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The set consisting of all natural numbers that are in A and are in B is the set
f1; 3; 5g;
The set consisting of all natural numbers that are in A or are in B is the set
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 9g; and
The set consisting of all natural numbers that are in A and are not in B is the
set f2; 4; 6g.
These sets are examples of some of the most common set operations, which are
given in the following definitions.
215
216 Chapter 5. Set Theory
A \ B D fx 2 U j x 2 A and x 2 Bg:
The union of A and B, written A [ B and read “A union B,” is the set of all
elements that are in A or in B. That is,
A [ B D fx 2 U j x 2 A or x 2 Bg :
Definition. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U. The set differ-
ence of A and B, or relative complement of B with respect to A, written
A B and read “A minus B” or “the complement of B with respect to A,” is
the set of all elements in A that are not in B. That is,
A B D fx 2 U j x 2 A and x … Bg:
The complement of the set A, written Ac and read “the complement of A,”
is the set of all elements of U that are not in A. That is,
Ac D fx 2 U j x … Ag:
For the rest of this preview activity, the universal set is U D f0; 1; 2; 3; : : : ; 10g,
and we will use the following subsets of U :
1. A [ B 2. Ac 3. B c
We can now use these sets to form even more sets. For example,
4. A [ B c 5. Ac \ B c 6. Ac [ B c 7. .A \ B/c
A B
1 2 3
In Figure 5.1, the elements of A are represented by the points inside the left circle,
and the elements of B are represented by the points inside the right circle. The four
distinct regions in the diagram are numbered for reference purposes only. (The
numbers do not represent elements in a set.) The following table describes the four
regions in the diagram.
We can use these regions to represent other sets. For example, the set A [ B is
represented by regions 1, 2, and 3 or the shaded region in Figure 5.2.
218 Chapter 5. Set Theory
A B
1 2 3
Let A and B be subsets of a universal set U . For each of the following, draw a
Venn diagram for two sets and shade the region that represent the specified set. In
addition, describe the set using set builder notation.
1. Ac 3. Ac [ B 5. .A \ B/c
2. B c 4. Ac [ B c 6. .A [ B/ .A \ B/
In Section 2.3, we introduced some basic definitions used in set theory, what it
means to say that two sets are equal and what it means to say that one set is a
subset of another set. See the definitions on page 55. We need one more definition.
Definition. Let A and B be two sets contained in some universal set U . The
set A is a proper subset of B provided that A B and A ¤ B. When A is a
proper subset of B, we write A B.
One reason for the definition of proper subset is that each set is a subset of
itself. That is,
If A is a set, then A A.
However, this statement must be false since there does not exist an x in ;. Since
this is false, we must conclude that ; B. Although the facts that ; B and
B B may not seem very important, we will use these facts later, and hence we
summarize them in Theorem 5.1.
In Section 2.3, we also defined two sets to be equal when they have precisely
the same elements. For example,
x 2 R j x 2 D 4 D f 2; 2g:
˚
If the two sets A and B are equal, then it must be true that every element of A is
an element of B, that is, A B, and it must be true that every element of B is
220 Chapter 5. Set Theory
C D x 2 U j x2 2 :
˚
A D f1; 2; 4g; B D f1; 2; 3; 5g;
In each of the following, fill in the blank with one or more of the symbols ;
; D; ¤; 2; or … so that the resulting statement is true. For each blank, include
all symbols that result in a true statement. If none of these symbols makes a true
statement, write nothing in the blank.
A B ; A
5 B f5g B
A C f1; 2g C
f1; 2g A f4; 2; 1g A
6 A B ;
A B
2
1 3
5
4 6
C
7
8
B C
any relationship between the set C and the sets A and B, we could use the Venn
diagram shown in Figure 5.4.
1. For each of the following, draw a Venn diagram for three sets and shade the
region(s) that represent the specified set.
P.A/ D fX U j X Ag :
When dealing with the power set of A, we must always remember that ; A
and A A. For example, if A D fa; bg, then the subsets of A are
;; fag; fbg; fa; bg ; fcg; fa; cg; fb; cg; fa; b; cg; (3)
5.1. Sets and Operations on Sets 223
P.B/ D f;; fag; fbg; fa; bg; fcg; fa; cg; fb; cg; fa; b; cgg:
Also, notice that A has two elements and A has four subsets, and B has three ele-
ments and B has eight subsets. Now, let n be a nonnegative integer. The following
result can be proved using mathematical induction. (See Exercise 17.)
Theorem 5.5. Let n be a nonnegative integer and let T be a subset of some uni-
versal set. If the set T has n elements, then the set T has 2n subsets. That is, P.T /
has 2n elements.
In our discussion of the power set, we were concerned with the number of ele-
ments in a set. In fact, the number of elements in a finite set is a distinguishing
characteristic of the set, so we give it the following name.
For example, card .;/ D 0; card .fa; bg/ D 2; card .P.fa; bg// D 4.
We can use set notation to specify and help describe our standard number systems.
The starting point is the set of natural numbers, for which we use the roster
method.
N D f1; 2; 3; 4; : : : g
224 Chapter 5. Set Theory
The integers consist of the natural numbers, the negatives of the natural numbers,
and zero. If we let N D f: : : ; 4; 3; 2; 1g, then we can use set union and
write
Z D N [ f0g [ N:
So we see that N Z, and in fact, N Z.
We need to use set builder notation for the set Q of all rational numbers,
which consists of quotients of integers.
n mˇ o
QD ˇ m; n 2 Z and n ¤ 0
ˇ
n
n
Since any integer n can be written as n D , we see that Z Q.
1
We do not yet have the tools to give a complete description of the real numbers.
We will simply say that the real numbers consist of the rational numbers and the
irrational numbers. In effect, the irrational numbers are the complement of the
set of rational numbers Q in R. So we can use the notation Qc D fx 2 R j x … Qg
and write
R D Q [ Qc and Q \ Qc D ;:
A number system that we have not yet discussed is the set of complex numbers.
