PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF DREDGED STREAM AT IKOT EKONG

MKPAT ENIN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

BASSEY, FAVOUR OKON

AK18/BGS/MAB/005

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY

FACULTY OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

AKWA IBOM STATE UNIVERSITY

AKWA IBOM STATE

IN PARTIAL FUFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMEMTS FOR THE AWARD OF

THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE (BSC) IN MARINE BIOLOGY

 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The contamination of water bodies, most often is majorly caused by humans. The input of

contaminants and pollutants through human activities usually lead to increase in

contamination of the receiving environment more than the natural background levels for that

area and for the organisms that inhabit the environment (Ibrahim et al., 2016). The

occurrence of hazardous substances in the water environment results in reduction in the

general quality of the marine environment and the consequence in most cases is the

impairment of some physicochemical properties of the water (Ibrahim et al., 2016). Pollution

is the damages (physical, chemical and biological) of the environments which may be in

water, air or land according to Etim and Onianwa (2014) and it is a serious problem

internationally. Man in his need for better living has predisposed nature through upsetting of

the ecological systems. The resulting consequence of pollution on the environment makes it

quite challenging to apply the available resources of the environment for improved living due

to the harmful effects which has been initiated from the changes in the original quality of the

environment (Uzoekwe & Oghosanime, 2016). The notable rise in population growth,

urbanization and industrialization has actually increased both the load on the environment

and pollution originating from human activities (Omoregie et al., 2014), hence the need for

regular evaluation and assessment of the environment to limit the resultant consequences of

pollution. The degradation and deterioration of the coastal waters as a result of contamination

has produced certain grave consequences on the natural system, which have caused adverse

consequences on the littoral ecosystem by impacting negatively on fishing, tourism, wild life,

transportation and other related businesses operational within that area (Ogri, 2016).

Environmental records have revealed that high concentration of both organic (including
petroleum hydrocarbons) and inorganic chemicals have negatively impacted on the

environment, due to the activities of industries. The resultant effects of such occurrences have

been adverse and have surpassed both national and international tolerable limits in various

environments (Olobaniyi & Efe, 2007). Industrial, commercial, domestic and agricultural

activities are the key contributors of pollution and contamination in the environment with

organic and heavy metals as the major pollutants. The various water bodies such as rivers,

creeks, lakes, estuaries and ground water experience changes in the level of contamination by

these pollutants as a result of the impact, input and influence of humans. The influx into the

rivers and creeks from homes, industries, and the air daily increases the pollution problem.

The unrestrained discharge of agricultural wastes, application of pesticides, petroleum wastes

from oil bunkering and refineries also has led to the deterioration and degradation of the

environment. The purpose of this research is to investigate or determine the level of some

physicochemical parameters of the Mini Who Stream which will be useful in verifying the

level of contamination and pollution of the surface water by physicochemical parameters

which may have been altered due to the anthropogenic influence within the studied area

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Ikot Ekong in Mkpat Enin Local Government Area is located in a petroleum belt of the Niger

Delta, this streams in this area are exposed to additional risk of pollution from petroleum and

related sources. I got Ekong stream take it's rise from the Qua Iboe river catchment and drains

directly into the Atlantic Ocean at the Bight of Bonny. The devastation in the environmental

is also aggravated by the direct influence of stream and the inward driving wind from the

source Stream due to closeness.

Ikot Ekong Stream is located in Ikot Ekong town. The area lies within the latitude 7 , 30 N

and 7, 45, N, and longitude 7, 30 E and 7, 40 E. The stream has a shallow depth ranging from
1 to 5M at flood and ebb tide. Ikot Ekong stream take it's rise from Qua Iboe river catchment

and drains directly into the Atlantic Ocean at the Bight of Bonny. The adjoining creeks,

Channel and tributaries from Ikot Ekong stream which is significant in the provision of

suitable breeding sites for the aquatic resources that abound in the area, good fishing ground

for artisan fishermen as well as petroleum exploration and production activities. The

shoreline of Ikot Ekong stream is fried with mangrove vegetation, tidal mud flats and

pneumatophored of Avicennia exposed during low tide. The macrophytes of the area

predominated by Rhizophora racemose, R. Harrison, R. Mangle, Avicennia africana and

Laguncularia racemosa.

