Theory of Sets

Definitions:
Set: A collection of objects.
Elements: The objects that belong to the set.
Set Designations (3 types):
Word Descriptions:
The set of even counting numbers less than ten.
Listing method:
{2, 4, 6, 8}
Set Builder Notation:
{x | x is an even counting number less than 10}
 2.1 – Symbols and Terminology
Definitions:
Empty Set: A set that contains no elements. It is
also known as the Null Set. The symbol is 
List all the elements of the following sets.
The set of counting numbers between six and
thirteen.
{7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
{5, 6, 7,…., 13}
{5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}
{x | x is a counting number between 6 and 7}
 Empty set Null set {}
 2.1 – Symbols and Terminology
Symbols:
∈: Used to replace the words “is an element of.”
∉: Used to replace the words “is not an element of.”
True or False:
3 ∈ {1, 2, 5, 9, 13}
0 ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}
5 ∉ {5, 10, 15, 17, 18}
 2.1 – Symbols and Terminology
Sets of Numbers and Cardinality
Cardinal Number or Cardinality:
The number of distinct elements in a set.
Notation
n(A): n of A; represents the cardinal number of a
set.
K = {2, 4, 8, 16} n(K) = 4
∅ n(∅) = 0
R = {1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5} n(R) = 6
P = {∅} n(P) = 1
 2.1 – Symbols and Terminology
Finite and Infinite Sets
Finite set: The number of elements in a set are countable.
Infinite set: The number of elements in a set are not
countable
{2, 4, 8, 16} Countable = Finite set
{1, 2, 3, …} Not countable = Infinite set
 2.1 – Symbols and Terminology
Equality of Sets
Set A is equal to set B if the following conditions are met:
1. Every element of A is an element of B.
2. Every element of B is an element of A.
Are the following sets equal?
{–4, 3, 2, 5} and {–4, 6, 2, 5} Not equal
{3} = {x | x is a counting number between 2 and 5}
Not equal
{11, 12, 13,…} = {x | x is a natural number greater than 10}
Equal
 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Definitions:
Universal set: the set that contains every object of interest
in the universe.
Complement of a Set: A set of objects of the universal set
that are not an element of a set inside the universal set.
Notation: A
Venn Diagram: A rectangle represents the universal set and
circles represent sets of interest within the universal set

A

U
 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Definitions:
Subset of a Set: Set A is a Subset of B if every
element of A is an element of B. Notation: AB
Subset or not?
A={3, 4, 5, 6,}  B={3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
{1, 2, 6}  {2, 4, 6, 8}
{5, 6, 7, 8}  {5, 6, 7, 8}
Note: Every set is a subset of itself. BB
 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Definitions:
Set Equality: Given A and B are sets, then A = B if
AB and BA.
{1, 2, 6} = {1, 2, 6}
{5, 6, 7, 8}  {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Definitions:
Proper Subset of a Set: Set A is a proper subset of
Set B if AB and A  B. Notation AB
What makes the following statements true?
, , or both
{3, 4, 5, 6} both {3, 4, 5, 6, 8}
{1, 2, 6} both {1, 2, 4, 6, 8}
{5, 6, 7, 8}  {5, 6, 7, 8}
The empty set () is a subset and a proper subset of
every set except itself.
 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Number of Subsets
The number of subsets of a set with n elements is:
2n
Number of Proper Subsets
The number of proper subsets of a set with n
elements is: 2n – 1
List the subsets and proper subsets
{1, 2,3,5}
Subsets: {1} {2} {1,2}  22 = 4

Proper subsets: {1} {2}  2^4 – 1= 15

 2.2 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
List the subsets and proper subsets
{a, b, c}
Subsets: {a} {b} {c}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c} 23 = 8
{a, b, c} 
Proper subsets:
{a} {b} {c}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c} 23 – 1 = 7

 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Intersection of Sets: The intersection of sets A and B
is the set of elements common to both A and B.
A  B = {x | x  A and x  B}
{1, 2, 5, 9, 13}  {2, 4, 6, 9}
{2, 9}
{a, c, d, g}  {l, m, n, o}

{4, 6, 7, 19, 23}  {7, 8, 19, 20, 23, 24}
{7, 19, 23}
 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Union of Sets: The union of sets A and B is the set of
all elements belonging to each set.
A  B = {x | x  A or x  B}
{1, 2, 5, 9, 13}  {2, 4, 6, 9}
{1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 13}
{a, c, d, g}  {l, m, n, o}
{a, c, d, g, l, m, n, o}
{4, 6, 7, 19, 23}  {7, 8, 19, 20, 23, 24}
{4, 6, 7, 8, 19, 20, 23, 24}
 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Find each set.
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {2, 4, 6} C = {1, 3, 6, 9}
A B {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}

A  B A = {5, 6, 9} {6}

B  C B = {1, 3, 5, 9)} C = {2, 4, 5}

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9}
B  B 
 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Find each set.
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {2, 4, 6} C = {1, 3, 6, 9}
A = {5, 6, 9} B = {1, 3, 5, 9)} C = {2, 4, 5}
(A  C)  B
A  C {2, 4, 5, 6, 9}

