Electricity
constitutes the flow of electrons in the circuit,
and in this process, work is done. It is a
form of energy. Is all about electrons, which are
the fundamental cause of electricity.
The Greek word "electron" means amber.
Type of Electricity
Static Electricity - electrons that are moved
from one place to another, usually by rubbing or
brushing. - Contact between equal amounts of
protons and electrons (positively and
negatively charged subatomic particles).
Friction - opposite nature (+,-)
Non-friction - same-kind particles (+,+ or -,-)
Current electricity – flow of electrons in a
conductor. – flow of electric charge across an
electrical field. – constant flow of electric charge
causes the conductor to heat up very often
History of Electricity
600 BC - rubbing a hard fossilized resin (Amber)
against a fur cloth, it would attract particles of
straw.
1600 - William Gilbert, a physician who lived in
London at the time of Queen Elizabeth I and
Shakespeare, studied magnetic phenomena
and demonstrated that the Earth itself was a
huge
magnet, by means of his "terrella" experiment.
William Gilbert - Father of electricity
The word "electricity" was coined by Gilbert,
who based it on the Greek word for amber.
Benjamin Franklin - In 1752, Franklin proved
that lightning and the spark from amber were
one and the same thing.
-Franklin fastened an iron spike to a silken kite,
which he flew during a thunderstorm,
while holding the end of the kite string by an
iron key. When lightning flashed, a tiny
spark jumped from the key to his wrist.
Luigi Galvani - (1786) italian professor of
medicine, found that when the leg of a dead
frog was touched
by a metal knife, the leg twitches violently.
Galvani thought that the muscles of the frog
must contain electricity.
Alessandro Volta - (1792) He disagreed with
Galvani, he realized that the main factors in
Galvani's
discovery were the two different metals - the
steel knife and the tin plate - upon which
the frog was lying. Volta showed that when
moisture comes between two different
metals, electricity is created.
invent the first electric battery, the voltaic pile,
which he made from thin sheets of copper
and zinc separated by a moist pasteboard.
showed that electricity could be made to travel
from one place to another by wire
Unit of electrical potential was named after
him (voltage or volts)
Michael Faraday - credit for generating electric
current on a practical scale goes to the famous
English scientist. - Electricity could be produced
through magnetism by motion. -When a
magnet is moved inside a coil of copper wire, a
tiny electric current flow through the wire.
-He had discovered the first method of
generating electricity by means of motion in a
magnetic field. - He also realized that the
electric force is transmitted by an electric field.
-coined such words as electrolysis, anode and
cathode.
James Watt - When Edison's generator was
coupled with Watt's steam engine, large-scale
electricity generation became a practical
proposition.
Inventor of the steam condensing engine
his name was given to the electric unit of
power, the Watt
Andre Marie Ampere
the first to explain the electro-dynamic theory.
use of his name for the unit of electric current
(ampere).
George Ohm
In 1827 he published, "The Galvanic Circuit
Investigated Mathematically".
He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841.
His name has been given to the unit of
electrical resistance.
How Electricity is produced
Frictional Energy (Static Electricity) - It can be
produced by rubbing certain dissimilar
materials together. The application of static
electricity is in a device used in atomic research
called Van de Graaff generator.
Pressure - Electricity produced from pressure is
called piezoelectricity. An electric charge will be
develop but the amount of charge will depend
on the amount of pressure exerted.
Heat - The amount of charge produced depends
on the difference in temperature between the
junction and the opposite ends of two wires.
-A greater temperature difference results in a
greater charge. - Electricity is produced by
heating the junction of a thermocouple.
Chemical Reaction - Electric cells are electricity
produced by chemical reactions.
Light - produced by light,striking photosensitive
materials
Photosensitive materials release electrons
when excited by light under the right
conditions (photoelectric effect).
Magnetism - produced by relative movement
of a magnet and a wire that result in the
cutting of lines of force.
-The electricity produced depends on the
number of turns in the coil, the speed
with which relative motions of the coil and the
magnet take place and strength of
the magnet.
Atoms - Atoms are everywhere - Matter is made
up of atoms - Atoms are made of nucleons
(called protons and neutrons and electrons)
-Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have
no charge, and electrons have a negative
charge. - The charges of protons and electrons
are equal and opposite. - Electrons move in and
out of fixed pathways around the nucleus.
