5.
Divine Command Ethics
This theory says that there is divine being, who has sat
down a finite series of rules that adherents claim can
provide guidance to all, if not all, moral decisions.
Example is the ten commandments which include key
moral prohibitions common to most cultures as well as
some specific rules set down to exact adherence to a
particular religion.
Business applications:
a. A good action is an action that conforms to the
commandments of God as reflected in the Bible
and the teachings of the church.
b. A good action conforms to the teachings of
exemplary nondivine beings like the Buddha of
Prophet Mohammad.
6. Ethical Egoism
This theory says that the promotion of one’s own good
is in accordance with morality. It is the view that one
ought to do what is in man’s self-interest, if necessary
to the exclusion of what is in other’s people interests.
The moral rule for ethical egoism is to look after his
own self and it is about how a person should behave.
Calling the theory ethical does not suggest there might
be a decent way to be selfish. This is a theory that
advocates egoism. To love one’s own self is not as bad
as people may think. It becomes bad when other people
are being affected in a negative way, with the acts of
loving one’s own self too much.
 An ethical egoist might counter with the
assertion that furthering the ends of others is
sometimes the means of furthering one’s own
ends.
Ayn Rand
One of the most recognized egoists. He said, “My
morality, the morality of reason, is contained in a single
axiom: existence exists and in a single choice to live. The
rest proceeds from these. To live, man must hold three
things as the ruling values of his life: reason, purpose
and self-esteem. Reason is the only tool of knowledge.
Purpose, as his choice of the happiness which that tool
must proceed to achieve; and self-esteem, as his
inviolate certainty that his mind is competent to think
and this person is worthy of happiness, which means
worthy oof living.”
The objectivist ethics rebuilds morality from the ground
up. According to her objectivism, a person’s own life
and happiness is the only ultimate good. The attainment
of happiness requires a morality of rational selfishness-
one that does not give undeserved rewards to others.
The means to a happy life are the values of
objectivism. They include such things as wealth, love,
satisfaction in work, education, artistic inspiration.
Business applications:
a. In business decision-making, sometimes self-
interest is considered and given priority over
and above the interest of others.
b. Decision-making process in business must be
rational (thinking before acting).
c. Decision-making process in business must be
grounded with a purpose, that includes the use
of our free-will towards our chosen goals.
d. Self-esteem and confidence are important
personality factors for business leaders and
managers.
7. Pragmatism
It is a philosophy that attempts to clarify our ideas and
to emphasize the practical usefulness of ideas and
beliefs as the criteria of their meaning of truth.
Charles Sanders Peirce
He contends by saying that in the logical analysis of
meanings – an idea that is useful in solving the
difference between two propositions is significant. If an
idea is not useful in solving a problem or bringing about
a desirable result, it does not have any significance at
all.
William James
James came up with a modified version of Peirce’s
pragmatism and associated the idea of practically with
truth. He contends by saying that an idea is only true if
it does what you want it to do. In other words, an idea is
true or good only insofar as it has what James called a
practical cash value. From James’ point of view,
pragmatism is a philosophy that associates truth with
practical results.
John Dewey
Dewey called his version of Pragmatism
“Instrumentalism or “Experimentalism”. Influenced by
Darwin, he based his ideas on the concept of evolution
and believed that man can achieve moral progress and
create an ideal society through improvements in
education. He considered his philosophy of
“Instrumentalism” to be a bridge between science and
ethics.
Business applications:
a. Business plans remain to be plans unless they
are executed and implemented.
b. Pragmatism has been associated with anything
goes approach in business.
c. Pragmatism implies that the right solution to
any problem becomes the practical solution.
d. In business decision-making the cash value is
always considered.
8. Epicureanist and Hedonist Philosophies
a. Hedonist Philosophies
The moral doctrine called hedonism is one of the so-
called major positions among different kinds of
eudaimonism (Greek word for happiness). It is based on
the Greek concept of hdonh – hedone or sensuous
pleasure, and contends that happiness is the goal of our
human life that must be searched for and pain must be
avoided. Thus, to a hedonist, the pleasure derived from
the satisfaction for a delicious food is not different from
the pleasure derived from search of wisdom or the
pursuit of knowledge. Accordingly, since there is no
qualitative difference among pleasures, the sole
distinction is that of quantity, therefore, it matters how
much we enjoy pleasure. The Hedonism considers
further that the quantity of pleasure must be
understood by the intensity of pleasure. According to
hedonism, the more quantitatively (intensive) pleasure
we have, the happier we shall be.