The complex
p numbers, C, consist of all numbers of the form aCbi , where a; b 2 R
and i D 2
1 (or i D 1). That is,
n ˇ p o
C D a C bi ˇ a; b 2 R and i D 1 :
ˇ
B D x 2 Z j x2 9 ;
˚
A D f 3; 2; 2; 3g;
C D f x 2 Zj x 3g; D D f1; 2; 3; 4g:
In each of the following, fill in the blank with one or more of the symbols ,
, 6, D , ¤, 2, or … so that the resulting statement is true. For each blank,
include all symbols that result in a true statement. If none of these symbols
makes a true statement, write nothing in the blank.
A B ; A
5 C f5g C
A C f1; 2g B
f1; 2g A f3; 2; 1g D
4 B D ;
card .A/ card .D/ card .A/ card .B/
A P.A/ A P.B/
?
4. Write all of the proper subset relations that are possible using the sets of
numbers N, Z, Q, and R.
?
5. For each statement, write a brief, clear explanation of why the statement is
true or why it is false.
6. Use the definitions of set intersection, set union, and set difference to write
useful negations of these definitions. That is, complete each of the following
sentences
?
(a) x … A \ B if and only if : : : :
(b) x … A [ B if and only if : : : :
(c) x … A B if and only if : : : :
?
7. Let U D f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10g, and let
Use the roster method to list all of the elements of each of the following sets.
(a) A \ B (h) .A \ C / [ .B \ C /
(b) A [ B (i) B \ D
(c) .A [ B/c (j) .B \ D/c
(d) Ac \ B c (k) A D
(e) .A [ B/ \ C (l) B D
(f) A \ C (m) .A D/ [ .B D/
(g) B \ C (n) .A [ B/ D
A D fx 2 N j x 7g; B D fx 2 N j x is oddg;
C D fx 2 N j x is a multiple of 3g; D D fx 2 N j x is eveng:
Use the roster method to list all of the elements of each of the following sets.
(a) A \ B (g) B \ D
(b) A [ B (h) .B \ D/c
(c) .A [ B/c (i) A D
(d) Ac \ B c (j) B D
(e) .A [ B/ \ C (k) .A D/ [ .B D/
(f) .A \ C / [ .B \ C / (l) .A [ B/ D
5.1. Sets and Operations on Sets 227
11. Let A, B, and C be subsets of some universal set U . Draw a Venn diagram
for each of the following situations.
(a) A C
(b) A \ B D ;
(c) A 6 B; B 6 A; C A; and C 6 B
(d) A B; C B; and A \ C D ;
12. Let A, B, and C be subsets of some universal set U . For each of the fol-
lowing, draw a general Venn diagram for the three sets and then shade the
indicated region.
(a) A \ B (d) B [ C
(b) A \ C (e) A \ .B [ C /
(c) .A \ B/ [ .A \ C / (f) .A \ B/ C
13. We can extend the idea of consecutive integers (See Exercise (10) in Sec-
tion 3.5) to represent four consecutive integers as m, m C 1, m C 2, and
m C 3, where m is an integer. There are other ways to represent four con-
secutive integers. For example, if k 2 Z, then k 1, k, k C 1, and k C 2 are
four consecutive integers.
(a) Prove that for each n 2 Z, n is the sum of four consecutive integers if
and only if n 2 .mod 4/.
228 Chapter 5. Set Theory
(b) Use set builder notation or the roster method to specify the set of inte-
gers that are the sum of four consecutive integers.
(c) Specify the set of all natural numbers that can be written as the sum of
four consecutive natural numbers.
(d) Prove that for each n 2 Z, n is the sum of eight consecutive integers if
and only if n 4 .mod 8/.
(e) Use set builder notation or the roster method to specify the set of inte-
gers that are the sum of eight consecutive integers.
(f) Specify the set of all natural numbers can be written as the sum of eight
consecutive natural numbers.
14. One of the properties of real numbers is the so-called Law of Trichotomy,
which states that if a; b 2 R, then exactly one of the following is true:
a < b; a D b; a > b.
A B; A D B; B A.
16. More Work with Intervals. For this exercise, use the interval notation de-
scribed in Exercise 15.
(d) Explain why the intersection of Œa; b and Œc; C1/ is either a closed
interval, a set with one element, or the empty set.
(e) Explain why the union of Œa; b and Œc; C1/ is either a closed ray or
the union of a closed interval and a closed ray.
17. Proof of Theorem 5.5. To help with the proof by induction of Theorem 5.5,
we first prove the following lemma. (The idea for the proof of this lemma
was illustrated with the discussion of power set after the definition on page 222.)
Proof. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set, and assume that A D
B [ fxg where x … B. Let Y be a subset of A. We need to show that Y is a
subset of B or that Y D C [ fxg, where C is some subset of B. There are
two cases to consider: (1) x is not an element of Y, and (2) x is an element
of Y.
A D B [ fxg;
230 Chapter 5. Set Theory
To begin the induction proof of Theorem 5.5, for each nonnegative integer
n, we let P .n/ be, “If a finite set has exactly n elements, then that set has
exactly 2n subsets.”
(a) Verify that P .0/ is true. (This is the basis step for the induction proof.)
(b) Verify that P .1/ and P .2/ are true.
(c) Now assume that k is a nonnegative integer and assume that P .k/ is
true. That is, assume that if a set has k elements, then that set has 2k
subsets. (This is the inductive assumption for the induction proof.)
Let T be a subset of the universal set with card .T / D k C 1, and let
x 2 T . Then the set B D T fxg has k elements.
Now use the inductive assumption to determine how many subsets B
has. Then use Lemma 5.6 to prove that T has twice as many subsets
as B. This should help complete the inductive step for the induction
proof.
1. List at least four different positive elements of S and at least four different
negative elements of S . Are all of these integers even?
2. Use the roster method to specify the sets S and T . (See Section 2.3 for
a review of the roster method.) Does there appear to be any relationship
between these two sets? That is, does it appear that the sets are equal or that
one set is a subset of the other set?
5.2. Proving Set Relationships 231
3. Use set builder notation to specify the sets S and T . (See Section 2.3 for a
review of the set builder notation.)
Q2 x is an element of T . x is even
Q1 .8x 2 Z/ Œ.x 2 S / ! .x 2 T / Step P1 and Step Q2
Q S T. Definition of “subset”
Step Show Reason
1. Draw a Venn diagram for two sets, A and B, with the assumption that A is
a subset of B. On this Venn diagram, lightly shade the area corresponding
to Ac . Then, determine the region on the Venn diagram that corresponds to
B c . What appears to be the relationship between Ac and B c ? Explain.