-Changing the number of electrons in a
particular type of atom creates an ion of that
atom. - Electrons in the outer rings or shells of
atoms are bound more loosely to the nucleus
-Such electrons tend to break free from the
nucleus and wander around among other
nearby atoms - Electrons are called free
electrons
Matter - Anything that occupies space and has
weight
Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma
Atoms
Smallest part that an element can be reduced to
and still keeping the chemical
properties of the element. It is the smallest
building block of matter.
Elements
A substance that cannot be decomposed any
further by chemical reaction
Molecule
It is the smallest particle that a compound can
be reduced to before it breaks down to its
elements.
Compound
A combination of two or more elements.
Electron
Negatively charged particles that revolve around
the nucleus of an atom. Electron is one
of the lightest particles with a known mass.
The mass of electron is about 9.11 x 10^-31 kg.
Proton
Positively charged particles that stay in the
nucleus of an atom.
Proton is very small, but it is fairly massive
compared to the other particles that make up
matter.
The mass of one proton is 1.675 x 10^-21 kg.
Neutron
Particles having no charge.
Neutrons are about the same size as protons
but their mass is slightly greater
The mass of one Neutron is 1.675 x 10-2' kg.
Nucleus -The central part of the atom where the
protons and neutrons are located.
Atomic Number - Represents the number of
electrons or protons of an atom.
Atomic Mass
Represents the sum of protons and neutrons of
an atom.
Valence Electron - Electrons found in the
outermost shell or orbit of an atom.
Conductor - electric charges are free to move
through the material
The charge carriers are called free electrons
Only negative charges are free to move
men isolated atoms are combined to form a
metal, outer electrons of the atoms do not
remain attached to individual atoms but
become free to move throughout the volume of
the material
Good conductors - let the electric charge flow
through them
Bad Conductor - resists the electric charge
Electrolytes - Both negative and positive
charges can move.
Semiconductors - In-between conductors and
insulators in their ability to conduct electricity
-Conductivity can be greatly enhanced by
adding small amounts of other elements
-Requires quantum physics to truly understand
how they work.
Insulator -exact opposite of conductor - Made
of materials, generally non- metals, that have
very few or no "free electrons" float
about within their basic atom structure
-The electrons in the outer valence shell are
strongly attached by the positively charged
inner nucleus. - If a potential voltage is applied
to the material no current will flow as there are
no electrons to move which gives these
materials their insulating properties.
Examples of good insulators are marble, p.v.c
plastics, rubber, glass ,oil, asphalt,
fiberglass, porcelain, ceramic, dry cotton, dry
copper, dry wood, air, diamond, mica,
textile fiber, and wax.
PREFIX SI Symbol
Exa E 10^18
Peta P 10^15
Tera T 10^12
Giga G 10^9
Mega M 10^6
Kilo k 10^3
Deci d 10^-1
Centi c 10^-2
Milli m 10^-3
Micro u 10^-6
Nano n 10^-9
Pico p 10^-12
Femto f 10^-15
Atto a 10^-18
Direct Current System (DC) - electric current
that is uni-directional, so the flow of charge is
always in the same
direction. - the direction and amperage of direct
currents do not change. - used in many
household electronics and in all devices that use
batteries. - Anything that works with a battery
works on DC.
Electric Circuit Theory - Fundamental theory
upon which all branches of electrical
engineering are built. - Many branches of
electrical engineering, such as power, electric
machines, control, electronics, communications,
and instrumentation, are based on electric
circuit theory.
Electric Circuit - An electric circuit is an
interconnection of electrical elements and each
component of the circuit is known as an
element. - A simple electric circuit in the figure
above consists of basic elements such as
battery, a light bulb, connecting wires and a
switch. - An electric circuit is always a closed
path. A closed circuit is one that is complete,
with good continuity throughout.
Type of Electric Circuit
Open Circuit - implies that the two terminals are
points are externally disconnected, which is
equivalent to a resistance. This means that zero
current can flow between the two terminals,
regardless of any voltage difference.
Short Circuit - implies that the terminals are
externally connected with resistance, the same
as an ideal wire. This means there is zero
voltage difference for any current value.
Close Circuit
Circuit that has a close path and has any kind of
load
Basic Electrical Engineering Instruments
Ammeter - is an instrument used to measure
current and must be connected in series with
measure the current flowing through it. Since all
the current in the circuit passes through the
ammeter, it must have a very low resistance.
Voltmeter - is an instrument used for measuring
electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit and must be
connected in parallel with the part of the
circuit whose potential difference is required.
-To avoid a significant current flowing through it
a voltmeter must have a very high
resistance.
