CHAPTER 1: Understanding Ecosystems, the Science of
Ecology and Evolution
Ecosystem- community of living
organisms in conjunction with the nonliving
components of their environment, interacting
as a system.
- contains biotic or living parts, as well as abiotic
factors, or nonliving parts.
Structure of an ecosystem
-organization of both biotic and abiotic components. This
includes the distribution of energy in our environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main
components:
• Biotic Components • Abiotic Components
Ecosystem
Biotic Factors- PRODUCERS (PRIMARY HERBIVORES)
CONSUMERS (SECONDARY PRI. CARNIVORES)
DECOMPOSERS (TERTIARY SEC. CARNIVORES)
and Abiotic Factors
Ecology- interactions between organisms and their physical
and biotic environment. Individual organisms live together
in an ecosystem and depend on one another.
One category of interactions describes the different ways
organisms obtain their food and energy.
Consumer, or a Heterotroph- organism that must obtain
their nutrients by eating (consuming) other organisms
Carnivores and Herbivores- meat eaters and plant eaters,
respectively.
Omnivores- eat both animals and plants.
Producers or Autotrophs- Organisms that make their own
food by using sunlight or chemical energy to convert simple
inorganic molecules into complex, energy-rich organic
molecules like glucose.
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS
BIOTIC- SYMBIOSIS (PARASITISM, MUTUALISM,
COMMENSALISM) COMPETITION, FEEDING
ABIOTIC
Evolution- changes in the genetic material of a population
over time. Evolution reflects the adaptations of organisms
to their changing environments and can result in altered
genes, novel traits, and new species.
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Evolutionary theory- life evolved (and continues to evolve)
randomly, or by chance. Evolution results in progress;
organisms are always getting better by evolving. Individual
organisms can evolve during a single lifespan.
Change- constant and even organisms undergo changes.
Organisms become isolated as a result of environmental
change. The cause of isolation can be gradual, like when
mountains or deserts form, or continents split apart.
Organisms survive even when there are changes in the
environment when the basic needs of the organism to
survive are met: food, water, shelter from the weather
and place to breed its young.
Population- same group or species who live in a particular
geographical area and are capable of interbreeding.
Characteristics of Population
Population size- total number of individuals in a habitat.
Population density- how many individuals reside in a
particular area.
Population Dispersion- yields helpful information about
how species interact with each other. Researchers can learn
more about populations by studying the way they are
distributed or dispersed.
Population distribution- how individuals of a species are
spread out, whether they live in close proximity to each
other or far apart, or clustered into groups.
1.Uniform dispersion- live in a specific territory. One
example would be penguins. Penguins live in territories,
and within those territories the bird’s space themselves out
relatively uniformly.
2.Random dispersion- spread of individuals such as wind-
dispersed seeds, which fall randomly after traveling.
3.Clustered or clumped dispersion- straight drop of seeds
to the ground, rather than being carried, or to groups of
animals living together, such as herds or schools. Schools of
fish exhibit this manner of dispersion.
Levels of Organization
BIOSPHERE, ECOSYSTEM, COMMUNITY, POPULATION
ORGANISMS, ORGAN SYSTEMS, ORGAN TISSUES, CELLS,
MOLECULES, ATOMS
Biological levels of organization of living things arranged
from the simplest to most complex: organelle, cells,
tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations,
communities, ecosystem, and biosphere.
How do cells transfer energy
Cellular respiration- living organisms use to turn food into
the energy they need for survival.
Cellular respiration can be summarized by the equation: Non-renewable resources deplete over time

Organic compounds + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + Sources

energy
Renewable resources include sunlight, water, wind and
FOOD CHAIN- 1 path energy also geothermal sources such as hot springs and fumaroles

FOOD WEB- All possible energy pathflow of energy through Non-renewable energy includes fossil fuels such as coal and
ecosystems, food chains are sometimes drawn as energy petroleum.
pyramids. Each step of the pyramid represents a different
Environmental Impact
trophic level, starting with primary producers at the
bottom. Most renewable resources have low carbon emissions and
carbon footprint

Non-renewable energy has a comparatively higher carbon

footprint and carbon emissions.

