Drives, motives and motivation 281

The gig economy has a dark side. Flexible working, freelancing and gigging may be
a lifestyle preference. But this is precarious work; insecurity is the price of flexibility.
Looking for gigs can be lonely, financially risky, and leads to a blurring of work and home
lives. Freelance workers do not have the same benefits as permanent employees, or the
organization’s protection should things go wrong. Working gigs, there is little or no prospect
of a progressive career. Gigging involves a transfer of risk from employers to employees, who
are more likely to deal with individual managers, without the support of a human resource
management department. But it seems that, despite these disadvantages, many are motivated
by the benefits and the lifestyle.

Drives, motives and motivation

Motivation can be explored from three distinct but related perspectives:

1. Goals. What are the motives for our behaviour? Reward, promotion, empowerment,
responsibility, personal growth? This perspective views motivation in terms of our desired
outcomes or goals, and is explored by content theories of motivation.
2. Decisions. Why do we choose to pursue certain goals? Why do you study hard to earn
distinctions while a friend has a full social life and is happy with pass grades? This
perspective views motivation in terms of the cognitive decision-making processes
influencing an individual’s choice of goals. This question is explored by process theories
Drive an innate,
of motivation.
biological determinant of
behaviour, activated by 3. Influence. How can we get you to work harder? Managers want to motivate employees
deprivation. to turn up on time, to be helpful to customers, ‘to go the extra mile’. This perspective
views motivation as a social influence process and is explored by job enrichment
theories.

Do we inherit our goals, or are they acquired through experience? If our motives
are innate, then it would be pointless to attempt to change them. If they are
acquired, then they can be altered. Our behaviour is influenced by our biological
equipment. We appear to have an innate need for survival. Our needs for oxygen,
water, food, shelter, warmth and sex can be overpowering. These needs are
triggered by deprivation and are known as drives.
Our drives may not be restricted to basic biological needs. Some psychologists
claim that we are active sensation-seekers who have the innate cognitive drives
listed in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Innate cognitive drives

Curiosity The need to explore, to play, to learn more

Sense-making The need to understand the nature of the world around us

Order and meaning The need for order, certainty, equity, consistency, predictability

Effectance or competency The need to exert mastery and control over the world around us

Self-understanding The need to know who and what we are

282 Chapter 9 otivation

Home viewing: ‘good job’

The focal character in Whiplash (2014, director Damien Chazelle) is a young drum-
mer, Andrew Neiman (played by iles Teller) who enrols at the prestigious chaffer
Conservatory of usic. Andrew’s goal is to become ‘one of the jazz greats’, like Buddy
Rich. His bandleader and instructor, Terence Fletcher (J.K. Simmons) has high expectations
of his students. To push Andrew and others to reach their potential, he uses fear and
intimidation, abuse, insults, public humiliation, and physical violence. When a student
commits suicide as a result of this pressure, Fletcher is fired by the school. However, he
defends his methods:

‘Truth is, I don’t think people understood what I was doing at Schaffer. I wasn’t there to
conduct. I was there to push people beyond what’s expected of them. I believe that is an
absolute necessity. Otherwise we’re depriving the world of the next Louis Armstrong. The
next Charlie Parker. There are no two words in the English language more harmful than
“good job”.’

At the end of the movie, Andrew plays an outstanding drum solo. To what extent was
Fletcher responsible for that performance? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
Fletcher’s motivational methods? How widely applicable is this approach?

STOP AND SEARCH YouTube for Whiplash ‘good job’ motivational scene (2:30).

