COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

FOR RIVER BRIDGES

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
(with Specialization in Geotechnical Engineering)

By
S. PRAVEEN KUMAR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE -247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2007
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in this thesis entitled, "Computer

Aided Design of Pile Foundations for River Bridges" in fulfillment of the requirement for

the award of the degree of Master of Technology and submitted in the Department of Civil

Engineering, of the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India, is an

authentic record of my own work carried out under the supervision of Dr. G. Ramasamy,

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee and Dr. Bhupinder Singh,

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, I.I.T. Roorkee.

Place: Roorkee 0.4

Date: 2404)7 (S. PRAVEEN KU AR)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my

knowledge and belief.

• BHU NDER SIN Dr. G. RAMASAMY

Assistant Professor, Professor,
Department of Civil Engg, Department of Civil Engg,
Indian Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee -247667, (India) Roorkee -247667, (India)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude to

Dr. G. RAMASAMY, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee and Dr. BHUPINDER SINGH, Assistant Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee,
for their esteem guidance and valuable suggestions without which it would not have
been possible for me to compile this thesis work in the present form.

My sincere thanks to my parents who have been constant source of inspiration

to me and I am also grateful to my friends who have provided valuable help and
suggestions at different stages of my work.

Dated: JUNE, 2007 (S.PRAVEEN MAR)

 ABSTRACT

Piles are relatively long and slender members used to transmit foundation loads
through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata having a high
bearing capacity. They are also used to resist heavy uplift forces or to resist horizontal
loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation construction for works over water,
such as river bridges. The time involved in the analysis and design of pile foundations
can be minimized by using computer packages. A user friendly interactive package for
design of pile foundations for river bridges has been developed. The package can be
run on any personal computer and has been developed in Turbo C++ programming
language.

Some salient features of the package are:

Estimation of scour depth, proportioning of pile group, structural design of
pile and structural design of pile cap.
Relevant knowledge base derived from codal provisions and standard design
practices is in-built in the package and the same can be accessed online so as
to enable the user to make the right design choices.

ii
 CONTENTS

Page No.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. River bridge foundations 1
1.2. Scope of the present work 1
1.3. Organization of the thesis 2
CHAPTER 2: DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS FOR RIVER BRIDGES
2.1. Typical bridge pier foundation 3
2.2. Estimation of scour depth 4
2.3. Estimation of loads for foundation design
2.3.1. Loads from the super structure 5
2.4. Proportioning of pile group 6
2.4.1. Selection of type of pile 6
2.4.2. Selection of pile diameter and length 8
2.4.3. Estimation of single pile capacity 8
2.4.4. Selection of Number, Spacing and 15
Arrangement of Piles
2.4.5. Group capacity 16
2.4.6. Pile group settlement 18
2.4.7. Design load on a single pile 20
2.4.7.1. Axial Load 20
2.4.7.2. Lateral Load Analysis 22
2.5. Structural design 25
2.5.1. Design of Pile 25
2.5.1.1. Calculation of moments due to Handling 25
2.5.1.2. Calculation of Effective Length of a pile 26
2.5.1.3. Detailing of reinforcement in piles 27
2.5.1.4. Driving Stresses 30
2.5.2. Design of pile cap 33
2.5.2.1. General 33
2.5.2.2. Design steps for a pile cap 34
2.5.2.3. Calculation of reactions coming from each pile 34
2.5.2.4. Calculation of Bending Moment 35

iii
 2.5.2.5. Check for One-way Shear 36
2.5.2.6. Check for Two-way Shear 37
2.5.2.7. Check for Development Length 38
2.5.2.8. Detailing of reinforcement 39
CHAPTER 3: FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPED COMPUTER PACKAGE
3.1. General 41
3.2. Estimation of scour depth 41
3.3. Proportioning of pile group 42
3.3.1. Characterization of Soil Profile 42
3.3.2. Safe Pile Capacity 42
3.3.3. Number and Spacing of Piles 43
3.3.4. Pile Group Capacity 43
3.3.5. Structural design of pile 45
3.3.5.1. Equivalent Cantilever Method 45
3.3.5.2. Effective length 47
3.3.5.3. Reinforcement Detailing 47
3.3.6. Structural design of pile cap 50
3.3.6.1. Calculation of Bending Moment 50
3.3.6.2. Calculation of Reinforcement 50
3.3.6.3. Check for One-way Shear 50
3.3.6.4. Check for Two-way Shear 50
3.3.6.5. Check for Development Length 51
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. General 52
4.2. The problem 52
4.3. Output file of results 53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS
5.1. Introduction 58
5.2. Conclusions 58
5.3. Scope for further work 59
REFERENCES 60
APPENDIX — A. Supporting long hand calculations for the 62
Illustrative problem