Ikot Ekong Stream is a unique environment in the tropical belt with marked maritime

influence due to anthropogenic source. It is also one of the ecologically and economically

rich Marine ecosystem in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria providing breeding grounds for a

variety of fish and shrimp species. Numerous activities such as oil exploiration and

exploration, laundry, fuel wood exploitation and capture fisheries take place along the Ikot

Ekong stream watershed.

Small concentration of anions and cations of heavy metals are continuously present in the

water, which could consequently pose health risk to the communities.

This study seek to provide basic information and to enrich the scientific knowledge of the

coastal ecosystem of Nigeria with particular reference to Ikot Ekong Stream and other similar

water bodies where little or no information is available for it's effective management and

sustainability; and to prevent further degradation of the area.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In the study of the physicalchemical analysis of Ikot Ekong stream in Mkpat Enin Local

Government Area, it was shown that the physicochemical analysis is very standardies. Stream

water, which covers nearly 5% of the Ikot Ekong, is a living medium that is generally

considered to be the most corrosive of the natural environments.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Determination of the physical and chemical properties of the stream is of great important to

the marine ecosystem thus, the effects of environmental variables on stream water are

discussed, including composition, pH, temperature, salinity, etc. are discussed in this study.

1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY

To asses physiochemical parameters at Ikot Ekong River in mkpat enin local government

area in Akwa Ibom state such as temperature, salinity, total dissolved solid, biochemical

oxygen demand, total dissolved solid and conductivity.

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

To determine the properties of the dredged water body at ikot Ekong.

To determine the extent of pollution of this water body at ikot Ekong.

To compare this parameter with that of the coastal water at iko.

To determine if it's fit for domestic use.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years

ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's

water may come from comets. Stow, Dorrik (2004).

Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 2012, who

proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed

it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived

over time. Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead

Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this

process "continental weathering".

Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when

the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results

from outgassing of chloride with other gases from Earth's interior

through volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently

became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.

Seawater salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a

chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium

and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with

seafloor basalts. (Pinet, R. 2018).

The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber

boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living

tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean.

His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 2013
book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio

during the 1947 expedition.(Heyerdahl, et al., 2015). A few years later, another

adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh

per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply. (King, Dean

2004).

During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the

UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably

France, in the 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries,

supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries. (Martin, 2020).

Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such

as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more

recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during

the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's HMS Victory,

were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys. Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles,

and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses, have adapted to living in a high saline habitat.

For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies

through their tear ducts. Rippon and Commander, 2017).

2.1 SEAWATER GEOCHEMISTRY

Climate change, rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, excess nutrients, and

pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some

aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends

include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic

waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent

organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human
fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow

in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources. (Doney,

2010)

One of the most striking features of this is seawater acidification, resulting from increased

CO2 uptake of the seawater related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher

temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans.

(Doney, Scott et al., 2009).

2.2 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

Physical properties vary with the amount of heat and the amount of dissolved matter

contained in the water, as well as the ambient pressure. Important state variables measured

for parcels of water in the ocean are therefore temperature, which is related to the heat

content, salinity, which is related to the amount of dissolved matter, and the pressure

2.2.1 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

A textbook definition (the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics) says: "There exists a scalar

quantity called temperature, which is a property of all thermodynamic systems (in

equilibrium states) such that temperature equality is a necessary and sufficient condition for

thermal equilibrium."

As a corollary to this definition, objects in contact with one another will tend toward thermal

equilibrium by an exchange of heat between them. Thus, if we know the temperature of one

object (call it a thermometer), and it is in thermal equilibrium with water around it, which

will occur after enough time has passed, we also know the temperature of the water.

Conversely, if water and a thermometer within it are at different temperatures, then there

must be a flow of energy (heat) between the water and the thermometer. This gives us both a
way of talking about energy and a way of measuring temperature using a known reference.

The temperature of seawater varies with the amount of sun that hits that area. This includes

the length of time as well as the angle of the sun's rays. The longer the time and the more

direct the rays of the sun fall on the ocean, the greater the temperature of seawater.

2.2.2 SALINITY DISTRIBUTION

Salinity is a measure of the ‘saltiness' of seawater, or more precisely the amount of dissolved

matter within seawater. Operationally, dissolved matter is that which remains after passing

the seawater through a very fine filter to remove particulate matter.