Hedonist maintain that most moral virtues are to be
learned and pursued. From them, pleasure is natural
and has very strong inclination that we do not have to
command ourselves by moral ought. Thus, they contend
that is rather foolish and meaningless to command
ourselves to cultivate other moral virtues and perform
in accordance with those virtues. On the contrary, the
most important thing as understood by the hedonist is
to know and try to attain quantitatively maximum
pleasure and avoid any possible bodily pain and distress
or turmoil of the soul. The quantity of pleasure and pain
not only refers to intensity, but also sometimes to their
duration. This shift of the hedonist’s quantitative
emphasis from instantaneous intensity to temporary
duration as the quantitative maximum indeed allowed a
sophisticated form of hedonism later developed by
Epicurus.
b. Epicureanism: The Doctrine of Pleasure
Epicureanist Philosophy
Epicurus developed an interesting, rather
moderate and philosophically acceptable moral theory
based on hedonism. That is why perhaps, when we talk
about Hedonism, we think of Epicureanism. Epicurus’
philosophy deals with one’s very own practical
concerns, a way of living, not an abstract system of
thought. Perhaps it may be said that the greatest appeal
of Epicurus’ philosophy lies in simplicity and common
sense. According to Epicurus, pleasure is our first and
kindred good. It is the starting point of every choice and
every aversion, and to it we come back and make
feeling the rule by which to judge every good thing. We
call pleasure the Alpha and the Omega of a blessed life.
Epicurus maintained that life which contains the
greatest amount of happiness and the least pain should
be every human being’s goal. By pursuing the impulsive
pursuit of immediate and intense pleasure, life cannot
be achieved. Although Epicurus believed that the
pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain led to the
genuine and greatest happiness of the human being, he
also realized clearly the shortcomings and defects of the
Cyreniacs, which could not see the painful
consequences of dissipation and over indulgence in the
natural drive and pursuit of sensuous, immediate
pleasure.
For Epicurus, the real meaning of pleasure was not the
pursuit or worldly goods but the search for a more
profound and lasting pleasure, like, intellectual
pleasures which last longer than bodily pleasures. And
for Epicurus, the finest intellectual pleasure is the study
of philosophy. This hedonism may be called more
restrained, intelligent, and prudent. In other words,
Epicurus’ moral doctrine or his doctrine of how to live
rightly called the philosophy of living, or you may call it
pursuit of pleasure guided by reason and intelligence in
that a person is the master of his/her pleasure rather
than being blindly enslaved by the intensity and Types of pleasure
glamour of the immediate, sensuous pleasures.
1. Moving pleasures – occur when one is in the
Intelligence indeed controls emotion and desire, which
process of satisfying a desire, e.g., eating
allows this person to be genuinely free.
hamburger when one is hungry. These
Thus, the state of one’s own control of one’s soul frees pleasures involve an active titillation of the
him from the blind of thrust of sensuous pleasure and senses, and these feelings are what most
bodily ill and pain as well as the mental turmoil of people call pleasure.
everydayness. The tranquility of the soul and the health 2. Static pleasures – occur after one’s desires have
of the body must be the greatest happiness one is able been satisfied, the state of satiety, of no longer
to achieve as the highest good. Therefore, the saying, being in need or want, is itself pleasurable.
“Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow you may die is
Business applications:
really a travesty of Epicureanism as a philosophy.
a. The pleasure – pain principle is sometimes used
Epicureanism and Hedonism
in business decision-making (cost benefit
Hedonism has always followers in the history of analysis of pleasure and pain).
humankind, perhaps not a theory of morality, but b. The pleasure-pain principle can also be used to
almost the justification of the pursuit of the sensuous describe profit-loss situations in business.
pleasure. Epicureanism has been understood as
synonymous with Hedonism, which we showed above
as a misconception of Epicurus’ philosophy. This does
not mean that Epicurus went beyond hedonism. On the
contrary, Epicurus held the basic principles of hedonism
to his heart and never left its turf. Epicurus was above
all a philosopher and made philosophical investigations
the basis for the pursuit of happiness

To Epicurus, indeed pleasure is what good is, and the

ultimate goal of human life. However, instead of the
momentous intensity sensuous pleasures, Epicurus
found the maximum pleasure in those which would
endure and even make us wise. In fact, Epicurus himself
led the life of a philosopher free from bodily pain and
from mental agonies and turmoil, enjoying the joy of
friendship. He even advocated conscious mastery and
control over one’s own pleasures. Thus, what one ought
to do is to maintain the hermit-like serene life liberated
from physical displeasures and from the anxiety and
agonies of everyday practical life. Precisely because
hedonism is a theoretical justification of our natural
human inclinations, we find hedonism not only in the
west, but also in India and China. Hedonism is always
associated with egoism, that is, as long as hedonism
asserts the pursuit of pleasure, the pursuit of pleasure is
unfailingly associated with self-interest.