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Figure. 2.1. Typical pile foundation for a river bridge pier 3
Figure. 2.2. Bearing capacity factor Ng for piles penetrating into sand 12
Figure. 2.3. Design curves for adhesion factor for piles driven into clays 14
Figure. 2.4. Typical pile group patterns 17
Figure. 2.5. Pile group subjected to moments 21
Figure. 2.6. Determination of depth of fixity of a pile 22
Figure. 2.7. Reduction factor for free head pile 24
Figure. 2.8. Reduction factor for fixed head pile 25
Figure. 2.9. Minimum steel requirements of precast concrete pile 30
Figure. 2.10. Reactions on pile cap 35
Figure. 2.11. Pile effect on critical section for one-way shear 37
Figure. 2.12. (a). Plan arrangement of reinforcement in pile caps 39
Figure. 2.12. (b). Plan arrangement of reinforcement in pile caps 40
Figure. 2.13. Typical details of a 2-pile cap 40
Figure. 3.1. Flow chart to compute scour depth 41
Figure. 3.2. (a) Flow chart to compute single pile capacity 42
Figure. 3.2. (b) Flow chart to compute single pile capacity 43
Figure. 3.3. Flow chart to compute group capacity of pile group 44
Figure. 3.4. Flow chart for calculating design moment on a pile 46
Figure. 3.5. Flow chart for calculating the effective length of a pile 48
Figure. 3.6. Flow chart for calculating reinforcement in the pile 49
Figure. 3.7. Flow chart for structural design of pile cap 51
Figure. 4.1. Soil profile at bridge site 53
 LIST OF TABLES

Page No.
Table. 2.1. Silt factors for sandy beds, IRC: 78-2000 5
Table. 2.2. Values of the coefficient of horizontal soil stress (Tomlinson) 10
Table. 2.3. Limiting values of unit skin friction resistance 10
Table. 2.4. Angle of friction between pile and soil for various
interface conditions 11
Table. 2.5. Typical values of horizontal subgrade reaction and a constant for
preloaded clays, (IS: 2911-1979) 23
Table. 2.6. Bending moments due to handling of piles 26
Table. 2.7. Summary of provisions related to design of columns 29
Table. 2.8. Values of coefficient of restitution 32
Table. 2.9. Values of efficiency 33
Table. 2.10. Design bond stress for plain bars in tension, IS: 456-2000 38

vi
 CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION.

1.1 RIVER BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS

The design of foundations is an important part of the overall design of a bridge and
it affects to a considerable extent the safety and economy of the bridge. The purpose of any
foundation is to transfer the load from the superstructure to the earth in such a manner that
the stresses on the soil are not excessive and the resulting deformations are within
acceptable limits. The design demands a detailed knowledge of hydraulics, soil mechanics
and structural analysis. The foundations which are constructed for river bridges should be
taken to a depth which is safe from scour, and is adequate from considerations of bearing
capacity, settlement stability and suitability of strata at the founding level. For river
bridges, well foundations or pile foundations are usually preferred. The selection of the
foundation system for a particular site depends on many considerations, including the
nature, of subsoil, the presence or otherwise in the subsoil of boulders, buried tree trunks,
etc., and the availability of expertise and equipment with the contractors operating in the
region where the bridge work is located. Generally, Piles would be suitable when a thick
stratum of soft soil overlays a hard soil. Well foundations are usually preferred in sandy
soils.

1.2 SCOPE OF THE PRESENT WORK

The analysis and design of pile foundations is generally done by a trial and error
process and many interactive trials have to be made to arrive at an acceptable design. In
addition, sometimes revision of analysis and design due to minor unanticipated changes
due to site conditions or other reasons, leads to enormous amount of repetitive and
monotonous work. This often causes the designers to resist revision even when it seems to
be otherwise desirable. Thus, if the amount of effort and time involved is reduced, it will
cause relief to the designer and to the ultimate user. Computer aided design of pile
foundations is best suited to perform this task.

Keeping all these aspects in view, this dissertation is an attempt in this direction,
The broad objectives of this dissertation are summarized below:
1) To develop a comprehensive software for the design of pile foundations for
river bridges.
To facilitate its use, it is envisaged that the package being developed be
interactive and user friendly.