2. Draw a general Venn diagram for two sets, A and B. First determine the
region that corresponds to the set A B and then, on the Venn diagram, shade
the region corresponding to A .A B/ and shade the region corresponding
to A \ B. What appears to be the relationship between these two sets?
Explain.
In this section, we will learn how to prove certain relationships about sets. Two
of the most basic types of relationships between sets are the equality relation and
the subset relation. So if we are asked a question of the form, “How are the sets A
and B related?”, we can answer the question if we can prove that the two sets are
equal or that one set is a subset of the other set. There are other ways to answer this,
but we will concentrate on these two for now. This is similar to asking a question
about how two real numbers are related. Two real numbers can be related by the
fact that they are equal or by the fact that one number is less than the other number.
The method of proof we will use in this section can be called the choose-an-
element method. This method was introduced in Preview Activity 1. This method
is frequently used when we encounter a universal quantifier in a statement in the
backward process. This statement often has the form
Since most statements with a universal quantifier can be expressed in the form of a
conditional statement, this statement could have the following equivalent form:
We will illustrate this with the proposition from Preview Activity 1. This proposi-
tion can be stated as follows:
5.2. Proving Set Relationships 233
Let S be the set of all integers that are multiples of 6, and let T be the set of
all even integers. Then S is a subset of T.
In this case, the “element” is an integer, the “given property” is that it is an ele-
ment of S , and the “something that happens” is that the element is also an element
of T . One way to approach this is to create a list of all elements with the given
property and verify that for each one, the “something happens.” When the list is
short, this may be a reasonable approach. However, as in this case, when the list is
infinite (or even just plain long), this approach is not practical.
We overcome this difficulty by using the choose-an-element method, where
we choose an arbitrary element with the given property. So in this case, we choose
an integer x that is a multiple of 6. We cannot use a specific multiple of 6 (such as
12 or 24), but rather the only thing we can assume is that the integer satisfies the
property that it is a multiple of 6. This is the key part of this method.
It is important to realize that once we have chosen the arbitrary element, we have
added information to the forward process. So in the know-show table for this
proposition, we added the statement, “Let x 2 S ” to the forward process. Follow-
ing is a completed proof of this proposition following the outline of the know-show
table from Preview Activity 1.
Proposition 5.7. Let S be the set of all integers that are multiples of 6, and let T be
the set of all even integers. Then S is a subset of T.
Proof. Let S be the set of all integers that are multiples of 6, and let T be the set
of all even integers. We will show that S is a subset of T by showing that if an
integer x is an element of S , then it is also an element of T .
Let x 2 S . (Note: The use of the word “let” is often an indication that the we
are choosing an arbitrary element.) This means that x is a multiple of 6. Therefore,
234 Chapter 5. Set Theory
x D 6m:
x D 2.3m/:
2. Complete the following know-show table for this proposition and explain
exactly where the choose-an-element method is used.
One way to prove that two sets are equal is to use Theorem 5.2 and prove each of
the two sets is a subset of the other set. In particular, let A and B be subsets of some
universal set. Theorem 5.2 states that A D B if and only if A B and B A.
In Preview Activity 2, we created a Venn diagram that indicated that
A .A B/ D A \ B. Following is a proof of this result. Notice where the
choose-an-element method is used in each case.
Proposition 5.11. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set. Then
A .A B/ D A \ B.
Proof. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set. We will prove that
A .A B/ D A \ B by proving that A .A B/ A \ B and that
A \ B A .A B/.
First, let x 2 A .A B/. This means that
x 2 A and x … .A B/:
x 2 A and x 2 B:
y 2 A and y 2 B:
Disjoint Sets
Earlier in this section, we discussed the concept of set equality and the relation
of one set being a subset of another set. There are other possible relationships
between two sets; one is that the sets are disjoint. Basically, two sets are disjoint if
and only if they have nothing in common. We express this formally in the following
definition.
Definition. Let A and B be subsets of the universal set U . The sets A and B
are said to be disjoint provided that A \ B D ;.
For example, the Venn diagram in Figure 5.5 shows two sets A and B with
A B. The shaded region is the region that represents B c . From the Venn
diagram, it appears that A \ B c D ;. This means that A and B c are disjoint. The
preceding example suggests that the following proposition is true:
If A B, then A \ B c D ;.
B
A
This question seems difficult to answer since how do we prove that a set is
empty? This is an instance where proving the contrapositive or using a proof by
contradiction could be reasonable approaches. To illustrate these methods, let us
assume the proposition we are trying to prove is of the following form:
If P , then T D ;.
One advantage of these methods is that when we assume that T ¤ ;, then we know
that there exists an element in the set T . We can then use that element in the rest of
the proof. We will prove one of the conditional statements for Proposition 5.14 by
proving its contrapositive. The proof of the other conditional statement associated
with Proposition 5.14 is Exercise (10).
Proof. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set. We will first prove that if
A B, then A \ B c D ;, by proving its contrapositive. That is, we will prove
238 Chapter 5. Set Theory
If A \ B c ¤ ;, then A 6 B.
x 2 A and x … B:
A Final Comment
(a) List at least five different elements of the set A and at least five elements
of the set B.
(b) Is A B? Justify your conclusion with a proof or a counterexample.
(c) Is B A? Justify your conclusion with a proof or a counterexample.
(a) List at least five different elements of the set C and at least five ele-
ments of the set D.
(b) Is C D? Justify your conclusion with a proof or a counterexample.
(c) Is D C ? Justify your conclusion with a proof or a counterexample.
The product of two real numbers is positive if and only if the two real
numbers are either both positive or both negative.
The product of two real numbers is negative if and only if one of the
two numbers is positive and the other is negative.
For example, if x .x 2/ < 0, then we can conclude that either (1) x < 0
and x 2 > 0 or (2) x > 0 and x 2 < 0. However, in the first case, we
must have x < 0 and x > 2, and this is impossible. Therefore, we conclude
that x > 0 and x 2 < 0, which means that 0 < x < 2.
