NAME OF GROUP : PEM2456B1

NAME OF LECTURER l : DR. MOHAMAD IRWAN BIN YAHAYA

DATE/WEEK OF SUBMISSION : 15/6/2023

Group’s Members

Name Student ID

AMIR MIRZA BIN NORZALIMI 2021491756

AIMAN ASYRAAF BIN ROSLAN 2021492486

WAN ALIF BIN WAN NORAZLAN 2021459652

ANAS BIN ARIFFIN 2021867954

MUHAMMAD AMIRUL HAKIM BIN MOHD KARIM 2021847136

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES 3
1.0 INTRODUCTION 4
2.0 OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN 5
3.0 CALCULATION, ANALYSIS, JUSTIFICATION FOR MATERIAL AND COMPONENT
SELECTION, 6
3.1 Material Choice of the Ladder 6
3.2 Reaction force on the Beam 6
3.3 Minimum cross section area of the beams 7
3.4 Dimensions of the cross section of the beam 9
3.5 Dimensions of the ladder 10
3.6 Buckling of the beams 11
3.7 Deflection of the Steps 13
3.8 Welding 14
6.0 SKETCH OF DESIGN (WITH DIMENSIONS) 19
7.0 . CONCLUSION - OVERALL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN 20
8.0 STANDARD/CODE/REGULATION OR OTHER REFERENCES 21

2
LIST OF FIGURES

No Figure

Figure 3.1 FBD of Beams

Figure 3.2 Dimension of beam and steps

Figure 3.3 Dimensions of the ladder

Figure 3.6.1 Dimension of beam

Figure 3.6.2 Effective length factor

Figure 3.7.1 The force acting at steps

Figure 3.7.2 List of formula for maximum deflection

Figure 3.8.1 Bending Properties of Fillet Welds

Figure 3.8.2 Minimum Weld-Metal Properties

Figure 6.1 Front view of the ladder

Figure 6.2 Side view of the ladder

Figure 6.3 Top view of the ladder

Figure 6.4 Cross section of the steps

3
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ladders are a piece of equipment that consists of a single beam or more, holding a series of steps
that can be used to elevate into high positions. Straight ladders required to be rested or anchored
on the top most section as it could not support itself. Ladders are made from a wide range of
materials from steel to wood. Each material has its pros and cons depending on its use case.
From probability to the ability to withstand heavy loads. Ladders are often associated with heavy
and dangerous work loads. Therefore, it is important for the design of the ladder to be safe and
able to withstand high load.

In this assignment, students are tasked into designing a straight steel ladder. The ladder must be
able to withstand a max load of 200kg and is safe to be used with a factor of safety of 3 to 5.

4
2.0 OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN

There are several objectives in the design of the ladder. One of them is to design a ladder
according to the required specifications given. The design specifications for the ladder are ;

Item Specification

Type Straight Ladder

Material Steel

No. of Step 8

Maximum Height 2m

Maximum Load 200kg

Factor of Safety 3-5

Type of Welding Fillet Weld

Other objectives of the design is as the following

- To identify the specific material to be used on the design of the ladder

- To sketch the design of the ladder complete with the dimensions
- To calculate the the strength of the fillet weld for the 1st, 4th and 8th steps of the ladder
- To state the standards, codes or regulations that is used in the design of the ladder

5
3.0 CALCULATION, ANALYSIS, JUSTIFICATION FOR MATERIAL AND
COMPONENT SELECTION,

3.1 Material Choice of the Ladder

The material chosen for the ladder is Stainless Steel 304 ASTM A240. There are several reasons
for this, one of them is that it has a yield strength of 205 Mpa. This is fairly high making it
suitable for applying huge amounts of loads. Other than that, stainless steel is corrosion resistant
making it suitable for use in outdoor situations where ladders are generally used in construction
situations. This also applies to the OSHA standard code 1910.23(b)(6). This OSHA standard
states that, “Metal ladders are made with corrosion-resistant material or protected against
corrosion;” (1910.23 - Ladders. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration, n.d.)

3.2 Reaction force on the Beam

The first step of the calculation is to calculate the force applied on the beam. The maximum load
to be supported by the ladder is 200kg. Assuming that the user of the ladder applies the
maximum load on one step at a time, a load of 200 kg is applied on one step at a time during the
use of the ladder. From the submission of forces, we are able to calculate the force applied on
the beam.