Wattmeter - instrument for the measurement
of power in an electrical circuit.
Ohmmeter - instrument for measuring
resistance.
Multimeter - universal instrument may be used
to measure voltage, current and resistance
Circuit Variable
Electric Charge - Charge is an electrical property
of the atomics particles of which consists,
measured in Coulombs(C).
-Like charges repel while unlike charges attract
1 electron = -1.602x10^-19 c
1 proton 1.602x10^-19C
1 coulomb (C) =6.24x10^18 proton or electron
Types of Current
Direct Current (DC) - current that remains
constant with time.
Alternating Current(AC) - current that varies
sinusoidally with time.
-Can be in positive or negative current flow
Main effects of electric current
Magnetic effect - bells, relays, motors,
generators, transformers, telephones, car-
ignition and lifting
magnets
Chemical effect - primary and secondary cells
and electroplating
Heating effect - cookers, water heaters, electric
fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
Voltage
like charges repel each other whereas unlike
charges attract each other. To overcome
this force of attraction or repulsion. a certain
amount of work or energy is required. When
the charges are moved, it is said that a potential
difference exists and the work or energy
per unit charge utilized in this process is known
as voltage or potential difference. - A constant
voltage is called DC voltage and is represented
by V. Whereas a sinusoidal time-varying voltage
is called an AC voltage represented by v
Types of Voltage
DC Voltage - commonly produced by batteries
AC Voltage - produced by an electric generator
Power - time rate of expending or absorbing
energy, measured in watts (W) or J/s. - Watt is
the unit of Power. - Equivalent to one joule of
energy consumed in one second. - Named after
the British engineer and inventor James Watt.
-If the current enters the positive terminal of
the voltage then power is positive (Absorbing
power)
-If the current enters the negative terminal of
the voltage then power is negative (Supplying
power).
Circuit Elements
Active Circuit elements - Capable of generating
energy (Voltage source, Current source,
Generator, Batteries, Operational Amplifier)
Independent Voltage Source - Characterized by
terminal voltage and completely independent of
the current through it. ( battery, Combination of
generator and
battery)
Independent Current Source - The current
through it is completely independent of the
voltage
across it.
Dependent or Controlled Current and Voltage
Source -In which the source quantity is
determined by a voltage or current
existing some other location in the electric
system under
examination.
Passive Circuit elements – Not capable of
generating energy (Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor)
Resistor - The circuit element used to impede
the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge.
Resistance (Q) - The capacity of a resistor to
impede the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge.
Fixed value Resistor - Type of resistor which
offers a fixed amount of resistance in the
circuit. It cannot be changed as it is set a specific
value
Variable Resistor - Type of resistor in which the
value of resistance is not fixed. We
can change the value of resistance in variable
resistors.
Law of Resistance - its varies directly as its
length (l) - its varies inversely as the cross-
sectional (A) of the conductor. - it depends on
the nature of the material. - it depends on the
temperature of the conductor.
Specific Resistance or Resistivity (p) - The
resistance of electrical materials in terms of unit
dimensions length and cross — sectional area.
-The amount of change of resistance in a
material per unit change in temperature.
- The unit is ohm — circular mils per foot (ohm)-
CM/ft
Temperature Resistance Effect - Rise in
temperature — increases the R of pure metals
-Rise in temperature -- increases the R of alloys
- Rise in temperature — decreases the R of
electrolytes and insulators.
Conductors undergoing drawing process
(Constant Volume, Same Material)
In the process, the waste of the material is
assumed negligible (efficiency is 100%), thus
keeping the volume to be constant all
throughout the process.
Resistor Color Code - Manufacturers typically
use a color band system known as the resistor
color code
Tolerance- The amount (in percent) by which
the actual ohmic resistance can be different
from the color-coded value.
Inductor - Passive element designed to store
energy in its magnetic field - It consists of a coil
of conducting wire and can be fixed or variable.
-Its core can be made of iron, Steet plastic or air
Application
Electronics and power system - Power supplies,
transformers, radios, TVs, radars and electric
motors
Types
Fixed Value Inductor - Type of inductor which
offers a fixed amount of inductance in the
circuit. It cannot be changed as it is set a specific
value
Variable Inductor - Type of inductor in which
the value of inductance is not fixed. We can
change the value of inductance in variable
inductor.
Configuration - The configuration of Inductor
can be solenoidal or toroidal
Inductance - Property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).