Use the choose-an-element method to prove each of the following:
(c) x 2 R j x 2 4 D fx 2 R j x 2g [ fx 2 R j x 2g
˚
7. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . Prove each of the following:
? ?
(a) A \ B A (c) A \ A D A (e) A \ ; D ;
?
(b) A A [ B (d) A [ A D A (f) A [ ; D A
11. Let A, B, C , and D be subsets of some universal set U . Are the following
propositions true or false? Justify your conclusions.
5.2. Proving Set Relationships 241
(a) If A \ C B \ C , then A B.
(b) If A [ C B [ C , then A B.
(c) If A [ C D B [ C , then A D B.
(d) If A \ C D B \ C , then A D B.
(e) If A [ C D B [ C and A \ C D B \ C , then A D B.
i. x D 1; y D 1 iv. x D 2; y D 3
ii. x D 1; y D 1 v. x D 2; y D 3
iii. x D 2; y D 2 vi. x D 2; y D 5
The “elements” in this sentence are the integers x and y. In this case, these
integers have no “given property” other than that they are integers. The
“something that happens” is that t divides .ax C by/. This means that in the
forward process, we can use the hypothesis of the proposition and choose
integers x and y. That is, in the forward process, we could have
P : a, b, and t are integers with t ¤ 0, t divides a and t divides b.
1. Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A and B. On one, shade the
region that represents .A [ B/c , and on the other, shade the region that rep-
resents Ac \ B c . Explain carefully how you determined these regions.
2. Based on the Venn diagrams in Part (1), what appears to be the relationship
between the sets .A [ B/c and Ac \ B c ?
Some of the properties of set operations are closely related to some of the logical
operators we studied in Section 2.1. This is due to the fact that set intersection is
defined using a conjunction (and), and set union is defined using a disjunction (or).
For example, if A and B are subsets of some universal set U , then an element x is
in A [ B if and only if x 2 A or x 2 B.
3. Use one of De Morgan’s Laws (Theorem 2.8 on page 48) to explain carefully
what it means to say that an element x is not in A [ B.
6. Compare your response in Part (3) to your response in Part (5). Are they
equivalent? Explain.
7. How do you think the sets .A [ B/c and Ac \ B c are related? Is this con-
sistent with the Venn diagrams from Part (1)?
5.3. Properties of Set Operations 245
2. Assume that P , Q, and R are statements and that we have proven that the
following conditional statements are true:
This section contains many results concerning the properties of the set operations.
We have already proved some of the results. Others will be proved in this section or
in the exercises. The primary purpose of this section is to have in one place many
of the properties of set operations that we may use in later proofs. These results
are part of what is known as the algebra of sets or as set theory.
A \ B A and A A [ B.
If A B, then A \ C B \ C and A [ C B [ C .
Proof. The first part of this theorem was included in Exercise (7) from Section 5.2.
The second part of the theorem was Exercise (12) from Section 5.2.
The next theorem provides many of the properties of set operations dealing
with intersection and union. Many of these results may be intuitively obvious, but
to be complete in the development of set theory, we should prove all of them. We
choose to prove only some of them and leave some as exercises.
246 Chapter 5. Set Theory
Before proving some of these properties, we note that in Section 5.2, we learned
that we can prove that two sets are equal by proving that each one is a subset of the
other one. However, we also know that if S and T are both subsets of a universal
set U , then
S D T if and only if for each x 2 U , x 2 S if and only if x 2 T .
We can use this to prove that two sets are equal by choosing an element from
one set and chasing the element to the other set through a sequence of “if and only
if” statements. We now use this idea to prove one of the commutative laws.
1. Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A, B, and C . On one, shade
the region that represents A [ .B \ C /, and on the other, shade the region
that represents .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /. Explain carefully how you determined
these regions.
2. Based on the Venn diagrams in Part (1), what appears to be the relationship
between the sets A [ .B \ C / and .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /?
We will now prove the distributive law explored in Progress Check 5.19. Notice
that we will prove two subset relations, and that for each subset relation, we will
begin by choosing an arbitrary element from a set. Also notice how nicely a proof
dealing with the union of two sets can be broken into cases.
Proof. Let A, B, and C be subsets of some universal set U . We will prove that
A [ .B \ C / D .A [ B/ \ .A [ C / by proving that each set is a subset of the
other set.
We will first prove that A [ .B \ C / .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /. We let
x 2 A [ .B \ C /. Then x 2 A or x 2 B \ C .
So in one case, if x 2 A, then x 2 A [ B and x 2 A [ C . This means that
x 2 .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /.
On the other hand, if x 2 B \ C , then x 2 B and x 2 C . But x 2 B
implies that x 2 A [ B, and x 2 C implies that x 2 A [ C . Since x is in both
sets, we conclude that x 2 .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /. So in both cases, we see that
x 2 .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /, and this proves that A [ .B \ C / .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /.
The three main set operations are union, intersection, and complementation. The-
orems 5.18 and 5.17 deal with properties of unions and intersections. The next
theorem states some basic properties of complements and the important relations
dealing with complements of unions and complements of intersections. Two rela-
tionships in the next theorem are known as De Morgan’s Laws for sets and are
closely related to De Morgan’s Laws for statements.
Theorem 5.20. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . Then the follow-
ing are true:
Basic Properties .Ac /c D A
A B D A \ Bc
Empty Set and Universal Set A ; D A and A U D ;
;c D U and U c D ;
De Morgan’s Laws .A \ B/c D Ac [ B c
.A [ B/c D Ac \ B c
Subsets and Complements A B if and only if B c Ac
Proof. We will only prove one of De Morgan’s Laws, namely, the one that was
explored in Preview Activity 1. The proofs of the other parts are left as exercises.
Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . We will prove that .A [ B/c D
Ac \ B c by proving that an element is in .A [ B/c if and only if it is in Ac \ B c .
So let x be in the universal set U . Then
and
x … A [ B if and only if x … A and x … B: (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we see that
and this is true if and only if x 2 Ac \ B c . So we can use (3) and (4) to conclude
that
x 2 .A [ B/c if and only if x 2 Ac \ B c ;
and, hence, that .A [ B/c D Ac \ B c .
1. Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A, B, and C . On one, shade the
region that represents .A [ B/ C , and on the other, shade the region that
represents .A C / [ .B C /. Explain carefully how you determined these
regions and why they indicate that .A [ B/ C D .A C / [ .B C /.
It is possible to prove the relationship suggested in Part (1) by proving that each
set is a subset of the other set. However, the results in Theorems 5.18 and 5.20 can
be used to prove other results about set operations. When we do this, we say that
we are using the algebra of sets to prove the result. For example, we can start by
using one of the basic properties in Theorem 5.20 to write
.A [ B/ C D .A [ B/ \ C c :
.A [ B/ C D .A [ B/ \ C c
D C c \ .A [ B/ :
2. Determine which properties from Theorems 5.18 and 5.20 justify each of
the last three steps in the following outline of the proof that .A [ B/ C D
.A C / [ .B C /.
.A [ B/ C D .A [ B/ \ C c (Theorem 5.20)
c
D C \ .A [ B/ (Commutative Property)
D Cc \ A [ Cc \ B
D A \ Cc [ B \ Cc
D .A C / [ .B C/
250 Chapter 5. Set Theory
X \ .Y [ Z/ D .X \ Y / [ .X \ Z/ :
When we have a list of three statements P , Q, and R such that each statement in
the list is equivalent to the other two statements in the list, we say that the three
statements are equivalent. This means that each of the statements in the list implies
each of the other statements in the list.
The purpose of Preview Activity 2 was to provide one way to prove that three
(or more) statements are equivalent. The basic idea is to prove a sequence of con-
ditional statements so that there is an unbroken chain of conditional statements
from each statement to every other statement. This method of proof will be used in
Theorem 5.22.
Theorem 5.22. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . The following
are equivalent:
1. A B 2. A \ B c D ; 3. Ac [ B D U
Proof. To prove that these are equivalent conditions, we will prove that (1) implies
(2), that (2) implies (3), and that (3) implies (1).
Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . We have proved that (1)
implies (2) in Proposition 5.14.
To prove that (2) implies (3), we will assume that A \ B c D ; and use the fact
that ;c D U . We then see that
c
A \ B c D ;c :
Since we have now proved that (1) implies (2), that (2) implies (3), and that (3)
implies (1), we have proved that the three conditions are equivalent.
1. Let A be a subset of some universal set U. Prove each of the following (from
Theorem 5.20):
? (c) Use the algebra of sets to prove the conjecture from Exercise (4a).
(a) Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A, B, and C . On one,
shade the region that represents A .B \ C /, and on the other, shade
the region that represents .A B/ [ .A C /. Based on the Venn
diagrams, make a conjecture about the relationship between the sets
A .B \ C / and .A B/ [ .A C /.
(b) Use the choose-an-element method to prove the conjecture from Exer-
cise (5a).
(c) Use the algebra of sets to prove the conjecture from Exercise (5a).
(a) Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A, B, and C . On one,
shade the region that represents A .B C /, and on the other, shade
the region that represents .A B/ C . Based on the Venn diagrams,
make a conjecture about the relationship between the sets A .B C /
and .A B/ C . (Are the two sets equal? If not, is one of the sets a
subset of the other set?)
(b) Prove the conjecture from Exercise (7a).
(a) Draw two general Venn diagrams for the sets A, B, and C . On one,
shade the region that represents A .B C /, and on the other, shade
the region that represents .A B/ [ .A C c /. Based on the Venn
diagrams, make a conjecture about the relationship between the sets
A .B C / and .A B/ [ .A C c /. (Are the two sets equal? If
not, is one of the sets a subset of the other set?)
(b) Prove the conjecture from Exercise (8a).
11. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U. Prove or disprove each of
the following:
(a) A .A \ B c / D A \ B
(b) .Ac [ B/c \ A D A B
(c) .A [ B/ ADB A
(d) .A [ B/ B DA .A \ B/
Proof.
A .B C / D .A B/ .A C/
c
\ A \ Cc
D A\B
D A \ Bc \ C c
D A \ .B [ C /c
DA .B [ C /
A .B [ C / D A \ B c \ C c :
13. (Comparison to Properties of the Real Numbers). The following are some
of the basic properties of addition and multiplication of real numbers.
1
Multiplicative Inverses: For all a 2 R with a ¤ 0, a a D1D
a 1 a.
Discuss the similarities and differences among the properties of addition and
multiplication of real numbers and the properties of union and intersection
of sets.
is an open sentence with two variables. An element of the truth set of this open
sentence (also called a solution of the equation) is an ordered pair .a; b/ of real
numbers so that when a is substituted for x and b is substituted for y, the open
sentence becomes a true statement (a true equation in this case). For example, we
see that the ordered pair .6; 0/ is in the truth set for this open sentence since
2 6 C 3 0 D 12
is a true statement. On the other hand, the ordered pair .4; 1/ is not in the truth set
for this open sentence since
2 4 C 3 1 D 12
is a false statement.
Important Note: The order of the two numbers in the ordered pair is very impor-
tant. We are using the convention that the first number is to be substituted for x
and the second number is to be substituted for y. With this convention, .3; 2/ is a
solution of the equation 2x C 3y D 12, but .2; 3/ is not a solution of this equation.
1. List six different elements of the truth set (often called the solution set) of
the open sentence with two variables 2x C 3y D 12.
2. From previous mathematics courses, we know that the graph of the equation
2x C 3y D 12 is a straight line. Sketch the graph of the equation 2x C
3y D 12 in the xy-coordinate plane. What does the graph of the equation
2x C 3y D 12 show?
Definition. Let A and B be sets. An ordered pair (with first element from
A and second element from B) is a single pair of objects, denoted by .a; b/,
with a 2 A and b 2 B and an implied order. This means that for two ordered
pairs to be equal, they must contain exactly the same objects in the same order.
That is, if a; c 2 A and b; d 2 B, then
The objects in the ordered pair are called the coordinates of the ordered pair.
In the ordered pair .a; b/, a is the first coordinate and b is the second coor-
dinate.
We will now introduce a new set operation that gives a way of combining el-
ements from two given sets to form ordered pairs. The basic idea is that we will
create a set of ordered pairs.
