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Edgar Afonso Joaquim

Ivo Julião Silva
Nanopa Dinis
Wiki Armando Assane Camisa

Theories of behaviour change and sex workers

Licenciatura em Ensino de Inglês

Universidade Rovuma
Nampula
2023
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Edgar Afonso Joaquim

Ivo Julião Silva
Nanopa Dinis
Wiki Armando Assane Camisa

Essay to be submitted to the

Department of Letters and Social
Sciences, English Course third year, in
partial fulfilment of the subject: Tema
Transversal II.

Lecturer: Rosita Ruco, MA

Universidade Rovuma
Nampula
2023
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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
1. THEORIES OF BEHAVIOUR CHANGE ............................................................... 5
1.1. Social Cognitive Theory .................................................................................... 5
1.2. Theory of Planned Behaviour ............................................................................ 6
2. SEX WORKERS ....................................................................................................... 7
References ...................................................................................................................... 10
Appendix ........................................................................................................................ 11
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INTRODUCTION

Behaviour begins by noting that all behaviour is described as an attempt on the part of an
individual to bring about some state of affairs, either to effect a change from one state of
affairs to another, or to maintain a currently existing one. However, sex work is a term
used to describe a wide range of activities relating to the exchange of money (or its
equivalent) for the provision of a sexual service. Social exclusion is commonly defined
as a series of linked and/or mutually reinforcing processes, such as low income, poverty,
debt, unemployment, poor education, health problems, housing problems, crime, lack of
social support and other adverse life events.

As well as affecting individuals, social exclusion affects groups of people such as

migrants, disabled people, homeless people, and those suffering from mental illness; often
as a result of impoverishment, discrimination and lack of adequate public services.
Therefore, many people who engage in sex work are subject to high levels of social
exclusion – in some cases chronic exclusion, and begin sex work as a result of
experiencing many of the processes leading to exclusion. This paper aims at describing
the theories of behaviour change and sex workers.
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1. THEORIES OF BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

Concept of behaviour

Behaviour begins by noting that all behaviour is described as an attempt on the part of an
individual to bring about some state of affairs -- either to effect a change from one state
of affairs to another, or to maintain a currently existing one (Glans & Lewis 1990, p. 49).
Behaviour as the occurrence of an organism's action or reaction. This is often called
response in behavioural studies. It is something an organism emits, or performs, at
particular moments and places.
1.1. Social Cognitive Theory

According to Glans & Lewis (1990:67), Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory proposes that
people are driven not by inner forces, but by external factors. This model suggests that
human functioning can be explained by a triadic interaction of behaviour, personal and
environmental factors. This is often known as reciprocal determinism. Environmental
factors represent situational influences and environment in which behaviour is preformed
while personal factors include instincts, drives, traits, and other individual motivational
forces. Several constructs underlie the process of human learning and behaviour change.
These variables may also intervene in the process of behaviour change.

Self-efficacy — A judgment of one’s ability to perform the behaviour.

Outcome Expectations — A judgment of the likely consequences a behaviour will
produce. The importance of these expectations (i.e., expectancies) may also drive
behaviour.
Self-Control — The ability of an individual to control their behaviours.
Reinforcements — Something that increases or decreases the likelihood a
behaviour will continue.
Emotional Coping — The ability of an individual to cope with emotional stimuli.
Observational Learning — The acquisition of behaviours by observing actions
and outcomes of others’ behaviour.
How can this theory inform your practice?
To increase levels of self-efficacy it may be important to provide resources and
support to raise individual confidence. Others have suggested that to raise self-
efficacy behaviour change should be approached as a series of small steps.
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Bandura writes that even when individuals have a strong sense of efficacy, they
may not perform the behaviour if they have no incentive. This seems to suggest
that if we are interested in getting others to enact behaviour change it may be
important to provide incentives and rewards for the behaviours.
Shaping the environment may encourage behaviour change. This may include
providing opportunities for behavioural change, assisting with those changes, and
offering social support. It is important to recognize environmental constraints that
might deter behaviour change.
1.2. Theory of Planned Behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour suggests that behaviour is dependent on one’s intention
to perform the behaviour. Intention is determined by an individual’s attitude (beliefs and
values about the outcome of the behaviour) and subjective norms (beliefs about what
other people think the person should do or general social pressure). Behaviour is also
determined by an individual’s perceived behavioural control, defined as an individual’s
perceptions of their ability or feelings of self-efficacy to perform behaviour. This
relationship is typically dependent on the type of relationship and the nature of the
situation (Glans & Lewis, 1990, p. 60).