Motive a socially
acquired goal activated
by a desire for fulfilment.
Motivation the
cognitive decision-
making process through
which goal-directed
behaviour is initiated,
energized, directed and
maintained.
The drives come with the body. We do not have to learn to be cold, thirsty or hungry.
However, we can override these drives. Some religious orders inflict celibacy on willing
members. Altruism can overcome personal safety needs in extraordinary circumstances. The
idea that our behaviour is pre-programmed is too simple. Animal behaviour, in contrast, is
triggered largely by instincts. Birds and squirrels cannot override their programming, and
remain locked into their niches in nature. We in contrast seek to satisfy our drives in many
different ways, which differ between individuals and across cultures. David Zweig (2014),
for example, describes those who are not interested in public recognition as ‘invisibles’. They
are motivated instead by the anonymous reward from pride in the work that they do, such
as designing airport signs, making celebrity brand perfumes, or servicing the band’s gear so
that concerts run smoothly.
Motives, in contrast to drives, appear to be goals that we acquire through experience.
Polygamy is a crime in most Western cultures, but a sign of male achievement, wealth
and status in parts of the Arab world. In some Muslim societies, the consumption of alcohol
is punished, but gifts of alcohol are the norm in Western cultures. Our choice of goals and
behaviours is influenced by the norms of our society. Those who choose not to conform
are often shunned, ridiculed, and sometimes imprisoned. Table 9.2 outlines the distinction
between drives (needs) and motives (goals).
Motivation is a broad concept which includes preferences for particular outcomes, strength
of effort (half-hearted or enthusiastic) and persistence (in the face of problems and barriers).
 Content theories 283

Table 9.2: Drives versus motives

Drives (needs) Motives (goals)

Innate Learned

Have a physiological basis Have a social basis

Activated by deprivation Activated by environment

Aimed at satiation Aimed at stimulation

These are the factors that we have to understand in order to explain your motivation and
behaviour. These are the factors which a manager has to appreciate in order to motivate
employees to behave in desirable ways.

Content theories
Theories of motivation based on drives and needs are known as content theories, because
drives and needs are seen as part of our common ‘mental luggage’. We will consider two
content theories: self-determination theory, and the hierarchy of needs theory.

Self-determination theory
Developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, self-determination theory argues that we
have three basic psychological needs, for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci et
Edward Deci al., 2017; Ryan and Deci, 2017). These are innate needs, which are therefore not acquired
through socialization or experience. Meeting these needs is essential for our psychological
growth and well-being, and all three needs are of equal importance. When these three needs
are satisfied, our motivation, performance and wellness are increased. Self-determination
theory thus addresses the twin goals of organizational performance, and individual well-
being defined in terms of life satisfaction, mental and physical health, and vitality (Kanfer
et al., 2017).
Autonomy is defined as ‘individuals’ need to act with a sense of ownership of their
behaviour and feel psychologically free’ (Van den Broeck et al., 2016, p.1198). In other words,
Richard Ryan
we determine our own actions, which are not controlled by external forces. This does not
Self-determination mean that we need to act independently of others, but that our actions are based on our own
theory a content theory preferences and choices – and we can choose whether to meet or to comply with the desires
of motivation which and directions of others. Autonomy is measured by questionnaire items such as: ‘The tasks I
argues that we all have have to do at work are in line with what I really want to do’.
three equally important Competence is defined as the need to feel a sense of mastery over the environment and to
innate psychological develop new skills. Questionnaire item: ‘I feel competent at my job’.
needs for autonomy, Relatedness – concerns the need to feel connected to others, to love and care for, or to be
competence and loved and cared for – a need satisfied when we see ourselves as a member of a group with
relatedness. which we have close relations. Questionnaire item: ‘At work, I feel part of a group’.

STOP AND SEARCH YouTube for Edward Deci: Self-determination theory (8:03).
284 Chapter 9 otivation

Intrinsic rewards It helps to distinguish between intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards.
valued outcomes or
benefits which come
Intrinsic rewards are valued outcomes
from the individual,
within the control of the individual,
such as feelings of
such as feelings of satisfaction and
satisfaction, competence,
accomplishment. For some of us, and
self-esteem and
for some actions, the outcome is its own
accomplishment.
(intrinsic) reward. Mountaineers, poets,
Extrinsic rewards athletes, authors, painters and musicians
valued outcomes or are usually familiar with the concept of
benefits provided intrinsic reward. Few people ever get paid
by others, such as for climbing hills, and there are few wealthy
promotion, pay poets on this planet. Extrinsic rewards are
increases, a bigger valued outcomes that are controlled by
office desk, praise and others, such as recognition, promotion, or
recognition. pay increases. The relationships between
performance and intrinsic reward are more
immediate than those between performance and extrinsic reward. Intrinsic rewards are
thus more important influences on our motivation to work.
Self-determination theory makes a similar distinction between autonomous motivation
and controlled motivation.