A B D f.x; y/ j x 2 A and y 2 Bg :
We frequently read A B as “A cross B.” In the case where the two sets are
the same, we will write A2 for A A. That is,
A2 D A A D f.a; b/ j a 2 A and b 2 Ag :
4. Use the roster method to specify all the elements of A B. (Remember that
the elements of A B will be ordered pairs.)
5. Use the roster method to specify all of the elements of the set A A D A2 .
5.4. Cartesian Products 257
6. For any sets C and D, explain carefully what it means to say that the ordered
pair .x; y/ is not in the Cartesian product C D.
Cartesian Products
When working with Cartesian products, it is important to remember that the Carte-
sian product of two sets is itself a set. As a set, it consists of a collection of el-
ements. In this case, the elements of a Cartesian product are ordered pairs. We
should think of an ordered pair as a single object that consists of two other objects
in a specified order. For example,
If a ¤ 1, then the ordered pair .1; a/ is not equal to the ordered pair .a; 1/.
That is, .1; a/ ¤ .a; 1/.
If A D f1; 2; 3g and B D fa; bg, then the ordered pair .3; a/ is an element
of the set A B. That is, .3; a/ 2 A B.
If A D f1; 2; 3g and B D fa; bg, then the ordered pair .5; a/ is not an
element of the set A B since 5 … A. That is, .5; a/ … A B.
In Section 5.3, we studied certain properties of set union, set intersection, and
set complements, which we called the algebra of sets. We will now begin some-
thing similar for Cartesian products. We begin by examining some specific exam-
ples in Progress Check 5.23 and a little later in Progress Check 5.24.
1. Use the roster method to list all of the elements (ordered pairs) in each of the
following sets:
2. List all the relationships between the sets in Part (1) that you observe.
A B D .x; y/ 2 R2 j 1 x 3 and 2 y 5 :
˚
A graph of the set A B can then be drawn in the Cartesian plane as shown in
Figure 5.6.
y
6
1 2 3 4 x
This illustrates that the graph of a Cartesian product of two intervals of finite
length in R corresponds to the interior of a rectangle and possibly some or all of its
5.4. Cartesian Products 259
boundary. The solid line for the boundary in Figure 5.6 indicates that the boundary
is included. In this case, the Cartesian product contained all of the boundary of the
rectangle. When the graph does not contain a portion of the boundary, we usually
draw that portion of the boundary with a dotted line.
Note: A Caution about Notation. The standard notation for an open interval in R
is the same as the notation for an ordered pair, which is an element of R R. We
need to use the context in which the notation is used to determine which interpre-
tation is intended. For example,
p p
If we write 2; 7 2 R R, then we are using 2; 7 to represent an
ordered pair of real numbers.
The following progress check explores some of the same ideas explored in Progress
Check 5.23 except that intervals of real numbers are used for the sets.
1. Draw a graph of each of the following subsets of the Cartesian plane and
write each subset using set builder notation.
(a) A B (f) A .B [ C /
(b) T B (g) .A B/ [ .A C /
(c) A C (h) A .B C/
(d) A .B \ C / (i) .A B/ .A C /
(e) .A B/ \ .A C / (j) B A
2. List all the relationships between the sets in Part (1) that you observe.
One purpose of the work in Progress Checks 5.23 and 5.24 was to indicate the
plausibility of many of the results contained in the next theorem.
260 Chapter 5. Set Theory
1. A .B \ C / D .A B/ \ .A C /
2. A .B [ C / D .A B/ [ .A C /
3. .A \ B/ C D .A C / \ .B C /
4. .A [ B/ C D .A C / [ .B C /
5. A .B C / D .A B/ .A C /
6. .A B/ C D .A C / .B C /
7. If T A, then T B A B.
8. If Y B, then A Y A B.
We will not prove all these results; rather, we will prove Part (2) of Theo-
rem 5.25 and leave some of the rest to the exercises. In constructing these proofs,
we need to keep in mind that Cartesian products are sets, and so we follow many of
the same principles to prove set relationships that were introduced in Sections 5.2
and 5.3.
The other thing to remember is that the elements of a Cartesian product are
ordered pairs. So when we start a proof of a result such as Part (2) of Theorem 5.25,
the primary goal is to prove that the two sets are equal. We will do this by proving
that each one is a subset of the other one. So if we want to prove that A.B [ C /
.A B/[ .A C /, we can start by choosing an arbitrary element of A .B [ C /.
The goal is then to show that this element must be in .A B/[.A C /. When we
start by choosing an arbitrary element of A .B [ C /, we could give that element
a name. For example, we could start by letting
u be an element of A .B [ C /: (1)
u 2 .A B/ or u 2 .A C /: (3)
5.4. Cartesian Products 261
If we look at the sentences in (2) and (4), it would seem that we are very close to
proving that A .B [ C / .A B/ [ .A C /. Following is a proof of Part (2)
of Theorem 5.25.
A .B [ C / D .A B/ [ .A C / :
A .B [ C / .A B/ [ .A C /: (1)
.A B/ [ .A C / A .B [ C /: (2)
Final Note. The definition of an ordered pair in Preview Activity 2 may have
seemed like a lengthy definition, but in some areas of mathematics, an even more
formal and precise definition of “ordered pair” is needed. This definition is ex-
plored in Exercise (10).
(a) A B (e) A .B \ C /
(b) B A (f) .A B/ \ .A C /
(c) A C (g) A ;
2
(d) A (h) B f2g
(a) Explain how this definition allows us to distinguish between the or-
dered pairs .3; 5/ and .5; 3/.
(b) Let A and B be sets and let a; c 2 A and b; d 2 B. Use this definition
of an ordered pair and the concept of set equality to prove that .a; b/ D
.c; d / if and only if a D c and b D d .
A D f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g C D f3; 4; 5; 6; 7g
B D f2; 3; 4; 5; 6g D D f4; 5; 6; 7; 8g.
(a) .A [ B [ C / [ D (e) .A \ B \ C / \ D
(b) A [ .B [ C [ D/ (f) A \ .B \ C \ D/
(c) A [ .B [ C / [ D (g) A \ .B \ C / \ D
(d) .A [ B/ [ .C [ D/ (h) .A \ B/ \ .C \ D/
3. Based on the work in Part (2), does the placement of the parentheses matter
when determining the union (or intersection) of these four sets? Does this
make it possible to define A [ B [ C [ D and A \ B \ C \ D?