𝐹1 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 * 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐹1 = 200𝑘𝑔 * 9. 81𝑚/𝑠 = 1962𝑁

+↑ Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0 Figure 3.1 : FBD of Beams

0= − 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹2

6
 1962𝑁 = 2𝐹2 𝐹2 = 981𝑁

3.3 Minimum cross section area of the beams

Assuming that we want a minimum Factor of Safety of 3 and the material used for the ladder is
Stainless Steel 304 ASTM A240 which has a yield strength of 205 Mpa. From this, we are able
to calculate the area required for the beams.

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

205𝑀
3= 981𝑁/ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

5*981𝑁 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 205𝑀
= 0. 14 𝑐𝑚

From the following calculation, we are able to find out that the minimum cross section area
2
required for the beams to reach a factor of safety of 3 is 0. 14 𝑐𝑚 .

3.4 Minimum cross section area of the steps

First, we assume that all the force is concentrated in one area when in use. The force applied on
the step is 200kg. We also want the outer dimensions of the steps be the same as the beam, 4cm *
4cm. Therefore, only the thickness of the hollow beam needs to be calculated to comply with the
factor of safety requirement. The force and the area requirement is calculated using the following
formulas;

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐹1 = 200𝑘𝑔 * 9. 81𝑚/𝑠 = 1962𝑁𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

1962𝑁/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
3= 205𝑀

1962𝑁 3
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 615𝑀
= 0. 29 𝑐𝑚

7
From the following calculation, we are able to find out that the minimum cross section area
2
required for the beams to reach a factor of safety of 3 is 0. 29 𝑐𝑚 .

8
3.4 Dimensions of the cross section of the beam

There are several factors that need to be taken into consideration when designing the cross
section of the beam. These factors are design factors, manufacturing factors and also ergonomic
factors . The factors are the following :

1. The cross section needs to be large enough for it to be safe to be held by the user
2. The cross section needs to be larger than the area requirement calculated before to reach
the minimum factor of safety
3. In case of a hollow cross section, the material needs to be thick enough to be able to
withstand buckling and prevent damage to the material when welding.
4. OSHA code 1910.23(d)(8) ; The minimum size (cross-section) of grab bars is the same
size as the rungs of the ladder. (1910.23 - Ladders. | Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, n.d.)

To fulfill the requirements of the following requirements. The

following dimensions have been chosen. A diameter of 40mm
is and a material thickness of 5 mm is chosen. The diameter is
large enough for it to be safe to be held by the user while the
material is thick enough to be safely welded.

With the following dimensions, the cross section of the beam

2
and steps has a cross sectional area of 7 𝑐𝑚 .

When the following dimensions for the ladder with a material

Stainless Steel 304 ASTM A240 is put into the factor of safety formula with a force of 1962 N
on the steps and 981 N on the beams, a factor of safety of 73 for the step and 146 for the beam is
calculated.

9
3.5 Dimensions of the ladder

There are several factors to consider when designing the dimensions of the ladder. This include
the objectives of the assignment and OSHA standards that include the following ;

1. The ladder is a straight ladder which has a maximum height of 2 meters and 8 steps
2. OSHA standard 1910.23(b)(2) ; Ladder rungs, steps, and cleats are spaced not less than
10 inches (25 cm) and not more than 14 inches (36 cm) apart, as measured between the
centerlines of the rings, cleats, and steps.
3. OSHA standard 1910.23(e)(1)(i) ; Mobile ladder stands and platforms have a step width
of at least 16 inches (41 cm).
4. OSHA standard 1910.23(e)(2)(i) ; Steps are uniformly spaced and arranged, with a rise of
not more than 10 inches (25 cm) and a depth of not less than 7 inches (18 cm). The slope
of the step stringer to which the steps are attached must not be more than 60 degrees,
measured from the horizontal;

With all of these factors taken into account, the following dimensions are implemented. Each
step has a width of 420mm. The distance between each step from its centre is 260mm. The
distance between the first step centre and the base is 90mm. The total height of the ladder is 2m.