-The inductance of a coil varies directly with the
magnetic properties of the coil. Ferromagnetic
material, therefore, are frequently employed to
increase the inductance by increasing the flux
linking the coil.
Capacitor - Passive element designed to store
energy in its electric field. - Consist of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator or
dielectric - Plates can be aluminum foil while the
dielectric can be air, ceramic, paper or mica
Application - Tuning circuits of radio receivers
-Dynamic memory elements in computer
system. - To block dc, pass ac, shift phase, store
energy, start motor and suppress noise
Types
Fixed Value Capacitor - Type of Capacitor which
offers a fixed amount of capacitance in the
circuit. It cannot be changed as it is set a specific
value
Variable Capacitor - Type of Capacitor in which
the value of capacitance ig not fired. We can
change the value of inductance in the variable
capacitor.
Capacitance - Ratio of the charge on one plate
of a capacitor to the voltage difference between
the two plates, measured in farads (F)
-1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
Ohm’s Law - Current flowing in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the impressed
EMF applied to the circuit and inversely to the
equivalent resistance of the said circuit.
Named after the German physicist, Georg S.
Ohm (1787-1854)
Conductance - Conductance is a measure of the
material's ability to conduct electric current.
-Reciprocal of Resistance - measured in mho
(O), siemens (S)
Named after the german engineer, Eamst
Werner von Siemens (1816-1892)
Conductivity - Reciprocal of resistivity
Series and Parallel Network - There are two
ways in which components may be connected
together in an electric circuit. – When a circuit is
more complicated than two or three elements,
it is very likely to be a network of individual
series and parallel circuits. - These circuits may
seem very complicated, but with a methodical
analysis approach the functionality of the circuit
can become obvious.
Series Network - components are connected
'end-to-end - The Current (A) is equal in all parts
of the Circuit - The Total Voltage (V) is the sum
of all voltages in each part of the circuit
-The total resistance (O) is the sum of all the
resistance in the circuit
Voltage or Potential Divider - A potential
divider is the simplest way of producing a
source of lower e.m.f. from a source of higher
e.m.f., and is the basic operating mechanism of
the potentiometer, a measuring device for
accurately measuring potential differences
-It is derived from Substituting voltage and
resistance to the current of the network
since the current is equal in any part of the
circuit.
Parallel Network - components are connected
'across each other - The Voltage (V) is equal in
all parts of the circuit - the total current (A) is
the sum of all currents in each part of the circuit
-The total reciprocal of the resistance (Q) is the
sum of the reciprocal of each resistance
in the circuit
Current Divider - Current divider is the fastest
way to find a specific Current in a Parallel
network. - It is derived from Substituting current
and resistance to the voltage of the network
since the voltage is equal in any part of the
circuit.
Battery and Cell - Is a device that converts
chemical energy to electricity. - Batteries are an
indispensable item for many electronic devices
and are essential for devices that require power
when no mains power is available. - The
purpose of an electric cell is to convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. - A simple cell
comprises two dissimilar conductors(electrodes)
in an electrolyte. - An electric current is found to
flow between the electrodes. Other possible
electrode pairs exist, including zinc—lead and
zinc—iron.
Types of Battery
Primary Battery - Not designed to be electrically
recharged
Secondary Battery - Designed to be re-charged
Corrosion - Gradual destruction of a metal in a
damp atmosphere by means of simple cell
action. - If metals widely spaced in the
electrochemical series are used in contact with
each other in the presence of an electrolyte,
corrosion will occur - The presence of moisture
and air required for rusting, an electrolyte, an
anode and a cathode are required for corrosion.
-The effects of corrosion include the weakening
of structures, the reduction of the life of
components and matenals, the wastage ot
matenals and the expense of replacement.
-Corrosion may be prevented by coating with
paint, grease, plastic coatings and enamels,
or by plating with tin or chromium. -Iron may be
galvanized to prevent the Iron from corroding.
Network Theorem
Network - is an interconnection of elements or
devices
Circuit - is a network providing one or more
closed paths
Branch - represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor
represents any two- terminal element.
Node - is the point ot connection between two
or more branches - A node is usually indicated
by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a
connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two
nodes constitute a single node.
Loop - is any closed path in a circuit. - It is a
closed path formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes, and returning to
the starting node without passing through any
node more than once. - It IS said to be
Independent if It contains a branch that is not In
any other loop. Independent loops or paths
result in independent sets of equations.