We have already seen that the elements of a set may themselves be sets. For
example, the power set of a set T , P.T /, is the set of all subsets of T . The phrase,
“a set of sets” sounds confusing, and so we often use the terms collection and
family when we wish to emphasize that the elements of a given set are themselves
sets. We would then say that the power set of T is the family (or collection) of sets
that are subsets of T .
One of the purposes of the work we have done so far in this activity was to
show that it is possible to define the union and intersection of a family of sets.
5.5. Indexed Families of Sets 265
The intersection of C is defined as the set of all elements that are in all of the
sets in C. That is,
\
X D fx 2 U j x 2 X for all X 2 Cg
X2C
For example, consider the four sets A, B, C , and D used earlier in this activity and
the sets
S D f5; 6; 7; 8; 9g and T D f6; 7; 8; 9; 10g :
4. Explain why
[ \
X DA[B [C [D and X D A \ B \ C \ D;
X2A X2A
S T
and use your work in (1), (2), and (3) to determine X and X.
X2A X2A
S T
5. Use the roster method to specify X and X.
X2B X2B
c
X c. Remember
S T
6. Use the roster method to specify the sets X and
X2A X2A
that the universal set is N.
4
S
So if we have a family of sets C D fC1 ; C2 ; C3 ; C4 g, we use the notation Cj to
j D1
S
mean the same thing as X.
X2C
4
S 4
T
1. Determine Cj and Cj.
j D1 j D1
We can see that with the use of subscripts, we do not even have to define the family
of sets A. We can work with the infinite family of sets
C D fAn j n 2 Ng
and use the subscripts to indicate which sets to use in a union or an intersection.
2. Use the roster method to specify each of the following pairs of sets. The
universal set is N.
6
S 6
T 8
S 8
T
(a) Cj and Cj (c) Cj and Cj
j D1 j D1 j D4 j D4
!c
8 8 4 4
Cjc
S T T S
(b) Cj and Cj (d) Cj and
j D1 j D1 j D1 j D1
One of the purposes of the preview activities was to show that we often encounter
situations in which more than two sets are involved, and it is possible to define the
union and intersection of more than two sets. In Preview Activity 2, we also saw
that it is often convenient to “index” the sets in a family of sets. In particular, if n
is a natural number and A D fA1 ; A2; : : : ; An g is a family of n sets, then the union
Sn
of these n sets, denoted by A1 [ A2 [ [ An or Aj , is defined as
j D1
n
[ ˚
Aj D x 2 U j x 2 Aj ; for some j with 1 j n :
j D1
5.5. Indexed Families of Sets 267
n
\ ˚
Aj D x 2 U j x 2 Aj ; for all j with 1 j n :
j D1
We can also extend this idea to define the union and intersection of a family that
consists of infinitely many sets. So if B D fB1 ; B2 ; : : : ; Bn ; : : : g, then
1
[ ˚
Bj D x 2 U j x 2 Bj ; for some j with j 1 ; and
j D1
1
\ ˚
Bj D x 2 U j x 2 Bj ; for all j with j 1 :
j D1
and
3
S 3
T
Aj D f1; 2; 3; 4; 9g, Aj D f1g.
j D1 j D1
6
T 6
T 1
T
2. Aj 4. Aj 6. Aj
j D1 j D3 j D1
Definition. Let ƒ be a nonempty set and suppose that for each ˛ 2 ƒ, there is
a corresponding set A˛ . The family of sets fA˛ j ˛ 2 ƒg is called an indexed
family of sets indexed by ƒ. Each ˛ 2 ƒ is called an index and ƒ is called
an indexing set.
1. Let ƒ D f1; 2; 3; 4g, and for each n 2 ƒ, let An D f2n C 6; 16 2ng, and
let A D fA1 ; A2; A3 ; A4 g. Determine A1 , A2 , A3 , and A4 .
2. Is the following statement true or false for the indexed family A in (1)?
For all m; n 2 ƒ, if m ¤ n, then Am ¤ An .
We now restate the definitions of the union and intersection of a family of sets
for an indexed family of sets.
The intersection over A is the set of all elements that are in all of the sets A˛
for each ˛ 2 ƒ. That is,
\
A˛ D fx 2 U j for all ˛ 2 ƒ; x 2 A˛ g:
˛2ƒ
5.5. Indexed Families of Sets 269
A˛ D fx 2 R j 1 < x ˛g:
If we let RC be the set of positive real numbers, then we have a family of sets
indexed by RC . We will first determine the union of this family of sets. Notice
that for each ˛ 2 RC , ˛ 2 A˛ , and if y is a real number with 1 < y 0, then
y 2 A˛ . Also notice that if y 2 R and y < 1, then for each ˛ 2 RC , y … A˛ .
With these observations, we conclude that
[
A˛ D . 1; 1/ D fx 2 R j 1 < xg:
˛2RC
Use the results from Example 5.28 to help determine each of the following sets.
For each set, use either interval notation or set builder notation.
!c !c
S T
1. A˛ 3. A˛
˛2RC ˛2RC
Ac˛ Ac˛
T S
2. 4.
˛2RC ˛2RC
270 Chapter 5. Set Theory
In Theorem 5.30, we will prove some properties of set operations for indexed fami-
lies of sets. Some of these properties are direct extensions of corresponding proper-
ties for two sets. For example, we have already proved De Morgan’s Laws for two
sets in Theorem 5.20 on page 248. The work in the preview activities and Progress
Check 5.29 suggests that we should get similar results using set operations with an
indexed family of sets. For example, in Preview Activity 2, we saw that
0 1c
4
\ 4
[
@ Aj A D Ajc :
j D1 j D1
T
1. For each ˇ 2 ƒ, A˛ Aˇ .
˛2ƒ
S
2. For each ˇ 2 ƒ, Aˇ A˛ .
˛2ƒ
c
Ac˛
T S
3. A˛ D
˛2ƒ ˛2ƒ
c
Ac˛
S T
4. A˛ D
˛2ƒ ˛2ƒ
Proof. We will prove Parts (1) and (3). The proofs of Parts (2) and (4) are included
in Exercise (4). So we let ƒ be a nonempty indexing set and let A D fA˛ j ˛ 2 ƒg
be an indexed family of sets. To prove Part (1), we let ˇ 2 ƒ and note that if
T
x 2 A˛ , then x 2 A˛ , for all ˛ 2 ƒ. Since ˇ is one element in ƒ, we may
˛2ƒ
T
conclude that x 2 Aˇ . This proves that A˛ Aˇ .
