Department of Civil Engineering,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Osun State.

12 March, 2020.

The Coordinator,

CVE 400 – SIWES II,

Department of Civil Engineering,

Obafemi Awolowo University,

Ile-Ife, Osun State.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

This report was written as part of the requirements for CVE 400 – Student Industrial Work

Experience Scheme II. It contains a concise description of my experience during the

attachment.

I have tried my best to complete the report concerning the desired requirements. Kindly

accept this humble effort of bringing forward this report.

Yours faithfully,

OPABODE Moshood

CVE/2015/058

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that OPABODE Moshood (CVE/2015/047) carried out his six-months

industrial training under my supervision in Skylinks Engineering Consult, Old Bodija,

Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

X
Engr. Onaolapo Sulaiman
Project Engineer

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to acknowledge with sincere appreciation, the contributions of my parents, my

brothers, friends, Engr. K.A. Yahaya, Engr. Tayo, Engr. Onaolapo Sulaiman, Mr Adewuyi

Timilehin, Engr. Hakeem and the entire staff of Skylinks Engineering Consult, for their

contributions to making this internship a success.

iv
 ABSTRACT

I was attached with Skylinks Engineering Consult for my six-month industrial training.

Skylinks Engineering Consult is a civil engineering consultancy firm majoring in highway,

structural and geotechnical engineering.

During my internship, out of six departments in the firm, I was majorly posted to work in the

structural department though few weeks were spent in, highways/infrastructures department

and the development/quality management department too. In the structures department, I was

able to learn both manual and computer aided design of structures, the recent industry-

standard method of analyzing and designing structures. I was opportune to visit various

construction sites and saw first-hand how construction works were carried out.

My overall experience during the attachment was an eye-opening and educative one. I was

equipped with numerous industry skills including the use of standard software. The

experience made me have a better appreciation of the courses I had taken in school and to

look forward to the courses I would be taking in subsequent semesters.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ii

CERTIFICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS ix

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Firm 1

1.2 Brief History of SIWES 3
1.2.1 Historical development of SIWES and ITF in nigeria 4
1.2.2 Objectives of SIWES 5
1.2.3 Relevance of SIWES 6
1.3 Organisational Structure 7
TECHNICAL EXPERIENCE AND SKILL ACQUIRED 8

2.1 Overview 8
2.2 Reinforced Concrete Design 8
2.3 Design Methods 9
2.4 General Structural Layout / Arrangement 10
2.5 Design of Structural Members 12
2.6 Design of Solid Slabs 13
2.6.1 Classification of concrete slabs based on design methods 14
2.6.2 Reinforcement design 21
2.6.3 Slab detailing 25

vi
 2.7 Analysis and Design of Beams 27
2.7.1 Loading of beams 27
2.7.2 Beam design 28
2.7.3 Beam Detailing 32
2.8 Analysis and Design of Columns 37
2.8.1 Column reinforcement 40
2.8.2 Column formwork (shuttering) 42
2.8.3 Column detailing 42
2.9 Analysis And Design Of Staircase 46
2.10 Pad Foundation Design 50
USE OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN SOFTWARE 56

3.1 Use of Beamax 56

3.2 Use of CSC Orion: An Overview 60
3.3. Use of AutoCAD 67
3.4 Use of Microsoft Excel 72
EXPERIENCE GAINED ON SITE 74

4.1 Site Experience 74

4.1.1 Concrete mix 74
4.1.2 Concrete placement, finishing and vibration 74
4.2 Reinforcement Arrangement in Slabs, Beams, Column and Stairs 75
4.3 Reinforced Concrete Slab Castng Procedures (A Practical Experience At Aare-Bodija,
Ibadan) and Laying of Reinforcement 79
4.3.1 Curing of the concrete 80
4.3.2 Site challenges 84
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 85

5.1 Conclusion 85
5.2 Recommendations 85
REFERENCES 87

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Organizational structure .............................................................................. 4

Figure 2.1: General arrangement of the structural elements of a building .................. 11

Figure 2.2: Beam section design interface ................................................................... 15

Figure 2.3: Reinforcement comparison........................................................................ 16

Figure 2.4: Bending moment diagram of a frame ........................................................ 19

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS

ARSA Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis

BEME Bill of Engineering Measurements and

Evaluation

BS British Standard

COREN Council for the Regulation of

Engineering in Nigeria

CPT Cone Penetration Test

CPU Central Processing Unit

CTS Concrete Tester and Surveyor

DXF Drawing Exchange Format

GHz Gigahertz

HDD Hard Disk Drive

HP Hewlett-Packard

IP Intecon Partnership

IT Industrial Training

MS Microsoft

NDT Non-destructive Test

QA Quality Assurance

QC Quality Control

RAM Random Access Memory

TFT Thin Film Transistor

ix
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Firm

Skylinks Engineering Consult is located at Albarka Plaza, Awolowo Junction (between

GT and UBA Banks), UI-Secretariat Road, Ibadan. The firm is a partnership office with

Engineer K.A. Yahaya being the principal partner and Engineer Tayo Ayodele as his

partner. Primarily, Skylinks Engineering Consult provides services on the management of

Civil Engineering contracts as well as design and supervision of motorways and

interchange structures, river bridges, marine structures, fluid retaining structures, multi-

storey buildings, office complexes, housing estates, institutional schemes (mosques and

churches inclusive), hotels, theatres, stadia and sporting centres, defence infrastructure

and environmental engineering fields. Structural management (structural reliability

analysis including residual life assessment, remedial and maintenance programmes) with

the latest techniques in the world has now been added.

The firm has enjoyed tremendous patronage that has accrued through the unflinching co-

operation and commitment of her partners, the dedication, loyalty and professionalism of

the engineers and supporting staff and the goodwill of our numerous clients in public and

private. In Nigeria today, the firm has successfully delivered more than 1000 projects all

over the country in different spheres of civil engineering works. This has put the

company in the frontline amongst the providers of civil engineering consultancy services

in the nation. The company’s success factors are solid experiential background,

continuous innovation, quality control practices, high qualification and continuous human

capital development.

x
The firm is composed of well experience professional engineering personnel, with

management and technical known in Engineering consulting services, construction works

and management, Surveying and data base management…There are different department

as mentioned above which include: -

1. Civil/ Structural Engineering

2. Architectural Department

3. Surveying Department

4. Administration Department

5. Accounting Department

6. Geotechnical Investigation Engineering Department e.t.c.

Some of the projects executed include:

1. Institutions such as Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education Ijanikin, etc.

2. Residentials e.g. Housing Corporation, Block V, Plot 1, Bodija Estate, Bodija,

Ibadan, Oyo State. etc.

3. Multi-Purpose Hall at University College Hospital, Ibadan, Oyo State, etc.

4. Offices such as Head office for AROCOM Global Investment Limited Along

Presidential Boule Yard, Kuto Abeokuta Ogun State.

5. Ongoing construction of Staff Quarters at Obasanjo Farms, Sango-Ota, Ogun

State.

xi
1.2 Brief History of SIWES

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a Skill Training

Programme designed to prepare and expose students of the University to the industrial

work situation they are likely to meet after graduation. It was established in 1973 by the

Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in collaboration with the National Universities

Commission (NUC) to solve the problem of adequate practical skills required for

employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions.The need for the

establishment of the scheme aroused when there was a growing concern among

industrialists that graduates of institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical

background required for employment in industries. Thus, the employers were of the

opinion that the theoretical education in higher institutions was not responsive to the

needs of employers of labour. In line with the foregoing, SIWES programme was

designed to complement classroom teaching in the course of studies and to acquaint

students with the skills needed in the industries after graduation. Students on agriculture

programme are attached to farms in the University while students on forestry, science and

engineering programmes are attached to industries and relevant establishments for

duration of six months within the period of their degree programmes. The programme

carries a number of credit units in the University curriculum.

