Module 5 Transport Mechanisms

Biology (Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila)

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LESSON 4
TRANSPORT MECHANISM

Topics:
1. Structure of the Plasma Membrane
2. Functions of the Plasma Membrane
3. Membrane Transport

Structure of the Plasma Membrane

In all organisms, cell membranes are lipid bilayers made up mostly of phospholipids. The polar head of a
phospholipid interacts with water molecules; the nonpolar fatty acids tails do not. Because of these properties,
they organize themselves as a lipid bilayer sheet or bubble in a liquid medium.

Figure 1. Structure of a Cell Membrane

In all organisms, cell membranes are lipid bilayers made up mostly of phospholipids. The polar head of a
phospholipid interacts with water molecules; the nonpolar fatty acids tails do not. Because of these properties,
they organize themselves as a lipid bilayer sheet or bubble in a liquid medium.

Figure 2. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Regions of the Cell Membrane

Embedded in or attached to the lipid bilayer are other molecules like cholesterol and proteins. Cholesterol
molecules prevent the plasma membrane from becoming too fluid at higher temperature and too solid at lower
temperatures. A cell membrane has been described as a fluid mosaic. The <mosaic= part is attributed to the mixed
composition of the cell membrane, and the <fluid= part come from the ability of the bilayer to drift sideways and spin
around their long axis. This happens because the phospholipids in a typical membrane are not bonded to one
another.

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Figure 3. Fluid Mosaic Model

Many types of proteins are associated with a cell membrane, and each type adds specific function to it.
Thus, a cell membrane can have different characteristics depending on the proteins present in it. The types of
proteins that may be present in the cell membrane and the functions they carry out are as follows:

Figure 4. Types of Proteins in the Cell Membrane

1. Cell Membrane Lipids

A. Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in which
their hydrophilic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the
extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and
extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across
the membrane.

B. Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell membrane. Cholesterol molecules are
selectively dispersed between membrane phospholipids. This helps to keep cell membranes from becoming
stiff by preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed together. Cholesterol is not found in the
membranes of plant cells.

C. Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them.
They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.

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Figure 5. Cell Membrane Lipids

2. Cell Membrane Proteins

The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins:
A. Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to the membrane by
interactions with other proteins.

B. Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the membrane and most pass through the
membrane. Portions of these transmembrane proteins are exposed on both sides of the
membrane.

Figure 6. Associated Proteins in the Cell Membrane The

cell membrane contains four types of transmembrane proteins:

A. Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
B. Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with their external environment using
hormones neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules.
C. Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes
through facilitated diffusion.
D. Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded in the cell
membrane and help in cell to cell communications and molecule transport across the membrane.

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Figure 7. Transmembrane Proteins in the Cell Membrane

Functions of the Plasma Membrane

1. It protects the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell while
keeping other substances out.
2. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others.
Thus, the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.
3. Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and
exocytosis.
Types of Substances:

Hydrophobic substances – this is similar to the phospholipid center of the membrane cab easily diffuse across
membranes without consuming energy.
Polar molecules – which are chemically incompatible with the center of the membrane, require an expenditure of
energy for their transport.
Non- charged molecules – can freely cross the membranes since they can easily pass through the hydrophobic tails
of the membrane because they are also nonpolar.
Ex. Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, Glycerol, and Alcohol

Figure 8. Different Types of Membrane Transport

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Membrane Transport

1. Passive Transport
- A transport protein moves substances from a region of higher concentration to one of lower
concentration. This is the reason why passive transport is also called facilitated transport.
- Energy – independent mechanism of the cell, allowing small molecules to enter into it without
energy consumption

A. Simple Diffusion
- The spontaneous movement of molecules from higher concentration to a lower concentration, that is,
down their concentration gradient, until molecules are distributed equally.
- This is a process that results from the random motion of molecules. For instance, when a
crystal of dye is dropped in water, the molecules of both dye and water move in different
directions, but their net movement, that is the sum of their motion, is toward the region with lower
concentration.

Solution – made up of both a solute, usually a solid, and a solvent, usually a liquid. In this case, the
solute is the dye, and the solvent is the water. Once the solute and the solvent are evenly distributed,
their movement continues, but there is no net movement in either direction.
The speed of mixing between molecules depends on the following factors:
1. Size – it takes more energy to move bigger molecules, thus, the smaller the size, the faster the rate of
diffusion, and vice versa.
2. Temperature – molecules moves faster at high temperature, making them collide more often. Thus,
the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
3. Concentration – the difference in solute concentration between adjacent regions of a solution. Solutes
– tends to diffuse <down= their concentration gradient, that is, from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration. As the concentration of a solution increases, the
molecules become more crowded, and the collision between them become more often. Thus,
during a given interval of time, more molecules are bumped out of region of higher
concentration than bumped into it.
4. Charge – charged particle of matter (ion or molecule) in a fluid add up to the fluid’s overall
electrical charge. A difference in charge between two regions of the fluid can influence the rate and
direction of diffusion between them
Ex. Positively – charge substances like sodium ions will tend to diffuse toward a region
with an overall negative charge
5. Pressure – a change, or difference in pressure between two adjoining regions may affect the rate
and direction of diffusion. Pressure squeezes molecules together, and the more crowded the
molecules become, the more frequent molecules collide and rebound among them, thus, the faster
the diffusion

B. Facilitated Diffusion or Facilitated Transport

- The solute simple binds to the transport protein and gets released to the other side of the
membrane
Transport protein – moves substances down their concentration gradient by:
1. Changing its shape when it bonds to the molecule like glucose, and then reverting to its
original shape after releasing the molecule to the other side of the membrane
2. Forming permanently open channels through membrane
3. Forming gated channels that open and close in response to a stimulus such as binding to a
signaling molecules or a shift in electrical charge.