˛2ƒ
To provePart (3), we will prove that each set
is a subset
of the other set. We
c
T T
first let x 2 A˛ . This means that x … A˛ , and this means that
˛2ƒ ˛2ƒ
5.5. Indexed Families of Sets 271
Hence, x 2 Acˇ , which implies that x 2 Ac˛ . Therefore, we have proved that
S
˛2ƒ
!c
\ [
A˛ Ac˛ : (1)
˛2ƒ ˛2ƒ
Many of the other properties of set operations are also true for indexed families
of sets. Theorem 5.31 states the distributive laws for set operations.
In Section 5.2, we defined two sets A and B to be disjoint provided that A\B D ;.
In a similar manner, if ƒ is a nonempty indexing set and A D fA˛ j ˛ 2 ƒg is
an indexed family of sets, we can say that this indexed family of sets is disjoint
272 Chapter 5. Set Theory
T
provided that A˛ D ;. However, we can use the concept of two disjoint sets
˛2ƒ
to define a somewhat more interesting type of “disjointness” for an indexed family
of sets.
U U
A B1 B4
1
A4
A2 B2 B3
A3
Now let the universal set be R. For each n 2 N, let Cn D .n; 1/, and let
C D fCn j n 2 Ng.
r 2; r 2 .
3. For each positive real number r, define Tr to be the closed interval
That is,
Tr D x 2 R ˇ r 2 x r 2 :
˚ ˇ
?
S S S
(a) Tk (c) Tr (e) Tk
k2ƒ r 2RC k2N
?
T T T
(b) Tk (d) Tr (f) Tk
k2ƒ r 2RC k2N
274 Chapter 5. Set Theory
4. Prove Parts (2) and (4) of Theorem 5.30. Let ƒ be a nonempty indexing set
and let A D fA˛ j ˛ 2 ƒg be an indexed family of sets.
?
S
(a) For each ˇ 2 ƒ, Aˇ A˛ .
˛2ƒ
c
Ac˛
S T
(b) A˛ D
˛2ƒ ˛2ƒ
6. Let ƒ and be nonempty indexing sets. (Note: The letter is˚the uppercase
Greek letter gamma.) Also, let A D fA˛ j ˛ 2 ƒg and B D Bˇ j ˇ 2
be indexed families of sets. Use the distributive laws in Exercise (5) to:
!
S S
(a) Write A˛ \ Bˇ as a union of intersections of two sets.
˛2ƒ ˇ 2
!
T T
(b) Write A˛ [ Bˇ as an intersection of unions of two
˛2ƒ ˇ 2
sets.
?
(a) Prove that if B is a set such that B A˛ for every ˛ 2 ƒ, then
T
B A˛ .
˛2ƒ
(b) Prove that if C is a set such that A˛ C for every ˛ 2 ƒ, then
S
A˛ C .
˛2ƒ
5.5. Indexed Families of Sets 275
9. For each natural number n, let An D fx 2 R j n 1 < x < ng. Prove that
fAn j n 2 N g is a pairwise disjoint family of sets and that
An D R C N .
S
n2N
11. Give an example of an indexed family of sets fAn jn 2 N g such all three of
the following conditions are true:
(i) For each m 2 N, Am .0; 1/;
(ii) For each j; k 2 N, if j ¤ k, then Aj \ Ak ¤ ;; and
T
(iii) Ak D ;.
k2N
13. An Indexed Family of Subsets of the Cartesian Plane. Let R be the set
of nonnegative real numbers, and for each r 2 R , let
Cr D .x; y/ 2 R R j x 2 C y 2 D r 2
˚
Dr D .x; y/ 2 R R j x 2 C y 2 r 2
˚
If r > 0, then the set Cr is the circle of radius r with center at the origin
as shown in Figure 5.8, and the set Dr is the shaded disk (including the
boundary) shown in Figure 5.8.
y y
r r
r r
x x
Cr Dr
S T
(a) Determine Cr and Cr .
r 2R r 2R
S T
(b) Determine Dr and Dr .
r 2R r 2R
S T
(c) Determine Tr and Tr .
r 2R r 2R
(d) Let C D fCr j r 2 R g, D D fDr j r 2 R g, and T D fTr j r 2 R g.
Are any of these indexed families of sets pairwise disjoint? Explain.
Now let I be the closed interval Œ0; 2 and let J be the closed interval Œ1; 2.
S T S T
(e) Determine Cr , Cr , Cr , and Cr .
r 2I r 2I r 2J r 2J
S T S T
(f) Determine Dr , Dr , Dr , and Dr .
r 2I r 2I r 2J r 2J
c c c c
S T S T
(g) Determine Dr , Dr , Dr , and Dr .
r 2I r 2I r 2J r 2J
S T S T
(h) Determine Tr , Tr , Tr , and Tr .
r 2I r 2I r 2J r 2J
(i) Use De Morgan’s Laws to explain the relationship between your an-
swers in Parts (13g) and (13h).
5.6. Chapter 5 Summary 277
Important Definitions
Distributive Laws A \ .B [ C / D .A \ B/ [ .A \ C /
A [ .B \ C / D .A [ B/ \ .A [ C /
Theorem 5.20. Let A and B be subsets of some universal set U . Then the
following are true:
Basic Properties .Ac /c D A
A B D A \ Bc
1. A .B \ C / D .A B/ \ .A C /
2. A .B [ C / D .A B/ [ .A C /
3. .A \ B/ C D .A C / \ .B C /
4. .A [ B/ C D .A C / [ .B C /
5. A .B C / D .A B/ .A C /
6. .A B/ C D .A C / .B C /
7. If T A, then T B A B.
8. If Y B, then A Y A B.
In the forward process of the proof, we then we choose an arbitrary element with
the given property.