Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their

applications

2 Lecture 2: The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and

their applications
Examples of turbojets, turboshaft, turbofan, turboprop and ramjet engines and their practical application as
well as the notation used to describe them in thermodynamics. (Largely a recap of 3rd Year Thermodynamics)

2.1 Turbo Propulsion Engines and cycles

Since the advantage of the turbomachine is high power to weight ratio which is important for aircraft propulsion,
the turbine engine has been highly developed as a result of aircraft development during and since World War
II.
Recall that:

Ci Ce

From Newton’s third law:

𝐹 = 𝑚̇(𝐶𝑒 − 𝐶𝑖 )

Therefore, the engine must create high 𝑚̇ and Ce to have high thrust.

2.1.1 Propulsion Engine Performance

The engine has two parts, a thermal engine and a propulsion engine:

Ci Ce
Airscrew

Ẇ Shaft work

Qin Thermal Engine Qout

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛

𝑊̇ 𝑊̇𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
= ×
𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 𝑊̇

= 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙
⏟ × 𝜂𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
⏟
Obeys thermal criteria Obeys different criteria

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

𝐹 × 𝐶𝑖
= 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 × 1
̇ 2 1 ̇ 2
2𝑚𝐶𝑒 −2𝑚𝐶𝑖

2
= 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ×
𝐶
1− 𝑒
⏟ 𝐶𝑖
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒

For example:
For 𝐶𝑖 = 200 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑒 = 1000: 𝜂 = 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 × 0.333

P too high and

Ce becomes high

Nozzle
Ce

The only way to have a high 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 as well as a low Ce and high 𝜂𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 is to completely extract work from
the turbine which reduces the nozzle inlet pressure and exit velocity.

This leads to different architectures to achieve efficient cycles.

2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Engines

Unlike the piston engine the gas turbine’s efficiency is only good at maximum load. At idle gas turbines are
very inefficient, one reason why they are not used in cars.

η
Piston Engine

Turbine Engine

Load

Power to weight and power to volume ratios are good. At the large sizes the price per kilowatt ratio is also
very good.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2 Applications for different cycles

Figure 22: The variation of specific thrust with design flight Mach Number (SST
refers to Supersonic Transport Aircraft), reproduced from Cumpsty,
1997.
Figure 22 above gives an overview of a variety of engine types and their applicability, what follows is a brief
overview of all the main types of gas turbine engines and typical applications.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.1 The Turbojet Engine

Combustor
Inlet
3 4
1
Can diffuse to
6
create a
pressure and Compressor Shaft Turbine High pressure
drives nozzle
High velocity assist the
from motion of compressor
aircraft
Wc=Wt Exhaust
nozzle
5
2 This pressure is
now above
atmosphere

Turbojets are almost extinct as aircraft engines now often powering small missiles but they once dominated
aviation, the Boeing B52 Stratofortress was and is an engine manufacturers dream, using 8 turbojets but even
this old soldier which remains in services has been reengined with turbofans.

Figure 23: The Atar 09K50 is a typical afterburning turbojet capable of powering the
SAAF Cheetah C to over Mach 2, but turbojets are not fuel efficient and
while an afterburner gives the aircraft some flexibility and high thrust
it is very thirsty.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.2 The Turboprop Engine

The Turboprop Engine is optimised to provide shaft power to a propeller, usually through a gearbox to reduce
the shaft speed to an appropriate speed for a propeller. These engines are appropriate for aircraft travelling at
speeds of M0.6 to M0.72.

Combustor

W extracted
from turbine
Compressor Turbine

Wc+Wprop=Wt

Propeller not efficient at high flight speeds

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

Figure 24: THE Europrop TP400 is typical of a modern turboprop engine and
powers the Airbus A400M Military Transport

One variation of this design is the Propfan engine designed for slightly higher speed flight that a conventional
turboprop, the propfan has the open rotor fan mounted to the turbine directly. The propfan was first developed
in the 1970s during the oil crisis but could not overcome problems with noise and passenger perceptions
regarding propellors on airliners being out-dated. Advanced design to reduce the noise and greater
environmental awareness may see these designs make a comeback. Aircraft speeds can approach M0.85.