Cost

The upfront cost of renewable energy is high, but the

“fuel” is free

Non-renewable energy has a comparatively more

expensive cost – for implementation as well as for “fuel.”

Maintenance Cost
Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources
Very high maintenance cost

Comparatively low
maintenance cost

Area Requirements

Requires a large land/

offshore area, especially
for wind farms and solar
farms

Comparatively lower area requirements

Biogeochemical Cycle

- One of several natural cycles, in which conserved matter

moves through the biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem.

Chemical elements

Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),

phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S). These are the building
Renewable resources- cannot be exhausted even after blocks of life.
continuous utilization
Abiotic components can be subdivided into three
Non-renewable resources- cannot be immediately replaced categories: the hydrosphere (water), the atmosphere (air)
once they are depleted and the lithosphere (rock).
Major differences between Renewable and Non- Biosphere- contains all living organisms.
Renewable Resources.
- Sometimes called the ecosphere

-The sum of all ecosystems.

Depletion
The Water Cycle
Renewable resources cannot be depleted over time

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Biogeochemical cycle of water, or the hydrological cycle-
way that water (Hydrogen Dioxide or H2O) - circulated and
recycled throughout Earth’s systems.
The Carbon Cycle
-Main component of biological compounds, carbon can be
found in all living things, as well as many non-living things
such as minerals, the atmosphere, the oceans and the
interior of the earth.
The Nitrogen Cycle
-Cycle of nitrogen atoms through the living and non-living
systems of Earth.
-Vital for life on Earth. Through the cycle, atmospheric
nitrogen is converted to a form which plants can
incorporate into new proteins.
Nitrogen Fixation
- Process of nitrogen fixation, bacteria turns nitrogen gas
from the atmosphere into ammonia.
Importance of Biogeochemical Cycles
-Variety of biological, geological, and chemical processes.
Many elements cycle through ecosystems, organisms, air,
water, and soil.
-Transport and store these important elements so that they
can be used by living organisms.
-How the planet conserves matter and uses energy. The
cycles move elements through ecosystems, so the
transformation of things can happen.
-They store elements and recycle them.
CHAPTER 2: Ecosystem and Biodiversity
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Aquatic biomes- one finds in water
bodies, such as oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs
- divided into smaller ecosystems:
1a. Pond Ecosystems- comparatively small and mostly
Include many kinds of amphibians and insects.
1b. River Ecosystems- consists of fish along with plants,
amphibians, and insects. One may also find birds that hunt
in and around the water for its food (small fish).
1c. Shallow water Ecosystem- Tiny fishes and corals that
live in shallow waters close to land.
2. Terrestrial biomes- found on land that include forests,
deserts, grasslands, tundras, and coastal regions. There can
be more than one terrestrial biome depending on its
climate.
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2a. Rainforests- Extremely dense because of a variety of
organisms living in a tiny area.
2b. Tundra- simple ecosystem since only a few life forms
can survive this ecosystem; especially because of its harsh
conditions.
2c. Deserts- They are opposite of tundras, yet, the deserts
have extreme conditions. Animals prefer to live in extreme
heat than extreme cold.
2d. Forest- Find more forests than any other ecosystem in
the world such as deciduous and coniferous forests. Forests
can support many life forms and complex ecosystems.
3. Lentic biomes- support both aquatic and terrestrial life
forms such as swamps. The only requirement is that this
kind of ecosystem is the exposure for the photosynthesis
process to happen; since organisms here survive on the
carbohydrates made by photosynthesis
ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS
Living or biotic components- include habitats and niches
occupied by organisms.
Nonliving or abiotic components- include soil, water, light,
inorganic nutrients, and weather.
Habitat - organism's place of residence, where it can be
found.
Niche - role of that organism in the community, factors
limiting its life, and how it acquires food.
Producers- a major niche in all ecosystems are autotrophic,
usually photosynthetic, organisms.
-Terrestrial ecosystems, green plants. Freshwater and
marine ecosystems frequently have algae as the dominant
producers
Consumers- heterotrophic organisms that eat food
produced by another organism.
Herbivores- type of consumer that feeds directly on green
plants (or another type of autotroph). Since herbivores take