The scheme is funded by the Federal Government of Nigeria and jointly coordinated by

the National Universities Commission (NUC) and Industrial Training Fund (ITF). The

main operators in the SIWES programme are the ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC),

employers of labour and the tertiary institutions. It is funded by the Federal Government

xii
of Nigeria, and beneficiaries of the programme include undergraduate students of

Agriculture, Engineering, Technology, Environmental Science, Education, Medical

Science and the Pure and Applied Sciences (www.itf.com,2009).

1.2.1 Historical development of SIWES and ITF in nigeria

The idea of the SIWES programme started in Cincinnati in USA in 1906. There was a

collaboration that evolved between the universities and industries for providing students

practical experiences. The programme basically involved students going through a form

of apprenticeship programme using the industries as an extension of the school

laboratories. The success of this programme brought a great awareness to a lot of higher

institutions in different countries of the world (Microsoft Students Encarta, 2008).

The idea was imported into Nigeria during the Second National Development Plan

between 1970 and 1974 in order to ameliorate the problem faced by graduates produced

by several institutions of learning within the country who find it difficult to render a

qualitative service in their areas of specialisation for which they have been trained in their

various disciplines. The first thing the federal military Government did was to

promulgate the ITF programme through the decree No. 47 of 1971 during the national

development programme in the post war era, to boost and develop the middle power level

of the Nigerian economy.

The decree charged ITF with the basic aim of promoting and encouraging the acquisition

of skills in industry and commerce with a view to generating a pool of indigenous trained

manpower, sufficient to meet the needs of the economy.

xiii
The fund actually began operation not until its policy statement was introduced alongside

SIWES programme in 1973 after other things had been put in place such as having staff

strength of 10 persons in the professional cadre as of 1986 which has now grown both at

headquarters and area offices. The staff strength of the ITF is approximately 1,400 senior

and junior staff which it disburses its responsibilities in order to be able to meet

concentrations of industries and commerce. The fund has so far established area offices in

18 state capitals (including FCT) nationwide. (SIWES Orientation 2008)

1.2.2 Objectives of SIWES

The objectives of SIWES are as explained below:

 To provide an avenue for students in the University to acquire industrial skills and

experience in their course of study.

 To prepare students for the work situation they are to meet after graduation.

 To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and

machinery that may not be available in their institutions.

 To make the transition from school to the world of work easier, and enhance

students’ contacts for later job placement.

 To provide students with an opportunity to apply their knowledge in real work

situation, thereby bridging between theory and practice.

 To enlist and strengthen employer’s involvement in the entire educational process

of preparing polytechnics graduates for employment in the industry.

xiv
1.2.3 Relevance of SIWES
A major objective of SIWES is to expose students to work, methods and techniques in

handling equipment and machinery that may not be available in the universities. The

Civil Engineering Profession makes use of certain tools and equipment’s in carrying out

its duties, some of which may not be readily available for students to use in the

universities. Hence, the industry provides an opportunity for the student to put into

practice the things he has learnt and to use these tools effectively.

The programme also provides avenue for students in Nigerian Universities to acquire

industrial skills and experience in their course of study. Students are able to meet up with

the changing face of construction as related to the location and other relevant conditions

that may affect sifting.

xv
1.3 Organisational Structure

Technical
Partner

Civil
Surveyors Architect
Engineers

Structural Transport
Surveyors Tracers Architect 1 Draughtmen
Engrs. Engrs.

Structural
IT Students Technologist IT Students
Engr 1

IT Students

Figure 1. Organizational Structure

16
TECHNICAL EXPERIENCE AND SKILL ACQUIRED

2.1 Overview

SIWES Program is aimed mainly at bridging the gap between what is been taught in the class-

rooms and the actual practical work. Experience was gained technically and in other aspects

during the industrial training undergone at the engineering consult firm and this gave better

practical knowledge and understanding of some theoretical terms. Some of the experience gained

include, but not limited to:

 Manual design and detailing of structural members like solid slabs, beams, columns,

column base and staircase were treated and there was better understanding of what

was learnt in school.

 Computer programs like BEAMAX, AutoCAD (Automated Computer Aided

Drawing), CSC OrionTM and Microsoft Excel were used to analyze and design

structural members after been designed manually. The use of AutoCAD in drafting

was well-taught and some real-life projects were been involved in.

 There was privilege to visit some site under construction in order to supervise the

work in progress and meaningful site experiences were gained.

2.2 Reinforced Concrete Design

Reinforced concrete is a combination of two dissimilar but complementary materials, namely

concrete and steel bar. Concrete offers little or no strength in tension but fear in shear. On the

other hand, steel has good tensile properties, poor resistance to fire and very good both in shear

8
and compression. Thus, a combination of these two materials results in good tensile and

compressive strength, durability and good resistance to fire and shear.

Objectives of Design

A reinforced concrete design must satisfy the following functional objectives:

 Under the worst system of loading, the structure must be safe

 Under the working load, the deformation of the structure must not impair the

appearance, durability and/or performance of the structure and

 The structure must be economical, that is, the factor of safety (FOS) should not be too

large to the extent that the cost of the structure becomes prohibitive with no additional

major advantage except for robustness.

These requirements call for good assessment of the intending load, right choice of materials and

sound workmanship. To ensure these, the various components forming the reinforced concrete

and the concrete itself must pass the various tests as detailed in the controlling code of practice.

2.3 Design Methods

The design philosophy of reinforced concrete has gone through various stages of modifications.

The major three are:

I. The permissible stress method where the ultimate strength of the material is divided by

the factor of safety to provide the stresses which are usually within the elastic range. This

method as put to be single and useful but it does have various inconsistencies, because it

is based on the elastic stress distribution. It is not really applicable to a semi-plastic

9
 material (concrete). It is not suitable where deformations are not proportional to load as

in slender column.

The method is not found to be saving when dealing with stability of structure that is

subjected to overturning forces.

II. The load factor method in which the ultimate strength of the material should be used in

the calculation, since this method does not apply material of safety, it cannot be directly

taken into account of variability of the material, hence, it cannot be used to calculate

deflection or cracks at working loads.

III. The limit state method it overcomes many of the disadvantages of the two methods

mention above. It is done by applying FOS to both load and the material. The magnitude

of the factor may be varied so that it may either use for plastic or elastic condition.

2.4 General Structural Layout / Arrangement

It is very vital to be able to generate structural layout from architectural plans as a Structural

Engineer, this is the area where some engineers have problems. Tracing paper was formerly

used to generate the structural layout from architectural plans or drawings but now AutoCAD

software is used which more efficient and reliable.

The architectural drawing enables the engineer to prepare what is normally referred to as the

‘general arrangement’ of the building, popularly called the ‘G.A.’. The G.A. clearly specifies the

disposition of the structural elements such as the columns, beams, and the paneling of the floor

slabs. The G.A. also contains the labelling of the axes and the members, based on the grid lines.

10
After completing the GA, the engineer makes preliminary sizing of the structural elements which

may be governed by past experience or by deflection requirements based on the code of practice.

It is also important to note that the structural layout should be generated from the floor plans
obtained from the Architectural drawings, for example the general arrangement of the first floor
was obtained from the ground floor plan and the first-floor plan in order to properly place the
columns and the beams in such a way that they will not be visible.

There are no spelt out rules about how to select the appropriate general arrangement of a

structure. To me, adequate presentation of the general arrangement has more to with years of

design experience. However, According to Obinna (2017), I’m going to highlight some

important guidelines which are very necessary;

1. Respect the architect’s original disposition: For instance, when arranging your

columns, do not place columns where the architect has meant to be a free space, nor should the

structural elements interrupt the interaction of spaces. Also your columns and beams should

not project out where the architect has intended plane walls or sections etc. Just make your

arrangement consistent with the original form of the structure.