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Figure 9. Passive Transport in the Cell Membrane

C. Osmosis
- A special example of diffusion
- It is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a
more concentrated solution – down the water potential gradient)
Note: Diffusion and osmosis are both passive, i.e. energy from ATP is not used.
A partially permeable membrane is a barrier that permits the passage of some substances but not others; it
allows the passage of the solvent molecules but not some of the larger solute molecules.

Figure 10. Osmosis in the Cell Membrane

Cell membranes are described as selectively permeable because not only do they allow the passage
of water but also allow the passage of certain solutes. The presence of solutes stimulates the membrane to open
specific channels or trigger active transport mechanisms to allow the passage of those chemicals across the
membrane.
Some major examples of osmosis:
 Absorption of water by plant roots.
 Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron.
 Re-absorption of tissue fluid into the venule ends of the blood capillaries.
 Absorption of water by the alimentary canal — stomach, small intestine and the colon.

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is keeping the concentration of cell cytoplasm or blood at a suitable concentration.
a. Amoeba, living in freshwater, uses a contractile vacuole to expel the excess water from its
cytoplasm (thus need more respiration/O2/ATP than isotonic (marine) Amoebae).
b. The kidneys maintain the blood (thus, whole body) at the correct concentration.

Osmosis and Plant Cells

a. Plant Cells in a hypotonic (= weaker) solution – cells have lower water potential
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 The plant cells gain water by osmosis.

 The vacuole and cytoplasm increase in volume.
 The cell membrane is pushed harder against the cell wall causing it to stretch a
little.
 The plant tissue becomes stiffer (= turgid).

b. Plant Cells in a hypertonic (=stronger) solution – cells have higher water potential
 The plant cells lose water by osmosis.
 The vacuole and cytoplasm decrease in volume.
 The cell shrinks away from the cell wall.
 Shrinkage stops when the cell sap is at the same concentration as the
external solution.
 The plant tissue becomes flaccid, it has shrunk slightly
 May go on to become plasmolysed.

Figure 11. Effects of Different Solutions in Cells

Turgor
- The pressure of the swollen cell contents against the cell wall when the external solution more dilute
than the cell sap of the vacuole.

Role of Turgor in Plants:

 Mechanical support for soft non-woody tissue, e.g., leaves.
 Change in shape of guard cells forming the stomatal opening between them.
 Enlargement of young immature plant cells to mature size

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Figure 12. Osmosis in Animal and Plant Cells

2. Active Transport
- Substances are move against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower concentration to one of higher
concentration
- The transport protein uses energy from ATP to pump solute against its concentration gradient

Ex. Calcium pumps – moves calcium ions from across the cell membrane
 This process is important to maintain the concentration gradient of a particular solute
at a certain level.
 Calcium ions – act as potent messenger inside the cells and they affect the activity
of many enzymes

Figure 13. Active Transport in the Cell Membrane

A. Primary Active Transport

-Movement of substances against the concentration gradient through a membrane protein

B. Secondary Active Transport

-movement of one substance against its concentration gradient by coupling it to the movement of another
molecule

-The concentration of the other molecule was generated using ATP.

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Figure 14. Primary and Secondary Active Transport in the Cell Membrane

C. Bulk/ Vesicular Transport

- Some molecules or particles are just too large to pass through the plasma membrane or to move
through a transport protein. So, cells use two other active transport processes to move these
macromolecules (large molecules) into or out of the cell. Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm
move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane.
- There are two types of vesicle transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Both processes are active
transport processes, requiring energy.

1. Endocytosis – the process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by
engulfing it with the cell membrane. The membrane folds over the substance and it becomes
completely enclosed by the membrane. At this point a membrane-bound sac, or vesicle, pinches
off and moves the substance into the cytosol.

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Two kinds of endocytosis:

 Phagocytosis – (cellular eating) occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell.
The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.

 Pinocytosis – (cellular drinking) occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to
form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell, when the channel is
closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle

Figure 15. Endocytosis in the Cell Membrane

2. Exocytosis – describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and
releasing their contents to the outside of the cell. Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces
substances for export, such as a protein, or when the cell is getting rid of a waste product or a toxin.
Newly made membrane proteins and membrane lipids are moved on top of the plasma membrane by
exocytosis.

Figure 16. Exocytosis in the Cell Membrane

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D. Summary

Figure 17. Structure of the Cell Membrane

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Figure 18. Dichotomous Key of Cellular Transport

REFERENCES

 Cell Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-membrane-373364

 Cell Membrane Structure. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/components-and-structure/

 Hardin, Jeff et al. (2012). Becker’s World of Cell, 8th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hardin, Jeff et al. (2017). Becker’s World of Cell, 9th ed. Pearson Education, Inc.

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 Karp, Gerald. (2010). Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts and Experiments. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Membrane Transport. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

http://www2.yvcc.edu/Biology/109Modules/Modules/MembraneTransport/membranetransport.htm

 Reece, Jane et al. (2008). Campbell Biology, 8th ed. USA: Pearson Education Limited.

 Reece, Jane et al. (2014). Campbell Biology, 10th ed. USA: Pearson Education Limited.

 Reece, Jane et al. (2017). Campbell Biology, 11th ed. USA: Pearson Education Limited.

 Structure of Plasma Membrane. Retrieved July 8, 2019 from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-cells/hs-the-cell-
membrane/a/structure-of-the-plasma-membrane

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