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

• The introduction to the thesis and the scope of the present work together with the
organization of the thesis is contained in Chapter-1.
• Chapter-2 discusses the design steps for pile foundations in detail and summarizes
the available literature / knowledge base on such foundations and the IS code
provisions related to design of pile foundations.
• Features of the package developed along with user guidelines are given in
Chapter-3.
• The application of the proposed package to the analysis and design of a typical pile
foundation is presented in Chapter- 4.
• The conclusions from the present study are discussed in Chapter-5.
• References form the last part of this thesis.

2
 CHAPTER- 2
DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS FOR RIVER BRIDGES

This chapter discusses in detail the analysis methods and design principles, together •
with the theoretical background and the relevant codal prOvisions governing the analysis
and design of pile foundations.

2.1 TYPICAL BRIDGE PIER FOUNDATION

For the purpose of illustration, a typical bridge pier foundation is presented in Fig.
2.1. The two components of the foundation in this case are the pile cap and the piles.

Fig.2.1 Typical pile foundation for a bridge pier

3
2.2 ESTIMATION OF SCOUR DEPTH
In order to design the foundation for a bridge, the designer must determine the
maximum likely scour depth at the location of the foundation. The foundation should be
taken to a depth which is safe from scour, and is adequate from considerations of bearing
capacity, settlement stability and suitability of strata at the founding level.
Scour of stream bed occurs during the passage of a flood discharge, when the
velocity of the stream exceeds the limiting velocity that can be withstood by the particles
of the bed material. The scour is aggravated at the nose of the piers and at bends. The
pattern of scour occurring at a bridge site crossing a river depends on many factors
including discharge in the stream, bed material, bed slope, direction of flow, and alignment
of piers, their shape and their size. Hence precise prediction of scour depth is a difficult
task.
Presently, Lacey's formula as recommended by IRC: 78-20008 for alluvial beds
and regime channels is being used to compute the normal depth of scour, measured

below the high flood level (HFL), as follows:

( No.33
D2b
ds„,=
1.34 (2.1)

where,
D b =
Design discharge for foundation per meter width of effective linear
waterway, in cumecs/m.
Q Q is the design discharge in the river in cumecs and L 4.83
— =
L
is the linear waterway in meters.
= Silt factor for a representative sample of the bed material obtained upto
the level of the anticipated deepest scour.

1.76 Ildni , dm is the median size of the bed sediments in millimeter.

The silt factor for the bed material depends on the type and median size of the bed
material. The IRC: 78-20008 recommended values of silt factor for sandy beds are
presented in Table-2.1.

4
 Table-2.1: Silt factors for sandy beds, IRC: 78-20008
Type of bed material d,„, (mm) K AI

Coarse silt 0.04 0.35

Silt/fine sand 0.081 to 0.158 0.5 to 0.6
Medium sand 0.233 to 0.505 • 0.8 to 1.25
Coarse sand 0.725 1.5
Fine bajri and sand 0.988 1.75
Heavy sand 1.29 to 2.00 2.0 to 2.42

As per recommendations of 1RC:78-20008, the maximum depth of scour, dmax ,

below the highest flood level (HFL) for the design of piers and abutments having
individual foundations without any floor protection may be considered as twice the mean
scour depth.

dmaX = 2.0*
ds , (2.2)

2.3 ESTIMATION OF LOADS FOR FOUNDATION DESIGN

2.3.1 Loads from the super structure

The following loads of the super-structure shall be considered for foundation
design:
1. Dead load.
2. Live load.
3. Snow load.
4. Impact or Dynamic effect due to vehicular traffic.
5. Wind load.
6. Longitudinal forces caused by the tractive effort of vehicles.
7. Longitudinal forces due to frictional resistance of expansion bearings.
8. Centrifugal forces due to curvature.
The above loads can be estimated using standard procedures for the analysis of
bridge superstructures and are not dealt within detail over here.

5
 The resultant loads on the pile foundations due to all forces acting on the
superstructure and piers consist of the following components:
1. Resultant vertical load acting in the downward direction.
2. Resultant moment about XX-axis.
3. Resultant .moment about YY-axis.
4. Resultant Horizontal load acting along the XX-axis and
5. Resultant Horizontal load acting along the YY-axis.
Horizontal forces are caused to earthquake forces and force due to flowing water.

2.4. PROPORTIONING OF PILE GROUP:

The various steps involved in the proportioning of pile foundation for river bridges
may be listed as follows:
a. Selection of type of pile.
b. Selection of pile diameter and length.
c. Estimation of single pile capacity
d. Selection of number, spacing and arrangement of piles in a group.
e. Estimation of pile group capacity, and
f. Estimation of pile group settlement.