2. Select a stable model: The model or general arrangement you are presenting should be

statically stable, and fully representative of the behaviour of the structure.

3. Buildability and construction consequences: The model you

adopt should be buildable. Consider the technical capacities of the local

contractors that will execute the design from your model. For instance, in

a region where reinforcement bending machines and cranes are

not available, why should you provide models that will require the provision of Y40mm bars,

or recommend the use of precast elements?

11
 4. Know the economic and structural consequences: Between

more steel and more

concrete, which one is more economical? For instance, let us consider an external beam that

is 8m long. If there are no openings at the wall panels under the mid span of the beam, you

can comfortably hide an intermediate column there, thereby having two spans 4m each. The

original 8m beam will require more steel reinforcements, or deeper sections, or both to satisfy

ultimate and serviceability limit state requirements. However, if you introduce a column at the

mid-span, there will be redistribution of stresses, with a hogging moment at the propped

midspan, and hence, generally lesser reinforcements and concrete sections. However, now note

that you are going to construct a new column and new isolated base (requiring concrete,

reinforcement, and additional excavation cost). Between the two options, which one gave you

the most economical solution? That is another influencing factor

AutoCAD is the most common tool for creating a general arrangement. Each architectural plan is

turned into a single entity (by using block command) and assigned a distinguished colour. The

plans are then super-imposed i.e. having storey x on storey x-1 where x is a natural number. The

act of super-imposing plans on each other will show the relationship between the different floors

which helps to further understand the drawings.

After super-imposition, the columns are then positioned accordingly using the lower floor as a

guide. It is a good practice to place columns, vertical axis and horizontal axis on their

distinguished layers1

1
Layers is a very useful feature in CAD that makes it possible to easily control properties of a group of objects; line-
weight, color and line-type

12
2.5 Design of Structural Members

Some new design techniques were taught in designing structural members like slabs, beams,

columns, staircase etc., manually. Some new ideas were introduced like taking the characteristic

strength of reinforcement as 410N/mm2 instead of 460N/mm2 due to variation in the strength and

quality of the steel reinforcement being purchased in the market.

2.6 Design of Solid Slabs

Slabs can be defined as a horizontal concrete component having a uniform depth that transfer

loads directly to the supporting columns with the aid of beams or drop panels. Concrete slabs are

very common and important structural element, are constructed to provide flat, useful surfaces. It

is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom surfaces parallel or near so. The depth

of a concrete slab floor is very small compared to its span. Slabs may be supported on two sides

only or have beams on all four sides.

A Reinforced Concrete Slab is the one of the most important components in a building. It is a

structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported on Columns and Beams. RCC Slabs

whose thickness ranges from 100 to 200 centimeters are most often used for the construction of

floors and ceilings. Thin concrete slabs are also used for exterior paving purpose. In many

domestic and industrial buildings, a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on

the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. In high rises buildings and

skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors

and ceilings on each level.

13
After the generation of the structural layout, the design of the solid slab is done. It was learnt that

slabs may be simply supported or continuous over one or more support and are classified

according to the method of support as follows:

 Spanning one way between beams or walls

 Spanning two ways between the support beams or walls

2.6.1 Classification of concrete slabs based on design methods

One-way slabs

The one-way and two-way slab systems are the most commonly used floor system in reinforced

concrete structure. These slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal, in

building floors, roofs or other type of structures. One-way slabs carrying predominantly uniform

load are designed on the assumption that they consist of a series of rectangular beams 1m wide

spanning between supporting beams or walls.

Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2 explains the share of loads on beams in two perpendicular directions

depends upon the aspect ratio ly/lx of the slab, lx being the shorter span and ly the longer span.

For large values of ly, the triangular area is much less than the trapezoidal area. Hence, the share

of loads on beams along shorter span will gradually reduce with increasing ratio of ly /lx. In such

cases, it may be said that the loads are primarily taken by beams along longer span. The

deflection profiles of the slab along both directions are also shown in the Figure 2.2. The

deflection profile is found to be constant along the longer span except near the edges for the slab

panel. These slabs are designated as one-way slabs as they span in one direction (shorter one)

only for a large part of the slab when ly /lx > 2.

14
For one-way slabs, the bending moments are calculated in the same way as for beams.

Continuity across a beam can be treated as a fixed support if the adjacent slab is spanning in two

directions, otherwise it can be analysed like a continuous beam. In detailing, if a slab is assumed

to be simply supported at an end support, it is advisable to provide reinforcement

for a probable negative bending moment due to the monolithic construction of beams and slabs

Reynolds and Steedman, (2005). In practice, this is normally attained by bending the bottom

reinforcement bars to return to the top and extending it into the span by 0.2L from the face of the

support Clause 9.3.1.2 EN 1992-1-1 (2004).

Two-ways slab

Two-way slabs which are subjected mostly to uniformly distributed loads resist them primarily

by bending about both the axis shown below in Figure 2.2

Approximate analysis is normally employed in the analysis of two-way slabs. The most popular

is the theory of plates utilizing the elastic analysis. A slab may be assumed to be freely supported

when the slab is not continuous, and the edge bears on a block work. If the slab is monolithic

with the beam, then a partial fixity exists. Coefficients for analysis of factored loads on two-way

slabs can be found in BS 8110-1 (1997)

15
Figure 2.1 One-way Slab

16
Figure 2.2 Different types of figures showing (a) one-way slab, (b) two-way slab, (c) variation of
short and long span moments (d) maximum moments along x and y directions

17
The design procedure for both slabs is as follows:

 Loading of slab

The load being imposed on the slab was calculated from the formula

n = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk

n = design load

Gk = dead load which include the self-weight of the slab, floor finishes,

partition allowance and services weight

Qk = imposed load which is obtainable from BS 6399-1

 Calculation of the imposed bending moment

For slabs spanning in one direction, the imposed bending moment is obtainable from

Table 3.12 of BS 8110 – 1 (1997).

For slabs spanning in two direction the imposed bending moment is calculated

from: Msx = αsxnlx2 and Msy = αsynlx2 for simply supported slabs and

Msx = βsxnlx2 and Msy = βsynlx2 for continuous slabs

Where the values for αsx and βsx are obtainable from Table 3.13 and 3.14 of the code for

simply supported slabs and continuous slabs respectively

 Determination of the effective depth d and the lever arm z

18
 The effective depth was gotten from the overall depth (h) of the slab usually taken as

150mm, cover to reinforcement (c) and the diameter of the bar taken as 12mm. It is

expressed mathematically as:

d = h – c – 0.5Øbar

Thereafter the lever arm was gotten from:

z = d (0.5+ ¿ here k = M/(fcubd2) where fcu is the characteristic strength of concrete

taken as 20N/mm2. If the value of k is more than 0.156, the depth of the slab is increased

because slabs are not designed for compression reinforcement.

 Calculation of the area of steel required for both main bars and distribution bars

The area of steel was determined mathematically from the expression:

As = M/(0.95fyz) where fy is the characteristic strength of reinforcement

Taken as 410N/mm2.

 Determination of Minimum and Maximum area of reinforcements

The appropriate reinforcement was determined based on the value of the ASs gotten. And

important to note is the fact that the area of steal must not exceed 4%bh and must not be

less than 0.13%bh.

 Checking for deflection and redesigning if deflection is not satisfied, either by increasing

the amount of reinforcement provided or changing the depth of slab.

The deflection was checked according to the specification in clause 3.5.7 of the code. The

appropriate ratio is obtained from Table 3.9 and modified by Table 3.10.

19
 From Table 3.10 the formula for M.F (Modification Factor) is seen as:

M.F = 0.55+ ( 477−Fs) where M.F ≤ 2

¿¿

From Table 3.9 Fs can be calculated from the expression:

2
Fs = fy x (Asreq/Asprov) x (1/βb)
3

From here the limiting span was determined and compared with the actual span.

l l
Limiting span = M.F x xl where is the basic span/effective depth ratio
d d

obtainable from Table 3.9 of the code BS 8110 Part -1 (1997).

