Blood - Helps adjust body temperature through the

heat absorbing and coolant properties of the

- Type of connective tissue whose cells are
water in
suspended in a liquid extracellular matrix
- Blood plasma
- Essential in transporting substance between
- Blood osmotic pressure influence the water
body cells and the eternal environment,
content of cells, mainly through interactions of
therefore promoting homeostasis.
dissolved ions and proteins.
Two components of blood
Protection
- Blood plasma, a watery liquid extracellular
- clot which protects against its excessive loss
matrix that contains dissolved substances
from the cardiovascular system after an injury.
- Formed elements, which are cells and cell
- White blood cells protect against disease by
fragments
carrying on phacytosi
Whole blood - blood proteins- antibodies, interferons, and
complete, help protect against disease
- Slight heavier
- Three to four times more viscous than water Blood plasma
- Its cells- form in the red bone marrow
- straw-colored liquid called (or simply plasma
- Cells and platelets – “formed elements” of the
- blood plasma is about 91.5% water
blood
- 8.5% solute- (7% by weight) are proteins
- Liquid potion- plasma
- Play a role in maintaining proper blood osmotic
Hematocrit (HCT) pressure, -important factor in the exchange of
fluids across capillary walls
- Red blood cells 45%
- White blood cells and platelets 1% Blood cells
- Plasma 55%
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

- Biconcave discs- adaptation for transporting

gases
- Increases the surface area through which gases
can diffuse
- Places the cell membrane closer to oxygen-
carrying hemoglobin molecules in the cell
- About one-third hemoglobin by volume

Oxyhemoglobin- When hemoglobin binds oxygen-

bright red

Deoxyhemoglobin- when oxygen is released- darker

Cyanosis

Blood volume - Prolonged oxygen deficiency (Hypoxia)

- Skin and mucous membrane appear bluish due
- Body size to an abnormally high blood concentration of
- Changes in fluid and electrolyte concentration deoxyhemoglobin in the superficial blood
- Amount of adipose tissue vessels
- Average-size adult has a blood volume of about
5 litters (5.3 quarts) Red blood cell counts

Cell type Number Functions

Transportation (Per mm3 of
blood)
- Transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of
Erythrocytes 4-6 million Transport
the body and carbon dioxide from the body cells (Red blood cells) oxygen and
to the lungs for exhalation help transport
- It carries nutrients from gastrointestinal tract to carbon dioxide
body cells and hormones from endocrine glands Leukocytes 4,800-10,800 Defense and
to other body cells. (White blood immunity
- Transport heat and waste products to various cells)
organs for elimination from the body Basophil
Eosinophil
Regulation Lymphocyte
- Helps maintain homeostasis Monocytes
Neutrophils
- Helps regulate pH through the use of buffers.
Platelets 250,000-400,00 Blood clotting
Typical range for

- Adult males are 4,700, 000 to 6,100,000 cells

per microliter
- Adult females are 4,200,000 to 5,400,000 cells
per microliter

Red blood cell production and its control

- Erythropoiesis- initially occurs in the yolk sac,

liver, and spleen
- After birth, these cells are produced almost
exclusively- red bone marrow
- Hematopoietic stem cells or hemocytoblast
- 120 days- average life span of a red blood cells

Erythropoietin
- Hormone- controls the rate of red blood cell
formation through negative feedback
- The kidneys, and to a lesser extent the liver
release erythropoietin in response to prolonged
oxygen deficiency
Polycythemia- An excessive increase in red blood
cells- increases blood viscosity, slowing
- Blood flow and impairing circulation
- Each RBC contains about 280 million
hemoglobin molecules
- A hemoglobin molecule consists
- Globin- four polypeptide chains (two alpha and
two beta chains)
- a ring like nonprotein pigment called a heme is
bound to each of the four chains
Dietary factors affecting red blood cell production
- availability of B- complex vitamins- vitamin B12
and folic acid- significantly influences red blood
cell production
- required for DNA synthesis, - necessary for the
growth and division of cells
- cell division is rapid in blood- forming
(hematopoietic) tissue
- hemoglobin synthesis and normal red blood cell
production require iron
- the small intestine absorb iron slowly from
food- body reuses much of the iron released by
the decomposition of hemoglobin from
damaged red blood cells
Anemia
- deficiency of red blood cells or a reduction in
the amount of hemoglobin they contain
- reduces the oxygen- carrying capacity of the
blood
- affected person may appear pale and lack
energy.
sickle cell disease
- single DNA base mutation changes one amino
acid in the protein part of hemoglobin, causing
hemoglobin to crystallize in low oxygen
environment.
- Bends the red blood cells with abnormal
hemoglobin into a sickle shape
Hydroxyurea- used to activate production of a form of
hemoglobin normally produced only in the fetus
- The fetal hemoglobin slows sickling- enables the
red blood cells to reach the lungs- where fresh
oxygen restores the cell’s normal shape
Destruction of red blood cells
- Near the end of their three-month life span-
more fragile and may be damaged simply
passing through capillaries, particularly those in
active muscles that must withstand strong
contractile forces.
- Macrophages phagocytize and destroy damaged
red blood cells, primarily in the liver and spleen
Hemoglobin- four component polypeptide “globin”
chains each surrounding a heme group
Heme- decomposes into iron and a greenish pigment
called biliverdin
- The blood may transport the iron, combined
with a protein, to the hematopoietic tissue in
red bone marrow to be reused in synthesizing
new hemoglobin.
- About 80% of the iron is stored in the liver in
the form of an iron-protein complex.