2.4.1 Selection of type of pile:

Piles may be classified according to the principal materials of which they are made.
On the basis of material of construction, piles may be classified as Timber piles, Concrete
piles and Steel piles. Generally, piles are divided into the following categories:

1. Displacement piles:
These piles comprise of solid or hollow sections with closed ends which are driven
or jacked down and hence, they displace the soil. These are further classified as:

a. Precast driven piles:

This is a preformed structural member which is hammered, driven, jacked or
screwed into the ground by a driving rig.

6
 The pile is easy to cast, can be well inspected before driving. But the pile is prone
to damage during driving and it provides limited flexibility with respect to variation in its
length when variable bearing stratum is encountered in the foundation area.

b. Driven cast-in-situ piles:

This is a tube like structure which is driven into the ground and then concreting is
carried out. The pile has perfect flexibility with respect to'its length. However, the pile as
such cannot be visually inspected after casting and hence these piles require skilled labor
and close supervision during construction.

2. Non-displacement piles:
These are also called as replacement piles since soil is removed with an augur, drill
or a grab to create a borehole. The soil removed is replaced with a pile by casting —in-situ
(Bored cast-in-situ piles) or by lowering precast sections and injecting a high speed grout
(Bored precast concrete piles). This pile is widely used, but requires close supervision and
skilled labour to ensure that the pile to be properly installed.

2.4.1.1 Types of piles in cohesionless soils:

In loose sands, driven piles should be employed, since driving of piles increases the
density of soil and hence increasing the angle of internal friction, Bowles'.
In dense sands, bored piles are most suitable. Since very little compaction is
possible, the driven piles may tend to heave the ground surface. Also the heavy driving
force which will be required may result in pile chipping at head and fracturing of pile shaft,
Bowles'.

2.4.1.2 Types of piles in cohesive soils:

Driving may induce heave in saturated fine grained soils because of the
displacement of soil. Hence, bored piles are the most suitable type. However in very
sensitive clays, driven piles may be installed but prior auguring of the bore hole with a
smaller diameter augur may be required.

7
2.4.2 Selection of pile diameter and length:
The shape of the cross-section of a pile may be square, octagonal, circular etc. The
section of a circular pile normally ranges from 25 to 60 cm. The following factors govern
the selection of size of a pile, Bramlette McClelland2:

(i) The permissible compressive stress on each pile determines the area required and
hence the size of the pile.
(ii) Minimize pile size in order to hold down drag forces, minimize weight and reduce
cost.
(iii) Examine the drivability of the pile in the given stratum.

The nature of soil strata, in most cases dictates the length of the pile. For example,
if a weak layer is underlain by a strong stratum at reasonable depth, the length of pile is so
chosen that the pile penetrates into the strong stratum. On the other hand, if the weak layer
extends to a considerable depth, the length of the pile is chosen so as to obtain adequate
pile capacity through skin resistance.
The length of the pile in case of point bearing piles can be judged by taking the
minimum penetration of the pile in the bearing stratum as 3 to 5 times the section size in
order to mobilize a good point bearing resistance, Mayerhof13.
Friction piles should be made as long as economically possible.. By increasing the
length of friction piles, the number of piles required to carry the given load is reduced,
resulting in increase of ultimate bearing capacity of the entire pile foundation and reduced
settlements, Terzaghi and Peck19.

2.4.3 Estimation of single pile capacity:

Piles transfer load by skin resistance generated along the lateral surface of the pile
and by end bearing. The safe load on a pile may be estimated by using dynamic or static
formulae or from the results of load tests on piles.
The static formula is based on the mechanical properties of soil, ground water
condition, physical characteristics and methods of pile construction. The ultimate bearing
capacity of pile is dependent on the ability of the pile to disperse applied loads to the
surrounding strata by friction, end bearing or combination of both.

8
Thus, the ultimate capacity of a pile is obtained as,

Q„=Qs+Q,
= f s As +q p Ap (2.3)

where, Qs = Total skin frictional resistance, kN,

Q p = Total point bearing resistance, kN

f s = Unit skin frictional resistance, kNIM 2

qP Unit
= point bearing resistance, kN I m2
As = Curved surface area of the pile, m2 ; and

A = Area of pile tip, m2 .

The ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is suitably divided by an appropriate

factor of safety to obtain the safe design load. The factor of safety value is usually taken as
3.

Qsafe=
Q. (2.4)
FOS
where, asaj'e = Safe bearing capacity,

FOS =Factor of safety.