However, the history of the salinity concept, and its various definitions (which have changed

over time) is a long and complex story, dating back to the late 19th century. The story is

complex for two reasons. First, any useful definition of salinity contains approximations of

some kind. These approximations are necessary because the dissolved matter in seawater is a

complicated mixture of virtually every known element and it is impossible to measure the

complete composition of every water sample. Second, subtle technical details of these

approximations, which have undergone changes as more has been learned about seawater, are

very important in practice. These details are important because the required measurement

accuracy for salinity, necessary to understand the ocean general circulation, is extremely high

(about ±0.006%), so that even small changes in numerical values can have significant

implications if incorrectly interpreted.

Most useful definitions of salinity are rooted in the well-known fact that the relative ratios of

most of the important constituents of seawater are approximately constant in the ocean (the

Principle of Constant Proportions). Therefore, practical but approximate measures of the total

dissolved content can be found by scaling measurements of a single property.

2.2.3 DENSITY DISTRIBUTION

The most important thermodynamic property of seawater for studies of oceanic circulation is

its density (denoted ρ). Typical densities span a narrow range. Density depends on heat

content and salinity. Since seawater is not perfectly incompressible, it also varies slightly

with pressure. The density of a material is given in units of mass per unit volume and

expressed in kilograms per cubic metre in the SI system of units. In oceanography the density

of seawater has been expressed historically in grams per cubic centimetre. The density of

seawater is a function of temperature, salinity, and pressure. Because oceanographers require

density measurements to be accurate to the fifth decimal place, manipulation of the data

requires writing many numbers to record each measurement.

2.2.4 THERMAL DISTRIBUTION

The heat capacity of any material can be divided by the heat capacity of water to give a ratio

known as the specific heat of the material. Specific heat is numerically equal to heat capacity

but has no units. In other words, it is a ratio without units. When salt is present, the heat

capacity of water decreases slightly. Seawater of 35 psu has a specific heat of 0.932

compared with 1.000 for pure water. The unit of heat called the gram calorie is defined as the

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1 °C. The kilocalorie,

or food calorie, is the amount of heat required to raise one kilogram of water 1 °C. Heat

capacity is the amount of heat required to raise one gram of material 1 °C under constant

pressure. In the International System of Units (SI), the heat capacity of water is one

kilocalorie per kilogram per degree Celsius. Water has the highest heat capacity of all

common Earth materials; therefore, water on Earth acts as a thermal buffer, resisting

temperature change as it gains or loses heat energy.

2.3 SEAWATER CHEMISTRY

Water, the compound composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (H2O), is the

major component of seawater. The polar nature of the water molecular produces many unique

physical and chemical properties, one of the most important of which is water's remarkable

ability to dissolve more substances than any other natural solvent. As a result, seawater

contains millions and millions of chemical compounds aside from the most abundant and

well known NaCl and MgSO4. In addition to inorganic salts, seawater contains dissolved

gases and organic material, as well. If suspended solid material of either organic or inorganic

origin is excluded, sea water may be considered as an aqueous solution containing a variety

of dissolved solids and gases.

2.4 DISSOLVED GASSES

Dissolved carbon dioxide is what marine plants use for photosynthesis.

The amount of dissolved gases varies according to the types of life forms in the water. Most

living species need oxygen to keep their cells alive (both plants and animals) and are

constantly using it up. Replenishment of dissolved oxygen comes from the photosynthetic

activity of plants (during daylight hours only) and from surface diffusion (to a lesser extent).

If there are a large number of plants in a marine water mass then the oxygen levels can be

quite high during the day. If there are few plants but a large number of animals in a marine

water mass then the oxygen levels can be quite low. Oxygen is measured in parts per million

(also called ppm) and levels can range from zero to over 20 ppm in temperate waters. It only

reaches 20 when there are a lot of plants in the water, it is very sunny with lots of nutrients,

and the wind is whipping up the surface into a froth. In any water mass there is a maximum

amount of dissolved gas that can be found (after which the gas no longer dissolves but

bubbles to the surface). This maximum amount increases with a decrease in temperature (thus
cold water masses can hold more dissolved gases ... but they can also have none if it has been

used up). So, just because a water mass is cold it does not mean it has a lot of dissolved

gases. This concept is a little tricky but just remember that the amount of dissolved gases in

seawater depends more on the types of life forms (plants and animals) that are present and

their relative proportions.