Figure 3.3 : Dimensions of the ladder

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3.6 Buckling of the beams

Buckling is when the object suddenly fails due to excessive

compressive load. It is known as Fcrit. The cross section of
the beam was a hollow square, which means that the area
moment of inertia at the x-axis is similar to that of the
y-axis.
Area Moment of Inertia, I, is needed in order to find Fcrit.
Below is the calculation to find the Area Moment of
Inertia, I. Figure 3.6.1: Dimension of beam

3 3
𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 12
(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒) − 12
(𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒)
3 3
0.04×0.04 0.035×0.035
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 12
(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒) − 12
(𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒)
−7 −7
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 2. 133 × 10 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒) − 1. 25 × 10 (𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒)
−8 4
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 8. 825 × 10 𝑚
−8 4
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 8. 825 × 10 𝑚

Euler’s buckling formula is to be used in this calculation to find the Fcrit. We already know the
Area Moment of Inertia, I, Modulus of Elasticity, E, from the selected material. The only thing
left to find is the effective length, Lc. It can be calculate using:

𝐿𝑐 = 𝐾(𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) × 𝐿(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛)

The value of K can be obtained by identifying the ladder boundary conditions. The ladder
boundary condition is free-free. Therefore its K value was 1.2 as shown in figure 3.6.2. The
ladder was considered free-free because its degree of freedom for its directions and rotations are

11
free in both top and bottom. In Table 3.6.3, the U is a direction, UR is rotations. - is free, 0 is
restricted)

Boundary condition K - Value

Fixed - Fixed 0.65

Fixed - Free 2.1

Fixed - Pinned 0.8

Fixed - Guided 1.2

Free - Free 1.2

Guided - Guided 1.2

Pinned - Pinned 1.0

Pinned - Free 1.2

Guided - Free 2.1

Guided - Pinned 2.0

Figure 3.6.2 : Effective length factor

Condition U1 U2 U3 UR1 UR2 UR3

free - - - - - -

Fixed 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pinned 0 0 0 - - -

Guided - - - 0 0 0
Table 3.6.3

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Finally, the Fcrit can be calculated by using the Euler’s Column Buckling as shown below:
2
π 𝐸𝐼
𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 2
𝐿𝑐

2 9 −9
π (193.05×10 )(8.825×10 )
𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 2
2.4

𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =29.19kN

The load on the beam is 981N which is below 29.19kN. It can be sure that there is no buckle act
on the beam.

3.7 Deflection of the Steps

The step type is a simply supported beam with a load type

of midspan load (refer figure 3.7.2). The cross section of
the steps is the same as the beam. So, Area moment of
Inertia can be taken from the beam Area moment of inertia.
All the data needed to calculate maximum deflection is
obtained, the calculation is shown below:

Figure 3.7.1: The force acting at

steps

3
𝑃𝐿
δ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 48𝐸𝐼

3
1962×0.42
δ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9 −9
48(193.05×10 )(8.825×10 )

−4
δ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9. 35 × 10 𝑚 ≈ 0. 2𝑚𝑚

From the result obtained from the formula above, a deflection of 0.2mm occurred when the 1962
N load acted toward the steps. 0.2mm deflection is so small that it can be ignored which means
that 1962N of load would not bend or deflect the steps.

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 Figure 3.7.2 : List of formula for maximum deflection

3.8 Welding

Finding the area is the first step in solving the welding strength problem. Using the appropriate
formula, we can weld the desired area. As you can see, we fillet weld to join metal pieces
together. We will weld the step's top and bottom portions with buckling next to them. A
represents the entire throat area.

Area, A= 1.414hd
A= 1.414(0.0095)(0.04)
−4 2
A= 5.3732 x 10 𝑚

14
We will calculate primary shear from the following calculation using the general formula. The V
symbol in a formula denotes the force acting on a stair step, while the A symbol represents the
value we previously counted.

Primary Shear, τ’= V/A

−4
I’= 1962/5.3732 x 10
I’= 3.6515 MPa

The moment M induces a horizontal shear stress component in the welds. Treating

the two welds of Figure 9–17b as lines we find the unit second moment of area to be

Unit second moment of area, Iu=d^3/6

3
Iu=((0. 04 )/6
−5 3
Iu=1.067 x 10 𝑚

Next, The second moment of area I, based on weld throat area, is

Second moment of area, I = 0.707hIu

−5
I = 0.707(0.0095)(1.067 x 10 )
−8 4
I = 7.1665 x 10 𝑚

Next, we must determine the moment value. By using the formula, the moment value will be
created by multiplying the force on each step by the half of the stairway it is also known as the
location of G.