After the completion of slab design, the next stage in the design of R.C structure is the design of

the floor beams.

The steps involved in the design of beams are briefly itemized below:

 Determination of loads and analysis of the structure to determine the bending moments,

shearing forces and torsion moments (if any).

The loads coming on the beams include: self-weight of the beam, wall load and the load

from floor slab.

After the loading of the beams, the analysis could either be done manually by using the

method of Hardy Cross Moment Distribution or with the use of BEAMAX software.

From the analysis the bending moments and shear forces are gotten.

20
  Preliminary member sizing, which although guided by architectural details, was done to

ensure that all standard code requirements are satisfied.

 Detailed analysis of section and design for moments and shear to determine the amount

of reinforcement required so that the beam satisfies the ultimate limit state requirement.

 Detailed check for serviceability requirements such as deflection, cracking etc. was

carried out. Section 3.4 of BS 8110: Part 1: 1997 gives the standard requirements

governing the design of beams.

2.6.2 Reinforcement design

Reinforcement for concrete generally consists of deformed steel bars, or welded steel mesh

fabric. Normal reinforcement relies entirely upon the alkaline environment provided by a durable

concrete cover for its protection against corrosion. Under special circumstances, galvanized,

epoxy-coated or stainless steel can be used. Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.

BS 8110 recommends that design should be based on the characteristic strength of the

reinforcement (fy) and gives typical values for mild steel (R) and high yield steel (Y)

reinforcement, the two reinforcement types available in the Nigeria, of 250 Nmm -2 and 500

Nmm−2 respectively. Reinforcement detailing of slab is done based on its support conditions.

Slabs may be supported on walls or beams or columns.

In one-way slab, main reinforcement is parallel to shorter direction and the reinforcement

parallel to longer direction is called distribution steel. In two-way slab, main reinforcement is

provided along both directions as shown in fig. 2.3 and 2.4 below.

21
Other useful information to take note of in design of solid slab include:

 Span – Effective Depth Ratios; - Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the

ceiling, floor finishes and other architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-

depth ratios. These limits are exactly the same as those for beams. As a slab is usually a

slender member the restriction on the span. The deflection requirements for slabs, which are

the same as those for beams, will often control the depth of slab needed. The minimum

effective depth of slab, dmin, can be calculated using dmin = span / (basic ratio X

modification factor)

 The Modification Factor: The modification factor is a function of the amount of

reinforcement in the slab which is itself a function of the effective depth of the slab.

Therefore, in order to make a first estimate of the effective depth, dmin, of the slab, a value

of (say) 1.4 is assumed for the modification factor. The main steel areas can then be

calculated and used to determine the actual value of the modification factor. If the assumed

value is slightly greater than the actual value, the depth of the slab will satisfy the deflection

requirements in BS 8110. Otherwise, the calculation must be repeated using a revised value

of the modification factor.

22
Figure 2.3 Laying of Reinforcements done at AARE Bodija Ibadan

23
Figure 2.4 Laying of slab reinforcements

24
2.6.3 Slab detailing
Structural drawing is a language to communicate with details and there is a standard to indicate

reinforcement in drawing such as, 5Y12-11-250 which means 5 numbers of High yield steel,

12mm Diameter, Bar mark 11, at 250mm center to center. The reinforcement detailing of

slabs is done with respect to the direction which the reinforcement is spanning. The

reinforcement bars are called out using their respective bar marks. The detailing includes number

of bars, diameter of bars, bar marks, bar spacing, position of bars (top or bottom).

Notation for Slab-

T1- Top outer Layer, T2- Top second layer

B1- Bottom outer layer, B2- Bottom second layer

Figure 2.5 shows the slab reinforcement layout for proposed 3 block of flats for College of

Education, Oyo (SPED)

25
Figure 2.5 Portion of slab reinforcement details for College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

26
2.7 Analysis and Design of Beams

Floor beams in a reinforced concrete framed building normally receive load from the floor slabs,

carry their own self weight, weight of the blocks or bricks (walls), and the weight of finishes. In

typical reinforced concrete buildings, these beams are usually T – beams, L – beams, or

rectangular beams. T- beams are usually internal beams, while external beams are usually L –

beams. Beams that are not carrying any slab load are more often rectangular sections.

In manual analysis of floor beams, loads are transferred from slab to beams based on the yield

line assumption. This depends on if the slab is spanning in one-way or two-way. Typically, for a

two-way slab, the loads are either triangular (for the beam parallel to the short span direction of

the slab) or trapezoidal (for the beam parallel to the long span direction of the slab). This can be

seen in Figure … and the typical load distribution on the beam is shown in Figure…In manual

analysis, it’s quite tedious especially for continuous beam with variable loading and unequal

span. For beams of equal span and similar loading, coefficients for bending moment and shear

can be obtained from Chapter 12 of Reynolds and Steedman (2005). However, for the sake of

convenience, the load transferred from the slab to the beam can be treated as a uniformly

distributed load, and the formulas for the transfer of such loads are given in Chapter 13 of

Reynolds and Steedman (op. cit.).

2.7.1 Loading of beams

The beam arrangements generally, were seen to influence their loadings. Beams supporting some

other beam(s) would carry the reaction(s) of the supported beams; as point load(s), at the point(s)

of support, provided that it is not at column support(s). The basic elements considered,

contributing to the beam loadings are:

27
1) Beam own weight or self-weight; (concrete specific weight multiplied by chosen beam cross

sectional area)

2) Portion(s) of the adjoining lateral slab(s) carried by the concerned beam(s);

3) Uniformly distributed (or rectangular) load(s) from simply supported slab(s), and triangular

load(s) - through shorter span(s) of the slab panel(s), and trapezoidal load(s)- through longer

span(s) of the slab panel(s), from 2-way spanning slab panel(s). These are either converted to

or computed as uniformly distributed loads in kN/m2.

4) Wall load for external beams only. (Width of the beam x self-weight of block x height of the

building x 1.4). These individual loads were added together to come up with the design

uniformly distributed load for each beam design.

5) Supported beams’ corresponding reactions would serve as point loads in kN at their various

points of application. The maximum ultimate bending moment and shear force was

calculated using BEAMAX software.

2.7.2 Beam design

The main objective in design is to achieve an acceptable probability that the structure being

designed will perform satisfactorily during its intended life. In beam design, the appropriate

cross-section and reinforcement are determined so that the beam can sustain all the loads and

deformation of normal construction and use and have adequate durability and resistance against

the effects of misuse and fire.

Design Procedures

(a) Rectangular Beams: (for continuous edges)

• Beam dimensions were chosen:

28
 • Dead and live loads were estimated: with the depth known, the dead (own) load and its

finishes can be estimated and other imposed loads. These loads were expressed as

uniformly distributed loads.

• Analysis: The structure was analyzed to obtain the ultimate bending moments and shear

forces.

• Calculate the k value using

M
K= 2 ≤ 0.156 this means tension reinforcement is not required
bd f cu

( (
z = 0.5 0.25−
√ ))
k
0.9
d≤ 0.95d

M
As =
0.95 fyz

But If K > 0.156 then both tensile and compressive reinforcements are required.

2
( K – K ') f cu bd
A's =
0.95 f y (d −d ' )

M
As = + A's
0.95 fyz

Shear Check

stress was checked for and design for design for shear reinforcement where found inadequate.

29
The design shear stress, v, at any cross section was calculated from:

V
v=
bd

Where: v=shear stress

V=shear force

b=breadth of section

d= effective depth of

the section

v ≤ 0.8fcu or √5.0 N/ mm2

The value of v must be checked against the design concrete shear stress, vc,

vc can be obtained from table 3.8 of BS 8110-1 1997

table 3.7 of BS8110, part 1: 1997 was consulted for the appropriate relationship to be used for

the link design.