2.4.1 FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISSOLVED GASES.

The following general factors control the distribution of dissolved gases in the oceans:

Temperature and salinity, which determine the concentrations when the water is at the surface

and in equilibrium with the atmosphere

Biological activity, which markedly affects the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Currents and mixing processes, which tend to modtiy the effects of biological activity

through mass movement and eddy diffusion.

2.5 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

The concentration of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide are very important for marine life

forms. Although both oxygen and carbon dioxide are a gas when outside the water, they

dissolve to a certain extent in liquid seawater. Dissolved oxygen is what animals with gills

use for respiration (their gills extract the dissolved oxygen from the water flowing over the

gill filaments).

Dissolving most substance in a liquid has the effect of increasing the density of that liquid.

The greater the amount dissolved, the greater the density. One important effect of dissolved

salts in water is to depress the freezing point of liquids. This is why salt is spread on icy

roads. It also lowers the temperature at which water reaches its maximum density. This is
because dissolved salts inhibit the tendency of water molecules to form ordered groups, so

that density is controlled more by the thermal expansion effect. When seawater first begins to

freeze, relatively pure ice is formed by extruding salts so that the salinity of the surrounding

seawater is increased, which both increases its density and depresses its freezing point. Sea

ice has a density of about 0.92×103 kg m−3 . Most of the salt remaining in sea ice is in the

form of concentrated brine droplets trapped within the ice as it forms. Gradually, the heavier

brine droplets travel downward, while air replaces the brine in the cavities. Finally, the sea

ice becomes 'rotten'. By shaking off rotten sea ice, which may be soaked in seawater which is

easy to get rid of, sea ice may become potable. When sea ice is first formed, nutrients are

trapped in it, which may support algae and other micro-organisms. (Horne, 2018)

2.6 INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CARBON

Carbon is a miraculous element located in the middle of the Periodic Table, next to nitrogen,

which is also a surprising element. Elements to the left are basic with positive valence

(attracting free electrons) and those to the right are acidic with negative valence (owning

loose electrons). Carbon with a valence of 4 can bind with both sides of the table and with

itself. When combined with hydrogen, it forms long chains of organic molecules like

CH3.CH2.CH2......X where the end group X gives it the character of an alkane (CH3),

alcohol (OH), acid (COOH), aldehyde (COH), amino (NH2), and so on. The organic carbon

chains can form loops and bonds with other elements, all being organic compounds. Only few

inorganic carbon compounds are known, of which carbondioxide (CO2) is by far the most

common. Natural gas or methane (CH4) is either the last inorganic molecule or the first

organic molecule. So it is safe to say that dissolved inorganic carbon is CO2, particularly

since it dissolves so readily in water.

All biomolecules that make up the structure of an organism are organic (except for salts in

body liquids), and when these are decomposed, the leftover molecules are also organic,

except for inorganic nutrients and CO2, for the whole purpose of decomposition is to turn

organic molecules into inorganic nutrients and CO2 for plants. All biomolecules can be

transported by being dissolved in water. When an organism dies and decomposes, most of its

organic molecules end up in solution as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), molecules that are

very much smaller than the smallest of organisms (viruses). Bearman, G. (ed.) (2017).

2.7 DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS

Fertilizers, like nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K), are important for plant

growth and are called 'nutrients.' The level of dissolved nutrients increases from animal feces

and decomposition (bacteria, fungi). Surface water often may be lacking in nutrients because

feces and dead matter tend to settle to the bottom of the ocean. Most decomposition is thus at

the bottom of the ocean. In the oceans most surface water is separated from bottom water by

a thermocline (seasonal in temperature and marginal polar regions, constant in tropics) which

means that once surface nutrients get used up (by the plants there) they become a limiting

factor for the growth of new plants. Plants must be at the surface for the light. Nutrients are

returned to surface waters by a special type of current called 'upwelling' and it is in these

areas of upwelling that we find the highest productivity of marine life.

2.7.1 SILICA AND IRON

Silica and iron may also be considered important marine nutrients as their lack can limit the

amount of productivity in an area. Silica is needed by diatoms (one of the main

phytoplankton organisms that forms the base of many marine food chains. Iron is just

recently being discovered to be a limiting factor for phytoplankton.