Autonomous motivation
Controlled motivation
You do something because you want to do it, because you
are interested and willing, as a matter of personal choice.
The (intrinsic) motivation lies in the activity itself.
You do something under pressure, because you have no
choice, for financial reward or to avoid punishment. The
(extrinsic) motivation lies in the context.

Self-determination theory predicts that controlled motivation leads to a narrowing of effort,

a focus on short-term outcomes, low engagement and poor performance. Autonomous
motivation, in contrast, is predicted to lead to greater persistence, better performance and
improved well-being.
Previous research into motivation and work design has consistently found a desire for
greater autonomy at work, and found links between autonomy and performance (Chapter 14).
Is there support today for the practical application of self-determination theory? A review of
the evidence by Deci et al. (2017) concludes that:

• Autonomous work motivation leads to less stress, emotional exhaustion and burnout and
higher job satisfaction and commitment, and to greater knowledge sharing and work
performance.

• Indicators of job autonomy predict company profitability – a relationship that is

stronger in younger companies than in those which are well-established (employee con-
tribution is presumably more important for companies that are still trying to establish
themselves).

• Management support for employee autonomy is important – acknowledging

employee perspectives, giving feedback, encouraging initiative, offering challenging
assignments.

Is this a Western theory, relevant to individualistic cultures, and not to collectivist cultures such
as those in East Asia? Autonomy in self-determination theory is defined in terms of decision
and choice, rather than in terms of independence and individualism. Research comparing
 Content theories 285

South Korea, Russia, Turkey and the United States found that in all of those cultures, when
employees were more autonomous in their behaviour, they were psychologically healthier.
Research has also suggested that autonomy is important for positive work outcomes in non-
individualistic cultures.

What did they find? Work and wellbeing

?
Erik onzalez- ul and Bethany Cockburn (2017) have been exploring the
effects of job characteristics on health, and in particular on mortality. Over
seven years, they studied the wellbeing of over 2,300 employees in Wisconsin
who were in their 60s, and still employed. As well as monitoring the health
(in some cases death) of their participants, they measured two aspects of their work.
The first concerned job demands, including the amount of work, time pressures, and
the need for high levels of concentration. The second concerned job control, including
discretion over decisions at work. The researchers were interested in the effects of Erik onzalez- ul
different combinations of high or low demand, and high or low control in their
participants’ jobs.

What did they find? What effects did these job characteristics have on employee
health? Were demanding jobs always unhealthy? And were the health effects small,
moderate or significant? (Answers in chapter Recap.)

Bethany Cockburn

Self-determination theory has significant implications for organizational pay policy. It

has long been known that ‘eat what you kill’ incentive schemes do not work well (Kohn,
Hierarchy of needs 1993). Self-determination theory also claims that, when part of your pay depends on your
theory a content performance, that can lower your intrinsic motivation. Why? Money is not an overriding
theory of motivation concern for most of us, and ‘bribing’ people to perform better with cash incentives can
which argues that we be seen as manipulative. Incentive pay schemes also discourage risk taking and creativity,
have innate needs and undermine interest in the job itself. Extrinsic rewards might buy compliance, but
for survival, safety, they do not encourage commitment. Pay for performance (PFP) also emphasizes short-
affiliation, esteem, and term goals, and encourages behaviour that meets those goals whether or not that is best
self-actualization, and practice. PFP requires constant monitoring and evaluation, which can be demoralizing
that we pursue higher (Deci et al., 2017).
order needs only once
our lower order needs Hierarchy of needs theory
have been met.
Self-determination theory is similar in some ways to the hierarchy of needs theory developed
Self-actualization by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943; 1954; 1971). Maslow also argued that
the desire for personal we have innate needs, and identified nine (Figure 9.1). If our biological and safety needs are
fulfilment, to develop not satisfied, we die. If our needs for love and esteem are not satisfied, we feel inferior and
one’s potential, to helpless, but if these needs are satisfied, we feel self-confident. Self-actualization, Maslow
become everything argued, is our ultimate goal, and freedom of inquiry and expression is a prerequisite for this.
that one is capable of Aesthetics and transcendence have been ignored by management writers and researchers who
becoming. have focused instead on self-actualization.