Minimum links should be provided for structures of importance. A practical size being 10mm at

300mm or 0.75d, or whichever is smaller.

Flange Beams:

Effective Width of Flanged Beams:

Since the flange, at the mid-span contributes to the compressive resistance of the beam, the

effective width of the flange is of paramount importance. A flanged beam presents itself in

30
building as L or T beam, in most cases. The code suggests the effective width of the flange as

follows:

For T beams:

lz
Effective width = web width +
5

For L beams:

lz
Effective width = web width +
10

Where lz is the distance between points of zero moment which for a continuous beam may be

taken as 0.7times the effective span

The above procedures can then be repeated to calculate the area of steel required.

The deflection was checked the same way the slab deflection was checked.

T and L-section or rectangular section Beams reinforced with tension steel only are referred to as

singly reinforced while Beams reinforced with tension and compression steel are termed doubly

reinforced. Beams are designed as doubly reinforced when the concrete in the compressive part

cannot resist the compressive force hence a compression reinforcement is needed at the top to

help increase its moment of resistance. Furthermore, beams may be simply supported at their

ends, continuous, or cantilever.

All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear. In addition, excessive deflection of beams

must be avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance of the structure may become impaired.

31
Bending and shear are ultimate states while deflection, vibration and cracking are serviceability

state. During my period of industrial attachment, I was able to design most of the beams for this

project using a reinforced concrete spreadsheet as shown below.

2.7.3 Beam Detailing

The detailing of beams generally follows the same principle and pattern once the lap lengths,

curtailment and anchorage length have been calculated. The detailing is however delicate as the

designer must ensure that he doesn’t make errors in producing the detailing drawings. Any

errors in the detailing of a beam could cause major issues of failure in a structure and therefore it

is advisable that the detailing of beams be done by a trusted professional.

In the detailing of beams care must be taken with curtailment lengths, positions and spacing.

Also anchorage length must adequate and the lap length of reinforcement must be sufficient. All

these with the maximum area of reinforcement already put into consideration. The trainee

employed the use of AutoCAD for the detailing of beams. Below in Figure 2.6 is a diagram of a

detailing drawing of the beam at College of Education, Oyo. The detailing drawing includes, the

dimensions of the beam section, the reinforcement diameters, etc. Figures 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9 show

diagram of beam lintel and roof beam trusses

32
Figure 2.6 Beam reinforcement details for College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

33
Figure 2.7 Casting of a beam (lintel)

34
Figure 2.8 A diagram showing the reinforcement pattern of a beam

35
Figure 2.9. A diagram of a roof truss College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

36
 2.8 Analysis and Design of Columns

Column can be defined as a structural element that transmit through compression the weight of

the structure above to other structural elements below. Loads from slabs and beams are

transferred to the foundations through the columns. In typical cases, columns are usually

rectangular or circular in shape. According to Ubani (op. cit.), they are usually classified as short

or slender depending on their slenderness ratio, and this in turn influences their mode of failure.

The function of columns in a structure is to act as vertical supports to suspended members such

as beams and roofs and to transmit the loads from these members down to the foundations.

Columns are primarily compression members although they may also have to resist bending

moments transmitted by beams.

In the modern construction industry, Columns are mostly constructed by concrete; apart from

that materials such as Wood, Steel, Fibre-reinforced polymer, Cellular PVC, and Aluminum too

are been used. The type of material is been decided on the scale, coast and application of the

construction. Figure 2.10 shows a column casting at College of Education, Oyo (SPED).

TYPES OF COLUMNS

Columns can be classified bases on its Shape, Slenderness ratio, type of loading and Pattern of
lateral reinforcement.

Classification Based on Slenderness Ratio

1. Long Column or Slender [The length is greater than the critical buckling length and it fails by

buckling.]

2. Short Column [The length is less than the critical buckling length and it fails by shearing.]

3. Intermediate Column

37
 Classification Based on Shape

1. Rectangle

2. Square

3. Circular

4. Polygon

Classification Based on Type of Loading

1. Axially loaded column

2. Axial load and un-axial bending column

3. Axial load and biaxial bending column

Classification Based on Pattern of Lateral Reinforcement

1. Tied columns

2. Spiral columns

38
Figure 2.10 A column casting done at College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

39
 2.8.1 Column reinforcement

Column reinforcement works needs following checklist on site:

 Check the numbers and diameter of vertical bars

 Spacing between vertical bars

 Check Development length which depends on diameter of bar

 Lapping in alternate bars should come at same height.

 Lapping should not come inside beam or slab.

 Lapping should be at l/3 or 2l/3 of column as per structural notes

 Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing

 Hook should be bend properly at right angles.

 Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of stirrup properly bound

with binding wire. Figure 2.11 below shows column reinforcement being arranged from the

foundation level

40
Figure 2.11 Shows the pad base for both rectangular and circular section

41
 2.8.2 Column formwork (shuttering)
Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh concrete when placed in

structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the structural member to gain sufficient

strength member to gain sufficient strength to carry its self-load and load from other members.

Columns carry the load of structure and hence they are critical. It is important to align them for

verticality so that load is transmitted properly. The column shuttering should be strong enough to

take the pressure of fresh concrete and remain in position during concreting.

Some Guidelines on Column Shuttering

 To hold the concrete shuttering firmly in place and for proper alignment a concrete pad called

starter is cast before fixing the shuttering. The thickness is about 45 mm to 60 mm and

dimensions are precisely the same as the dimensions of proposed column. The starter should be

cured for a day or 2 so that it is hard enough to fix the shuttering around it.

 Column box or shuttering for columns is made of plywood sheets or steel sheets fabricated with

adequate stiffeners.

 A thin film of oil or grease should be applied to inner surface of the shuttering to enable easy

removal of the column after the concrete hardens.

2.8.3 Column detailing

After the design of this column, they are then detailed according to what the design specifies.

The minimum lap length is followed strictly according to code i.e. 44 times the bar diameter and

the anchorage length which will be 4 times the bar diameter this anchorage length caters for the

effect of shrinkage and temperature effects. In every structural element with the need of shear

links, the minimum provision for this, as accepted in the design office, was Y10 @ 250 mm (P),

i.e. 10 mm diameter high yield bar (spaced) at 250 mm. The minimum number of bars for the

rectangular columns was understood to be 4 and the minimum bar diameter to be 16. The figure

42
below shows an example of column details of College of Education, Oyo (SPED). The column

reinforcement details are as shown in figure 2.12

The axial loading on the column may cause buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and

subsequent cracking and spalling of the adjacent concrete cover. In order to prevent

such a situation from occurring, the longitudinal steel is normally laterally restrained at regular

interval by links passing round the bars. Links should be provided at a maximum spacing

of 12 times the size of the smallest longitudinal bar or the smallest cross-sectional dimension of

the column

43
Figure 2.12 Column Details for College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

44
Figure 2.13 Column after been casted and left in formwork for specified period

45
2.9 Analysis And Design Of Staircase

A staircase is a set of steps or flights leading from one floor to another. Each step consists of

horizontal portion known as tread connected to a front part known as riser.

The staircase given by the architect here is the straight flight staircase with an intermediate

landing and has 18 risers. To design this type of stair, the total number of risers was divided by

the floor to floor height of the building which gives the height of each risers and for co mfortable

usage, the best proportions of steps are such that:

Going + 2 × Rise = 580 to 600mm (Oyenuga, 2011).

From these calculations, we were able to arrive at a 300mm going and 165mm riser.