Figure 25: The 1970's Propfan (left) and the EU Project Cleanskies Research Platform
circa 2020 (left)

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Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.3 The Turbofan Engine

Secondary Propulsion Nozzle

Bypass Flow
Combustor
Compressor 1

Core flow Compressor 2 Turbine

Main Nozzle

Large diameter, low pressure compressor

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

Figure 26: Two of today’s pre-eminent turbofan engines the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000
and the Pratt and Whitney geared turbofan, The Trent has a bypass
ratio of 10:1 and a thrust to weight ratio of 6:1. The overall pressure
ratio is 50!
Although the architecture is slightly different to the low-bypass turbofan the thermodynamics is largely the
same. Turbofans have evolved to be highly efficient aircraft engines for airliners moving large amounts of air
at close the maximum speed of the aircraft hey power, typically upto M0.9.

2.2.4 The Low Bypass Turbofan

Bypass Flow
Combustor
Compressor 1

Core flow Compressor 2 Turbine Nozzle

Flow bypasses core direct to the

main nozzle or a secondary nozzle
The basis for the bypass and fan engine calculations is:
𝑊̇𝑡 = 𝑊̇𝑐

𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟

For a fan engine:

𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑓𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑓𝑎𝑛 + 𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟

Hence one can find the Turbine exit temperature and Turbine Pressure ratio.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

Figure 27: The GKN Aerospace RM12 engine in the SAAF Gripen is an adaption of
the GE F404 Low Bypass Ratio turbofan engine giving much greater
range and flexibility to the fighter aircraft that the previous generation
of turbojet
The Concorde used a low bypass ratio afterburning turbofan.

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Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.5 The Turboshaft Cycle (See Simple Cycle)

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

Combustor
2 3

Compressor Nett output

Shaft Turbine
shaft

Wnett=Wt-Wc
4
1 Inlet Exhaust

𝑊𝑡 − 𝑊𝑐
𝜂=
𝑄𝑖𝑛

Figure 28: Helicopter engines are turboshaft engines, thermodynamically similar to

turboprops they often feature a free turbine, not connected to the
compressor, to drive the shaft to the rotor head gearbox. The
Turbomeca Makila 2K2 powers the Rooivalk Attack Helicopter
Practically of course these engines do produce thrust for the helicopter but this is a secondary concern.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.6 Reheat or afterburning for high-speed flight

The nozzle velocity can be increased and the thrust increased by burning fuel at the nozzle inlet. This is
known as afterburning or reheat. This can be treated in the same way as a combustor.

Exhaust
Turbine nozzle

Fuel

2.2.7 The Ramjet

When Ci is high enough the compression from the diffuser can be enough for a nozzle to operate.

Diffuser Combustor Exhaust

nozzle

Fuel

The figure below shows the operating envelopes of many different aircraft types, The Lockheed SR-71
Blackbird and some of the Soviet fighters designed to counter the US spy plane are classed as special aircraft
while the Ramjet vehicles would cross the barrier into hypersonic vehicles.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

Figure 29: Aircraft operating envelopes, altitude versus Mach Number, with contours
of inlet stagnation temperature, reproduced from Cumpsty, 1997
Read the Article on the SR-71 Blackbird and its engines that is available on Moodle. Ramjet engines only
achieve workable compression ratios above M2.5 and can efficiently operate at Mach 6.

Figure 30: The Lockheed SR-71 did not have pure ramjet engines, but its engines
had variable modes that bypassed the compressor at high speeds. The
D21 Drome that was carried by the Blackbird and launched at high
speeds was a pure ramjet powered craft.

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 Turbomachine Design The different gas turbine propulsive cycles and their
applications

2.2.8 Adaptive cycle engines

‘Adaptive cycle engines’ refers to a number of experimental engines, mainly low bypass turbofans, often with
multiple bypass streams that can be interconnected and even feature combustors in the bypass streams to
adapt to more efficient modes in different parts of the flight envelop. In many ways the SR-71’s Pratt and
Whitney J58 were the first such engines but research in the USA continues from the 1970’s with the latest
such NASA research programme being named ADVENT (ADaptive Versatile ENgine Technology).

Figure 31: Three stream turbofan of the ADVENT Programme

2.2.9 Precooled Engines

Precooled engines overcome the excessive inlet stagnation temperatures resulting from high-speed flight,
temperatures that would make further compression in a conventional compressor impossible, by precooling
the incoming air. In the SABRE engine’s case this is achieved with cryogenic liquid fuel as the coolant. These
engines offer the ability for adaptive, partially airbreathing cycles for both very high speed flight but also flights
into space.

Figure 32: The UK's SABRE Engine is the only precooled engine currently in
development

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