their food directly from the producer level, we refer to
them as primary consumers.
Carnivores- feed on other animals (or another type of
consumer) and are secondary or tertiary consumers.
Omnivores- the feeding method used by humans, feed on
both plants and animals.
Decomposers- Organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi that
recycle nutrients from decaying organic material.
-break down detritus, nonliving organic matter, into
inorganic matter. Small soil organisms are critical in helping
bacteria and fungi shred leaf litter and form rich soil.
Energy flows- move through feeding relationships.
Ecological niche-How an organism functions in an
ecosystem. Food webs, food chains, and food pyramids are
three ways of representing energy flow.
Ecosystems- Controlled both by external and internal
factors; they can be both resistant or resilient to
ecosystem disturbances.
External factors- such as climate and the parent material
that forms the soil, control the overall structure of an
ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not
themselves influenced by the ecosystem.
Resource inputs- generally controlled by external
processes,
Availability of these resources within the ecosystem is
controlled by internal factors such as decomposition, root
competition, or shading.\
Equilibrium- Steady state of an ecosystem where all
organisms are in balance with their environment and with
each other.
Resistance- Remain at equilibrium despite disturbances.
Resilience- Speed at which an ecosystem recovers to
equilibrium after being disturbed.
UNDERSTANDING ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS FOR
CONSERVATION OF BIOTA
1. Ecosystems have higher‐order emerging properties that
can affect the conservation of species.
2. Nonlinear, indirect effects of food web interactions
among species can produce counterintuitive changes in
populations.
3. Species differ in their roles and linkages with other
species in the system. These roles are a property of the
system. Such differences in roles influence how we
conserve individual species.
4. Ecosystems operate at a multitude of interacting spatial
and temporal scales, which together structure the system
and affect the dynamics of individual populations.
5. Disturbance- structures an ecosystem, producing both
long‐term slow changes and sudden shifts in ecosystem
dynamics.
6. Ecosystems- multiple states, determined both by
disturbance regimes and biotic interactions.
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Conservation should recognize a possible multiplicity of
natural states while avoiding aberrant (human‐induced)
states.
7. Ecosystem processes are influenced by the composition
of the biota they contain. Disturbances to the biota can
distort processes and functions, which in turn can endanger
individual species.
8. The goal of ecosystem conservation is the long‐term
persistence of the biota in the system. There are two
paradigms: community‐based conservation (CBC) and
protected area conservation. Both have their advantages
but neither is sufficient to protect the biota on its own.
9. CBC- Conserve the majority of the world's biota not
included in protected areas. However, current CBC
methods favor a few idiosyncratic species, distort the
species complex, and ignore the majority. More
comprehensive methods are required for this approach to
meet the goal of ecosystem conservation
10. Protected areas - Essential to conserve species unable
to coexist with humans. They also function as ecological
baselines to monitor the effects of humans on their own
ecosystems.
11. Protected areas suffer from loss of habitat through
attrition of critical areas. Thus, renewal (addition) of habitat
is required in order to achieve the long‐term persistence of
biota in functioning ecosystems. Identification of minimum
habitat areas and restoration of ecosystems become two
major priorities for future research.
BIODIVERSITY AND THE SPECIES CONCEPT
Three kinds of biodiversity
Genetic diversity- Different versions of the same genes
within individual species.
Species diversity- Number of different kinds of organisms
within individual communities or ecosystems.
Ecological diversity- assesses the richness and complexity
of a biological community, including the number of niches,
trophic levels, and ecological processes that capture
energy, sustain food webs, and recycle materials.
The Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity- amount of variety of life on Earth.
-It is the number of different species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms. It includes organisms from Earth’s vastly
different ecosystems, including deserts, rainforests, coral
reefs, grasslands, tundra, and polar ice caps.
Healthy ecosystems and rich biodiversity:
• Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an
ecosystem has a specific niche—a role to play.
• Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a
greater variety of crops.
• Protect freshwater resources.
• Promote soils formation and protection.
• Provide for nutrient storage and recycling.
• Aid in breaking down pollutants.
• Contribute to climate stability.
• Speed recovery from natural disasters.
• Provide more food resources.
• Provide more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical
drugs.
• Offer environments for recreation and tourism.
How do we replace lost biodiversity?
Our environments and the species that live in them need a
diverse population of genes. More genetic defects are
caused by inbreeding. With reduced diversity in the gene
pool, the chance for extinction increases.
All species, including humans, are adversely affected by the
loss of species diversity.
WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY?
Biodiversity is under serious threat as a result of human
activities. The main dangers worldwide are population
growth and resource consumption, climate change and
global warming, habitat conversion and urbanization,
invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural
resources and environmental degradation.
The other threats in our biodiversity are extinction rates
are far higher now than in the past, pollution, human
population growth, and overharvesting are the greatest
threats to biodiversity. Also, islands and specialized habitats
are particularly susceptible to invasive species.
THREATS IN THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Philippines is one of the world's most threatened hotspots,
with only about seven percent of its original, old-growth,
closed-canopy forest left.
1. Extractive industries- Destructive resource use often
results from extractive industries such as mining, logging
and fishing, on commercial and small scales, and from the
road building necessary to develop them. Although these
activities are regulated by the government, implementation
of regulatory safeguards is inconsistent and hampered by
limited resources.
2. Increased population density and urban sprawl-
Population pressure as a threat to biodiversity stems mainly
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from the encroachment into, and exploitation of,
biologically important areas by impoverished people whose
primary concern is survival. Such people often migrate in
substantial numbers between areas and islands, having lost
their lands through such factors as soil erosion and
exhaustion, landslips, and volcanic eruptions.
3. Conflicting policies- Unclear land use policies at the
national level create confusion and conflicts. Overlapping
mandates and jurisdictions occur with respect to the use
and management of forest lands where logging, mining,
plantation, special uses and settlement encroachment are
concerned.
CHAPTER 3: Population Growth in Organisms and Humans
Population ecology- How populations of plants, animals,
and other organisms change over time and space and
interact with their environment.
•Population Size: the number of individuals in the
population.
•Population Density: how many individuals are in a
particular area.
•Population Growth: how the size of the population is
changing over time.
Population Growth- caused exclusively by the operation of
fertility, mortality, and migration. Regarding the population
growth of countries and other national populations, the
effect of migration is normally not as influential as the
effects of fertility and mortality, usually considered to be
the major factors directly causing national population
growth (Hinde 1998).
- change in a population over time, and can be quantified
as the change in the number of individuals of any species in
a population using "per unit time" for measurement.
Natural increase- difference between the numbers of births
and deaths in a population; the rate of natural increase is
the difference between the birthrate and the death rate.
Population “momentum”- An important and often
misunderstood characteristic of human populations is the
tendency of a highly fertile population that has been
increasing rapidly in size to continue to do so for decades
after the onset of even a substantial decline in fertility.
POPULATION COMPOSITION- age, sex, ethnic or racial
category, and residential status (urban or rural).
a. Age distribution- Most fundamental of these
characteristics is the age distribution of a population.
Demographers commonly use population pyramids to
describe both age and sex distributions of populations.
b. Sex- Relative numbers of males and females who
compose it. Generally, slightly more males are born than
females (a typical ratio would be 105 or 106 males for every
100 females).
c. Ethnic or Racial Composition- more or less diverse with
respect to ethnicity or race. (Ethnicity here includes
national, cultural, religious, linguistic, or other attributes
that are perceived as characteristic of distinct groups.) Such