The following are the design procedures and formulas:

a. Effective depth was estimated from:

Effective depth= Overall depth – Cover - 1/2 bar size.

b. Dead and live load was estimated

c. Slope factor was estimated as:

s= √
R2 +T 2
T

Where R is the riser

T is the thread

S is the slope factor

d. Step own load was estimated

e. The design load at ultimate limit state was estimated.

f. Factor the design load with the slope factor excluding step own load

46
g. The imposed bending moment for the step area with the factored design load + the step

own load was calculated

h. Calculate the imposed bending moment for the landings with factored design load only.

i. Calculate the K-value from:

M
k= 2 ≤ 0.156 (Tension Reinforcement only is required)
fcu b d

otherwise compression reinforcement is needed where:

( ( √ ))
z = 0.5 0.25−
k
0.9
d≤ 0.95d

M
j. Area of steel from: As = (mm2)
0.95 fyz

k. The distribution bars and appropriate reinforcements was calculated

l. Check was carried out the same way as that of slab. However, excel calculation

spreadsheet was used for the design of the staircase for this particular project. The figures

2.14 and 2.15 below shows the excel spreadsheet used for the design of College of

Education, Oyo (SPED)

47
Figure 2.14 Staircase Design for EHPA College of Education (SPED) OYO

48
Figure 2.15 Staircase Design for EHPA College of Education (SPED) OYO

49
Staircase detailing

After the designing, the stair case was now detailed according to the design. Staircases are

detailed like slabs; the detailing must include the reinforcement arrangement and details. There

are sectional detailing drawings as well as plan view detailing drawing. A typical example is

figure 2.16; which shows a half-turn staircase of the proposed 3 block of flats designed by the

firm during my period of attachment is shown below.

2.10 Pad Foundation Design

Pad footings are designed to spread axial loads from columns such that

the bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded. The procedure for pad

footing design check is explained below:

 Area of footing required was calculated by dividing unfactored axial load by soil

pressure

 A larger dimension was adopted in order to provide more than the required area for safe

distribution of axial load.

 Design pressure was calculated by dividing factored load by increased footing area.

 The footing was designed as a cantilevering slab (as described in slab design check)

 Critical punching area as shown in Figure 2.17 was calculated by subtracting the un-

hatched area from the footing area. ‘d’ is the effective depth of the foundation.

50
Figure 2.16 Plan and section of staircase

51
Punching force was calculated by multiplying design pressure by critical area

 Punching stress was calculated by dividing punching force by the product of effective depth

of footing and critical perimeter (dashed line).

 Concrete shear stress was calculated as earlier explained in beam design

 The pad footing was adjudged to have passed punching shear check if punching stress is

less than concrete shear stress.

 Critical transverse shear area was calculated by subtracting the un-hatched area from the

footing area. ‘d’ is the effective depth of the foundation.

 Transverse shear force was calculated by multiplying design pressure by critical area

 Transverse shear stress was calculated by dividing transverse shear force by the product

of effective depth of footing and critical perimeter (dashed line).

52
Figure 2.17 Critical Punching Shear Area

53
 Concrete shear stress was calculated as earlier explained in beam design

 The pad footing was adjudged to have passed transverse shear check if transverse shear

stress is less than concrete shear stress.

It is pertinent to note that the rigorous check procedures were programmed with

Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet for ease of design checks.

Pad foundation detailing

Pad base detail is similar to that of slab and this is done with respect to the direction which the

reinforcement is spanning. The reinforcement bars are called out using their respective bar

marks. The detailing includes the Number of bars, Diameter of bar, Bar mark, Spacing of bars,

Positioning of the bar (top or bottom).

Footings generally have cover of between 50 – 75 mm, and the position of the footing must be

well centralized and aligned with respect to all other footings. The figure 2.18 below shows a

typical of a pad base detail for College of Education, Oyo (SPED)

54
Figure 2.18 Pad Base Details EHPA College of Education (SPED) OYO

55
 USE OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN SOFTWARE

3.1 Use of Beamax

Beamax is an application for visually creating, editing and analyzing continuous beams. Fixed,

hinged and roller supports and point and distributed loads are supported. Shear force, bending

moments and displacement curve is displayed graphically. The software is very easy to use; what

is needed is just to input all the parameters of the beam or slab to be analyzed correctly. As a

result of this, it requires the designer to clearly have the fundamental understanding of structural

analysis including all the types of load that could be carried by the structural members in order to

be able to input all the data correctly and also detect any inadequacy in the analysis. The

limitation of this software is that it cannot be used to analyze a beam with varying distributed

loads.

STEPS ON HOW TO USE THE BEAMMAX SOFTWARE

1. Install the beam max software on your computer.

2. Upon successful installation, click on file and go to new.

3. It automatically displays the box which indicates; enter beam length.

4. Enter the beam length and click ok,

5. Depending on the type of load combination on the beam, the next step will depend on the

conditions of loading. For example, let’s take BEAM 1 as an example.

56
Figure 3.1 Beam (1) section to be analyzed
6. From step 4, enter 8.175 in the dialogue box; a straight line of 8.175m is drawn.

7. Choose the simple support icon and enter them at 3.225m, 1.725m and 3.225m intervals.

8. Select the UDL icon and enter 25.32kN/m.

9. After the aforementioned steps had been completed, click on the shear force button and

the shear force diagram is displayed.

10. Click on the bending moment diagram icon and the bending moment diagram is

displayed.

Figure 3.2 below shows the result obtained using the beam max software for the example

above.

ADVANTAGES OF THE BEAM MAX SOFTWARE

 It saves time and is easy to learn and use.

 It helps as a quick check to design done manually.

 It helps avoid manual errors if properly used.

LIMITATIONS OF THE BEAM MAX SOFTWARE

 It is only used for structural analysis and not design.

 It is not user friendly as it does not interact effectively with the user.

 It does not have options for varying uniform loads such as triangular loads, trapezoidal loads,

etc.

 It is only used for the analysis of beams and slabs.

57
 The beammax software does not cater for twist or moments (rotation) along the beam span.

58
Figure 3.2 Diagram showing the shear force, bending moment and deflection diagrams

59
Figure 3.3 Typical Beamax result

60
3.2 Use of CSC Orion: An Overview

CSC Orion is a program that allows you to design simple or complex reinforced concrete

buildings. It works with real physical objects such as beams, columns and slabs. One can choose

from a range of international codes including British Standards and Eurocodes. The program

consists of several modules for performing the following tasks:

 3-D Analysis of the structural model of the building

 Column, Shear wall and Beam Reinforcement Design

 Column, Shear wall and Beam Detailing

 Foundation Design

 Analysis and Design of Stairs

 Concrete and Steel Quantity Extractions

The analysis module has been specifically developed to model building type structures. The

integrated Graphical Editor accelerates the model creation process, minimizing possible user

errors and thus yields a more reliable design.

General characteristics of a building system can be summarized as follows:

 Building geometry generally consists of horizontal (or inclined) beams and vertical (or

battered) columns.

 Most of the beams and columns in the model have similar section properties. Therefore,

they can be grouped into different types and size of the data input files can be shrieked

recognizably. However, it must be possible to model all types of column sections (with or

without holes).

61
  Slabs with relatively higher in-plane stiffness, are utilized to form separate or complete

rigid diaphragms at the same floor level.

 Vertical loads (dead and imposed loadings) and floor level horizontal loads (wind and

earthquake or notional horizontal loads) act to the model. For special cases, individual

columns or shear walls may be exposed to nodal loadings (force and moment) in all

directions. Besides these, direction dependent dead and live loads must be acquainted for

in the usual building systems.

 Member sizes must be considered during analysis phase and all effects must be calculated

at member faces.

 Rigid zones at column-beam connections must be modelled in detail together with

possible symmetric or asymmetric hinges.

 Shear wall members have a significant effect on building behaviour. Therefore,

modelling of these members must be as close to the real as possible. Alternative options

must be supplied for cross-checking.

Users spend most of their time checking the output reports and trying to find the member results

in the analysis output. Analysis results generated by Orion’s Analysis Module are summarized

and transferred automatically to design modules after the analysis stage.