Inductor - passive element designed to store
energy in its magnetic field. - They are used in
power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs,
radars, and electric motors. - Any conductor of
electric current has inductive properties and
may be regarded as an inductor. - In order to
enhance the inductive effect, a practical
inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil
with many turns of conducting wire - 1 Henry
equals 1 volt-second per ampere - inductance
can be increased by increasing the number of
turns of coil, which material with higher
permeability as the core, increasing the cross-
sectional area, or reducing the length of the coil.
-Inductors may be fixed or variable. The core
may be made of iron, steel, plastic, or air
-An ideal inductor does not dissipate energy.
The energy stored retrieved at a later time.
-The inductor takes power from the circuit when
storing energy power to the circuit when
returning previously stored energy in it can be
and delivers power to the circuit when running
previously stored energy.
Joseph Henry - first secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution. - conducted several
experiments on electromagnetism and
developed powerful electromagnets that could
lift objects weiqhinq thousands of pounds.
-Joseph Henry discovered electromagnetic
induction before Faraday but failed to publish
his findings
Capacitor - A capacitor is a passive element
designed to store energy in its electric field
-Capacitors are used extensively in electronics,
communications, computers, and power
systems
-used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers
and as dynamic memory elements in computer
systems - It consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator. the plates may be
aluminum toll while the dielectric may be air,
ceramic, paper, or mica. -The capacitor is said to
store the electric charge. - The amount of
charge stored, represented by q, IS directly
proportional to the applied voltage so that in
the equation. where C, the constant of
proportionality, is known as the capacitance of
the capacitor. - voltage it does not depend on q
or It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor. -The surface area of the plates—the
larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
-The spacing between the plates—the smaller
the spacing, the greater the capacitance.
- The permittivity of the material—the higher
the permittivity, the greater the capacitance
Complex Number and Phasor- The mathematics
used in Electrical Engineering to add together
resistances, currents or DC voltages use what
are called "real numbers" used as either
integers or as fractions - In electrical
engineering this type of number is called an
"imaginary number" and to distinguish an
imaginary number from a real number the letter
" j " known commonly in electrical engineering
as the j-operator is used. Thus the letter •j" is
placed in front of a real number to signify its
imaginary number operation. - Complex
Numbers represent points in a two-dimensional
complex or s-plane that are referenced to two
distinct axes. The horizontal axis is called the
"real axis' while the vertical axis is called the
"imaginary axis". - The real and imaginary parts
of a complex number are abbreviated as Re(z)
and lm(z), respectively. - Complex numbers that
are made up of real (the active component) and
imaginary (the reactive component) numbers
can be added, subtracted, and used in exactly
the same way as elementary algebra is used to
analyze DC Circuits. - In the rectangular form,
we can express a vector in terms of its
rectangular coordinates, with the horizontal axis
being its real axis and the vertical axis being
its imaginary axis or j-component. In polar form,
these real and imaginary axes are similarly
represented by "A (angle theta)" - Rectangular
form IS best tor adding and subtracting complex
numbers as we saw above, but the polar form is
often better for multiplying and dividing.
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current
- A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as
alternating current (ac). Such a current reverses
at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. - Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or voltage are called ac
circuits - A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate
and transmit. - ac is more efficient and
economical to transmit over long distances - A
sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or
cosine function - Alternating current is the
current that constantly changes in amplitude,
and which reverses direction at regular
intervals.
Advantages of AC Generation
- Accomplished economically in large power
plant that may be located where fuel
and water are abundant. -Transmission over
network of high-voltage lines to distant loads
centres is entirely practicable -Widely used in
Industrial Application such as Industrial motors,
Transformer equipment and control devices
Properties of Alternating Current
Frequency - number of complete cycles it goes
through in a fixed period of time. For standard
measurements, the period of time is one
second, so the frequency of the wave is
commonly measured in cycles per second
(cycles/ sec). -expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). it
is represented in mathematical
equations by the letter f
Period - know the amount of time required to
complete. - one cycle of the wave form the
reciprocal of frequency of one cycle of the
waveform, and is measured in seconds/ cycle.
Wavelength - length of one complete wave or
cycle. - Greek letter (lambda) is used to
represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions. - wavelength can be measured
from any part of one cycle to the equivalent
point in the next cycle. - wavelength is
measured in distance per cycle while period is
measured in
time per cycle.
Waveforms - representation of the variation of
a voltage or a current plotted to a base of
time. - for AC waveforms this horizontal base
line represents zero condition of either voltaqe
or current. - The most common periodic signal
waveforms that are used are sinusoidal
waveform - AC waveforms can also take the
shape of either complex waves, square
or trianqular waves,etc
Peak Value
greatest value of either voltage or current that
the waveform reaches during each
half cycle measured from zero baseline.
