Considered a status
indicator, only financially well-off
individuals undertake this typology.
2. Durability: Materials assure longevity,
yielding enduring structures.
3. Enhanced Comfort: This typology yields
more comfortable spaces, amplifying its
allure.
Distribution of Pokomo Architectural Typologies in Ngao village

Fig. 39: Map of color coded housing types for the Pokomo. - Source: Author

KEY

Nyumba ya Kukandika 166 47.4%

Nyumba ya Vidonge 1 0.003%
Nyumba ya Mtomo 49 14%
Nyumba ya Mawe 134 28.5%

Table 5: Building Typologies Images

Building Typology Nyumba ya Nyumba ya Nyumba ya Vidonge Nyumba ya Mtomo Nyumba ya Mawe
Kitondwe Kukandika
Description Circular plan with a Rectangular design Rectangular layout Construction marked Masonry block build
dome-like structure. featuring mud walls, with wooden by pebble and stone with stone walls,
Framework formed thatch roof, and framework, sun-dried walls united via lime concrete slabs,
from flexible witi upheld by a wooden clay brick walls, and or concrete mortar. beams, columns, and
branches, secured frame. thatched roof. Floor options: roofed by iron sheets
with river reed concrete slab or or tiles.
bindings. earth. Typically,
thatch or iron sheets
roof the structure.
Image
4. FACTORS THAT HAVE ENABLED THE 5. FACTORS THAT HAVE INHIBITED THE
DEVELOPMENT OF POKOMO DEVELOPMENT OF POKOMO
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE. VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE.

4.1 Nyumba ya Kitondwe: 5.1 Nyumba ya Kitondwe:

• Local materials ease construction • Poverty association discourages use.
initiation. • Temporary nature conflicts with
• Skillset passed down as tradition. permanence.
• Ideal for swift farm and fishing area • Small space incongruent with modern
shelters. needs.
• Multilevel spaces offer privacy gradients. • Leaks during heavy rain seasons.
• Sustainability due to local sourcing and • Single door limits ventilation.
low cost. • Resource gathering time unattractive.
• Favorable indoor conditions year-round. • Thatch scarcity due to hoarding.
• Affordability with local materials and 5.2 Nyumba ya Kukandika:
self-labor. • Seen as transitional, quality declines.
• Simple design learnable within • Knowledge gap stagnates technology.
community. • Insufficient lighting from high windows.
4.2 Nyumba ya Kukandika: • Thatch roofs prone to leaks.
• Readily available materials from • Resource gathering time challenges.
surroundings. • Not redesigned for modern needs.
• Local culture aids widespread building 5.3 Nyumba ya Vidonge:
knowledge. • Labor-intensive, unfit for solo builders.
• Meets shelter needs, regionally fitting. • Specialized skill wanes with older
• Familiarity promotes acceptance. generation.
• Local materials drive affordability. • Favors Nyumba ya Mawe upgrade goal.
• Adaptable to various climatic conditions. • Longer construction time, clay curing.
• Frame for easy upgrading with gathered • No modern lifestyle adaptation.
resources. 5.4 Nyumba ya Mtomo:
4.3 Nyumba ya Vidonge: • Requires specialized hired labor.
• Local materials modified for durability. • Difficulty acquiring local resources.
• Quality materials ensure resilience. 5.5 Nyumba ya Mawe:
• Endures well over time, low carbon • High cost deters affordability.
footprint. • Imported material from Kilifi.
• Sustainably rooted with distinct • Requires skilled labor, hiring necessary.
traditional elements. • Lacks placeness, distinct Pokomo
4.4 Nyumba ya Mtomo: features.
• Local materials for cultural construction.
• Community knowledge supports
construction.
• Meets shelter needs, offers comfort.
• Enables larger spaces, indoor facilities.
• Identifiable with Pokomo culture.
• Strong and durable, Pokomo-desired.
4.5 Nyumba ya Mawe:
• Status symbol, for financially capable.
• Utilizes fired clay bricks from locale.
• Material availability increases.
• Durability, comfort, aesthetic appeal.
• Capital-dependent for swift acquisition.
• Material reusability, low maintenance.
• Widespread skillset, accessible labor.
6 LESSONS THAT ARCHITECTS CAN
LEARN FROM POKOMO VERNACULAR
ARCHITECTURE
Nyumba ya kitondwe employs a building
method that can be applied to traditional
architecture. To distribute weight along a
central column and create an intriguing dome
shape with an attractive lattice when viewed
from the inside, the structure uses branches
that are tied together.
The idea of a raised bed with living space
underneath is one that makes good use of
available space. It has been noted to have
flourished in traditional Pokomo society, and
vernacular architecture can revive it to provide
dynamic living spaces with limited resources.
Nyumba ya Kukandika is especially well-suited
to modern life because it is simple to adapt into
elegant Pokomo vernacular architecture.
Because of the emphasis on designing around
activities, this modular system is easily
reconfigurable into a setting for modern life.
Nyumba ya Vidonge was inspired by the
Germans who occupied this area and built a
church and house in the late 1800’s using fired
clay brick technology, and it was adapted by
local Pokomo builders to use the resources at
their disposal. Adopting new technology with
adjustments based on a location's resourced
and requirements has resulted in an
aesthetically pleasing traditional architecture
that is sustainable.
6. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Table 6: Summary of Findings and Recommendations