Moment, M = (1962 x 0.25)

= 490.5 Nm

15
After that, we will continue to calculate the nominal throat shear stress is now found to be:

Secondary Shear, τ” = Mc/I = 1.414M/bdh

I” = 1.414(490.5)/(0.2)(0.04)(0.0095)
I” = 9.1259 MPa

Furthermore, the vector needs to be fine-tuned so that the vertical (primary) and horizontal
(secondary) shears of Equation are combined as vectors to give:

Shear Magnitude, τ = (τ’^2+τ”^2)^(½)

(1/2)
6 2 2
τ = ((3. 6515 𝑥 10 ) + (9. 1259 𝑥 10) ))
τ = 48.31 MPa

The safety value factor based on a minimum strength and the distortion-energy criterion comes
last. We will insert the yield-strength value from Table 9-3 into our calculation using the (E60xx)
electrode.

n = (0.577(345)/48.31)
n = 4.12

Remark: Factor of safety is 4.12 > 3.0 satisfactory as to the attachment strength.

16
17
Figure 3.8.1 : Bending Properties of Fillet Welds

Figure 3.8.2 : Minimum Weld-Metal Properties

18
6.0 SKETCH OF DESIGN (WITH DIMENSIONS)

Figure 6.1 : Front view of the ladder

Figure 6.2 : Side view of the ladder

Figure 6.3 : Top view of the ladder

Figure 6.4 : Cross section of the steps and
beam

19
7.0 . CONCLUSION - OVERALL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

The ratio of the maximum load that a beam or step can safely support to the unnecessary load or
stress that can be sustained during normal operation is known as the factor of safety. due to the
chance that the ladder's failure could result in falls or accidents. Our calculations result in a
factor of safety for the beam and step that is greater than 2. Thus, we can draw the conclusion
that under normal operating conditions, this ladder can withstand the maximum load or stress.
We can make sure that the ladder is able to withstand unexpected loads, changes in user weight,
forces, and other potential stressors by applying a higher factor of safety. This is done to give a
wide margin of safety, lower the possibility of failure, and increase user safety.

To ensure the integrity and strength of the welded connections within the structure, we are able
to archive a very strong and reliable weld joint for the ladder's weldability. We have proven that
by achieving the factor of safety around 4.12 which is four times better than standard ladder. In
addition, consider the ergonomics of ladder design. In order to improve both human welfare and
the safety of the ladder, we were able to pinpoint the precise material to be used in its design,
stainless steel 304 ASTM A240. To ensure the user's comfort, the ladder's dimensions were
sketched out to include a step spacing of 260 mm between steps and a handle spacing of 420
mm.We designed the ladder's structure, including the size of the steps, using stainless steel 304
ASTM A240 as our material in order to increase both human welfare and the ladder's safety. It is
because we want to minimise the risk of injury from the structural design while also making the
user comfortable.

The safety component is given more weight than other considerations in order to ensure
structural integrity and safety. In order to ensure strong weld connections and offer a
user-friendly and secure environment, weldability and ergonomics are two distinct factors that
should be taken into account during the planning stage.

20
8.0 STANDARD/CODE/REGULATION OR OTHER REFERENCES

New rules for fixed ladders. (n.d.). Workplace Access & Safety.

https://www.workplaceaccess.com.au/new-rules-for-fixed-ladders/

1910.21 - Scope and definitions. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

(n.d.). OSHA.

https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.21

1910.23 - Ladders. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). OSHA.

https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.23

1910.29 - Fall protection systems and falling object protection - criteria and practices.

| Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). OSHA.

https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.29

OSHA Ladder Requirements & Safety. (2021, 8 6). Grainger. Retrieved June 8, 2023,

from

https://www.grainger.com/know-how/safety/working-at-heights/ladders-scaffold

ing/kh-are-your-ladders-code-osha-ladder-requirements

Swanson, & Alambra. (2023, June 5). Beam Deflection Calculator. Omni Calculator. Retrieved

June 9, 2023, from https://www.omnicalculator.com/construction/beam-deflection

Dhari. (2023, June 5). Buckling Calculator — Column Buckling. Omni Calculator. Retrieved June

9, 2023, from https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/buckling

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