Orion includes the requirements of the codes of practices for each supported region. In all stages,

necessary checks are carried out automatically by the program.

Orion can only be used by Structural Engineers who have considerable knowledge of:

 Codes of practice and regulations used in their region.

 Analysis and design of building type structures.

62
Orion has been tested on several models before being released. However, in all cases, the user is

the sole person responsible for the results generated by the program. The user must, therefore,

check the program output before using them in design (Kubin, 2008).

Introduction

When a new project is created on Orion, the “Project Parameters” menu that contains

the general settings for the current project will be displayed. Using this menu, most of

the analysis parameters such as analysis type and material properties can be defined

for the selected project.

Project Manager

Orion provides a fast way to manage projects by previewing them in a single window.

Projects in the current “Orion Data Directory” are listed by their names and

thumbnails as shown in fig… Using the “Project Parameter” menu, the following can

be defined.

 The concrete, loading and bar bending codes

 Analysis parameters

 Concrete and steel grades

 Lateral load parameters

 Bracing controls

 Project title information

Graphical Editor

A graphical user interface-based editor is provided for facilitating the preparation of

the analytical model of the structure. The graphical editor is equipped with standard

63
 MS-Windows user-interface features such as pull-down menus, toolbars, icon

menus to provide better and faster data input. It is as shown in fig…

When started, Orion will display the “Project Manager” (fig 3.4) for selecting the active project

or defining a new project. After making the selection in this menu, the Graphical Editor (fig 3.5)

will be loaded.

The graphical Editor window is composed of the following parts:

Pulldowns Pulldown menus are located above the drawing environment area.

All commands are located in the pulldown

Toolbars Customizable Toolbars are provided for facilitating the menu

access. Almost all menu items in the pulldown are available in

toolbars

Status Bar All prompts and help to user appear in the status bar. Status Bar is

located at the lower left corner of the Graphical Editor Window

Properties Properties Window is a floating window having its own member

Window group title. A Property window for each member type can be

opened by choosing a member from the Member pulldown or by

selecting the properties option in the shortcut menu of a currently

selected member. All data fields for the selected member will be

available in the menu area.

Plan Window The middle-right section of the Graphical Editor Window

64
 displaying drawings, surrounded by the above menus. View

orientation is from a point on the positive Z axis

3D Window Up to two 4D views of the model can be concurrently made active.

View Orientation can be set using the provided option buttons

Shortcut Displayed by right-clicking as a cascading menu at the cursor

Menu location on the plan window or structure tree area. Provides quick

access to context –sensitive menu items for the selected members

in the drawing area.

Note that, when no member is selected, by right-clicking any

toolbar, you can display, hide or customize toolbars

Structure Tree Structure tree provides a complete hierarchical list of all axes and

members in the selected storey. Members may easily be selected

by clicking on their labels under the storey they belong. Selected

members will also be highlighted in plan and 3D windows. Also

provides quick access to many menu options displayed by right-

clicking in the selected node.

View Control View Control Buttons are used to swap between Orion screen

Buttons views such as Column application, Foundation.

65
Figure 3.4 The Project Manager Box

66
Figure 3.5 The Graphical User-Interface Editor

67
3.3. Use of AutoCAD

This is drafting software for the production of drawings and it is gaining very wide popularity in

Civil/Structural Engineering practice. Some packages such as Eagle Point (Highway Engineering

Design Packages) is based on AutoCAD. That is, AutoCAD and the packages are loaded

automatically. Over the years, AutoCAD has evolved from a DOS 2-based, command-line driven

program to a full-fledged Windows application. The current AutoCAD version in the market as

at the time of this writing is AutoCAD 2020, which is marginally different from AutoCAD 2013

and AutoCAD 2017. AutoCAD 2020 continues the trend with a new look and a wealth of new

features that allow work to be done more efficiently and with less effort.

The AutoCAD Program Windows is divided into five parts as follows:

 Pull-down menu bar,

 Docked and floating toolbars,

 Drawing area,

 Command window and

 Status bar.

A typical arrangement of the elements in the AutoCAD window is as shown in figure 3.6

2
2 DOS – Disk Operating System is a computer operating system

68
Figure 3.6 A typical arrangement of the elements in the AutoCAD window

69
A sixth hidden component, the Aerial View Window, Displays the entire drawing and allows the

selection of close-up views of parts of the drawings. Some of these parts are explained below:

 The Drawing Area and Status Bar: The drawing area – workspace –occupies most the

screen. Everything drawn appears in this area. As the mouse is moved around, the cross

hairs appear to move within the drawing area. At the bottom of the drawing area is the

Status Bar, which gives information at a glance about the drawing. For example, the

coordinate readout toward the far left of the status line tells the location of the cursors.

The default drawing area background is black and this can be altered using the options

dialog box.

 The Command Window: At the bottom of the screen, just above the status bar, is a small

horizontal window called Command window. Here, AutoCAD displays responses to all

input. It shows three lines of text. The bottom line shows the current messages and the

top two lines show messages that have scrolled by or in some cases, components of the

current message that do not fit in a single line. As a new user, it is important to pay

attention to messages displayed in the Command window, because it is the only source of

communication with the user. Beside the message, the Command window records the

activities carried out in AutoCAD. The scroll bar to the right of the Command window

can be used to review previous messages. The window can also be enlarged for better

view.

The Pull-down Menu: Like most Windows programs, the pull-down menus available on

menu bar offer an easy-to-understand way to access the general controls and settings for

AutoCAD. These menus contain the command and functions that are the heart of

AutoCAD. By clicking the menu items, so many functions can be carried out including

70
 cut and paste items to and from AutoCAD, change the settings that make AutoCAD work

the way it is wanted, to set up the measurement system and access the help system, to

mention but a few.

 The Toolbars: While the pull-down menus offer a full range of easy-to-understand

options, they require some efforts to navigate. The toolbars, on the other hand, offer

quickly, single-click access to the most commonly used AutoCAD features. The most

commonly used toolbars are displayed while others are available when involved (open).

The tools in the toolbars perform three types of actions, just like the pull-down menu

commands. They display further options, open dialog boxes, and issue commands that

require keyboard or cursor input.

The Menu bar, Standard, Properties, Draw and Modify toolbars and the Command Window are

as shown in figure 3.7

AutoCAD’s toolbars contain tools that represent commands. To help in understanding

each tool, a tool tip appears just below the arrow cursor when the cursor is rested on a tool. Each

tool tip helps to identify the tool with its function.

One unique characteristic of AutoCAD’s toolbar is their mobility. They can be either floating

anywhere on the AutoCAD window or in a docked position. Docked means the toolbars is placed

against the top and side borders of the AutoCAD window, so that the toolbar occupies a minimal

amount of space. The toolbar can be moved to any location on the desktop.

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Figure 3.7 The Menu bar, Standard, Properties, Draw and Modify toolbars and the Command
window

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3.4 Use of Microsoft Excel

Excel is a spreadsheet program that organizes and keeps track of data, which can be used to

create charts, worksheets, and databases. Excel is frequently used for its ability to perform

mathematical calculations with large volumes of data. It also produces graphs and charts with

ease.

Basics

To open Excel from the computer desktop page, click on the Start button in the lower-left corner

of the screen and select PROGRAMS > MS OFFICE > Microsoft Excel.

The Excel Environment

At the top of the window is a blue bar called the title bar. The title bar contains the name of the

application, Microsoft Excel, and the name of the workbook you are working in, which Excel

automatically calls Book1 until you name it otherwise. A workbook is the file in which you work

and store your data. The title bar also contains the minimize button, the maximize/restore button,

and the close button.

The largest portion of the screen is taken up by a view of the worksheet area. Worksheets are

used to list and analyse data. At the bottom left of the screen are worksheet tabs that indicate the

active worksheet. By default, new workbooks contain three worksheets.

At the bottom and right of the screen are scrollbars, which can be used to view parts of the

worksheet that are off screen.