6:

PARAMETER CRITERIA FINDINGS RECOMMENDATION

Origin Brief history of the origin The Pokomo originated from Shungwaya A museum space can be designed to preserve
of the Pokomo people with other Bantus and settled along the Pokomo history.
River Tana. The history should be
recorded and documented. Space for a
museum to hold documents and oral
history is recommended.
Economic List and analysis of Primarily agriculturists, the Pokomo fish, Implement irrigation systems and AI technologies
activities economic activities hunt, and keep livestock. Dry season for food security.
affects farming and fishing due to river
drying. Incorporate boreholes for irrigation,
remote systems for food reserves.
Family Analysis of the Pokomo Pokomo families have nuclear structures Design homes with adequate rooms for the
Organization family structure with an average of 10 children. Design standard family structure.
standard homes with at least four rooms
for family size.
Material Culture Analysis of materials Traditional materials include wood, thatch, Repurpose reeds, gather sand seasonally, and
used by the Pokomo stone, lime, reeds, and traded materials. use local materials creatively.
Repurpose reeds for construction, hoard
materials seasonally for use, and integrate
them into doors and windows.
Sanitary Analysis of bathrooms Outdoor bathrooms common with thatch Redesign outdoor bathrooms in line with
arrangements and toilets in the village walls. Indoor bathrooms vary, some vernacular architecture, maintaining aesthetic
modernized. Redesign outdoor bathrooms appeal.
in vernacular architecture, maintain
aesthetic.
Settlement form Analysis of Pokomo Pokomo migrated from one side of the Design homesteads to include houses, outdoor
village settlement river to another. Homesteads consist of facilities, and gardens for contemporary needs.
pattern houses, outdoor facilities. Idealize
homesteads with houses, toilets, kitchens,
animal pens, and gardens.
Construction – Analysis of the The Pokomo have 5 distinct construction These typologies can be incorporated into
with special construction of Pokomo typologies. vernacular architecture with changes to some of
emphasis on the vernacular architecture the elements and techniques to enhance their
impact of external with case studies durability, quality, aesthetics and reliability.
influences. highlighting the
Nyumba ya Kitondwe Enlarge for contemporary activities.
typologies and materials
used for the floors, wall, Incorporate multiple domes for an aesthetic
roofs and artifacts. overlap.

Enhance waterproofing with epoxy resin or

membrane.

Combine with other techniques for design

variation.

Utilize contemporary materials like flexible steel

and polycarbonate panels.

Redesign raised bed concept for modern

adaptability.

Nyumba ya Kukandika Reinforce thatch roof with epoxy resin or

membrane.
Substitute materials for greater permanence.

Nyumba ya Vidonge Mechanize brick-making for consistent patterns.

Strengthen with concrete columns and mortar.

Plaster interior for desired finish.

Nyumba ya Mtomo Combine with other typologies for intriguing

designs.

Nyumba ya Mawe Incorporate local aesthetics like coral stone and

thatch.
Combine with Nyumba ya Mtomo for hybrid
appeal.