divisions in populations often are regarded as socially
important, and statistics by race and ethnic group are
therefore commonly available.
d. Geographical distribution and urbanization- It goes
without saying that populations are scattered across space.
The typical measure of population in relation to land area
of population density is often a meaningless one, since
different areas vary considerably in their value for
agricultural or other human purposes.
POPULATION GROWTH- Driving forces behind
environmental problems, because the growing population
demands more and more (non-renewable) resources for its
own application.
Little basic math to the equation
-Population growth = birth rates – death rates
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE AND
GROWTH
Factors influencing population growth
Cost of education
Economic growth
Stability of society
Availability of contraception
Social norms
Government policy
Health care standards
Net migration
Cultural attitudes to family size
Female labour market participation
Population growth- Fertility rates (the number of children
per adult) fatality rates. Birth rates and mortality rates are,
in turn, determined by a combination of factors.
Economic growth and economic development - decline in
population growth, but there are no hard and fast rules and
other factors, such as availability of family planning, social
expectations and government intervention can play an
important role.
Factors influencing Population Growth
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•Economic development- Countries who are in the early
stages of economic development tend to have higher rates
of population growth.
•Education- Compulsory until the age of 16. As education
becomes compulsory, children are no longer economic
assets – but economic costs.
•Quality of children- Gary Becker produced a paper in 1973
with H. Gregg Lewis which stated that parents choose the
number of children based on a marginal cost and marginal
benefit analysis.
•Welfare payments/State pensions- Generous state
pension scheme means couples don’t need to have children
to provide an effective retirement support when they are
old.
•Social and cultural factors- India and China (before one
family policy) had strong social attachments to having large
families. In the developed world, smaller families are the
norm.
•Availability of family planning- Increased availability of
contraception can enable women to limit family size closer
to the desired level.
•Female labour market participation- Female education
and social mobility are often lower. In societies where
women gain a better education, there is a greater desire to
put work over starting a family.
•Death rates – Level of medical provision. Often death
rates are reduced before a slowdown in birth rates, causing
a boom in the population size at a certain point in a
country’s economic development.
•Immigration levels- Some countries biggest drivers of
population growth come from net migration. In the UK
from 2000 to 2013, around 50% of net population growth
came from net international migration.
•Historical factors/war- In the post-war period, western
countries saw a ‘boom’ in population, as couples reunited
at the end of the Second World War began having families.
Human Population Growth
-Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to
human population growth. Humans are not unique in their
ability to alter their environment. For example, beaver
dams alter the stream environment where they are built.
Earth’s human population is growing rapidly, to the extent
that some worry about the ability of the earth’s
environment to sustain this population, as long-term
exponential growth carries the potential risks of famine,
disease, and large-scale death.
Impact of Population Growth and Natural Hazards on
Biodiversity
-The growth of the human population has impacted the
planet and affected biodiversity. The need for food, space
and raw materials has resulted in destruction of habitats
and pollution.

-Like all living organisms, humans exploit their surroundings

for resources. Before the beginning of agriculture about
10,000 years ago, small groups of humans wandered across
large areas, hunting and gathering just enough food to stay
alive. Population numbers were kept low because of the
difficulty of finding food.

Ecological footprint- area of the Earth that is needed to

provide the resources a person requires and to remove
their waste products. A person’s ecological footprint is a
measure of their impact on the environment.

- The average ecological footprint of each human is

currently 2.3 hectares of land. This area is bigger
than 3 football pitches.
- According to the World Commission on
Environment and
- Development thereare only 1.7 hectares of
productive land available to every human. This
means many people are not living in a sustainable
way.

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