Many Other Types of Physicochemical Parameters Include;

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) – this is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) needed

(i.e. demanded) by aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a

given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. The BOD value is most

commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of sample (mg/l) (Clair N.

Sawyer et al., 2003).

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)– is a measure of the dissolved combined content of

all inorganic and organic substances present in a liquid in molecular, ionized, or micro-

granular (colloidal sol) suspended form. The units for TDS usually are expressed as

milligrams per liter (mg/l), which is the same as parts per million (ppm). Water TDS

concentrations can be determined using a digital meter (The Berkey, 2020).

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) - is the dry-weight of suspended particles, that are not

dissolved, in a sample of water that can be trapped by a filter that is analyzed using a

filtration apparatus. It is a water quality parameter used to assess the quality of a specimen of

any type of water or water body, ocean water for example, or wastewater after treatment in a

wastewater treatment plant. TSS values are expressed in (mg/l) (Michaud et al., 2016).

Reactive Nitrate – is a term used for a variety of nitrogen compounds that support growth

directly or indirectly. Representative species include the gases nitrogen oxides (NOx),
ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O), as well as the anion nitrate (NO3−). Most of these

species are the result of intensive farming, especially the (mis)use of fertilizers. Although

required for life, nitrogen is stored in the biosphere in an unreactive ("unfixed") form N2,

which supports only a few life forms. Reactive nitrogen is however "fixed" and is readily

converted into protein, which supports life, leading to depletion of oxygen in fresh waters by

eutrophication. Nr is removed from the biosphere via Denitrification. (Sutton, Mark A. et al.,

2013).

Reactive Phosphate – Orthophosphate is sometimes referred to as "reactive phosphorus."

Orthophosphate is the most stable kind of phosphate, and is the form used by plants.

Orthophosphate is produced by natural processes. It is used extensively in fertilizer and other

chemicals, so it abounds in areas of human activity. (American Public Health Association,

2015)

Ammonia– is an inorganic form of nitrogen. It is the least stable form of nitrogen in water.

Ammonia is easily transformed to nitrate in waters that contain oxygen and can be

transformed to nitrogen gas in waters that are low in oxygen. They are either found in water

as Ammonium ion (NH4+) in dissolved and unionized form and ammonia gas (NH3) (Giller,

Paul S. et al., 2015).

Chlorophyll A – this is a green pigment found in plants. They are indicators of phytoplankton

abundance and biomass in coastal and estuarine waters. They can be an effective measure of

trophic status. They are also potential indicators of maximum photosynthetic rate (P-max)

commonly used in measuring water quality (Wellman, S et al., 2012). However, elevated

chlorophyll A concentrations are not necessarily a bad thing, it is the long-term persistence of

elevated levels that is a bad thing (Ward, T., et al., 2015).

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Area of Study

The sampling area for this study are indicated in Figure 2. Ikot ekong stream which is located

at ikot ekong in mkpat Enin local government, one of the major stream in Ikot ekong, in

Akwa ibom state Nigeria Ikot ekong stream lies within latitude 40 39’ North and longitude 80

19’ East on the southeastern Nigerian coastline. It empties into the iko River Estuary at

Eastern obolo and plays a major role in the fisheries and sand mining and is beneficial to the

villagers and the Government of Akwa Ibom State (Essien-Ibok et al., 2010). Presently the

stream is receiving serious developmental attention by villagers that has discovered new

resources deposits within the stream catchment area . (Essien Ibok et al., 2010).

It is a hydrographic feature draining two local government areas of Akwa Ibom State. Ikot

ekong stream plays a major role in the sand mining and fisheries resources, transportation and

nutrient load of the stream.

 Figure 3.1: Study Area showing Ibaka River Estuary

Ikot ekong is located in Mkpat Enin Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. It is on

the Western bank of Eastern Obolo iko River (a short tidal river) (Ikurekong 2005).

Climatic condition of Ikot ekong stream

The climate of the area is characterized by wet and dry season. The wet season begins in

April and last till November, while the dry season begins in November till March. A short

period of draught is usually experienced in July and August, while a period of harmattan

characterized by cold dry wind and lower temperatures normally occurs between December

and February (Moses, 1979, Enemugwem, 2009). Ikot ekong is characterized by a humid

tropical climate with rainfall reaching about 3000mm per annum. The main annual daily

evaporation of the area is 4.6mm per day (Edet and Ntekim, 1996.
3.2. Sample Collection

3.2.1 Water Samples

Water samples were collected from the three sampling station, into air-tight sampling glass

bottles. The water samples were labeled cautiously and transported immediately after

collection from the site to the laboratory for analysis.