Peak to Peak Value - there are always two
maximum or peak values, one for the positive
half-cycle and the other for the negative half-
cycle. - difference between the peak positive
value, and the peak negative value called
the peak-to-peak value of the sine wave. - This
value is twice the maximum or peak value of the
sine wave and is sometimes used for
measurement of ac voltaqes.
Instantaneous i(t) - The value of alternating
quantity at any instant.
average value - expressed by that steady
current which transformed by that alternating
current driving the same time. - arithmetical
average or mean of all the values of an
alternating quantity over one cycle.
Effective Value (RMS) - The rms value of an
alternating current is given by that steady state
current(dc) which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time produces the same
heat as produced by alternating current when
flowing through the same circuit for the same
time. - Defined as the square root of the
average of the squares of the given quantity
taken over a complete period.
Crest Factor or Peak Factor - ratio of the
maximum value to the rms value
Form Factor - ratio of the rms value to the
average value
Phase - the fraction of time period of that
alternating current which has elapsed since the
current had passed through the zero position of
reference (wt is the phase angle)
phase angle - difference in degrees between the
voltage waveform and the current waveform
having the same periodic time.
Angular Frequency - represents the phasor
relationship between two or more waveforms.
rotational unit of angular frequency 2nf with
units in radians per second, rad/s.
Phase Difference Value
Leading - An alternating quantity is one that
reaches its maximum or zero value
earlier as compared to the other quantity
Lagging - Alternating quantity is which reached
its maximum or zero value later than
quantity.
Summation of In-Phase sinusoidal wave
-When two or more sinusoidal voltage or
current waves are in - phase and have
the same frequency they may be added to yield
a sine wave of a same frequency. The resultant
wave will then have a maximum value that is
equal to the arithmetical sum of the maximum
values of the component waves. - A sinusoid can
be expressed in either sine or cosine form.When
comparinq two sinusoids, it is expedient to
express both as either sine or cosine with
positive amplitudes.
Power - It is customary to refer to an AC load by
using the term volt-amperes (VA) in systems
involving considerable loads - it is a measure of
such operational factors as current-carrying
capacity of wires, heating effect in electrical
equipment, ratings of machines and others.
Apparent power - also known as demand, is the
measure of the amount of power used to run
machinery and equipment during a certain
period. It is found by multiplying (kVA
= V x A). The result is expressed as kVA units.
Power Factor - expression of energy efficiency.
It is usually expressed as a percentage and the
lower the percentaqe, the less efficient power
usage is. - the ratio of working power, measured
in kilowatts (kW), to apparent power,
measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).
Type of power Factor
- Unity p.f - the voltage current are in phase (i.e.
resistive loads)
Lagging p.f - the current lags the voltage by an
acute angle theta (I.e. series RL
or inductive loads)
Leading p.f - the current leads the voltage by an
acute angle theta.(i.e. series RC
or capacitive loads.
• Zero p.f - if the voltage and current are out of
phase by exactly 90 degrees. (i.e. ideal
conductor or ideal capacitor loads)
Power Factor Correction (PFC) – technology
which when instaiied aiiows the consumer to
reduce their eiectricity bill by maintaining the
level of reactive power consumption. - One
method of improving the power factor of an
inductive load is to connect a bank of capacitors
in parallel With the load.
Conductance (G) - It is the reciprocal of
resistance, R and is given the symbol G.
- Conductance is defined as the ease at which a
resistor (or a set of resistors) allows current to
flow when a voltage. either AC or DC is applied.
Susceptance (B) - It is the reciprocal of
reactance, X and is given the symbol B. - circuits
susceptance is defined as the ease at which a
reactance (or a set of reactances) allows current
to flow when a voltage is applied.
Admittance - It is the reciprocal of impedance, Z
and is given the symbol y. - admittance is
defined as the ease at which a circuit composed
of resistances and reactances allows current to
flow when a voltage is applied taking into
account the phase difference between the
voltage and the current.
Three Phase System - A balance three-phase
supply connected to a set of balance three
phase loads
Balance Three-Phase Supply - Set of three
sinusoidal voltages with the same magnitude
and frequency with a phase difference of 120
degree.
Balance Three-Phase load - Set Of three Single
phase loads with the same complex impedance
and thus taking the same amount of current and
power from the supply