How can this theory inform your practice?

Intention has been shown to be the most important variable in predicting

behaviour change, suggesting that behaviours are often linked with one’s personal
motivation.8 This suggests that it may be important to present information to help
shape positive attitudes towards the behaviour and stress subjective norms or
opinions that support the behaviour.
For perceived behavioural control to influence behaviour change, much like with
self-efficacy, a person must perceive that they have the ability to perform the
behaviour. Therefore, as Grizzel (2007:90), suggests, perceived control over
opportunities, resources, and skills needed is an important part of the change
process.
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2. SEX WORKERS

Definition

Sex work and prostitution are terms that are often used interchangeably to refer to the
exchange of sexual labour for money, other material items, or access to social resources.
These exchanges may be independently generated, facilitated through a third party, or
leveraged by industry stakeholders. Sex work is a term used to describe a wide range of
activities relating to the exchange of money (or its equivalent) for the provision of a sexual
service.

LEIGH (1997) argues that the term “sex work” emerged at a pivotal time in the global
sex workers and women’s movement of the 1970s–1980s. Coined by American sex
worker, performer, academic, and activist Carol Leigh, it signified a shift away from the
historical associations of moral corruption, dirt, and powerless often implied in the term
“prostitute”.

Harcourt and Donovan (2005) compiled a long list of the different types of sexual services
practiced by sex workers around the world. From this list, they grouped types of sexual
services into two categories; direct and indirect sex work. Direct sex work refers to
services, such as indoor and outdoor prostitution as well as escort services. This type of
sex work typically involves the exchange of sex for a fee in which genital contact is
common.

Indirect sex work refers to services, such as lap dancing, stripping and virtual sex services
(over the internet or phone). Genital contact is less common in this type of sex work;
however, a fee is still exchanged for the service.

Sex work and prostitution are as old as human society itself, and although often associated
with women and girls, these systems of exchange involve people of all ages, genders,
races, abilities, and sexual orientations. Typically considered to occur primarily in
marginalized urban spaces or among underprivileged cultural groups, in reality sex work
and prostitution take place everywhere: large cities, rural hamlets, suburban cul-de-sacs,
institutional spaces (i.e., schools, prisons hospitals, government buildings), and among
people from every social echelon. There is a myriad of types, including indoor, specialty,
migrant, survival, online, and different kinds of work that is sexualized, such as the
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production and sale of sex toys. Although street-based sex work is often used to depict
prostitution in media and academic stories, it only constitutes 10–15% of the total sex
work participation globally (Dewey and Orchard, 2016, p. 78).

a) Migrant sex workers

The term ‘migrant sex worker’ is used to describe a person who is not a national but who
freely enters the country, for whatever means, and engages in sex work. As previously
mentioned, the migrant sex work population has increased over the past decade. The large
majority of migrant sex workers are involved in off-street sex work.
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Conclusion

In many cases, there is an overlap between sex work, homelessness and other forms of
social exclusion, such as impoverishment, violence, family breakdown and untreated
mental health problems. The interaction of different forms of social exclusion is best
described as a syndemic whereby people often suffer from multiple processes of
exclusion which exacerbate negative health impacts. The literature also indicates that
different types of sex work result in different levels of further exclusion.
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References

DEWEY, S., Zhang, T., & Orchard, T. (2016). Sex workers and criminalization in North
America and China: Ethical and legal issues

Harcourt, C. and Donovan, B, (2005) The many faces of sex work, Sex Tansm Infect.
Nottingham: Framework Housing Association.

Glanz, K., & Lewis, F. M., (Eds.). (1990). Health Behavior and Health Education:
Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Grizzell, J. (2007, 1/27/2007). Behavior Change Theories and Models. Retrieved January
28, 2007, from http://www.csupomona. edu/~jvgrizzell/best_practices/bctheory.html.

LEIGH, C. (1997). Inventing sex work. In J. Nagle (Ed.), Whores and other feminists (pp.
225–231). London: Routledge.
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Appendix
Sex workers