Pokomo vernacular architecture relies on local
materials and generational building skills.
Inhibitors vary by type, some due to poverty,
causing dislike and limited use. Short-term
shelters and space issues arise, along with
leak-prone materials, unfit for heavy rains.
Most people of the Pokomo community expect
to upgrade in a few years, the perception that
this typology is a transitional structure rather
than the ultimate goal has caused the quality of
structures to decline. This technology's
stagnation in its basic form has been brought
on by a knowledge gap.
The process of gathering materials for
construction also takes time which makes the
use of traditional Pokomo construction methods
unattractive.
There is clear loss of traditional construction
skills, evidenced by poor quality construction of
older traditional architectural forms. This is
actually an opportunity for trained architects
and artisans to base their designs on these
forms but use quality materials and construction
methods that would produce buildings that are
both culturally and environmentally responsive
yet technically sound.
The lessons architects can learn from Pokomo
vernacular architecture include the application
of traditional building methods to modern
design, efficient use of available space to
create dynamic living spaces, the adaptability of
modular design to modern life, and the
importance of incorporating local resources and
requirements when adopting new technology
for sustainable and aesthetically pleasing
architecture.
In conclusion, some suggestions that can be
used to preserve and improve Pokomo
vernacular architecture include bolstering and
enhancing traditional materials, redesigning the
buildings to meet modern standards, and fusing
various architectural typologies to produce a
distinctive aesthetic.
REFERENCES
Agboola, O. P. (2014). Development of traditional architecture in Nigeria: a case study of Hausa
house form. International Journal of African Society Cultures and Traditions, 1(1), 61-74.
Asquith, L. a. (2006). Asquith, L. and Vellinga, M. eds.Vernacular architecture in the 21st century:
Theory, education and practice. . Taylor & Francis.
Blier, S. P. (2006). Vernacular architecture. Handbook of material culture, 230-253.
Buccellato, A. a. (2013). Exploring Vernacular East African Architecture: Lessons for the Modern
World. Subtropical Cities, pp.55-64.
Buchli, V. (2004). Material Culture: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences, Volume 1, Issue 1.
London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 978-0415267199.
Butudoka, Z. (2022). The Besi Domain: The Reflection of Female Mastery in Kaili Da’a Traditional
Housing, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. International Review for Spatial Planning and Sustainable
Development, 10(1), 117-132.
CHEROTICH, F. (2022, May). SETTLEMENT SCHEMES AND THEIR IMPLICATION ON
EASTERN MAU WATERSHED, NAKURU COUNTY, KENYA.
Davidson, J. (2014, June 4). Balinese Architecture. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 9781462914227. .
Dipasquale, L. K. (2014). Resilience of vernacular architecture. Versus: Herıtage for Tomorrow;
pp.65-73. Florence, Italy: Firenze University Press.
Ejiga, O. P. (2012). Sustainability in traditional African architecture: a springboard for sustainable
urban cities. June Sustainable futures: architecture and urbanism in global south Kampala,
Uganda, 27-30.
Glassie, H. (2000). Vernacular architecture (Vol. 2). Indiana University Press.
Gofwen, C. N.-A. (2018). Contemporary Architecture in Nigeria: Evolution or Decadence.
Harris, C. (2006). DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE & CONSTRUCTION 4th edition. . McGraw-
Hill.
Heath, K. (2009). Vernacular Architecture and Regional Design: Cultural Process and
Environmental Response (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080939841.
Inspiral Architects. (2019, October 18). Learning about Balinese Architecture & It’s Design
Philosophy . Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://inspiralarchitects.com/news/design-
philosophy-and-balinese-architectures/
Kostof, S. (. (2000). The Architect: chapters in the history of the profession. (2 nd Edition). .
Berkley: The University of California Press.
Kumar, R. (2018). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. Sage.
Martek, I., Hosseini, M., Shrestha, A., Zavadskas, E., & Seaton, S. (2018). The Sustainability
Narrative in Contemporary Architecture: Falling Short of Building a Sustainable Future. (2018) .
Mungai, M. P. (2018). Built Form and Culture: Case of the El Molo Vernacular architecture in Lake
Turkana region.
Prins, A. H. (2017). The Coastal Tribes of the North-Eastern Bantu (Pokomo, Nyika, Teita): East
Central Africa Part III. Routledge.
Rikko L.S, a. G. (2011). The Nigerian architecture: The trend in housing development. Journal of
Geography and Regional Planning. Vol. 4(5), pp. 273-278.
Rudofsky, B. (1964). Architecture without architecture: A short introduction to non-pedigreed
architecture. . London: Academy Editions.
Satria, M. W. (2019). A Study of Balinese Traditional Houses through Lontar as a Guideline to
Sustainable Design. KnE Social Sciences, 496-507.
Sheumaker, H., & Wajda, S. (2008). Material Culture in America: Understanding Everyday Life.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. xi–xii. ISBN 9781576076477.
Steyn, G. &. (2003). Two traditional African settlements-context and configuration.
Subroto. (2020). “Apology of Vernacular Architecture in Indonesia: Identity-Local Authenticity and
Its Challenges at the World Level [In Indonesian]”. Webinar of Architecture Study Program at
Widya Mataram University, Angkringan Kulon Kraton.
visitdiani.com. (2021). Diani Beach 2021 : Tourism & Travel Guide for Diani, Kenya
(visitdiani.com). Retrieved from visitdiani.com.
Wahab, B. (2004). African Traditional Religions Environmental Health and Sanitation in Rural
Communities. 1. 1-9. .
Wanti, A. K. (2020). Vernacular Passive Cooling techniques-A case study of a Vernacular House
in Allur Village, Kalaburagi, India. Int. J. Eng. Research & Technology (IJERT), 9(08), 334-341.
Wanza, N. C. (2012). Designing for sustainability in cultural landscapes: The Kaya Kinondo Forest
of the Mijikenda Community, Kenya. Sustainable Futures: Architecture and Urbanism in the Global
South, 159-166.
Willis, J. &. (2013). Tradition, Tribe, and State in Kenya: The Mijikenda Union, 1945–1980.
Comparative Studies in Society and History. 55. 10.1017/S0010417513000091.