Figure 3.2 Water bottles (Indiamart.com)

3.3 Determination of

Sample Analysis

Surface water pH, turbidity (transparency),

and salinity were measured in an in-situ using their respective meters. Ex-situ data was

determined in day 1 and day 2. Respectively.

 Turbidity: Turbidity was measured using a “secchi disk”. A secchi disk is an 8-inch

diameter disk with alternating black and white quadrants that is lowered into the water

column until it can no longer be seen from the surface. The point at which the disk

disappears is a function of the water turbidity. A calibrated line can be used as an

alternative to lowering a secchi disk through a water column. The depth at which the
disk disappears in the water column is

marked on the line and taken as the

turbidity depth.

Figure 3.3 An image of a Secchi disc

 Salinity Measurement: As shown in figure 5, the salinity of the sample stations

were measured using an instrument called a “refractometer”. Several drops of the

liquid sample were dropped on the angled prism, the clear plate on the top of it

was sealed and the readings/records were taken by looking through the eyepiece

while pointing the refractometer at a source of direct light.

BFigure 3.4. Photo of refractometer

  pH: pH was measured using the multimeter parameter . This equipment is always

calibrated/standardized before use with known buffers such as pH 4 (for acidity), pH

7 (neutral), pH10 (alkalinity). First off before calibration, this equipment was turned

on and allowed to warm up for about 30 minutes, then the probes or the electrodes

were cleaned with distilled water. The buffers for calibration were then prepared

starting from neutral to alkaline. After the buffer was chosen, they were allowed to

reach the same temperature as the pH meter because pH readings are temperature

dependent. The buffers were then poured into individual beakers for calibration. The

electrodes were placed in the buffer one after the until the desired pH value was read.

The pH meter was then set up for after the reading had stabilized. The water sample

was filtered to remove impurities with a filter paper, and then the electrodes were

placed in the filtered water sample for about 1-2 minutes and allow to read.

 Dissolved Oxygen/Conductivity/TDS – this was measured using the portable

conductivity/(DO). This device can be used in situ or ex situ. This device consists of a

probe connected to a meter/analyzer and are similar in construction to pH meters.

When the sensor is submerged in a liquid, oxygen from the liquid crosses the

membrane and reacts with the cathode, causing a measurable current change; this

change is converted into a millivolt output and is finally displayed by the meter. Also,

any increase or decrease in dissolving ions results in an increase or decrease in the

electrical charge of the solution, which the meter reads.

3.4 PHYSICOCHEMICAL ASSESSMENT

Table 3.1. Physicochemical parameters and their method of assessment

Physicochemical parameter Assessment

 Reactive Nickel Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Reactive Mercury Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Reactive Lead Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Cadmium Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Total dissolved Solids (TDS) Conductivity

Vanadium Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Reactive Nitrate Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Reactive Phosphate Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Reactive Silicate Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

(AAS)

Table 3.1 shows some physicochemical parameters and their method of assessment.

Reactive phosphate, silicate, nitrate, etc. all make use of Spectrophotometry in analyzing their

amount of concentration in each water sample, TDS on the other hand, is measured using the
conductivity meter to analyze the number of dissolved solids or mobile ions present in the

water sample.

3.5 DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METALS

• Principles of Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)

The technique makes use of the atomic absorption spectrum of a sample in order to

assess the concentration of specific analytes within it. It requires standard with known analyte

content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte

concentration and relies therefore on the ‘Beer-Lambert Law’ (which states that absorbance is

proportional to the path length, b, through the sample and correspondence of the absorbing

species, c). Atomic absorption spectrophotometer simply means “atoms absorbing light”.

AAS measures the amount of light absorbed by atoms of the element. Atomic absorption

occurs when a ground state atom absorbs light of a specific wavelength. The sample of

interest is aspirated through the nebulizer into the flame/burner. If that metal is present in the

sample, it will absorb some of the light, thus reducing its intensity. This is because the

wavelength of light that is coming in is specific for that element of interest; other atoms of

element present there will not absorb the light. The instrument measures the change in

intensity. A computer data system converts the change in intensity into an absorbance.