(A  C) B {5, 9}

 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Difference of Sets: The difference of sets A and B is the
set of all elements belonging set A and not to set B.
A – B = {x | x  A and x  B}
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {2, 3, 6} C = {3, 5, 7}
A = {7} B = {1, 4, 5, 7} C = {1, 2, 4, 6}
Find each set.
A– B {1, 4, 5} B–A 
Note: A – B  B – A
(A – B)  C {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, }
 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Ordered Pairs: in the ordered pair (a, b), a is the first
component and b is the second component. In
general, (a, b)  (b, a)
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
(3, 4) = (5 – 2, 1 + 3) True
{3, 4}  {4, 3} False
(4, 7) = (7, 4) False
 2.3 – Set Operations and Cartesian Products
Cartesian Product of Sets: Given sets A and B, the
Cartesian product represents the set of all ordered
pairs from the elements of both sets.
A  B = {(a, b) | a  A and b  B}
Find each set. A = {1, 5, 9} B = {6,7}
A B
{ (1, 6), (1, 7), (5, 6), (5, 7), (9, 6), (9, 7) }
BA
{ (6, 1), (6, 5), (6, 9), (7, 1), (7, 5), (7, 9) }
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shading Venn Diagrams:
A B

A B

A B A B

U U
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shading Venn Diagrams:
A B

A B

A B A B

U U
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shading Venn Diagrams:
A  B

A B

A

A B A B

U U

A  B in yellow
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Locating Elements in a Venn Diagram
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {4, 6, 8}
Start with A  B 7
1

Fill in each subset of U. A B

2 4
3 8
Fill in remaining elements 6
of U. 5

U 9 10
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shade a Venn diagram for the given statement.
(A  B)  C
Work with the parentheses. (A  B)

A B

C
U
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shade a Venn diagram for the given statement.
(A  B)  C
Work with the parentheses. (A  B)

Work with the remaining part of A B

the statement.
(A  B)  C

C
U
 2.3 – Venn Diagrams and Subsets
Shade a Venn diagram for the given statement.
(A  B)  C
Work with the parentheses. (A  B)

Work with the remaining part of A B

the statement.
(A  B)  C

C
U
 2.4 –Surveys and Cardinal Numbers
Surveys and Venn Diagrams
Financial Aid Survey of a Small College (100 sophomores).
49 received Government grants
55 received Private scholarships
43 received College aid G P
23 received Gov. grants & Pri. scholar. 16 15 12
18 received Gov. grants & College aid
8
28 received Pri. scholar. & College aid 10 20
8 received funds from all three
5
(PC) – (GPC)
43 – (10 + 8 +20) = 5 C
28 – 8 = 20
(GC) – (GPC) U 14
55 – (15 + 8 + 20) = 12
18 – 8 = 10
(GP) – (GPC)
49 – (15 + 8 + 10) = 16 100 – (16+15 + 8 + 10+12+20+5) = 14
23 – 8 = 15
 2.4 –Surveys and Cardinal Numbers
Cardinal Number Formula for a Region
For any two sets A and B,
n  A B   n( A)  n( B)  n( A B).

Find n(A) if n(AB) = 78, n(AB) = 21, and n(B) = 36.

n(AB) = n(A) + n(B ) – n(AB)
78 = n(A) + 36 – 21
78 = n(A) + 15
63 = n(A)
Exercise # 1
In a class of 50 Students, 30 students have taken Economics, 24
students have taken Mathematics, and 10 students have taken both
the subjects. How many students have taken neither Economics nor
Mathematics?
U=50, n(E)=30, n(M)= 24, n(ME)= 10,
n(ME)’=n(U)- n(E)- n(M)+n(ME)
=50-30-24+10
=6
So, 6 students have taken neighter Economics nor Mathematics.

Exercise # 2
In a class of 30 students, 19 students have taken Economics, 17
students have taken Geography, 11 students have taken Civics, 12
students have taken Economics, and Geography, 7 students have taken
Economics and Civics, 5 students have taken Geography and Civics, and
2 students have taken all subjects. How many students have taken
none of the three subjects?
• In a class of 30 students, 19 students have taken Economics, 17 students
have taken Geography, 11 students have taken Civics, 12 students have
taken Economics, and Geography, 7 students have taken Economics and
Civics, 5 students have taken Geography and Civics, and 2 students have
taken all subjects. How many students have taken none of the three
subjects?
• n(U)=30, n(E)=19, n(G)= 17, n(C)=11,
n(EG)=12,
• n(EC)=7, n(GC)=5, n(EGC)=2
• n(EGC)’= n(U)-n(E)-n(G)-n(C)- n(EGC)+n(EG)+n(EC)+n(GC)

• =30-19-17-11-2+12+7+5
• =5
• There are 5 students have taken none of the
three subjects in the class.
 Set Problems
Problem: An office has 2000 employees. 48% of them prefer coffee, 54% like
tea and 64% are used to smoking. 28% prefer coffee and tea, 32% like tea and
smoking and 30% like coffee and smoking. Only 6% do not like any of the
three. Find (a) the number liking all three and (b) the number that like two or
more than two of them.
n(CUTUS) = 2000 – 6% of 2000 = 2000 – 120 = 1880; n(C) = 48% of 2000 = 960;
n (T) = 54% = 1080; n(S) = 64% = 1280; n(C∩T)= 28% = 560; n(T∩S)= 32% = 640
n(S∩C)= 30% = 600. Therefore,
Number liking all three is n(C∩T∩S) and if the total number is n(CUTUS) then
n(CUTUS) = n(C) + n (T) + n(S) – n(C∩T) – n(T∩S) – n(S∩C) + n(C∩T∩S)
1880 = 960 + 1080 + 1280 – 560 – 640 – 600 + n(C∩T∩S)
=> n(C∩T∩S) = 360
T and S = 640; T and S but not Coffee = 640 – 360 = 280
Only C = n(C) – n(C∩T) – n(S∩C) + n(C∩T∩S) = 960 – 560 – 600 + 360 = 160

C only coffee
all three=360
only tea T S
only smoke