hemochromatosis

- an inherited disorder- small intestine absorbs

iron at ten times the normal rate
- iron builds up in an organ, to toxic levels
- treatment is periodic blood removal- every
week
- the blood is discarded
Biliverdin eventually is converted to an orange pigment - usually account for less than 1% of the
called bilirubin circulating leukocytes

- Biliverdin and bilirubin are secreted in the bile Agranulocyte group

as bile pigments
Monocytes

- largest blood cells

Jaundice (icterus) - two to three times greater in diameter than red
blood cells
- Accumulation of bilirubin turns the skin and
- nuclei vary in shape and are round, kidney-
eyes yellowish
shaped oval, or lobed
- Newborns- physiologic jaundice a few days after
- make up 3-9% of the leukocytes
birth-result of immature liver cells that
- live for several weeks or even month
ineffectively secrete bilirubin into the bile.
- Treatment- exposure to fluorescent light- Lymphocytes
breaks down bilirubin & feedings that promote
- only slightly larger than red blood cells
bowel movements
- large, round nucleus surrounded by a thin rim
White blood cells or leukocytes of cytoplasm
- account for 25-33% of circulating leukocyte
- Developed from hematopoietic stem cells in the
- may live for years
red bone marrow in response to hormones.
Diapedesis- white blood cells, by contrast, are able to
These hormones fall into two groups
slip into and out of the blood vessel
Interleukins- numbered
White blood cell counts
Colony- stimulating factors- named for the cell
- 3,500-10,500 cells
population they stimulate
- Change in response to abnormal conditions
- Blood transports white blood cells to sites of
Leukocytes- total number of white blood cells
infection.
exceeding 10,500 per microliter of blood constitutes
- White blood cells may then leave the
bloodstream. Leukopenia- a total white blood cells count
percentage of various types of leukocytes in blood
Granulocyte
sample.
- About twice the size of a red bone marrow
- A differential white blood cell count (DIFF) lists
- Develop in red bone marrow
percentages of the various types of leukocytes
- Have short life spans, averaging about 12 hours
in a blood sample.
 Neutrophils
 Eosinophils Platelets or thrombocytes
 Basophils
- Are not complete cells
Neutrophil o Arise from very large cells in red bone
marrow, called megakaryocytes
- Fine cytoplasmic that appear light purple in
- That fragment, releasing small pieces- platelets-
neutral stain
into the circulation
- Nucleus of an older neutrophil is lobed- consists
- Megakaryocytes develop long cellular
of two to five sections connected by thin
extensions that break off in small sections to
strands of chromatin
form platelets in bone marrow
Younger neutrophils- bands- nuclei are C- shaped
Platelets- develop from hematopoietic stem cells in
Neutrophils account- 54-62% of leukocytes in a typical response to the hormone thrombopoietin
blood sample from an adult
- Lacks nucleus
Eosinophil - Less than half the size of a red blood cell
- Capable of amoeboid movement
- Contain coarse, uniformly sized cytoplasmic - May live for about ten days
granules that appear deep red in acid stain - Help close breaks in damaged blood vessels
- Nucleus usually has only two lobes- bilobed
- 1-3% of the total number of circulating Platelet count- varies from 150,000 to 350,000 per
leukocytes microliter