3.5.1. DIGESTION

This is the process of decomposing a sample into a liquid form by treatment with enzymes or

strong alkalis. It entails reducing the surface tension to a smaller constituent in order to

expose the metal ion. Acid and heat is used to carry out the breaking. Digestion destroys the

organic matter, removes interfering ions brings metallic compounds in suspension to solution.

Procedures
 A given volume of water sample was measured out.

 Mixture of HNO3 was added 5ml each to digest out any suspended material within the

sample that will interfere with the result.

 It was then placed in a water bath to heat on the constant temperature.

 The heating is to avoid aggressive digestion, the sample will stay till a clear solution

is obtained.

 The sample will be measure out and use for Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4.1: shows the data gotten from the physico-chemical analysis of water sample taken at three

different locations in Ikot Ekong river.

TDS Turbidity DO Salinity

Sample PH (ppm) (NTU) (ppm) (ppm)

Upstream (SW1) 7.5 850 9 14 31,000

Midstream (SW2) 8 850 9.1 16 30,000

Downstream (SW3) 8.2 900 9.2 16.7 29,500

Figure 4.1 Column chart showing the Turbidity level of salt water sample collected at three different
locations in Ikot Ekong
Figure 4.2 Column chart showing the PH of water sample collected at three different locations in Ikot
Ekong

Figure 4.3 Column chart showing the dissolved oxygen in the water sample collected at three
different locations in Ikot Ekong
 Figure 4.4 Column chart showing the total dissolved solid in the water sample collected at three
different locations in Ikot Ekong

Figure 4.5 Column chart showing the salinity level in the water sample collected at three different
locations in Ikot Ekong
Table 4.2: Concentration of heavy metals in upstream, midstream and downstream in the water
sample collected in Ikot Ekong

Vanadium Arsenic Iron Lead Cadmiu

Sample
(V) (As) (Fe) (Pb) m (Cd)
Upstream
(SW1) 0.001 0.001 1.102 0.002 0.044 1.500 1.000 0.010
Midstream
(SW2) 0.001 0.001 0.624 0.032 0.056 1.200 0.800 0.010
Downstream
SW3 0.001 0.001 0.762 0.038 0.064 1.000 0.600 0.002
As – Arsenic; Fe – Iron; Pb – Lead; Hg – Mercury; Cd – Cadmium; - Phosphate;

- Nitrate; – Silicate
 Figure 4.6: Column chart showing the Concentration of heavy metals in upstream, midstream and
downstream in the water sample collected in Ikot Ekong

Table 4.3: World Health Organization (WHO), 2003: Maximum permissible limits (mg/l)

Nickel 0.07

Mercury 1.0

Lead 0.05

Cadmium 0.006

Arsenic 0.01

Iron 100-300

Table 4.4: SUMMARY

Groups Count Sum Average Variance SD SE
v 3 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
As 3 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
Fe 3 2.488 0.829 0.061 0.246 0.082
Pb 3 0.072 0.024 0.000 0.019 0.006
Cd 3 0.164 0.055 0.000 0.010 0.003
3 3.700 1.233 0.063 0.252 0.084
3 2.400 0.800 0.040 0.200 0.067
3 0.022 0.007 0.000 0.005 0.002
SD - Standard deviation SE - Standard Error
Table 4.5: ANOVA – single factor
Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between
Groups 5.293 7 0.756 36.804 1.06E-08 2.657
Within
Groups 0.329 16 0.021

Total 5.621 23
SS – Sum of squares; df – degree of freedom; MS – Mean squared; fcrit – Fcritical

DISCUSSIONS
The physico-chemical analysis of the three water samples collected from the dredged stream at Ikot

Ekong as shown in table 4.1 provides valuable information regarding the quality of the water in

different parts of the stream. The parameters analyzed include pH, TDS, turbidity, DO, and salinity.

The pH values of the water samples collected at upstream, midstream, and downstream are within the

acceptable range of 6.5-8.5 for freshwater bodies. However, the pH value of the downstream sample

(SW3) is slightly higher than the midstream and upstream samples. This could indicate a possible

contamination of the stream by alkaline substances. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) values for all

the samples are within the acceptable range for freshwater bodies. However, the downstream sample

(SW3) has a slightly higher TDS value compared to the midstream and upstream samples. This could

be attributed to the presence of dissolved salts or other substances in the water.