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Along the left and top of the worksheet area are row headings and column headings. Rows are

denoted by numbers and columns are denoted by letters.

The thick black rectangle indicates the selected cell. A cell is the intersection of a row and a

column. The selected cell’s reference, A1, appears in the name box. The cell reference is

composed of the column letter followed by the row number. To the right of the name box is the

formula bar, which is where text and formulas are entered and edited for each cell. Below the

title bar is the menu bar, containing lists of commands you use to give Excel instructions. The

standard toolbar resides below the menu bar, and contains buttons with images that correspond to

some frequently-used menu commands.

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 EXPERIENCE GAINED ON SITE

4.1 Site Experience

Being in the field or on project site gives one a very valuable experience where one can

experience the complexity of the work and that what is being taught in schools isn’t enough. One

will learn more practical approach and quick problem solving skills out there in the field.

4.1.1 Concrete mix

Concrete is the single most important material in modern building and concrete mix proportions

are the most important aspects of working with concrete. Without concrete, residential homes

and commercial buildings fall. Concrete is literally the foundation of development. There are

only four fundamental ingredients in concrete: cement, aggregate, sand, and water, but each

serves a particular purpose. A mixing ratio of 1:3:6 (1 head pan of cement to 3 head pans of fine

aggregate to 6 head pan of coarse aggregate) was used on site for all the structural elements

casted using a cement grade of 42.5. Mixed concrete were being transported by the use head pan

and wheel barrow, although this was slow and labor intensive but it was the best suited for the

job at hand as it was a small job and so was the distance of the mixing bay to the placement

position.

4.1.2 Concrete placement, finishing and vibration

Concrete placing, finishing, and curing operations are just as important in obtaining quality in

the completed structure as the inspection of the materials and the mixing operations. The Site

Engineer observed these operations to assure that they comply with good construction

procedures. All concrete was consolidated to remove air pockets and settle the concrete into

place. Vibration of concrete makes it more workable and it makes relatively dry concrete behave

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like concrete having a higher slump. Figure 4.1 below shows a poker machine being used for

vibrating concrete after placement

4.2 Reinforcement Arrangement in Slabs, Beams, Column and Stairs

High yield reinforcement of 12mm in diameter at a spacing of 150mm centers was used

throughout for the main bars both at the top and bottom of the slabs (i.e. Y12@150mm) while a

spacing of 200mm was used for the distributions.

Reinforcement sizes differ in Columns and beams depending on how much load and moment is

induced at the sections.

Roof slab carrying water tank was provided with Y20mm bars at a spacing of 150mm at the span

and Y16mm @ 200mm at the support while Y12@150mm bars are provided for the

distributions. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 below shows the arrangement of reinforcement in slabs, beams

and stairs

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,

Figure 4.1 Vibrating of Concrete

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Figure 4.2 Reinforcement bars for slabs being put in place

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Figure 4.3 Arrangement of reinforcement for beams and slabs

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4.3 Reinforced Concrete Slab Castng Procedures (A Practical Experience At

Aare-Bodija, Ibadan) and Laying of Reinforcement

It shall be as per BBS prepared according to approved drawing. The reinforcement positioning

and binding shall be started as soon as shuttering is completed. Reinforcement binding shall

continue as formwork and shuttering work is progresses. The calculation been made is used for

the laying of the reinforcement according to BS 8110 after the TOP and BOTTOM bars have

been calculated as shown in figure 4.4 and figure 4.5. Formwork is a box-like setup in which

concrete is poured for the construction of slabs. For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel

bars are placed within the formwork and then the concrete is poured. Plastic tipped metal, or

plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars away from the bottom and sides of

the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement.

Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of

sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a

tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

Formworks are majorly designed to carry and to put in place concretes, they hold the shape of

beams, slabs, columns, stairs etc. being designed. The formwork is commonly built from wooden

planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are

more common as they save labor. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left

there permanently. In some cases, formwork is not necessary – for instance, a ground slab

surrounded by brick or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and

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hard-core acts as the base (The constructor, 2016). Figure 4.6 below shows formwork for column

been put in place.

4.3.1 Curing of the concrete

The curing shall be started immediately after thumb set of the concrete laid. Hessian clothe /

Plastic shall be covered over the set concrete to reduce moisture evaporation from the concrete

during hardening and thus to minimize shrinkage crazy cracks. These cracks are inheriting

property of the concrete specially appears during casting of flat surfaces.

Final curing shall be done by ponding and stacking water for minimum period of 7 days

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Fig 4.4 Laying of Reinforcement for Slab done at Aare-Bodija Project

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Figure 4.5 slab reinforcement and electrical layout

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Fig 4.6 Formwork done for Beam at AARE Bodija Ibadan

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4.3.2 Site challenges
1. Due to a very steep slope of a flight of stair, changes were made to the positioning of the

stair to reduce the slope.

2. Also, Iron benders do not follow the detailing of some staircase thereby necessitate the

removal of already laid reinforcements and this results in extension of the time of

completion of the activity.

3. Formworks in some landings and cantilever slabs were asked to be adjusted to prevent

collapse as they do not have sufficient restraint or none in some due to the carpenter not

getting the interpretation of the drawing.

4. The M & E installed large diameter pipes inside the slabs without prior notice of the

Structural Engineer to have factored this into the design

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 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

An account of the work done and experience acquired during the six months Student

Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) undertaken at Skylinks Engineering Consult,

Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria between September 2019 and February 2020 has been presented in

the report. The projects undertaken were basically reinforced concrete design, use of software to

aid design and supervision of construction activities. The experience has enriched my

knowledge of Civil Engineering and application of knowledge acquired in class to real work

situations thereby bridging the gap between theory and practice. The industrial experience was

indeed worthwhile.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the experience acquired during the SIWES period, the following recommendations

are made:

 The department should try as much as possible to equip students with the requisite

software and manual design knowledge before releasing them to go for their industrial

training; taking some tutorial classes with them before they depart won’t be a bad idea,

this will help the student to compete favorably with their counterpart out there, make them

useable and teachable in their place of attachment and also help build & harness self

confidence level. I feel this is critical.

 There s h o u l d be periodic visits of Civil Engineering Students to Construction and

Consulting firms to open them up to the practice of Civil Engineering.

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 Application of software in design should be encouraged in relevant Civil and

Environmental Engineering courses such as AutoCAD Civil 3D; Civil CAD in

Engineering Survey and Highway Engineering; SAP2000, STAAD Pro, Protastructure

and CSC Orion in design of both reinforced concrete and steel.

 The school management should intensify their efforts in placement drive so that students

can commence their training as early as possible to enable prospective participants to

secure suitable firms for the SIWES.

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 REFERENCES

BS 8110 – 1:1997: Structural use of concrete Part1: Code of practice for design and construction.

British Standard Institutions.

Chanakya, A. (2009). ‘Design of Structural Element’. 3rd ed. Master e-book ISBN Taylor &

Francis, New York.

EN 1992-1-1: 2004 (Eurocode 2): Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and

rules for buildings.

Obinna, U.U. (2017). ‘Practical Structural Analysis and Design of Residential Buildings’. 1st

ed. The University Press, Lagos, Nigeria.

Oyenuga, V.O. (2011). ‘Simplified Reinforced Concrete design (A Consultant/Computer-Based

Approach)’. 2nd ed. Astrols Limited, Lagos, Nigeria.

Orion reference Manual, PROTA Software Limited, Ankara

Reynolds C.E, Steedman J.C. (2005). “Reinforced Concrete Designer’s Handbook”. 10th ed.

Spon Press, Taylor and Francis Group, New York.

The Constructor, C.E.H., 2016. Advantages of Timber Roof Trusses in Building Construction

[WWW Document]. The Constructor. URL

https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/timber-roof-trusses-advantages/13875/ (accessed

3.10.20).

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