Basophil Homeostasis

- similar to eosinophil in size and in the shape of - Process that stops bleeding
their nuclei, but they have fewer, more - Vitally important when blood vessels are
irregularly shaped cytoplasmic granules that damage
appear deep blue in basic stain
Several action- help to limit or prevent blood loss
  Blood vessel spasm
 Platelet plug formation
 Blood coagulation
Blood Vessel spasm
- the contraction of smooth muscle in its walls
- Blood loss lessen almost immediately, and the
ends of the severed vessels may close
completely
- Reflex response may only last only a few
minutes
Platelet plug formation
- Platelets adhere to the collagen underlying the
endothelium lining blood vessels
- Platelets also adhere to each other, forming a
platelet plug in the vascular break-control blood
loss from a small break, but a larger break may
require blood clot to halt bleeding.
Blood Coagulation
- Most effective hemostatic mechanism, forms a
blood clot in series of reaction, each one
activating the next
- Complex and utilizes clotting factors- promote
coagulation, and others inhibit it
Result of injury (trauma)- biochemicals that favor
coagulation may increase in concentration, and the
blood may coagulate
Prothrombin
- Alpha globulin that the liver continually
produces
- A normal constituent of plasma
- Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin
into thrombin which in turn catalyzes that joints
fragments of fibrinogen into long threads of
fibrin.
Prothrombin time (PT)
Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)
- Measure the time it takes for fibrin threads to
form in a sample of plasma
- A result of blood leakage (hematomas)-
disappear in time
- Dissolution requires conversion of a plasma
protein, plasminogen to plasmin- digest fibrin
threads and other proteins associated with
blood clots
Thrombus- A blood clot abnormally forming in a vessel
Embolus- A clot that dislodges, or a fragment of a clot
that breaks loose and is carried away by the blood flow.
Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)- restore blocked
cerebral circulation if given within 3 to 4 ½ hours of
stroke
- Streptokinase may also be successful
Urokinase- enzyme produced heparin and coumadin
are drugs that interfere with clot formation, but do not
dissolve clots.
Abnormal clot formation
- Associated with conditions that change the
endothelial linings of vessels.
Atherosclerosis- accumulation of fatty deposits change
arterial linings, sometimes initiating inappropriate
clotting.
Blood Group and transfusions
Antigen and Antibodies
- An antigen is any molecule that triggers an
immune response
- When the immune system encounters an
antigen not found on the body’s own cells it will
attack, producing antibodies
- In a transfusion reaction, antigens
(agglutinogens) on the surface of the donated
red blood cells react with antibodies
(agglutinins) in the plasma of the recipient,
resulting in the agglutination of the donated red
blood cells.
Agglutination (“clumping”)- Reaction between antigens
and specific antibodies.
- Happens when antigens on mismatched
donated red blood cells react with antibodies in
plasma
Coagulation (“clotting”) - Is an enzymatic reaction that
changes soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin threads
leading to the formation of a blood clot.
Mismatched blood transfusion Type AB- blood lacks both anti A and anti B antibodies-
can receive a transfusion of blood of any other type-
 Signs of agglutination
universal recipients.
 Anxiety
 Breathing difficulty - Blood in the umbilical cord at birth is rich in
 Facial flushing stem cells that can be used to treat a variety of
 Headache disorders, including leukemias, sickle cells
 Severe pain in the neck, chest, and lumbar area disease and other hemoglobin abnormalities,
 Red blood cells, releasing free hemoglobin and certain inborn errors of metabolism
 Liver cells and macrophages phagocytize- Preferred and Permissible Blood Types for
bilirubin- yellow skin of jaundice Transfusions
 Free hemoglobin- kidney fails
Blood type of Preferred blood If preferred
ABO Blood Groups recipient type of donor blood type
- Based on the presence (or absence of two unavailable,
permissible
major antigens on red blood cell membranes-
blood type of
- Antigen A and antigen B
donor
- A and B antigens are carbohydrates attached to
A A O
glycolipids projecting from the red blood cell
B B O
surface
AB AB A, B, O
- A person’s erythrocytes have on their surfaces O O No alternate
one of four antigen combination: only types
- A, only B, both A and B, or neither A nor B Rh blood group
A person with - Rhesus monkey
- Antigen A has type A blood - In humans, this group includes several Rh
- Antigen B has type B blood antigens (factors)
- Both antigens A and B has type AB blood Antigen D- most prevalent transmembrane protein
- Neither antigen A nor B has type O blood.
- ABO blood type is inherited- result of DNA Rh positive – Rh antigen are present on the red blood
encoding an enzyme-catalyzes the final step in cell membrane.
the synthesis of the A or B antigen Rh-negative- red blood cells lack Rh antigen inherited
In the United States trait

- The most common ABO blood types are Anti-Rh antibodies (anti- Rh) form only in Rh negative
 O- 47% individuals in response to the presence of red blood
 A- 41% cells with Rh antigens.
 B- 9% - if the Rh-positive blood- receives another
 AB- 3% transfusion of Rh-positive blood some months
Antigens and Antibodies of the ABO Blood Group later, the donated red cells are likely to
agglutinate.
Blood type Antigen Antibody - Rh- negative woman is pregnant with an Rh-
positive fetus
A A Anti- B - Her first pregnancy with an Rh-positive fetus
would probably be uneventful
B B Anti- A - Infant’s birth (or if a miscarriage occurs)- tearing
of the placental membranes- some of the
infant’s Rh-positive blood cells may enter the
AB A and B Neither anti A
maternal circulation- stimulate the maternal
nor anti B
tissues to produce anti-Rh antibodies
O Neither A nor B Both anti A and - If a woman who has already developed anti-Rh
anti B antibodies, called hemolysins- cross the
placental membrane and destroy the fetal red
Type A (anti- B)- blood must not receive blood of type B blood cells
or AB, either of which would clump in the presence of Erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic- disease of the
anti-B in the recipient’s type A blood fetus and newborn.
Type B (anti- A) – B blood must not receive type A or Erythroblastosis fetalis - A Rh-negative woman who
AB. might carry a Rh-positive fetus is given an injection
Type O (anti A and anti B) – blood must not receive RhoGAM- injection is composed of anti-Rh antibodies,
type A, B, or AB blood- universal donors which bind to and shield and Rh-positive fetal cells that
might contact the woman’s cells and sensitize her
immune system
- Given within 72 hours of possible contact with
Rh-positive cells- including giving birth,
terminating a pregnancy, miscarrying, or
undergoing amniocentesis