The turbidity levels of the water samples are relatively low and are within the acceptable range for

freshwater bodies with values ranging from 9 to 9.2 NTU according to WHO. This suggests that the

water is relatively clear and does not contain a significant amount of suspended particles or sediments.

The Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels for all the samples are within the minimum acceptable level of 5

ppm for freshwater bodies. This indicates that the water is well-aerated or contains sufficient

dissolved oxygen and can support aquatic life. The salinity values for all the samples are relatively

high, which suggests that the stream may have been impacted by saltwater intrusion. However, the

salinity levels are still within the acceptable range for freshwater bodies according to WHO standard.
In conclusion, the physico-chemical analysis of the dredged stream at Ikot Ekong suggests that the

water quality of the stream is relatively good, with some indications of possible contamination and

saltwater intrusion.

The analytical results in table 4.2 shows the concentration of heavy metals in the three water samples

collected from the dredged stream at Ikot Ekong. The heavy metals analyzed include vanadium (V),

arsenic (As), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd). In addition, the analysis also includes the

concentration of phosphate, nitrate, and silicate in the water samples.

From the results obtained, it can be inferred that the concentration of heavy metals in the water

samples is relatively low and does not pose a significant risk to human health or the environment. The

concentration of vanadium and arsenic in all three samples is very low, with values of 0.001 mg/L,

which is within the acceptable limits given by WHO. The concentration of iron in the three samples

ranges from 0.624 to 1.102 mg/L, which is within the acceptable limits for drinking water. However,

the concentration of lead and cadmium in the samples is slightly higher than the acceptable limits as

shown in table 4.3. The concentration of lead ranges from 0.002 to 0.038 mg/L, while the

concentration of cadmium ranges from 0.044 to 0.064 mg/L. The presence of lead and cadmium in the

water samples may be attributed to anthropogenic sources such as industrial discharges and

agricultural runoffs.

The concentration of phosphate, nitrate, and silicate in the water samples is also within acceptable

limits. The concentration of phosphate ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 mg/L, while the concentration of nitrate

ranges from 0.6 to 1.0 mg/L. The concentration of silicate ranges from 0.002 to 0.01 mg/L. The iron

levels in the water samples are relatively high, with values ranging from 0.624 to 1.102 mg/L. While

iron is an essential nutrient for human and aquatic life, high levels can cause discoloration and

unpleasant taste in water.

Overall, the results of the heavy metal analysis suggest that the water in the dredged stream at Ikot

Ekong is relatively safe for human consumption and aquatic life. However, the slightly elevated levels
of lead and cadmium in the water samples indicate that continued monitoring is necessary to ensure

that the water quality remains within acceptable limits.

The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) result shown in Table 4.5 is a statistical technique used to

determine whether there are significant differences between the means of the different groups or

samples. The ANOVA result compares the variability between the groups (i.e., the variation between

the means of the different samples) to the variability within the groups (i.e., the variation within each

sample). In this research project, the ANOVA was conducted on the concentration of heavy metals

and nutrients (vanadium, arsenic, iron, lead, cadmium, phosphate, nitrate, and silicate) in the three

water samples collected from the dredged stream at Ikot Ekong.

The ANOVA result shows that there is a significant difference between the means of the different

groups for all the parameters analyzed (vanadium, arsenic, iron, lead, cadmium, phosphate, nitrate,

and silicate). The p-value obtained (1.06E-08) is less than the critical value (F crit = 2.657) at a

significance level of 0.05, indicating that the differences between the means are statistically

significant. The ANOVA result suggests that the location of the sample (i.e., upstream, midstream,

and downstream) significantly affects the concentration of heavy metals and nutrients in the dredged

stream at Ikot Ekong. The result indicates that the upstream sample (SW1) had a different mean

concentration of heavy metals and nutrients compared to the midstream sample (SW2) and

downstream sample (SW3).

The relevance of this ANOVA result to the research project is that it highlights the importance of

location in assessing the quality of water in a stream. The differences in the means of the different

samples suggest that there may be anthropogenic activities (e.g., agricultural runoffs, industrial

discharges) upstream that are affecting the water quality of the stream. Therefore, continued

monitoring of the water quality in the stream is necessary to ensure that the concentration of heavy

metals and nutrients remains within acceptable limits.

 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
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