2.4.3.1 Capacity of piles in cohesion-less soil:

a) Unit Skin Frictional Resistance:

Unit skin frictional resistance is determined as:

f, = K s Po tan (2.5)

where, K s = lateral earth pressure coefficient

Pp = average effective overburden at the depth considered

tan S = coefficient of friction between pile and soil.

9
 IS: 2911-19796, considers the value of KS to vary with soil strata, type of pile and

its method of construction. The suggested values of K S for bored piles in loose to medium

sands is in between 1 and 2 and for driven piles the value of K s is in between 1 and 3. The

value of coefficient of horizontal soil stress given by Tomlinson20, as a function of K„ is

as shown in Table-2.2.

Table-2.2: Values of the coefficient of horizontal soil stress (Tomlinson20)

Installation Method KsiKo
Driven piles, large displacement 1.0 to 2.0
Driven piles, small displacement 0.75 to 1.25
Bored and cast-in-place piles 0.70 to 1.0
Jetted piles 0.5 to 0.7

Relative Density Ko
Loose 0.5
Medium , 0.45
Dense ' 0.35

The limiting value of unit skin friction resistance for different soil types is given in
Table-2.3.

Table-2.3: Limiting values of unit skin friction resistance, f's

Soil type Limiting f (kN/m2 )'

Silt and loose sand 35

Medium-dense sand and gravel 80
Dense to very dense sand and gravel 120

10
 The value of angle of friction between pile and soil, 6, has been related by
Kulwahyl° and Broms3 to the average effective angle of shearing resistance, 0 . The
suggested range of values of '6' is as shown in Table-2.4.

Table-2.4: Angle of friction between pile and soil for various interface conditions
Angle of pile soil friction, 8
Pile/Soil interface condition
Kulwahy Broms
Smooth (coated) steel/sand 0.5 0 to 0.7 0 20°
Rough (corrugated) steel/sand 0.7 0 to 0.9 0 -
Precast concrete/sand 0.8 0 to 1.0 0 0.75 0
Cast-in-place concrete/sand 1.0 0 0.75 0
Timber/sand 0.8 0 to 0.9 0 0.7 0

b) Point bearing capacity:

The ultimate unit point resistance, q p , is given by the following general equation,

q p = + PU N q (2.6)

where, y = Effective unit weight of soil at pile point,

B=
Diameter or width of pile,
Po = Effective overburden pressure at the level of pile tip.

Sy= Shape factor,

= 0.4 for square or rectangular pile

= 0.3 for circular pile,
N N q = Bearing capacity factors.

The first term in the above equation, ANT Sr is usually neglected, particularly in

the case of long piles, as this constitutes an insignificant part of the total capacity. Hence
the eq.-(2.6) can be reduced to
q p = N q (2.7)

11


The value of Nq can be evaluated using the theories of Terzaghi, Bowles,

Mayerhof, or using the recommendations of IS: 29116, etc. The range of Nq values

suggested by different researchers is shown in Fig. 2.2. McCarthyl4 suggests that the value
of Nq be chosen between the one given by Terzaghi as the lower limiting value and the

one given by Berzontzev as the upper limiting value as shown in Fig. 2.2.

2B0

/ •-.,.
/h 4.1 ,-;-)',..„?..
*--...-
21.0 ,,. Cr

/ / '''.-- ,LS- ..,-„,,,

•-s.. '...,- , '...
11- iif C::, ''',-.,
4, --.
4. f , &-
I0 /
' Vl °.
/ til
7 f....
(fa
■
4, 1 E.,..,. , cf) ,,,,...„ "-,,,,,f
4-- 1 N. ts./
../ --,,. f A- 1.0 ``,..,.. ' `if
.
-
i
•Z;,"

/
L.7 v„.C,.-.) •
(T 40
1,1.1
a)

o _.-C-- f L t.... 1..... 3 .....1. L. .1 I_.-

21- 2 B 32 36 40 44 46
ANGLE. OF INI-Eru-iy‘L F Rt c / 1orq , (In

Fig.2.2. Bearing capacity factor Nq for piles penetrating into sand

It can be observed from Fig. 2.2 that there is a rapid increase in Nq for high

values of0 , thus giving high values of base resistance. However, research shows that at a

penetration depth of 10-20 pile diameters, a maximum value of base resistance is reached
which is not exceeded or the rate of increase in base resistance decreases to a small value
no matter how much deeper the pile is driven. Published pile test results indicate that the
maximum value is 15 Mn/m2 Tomlinson 21 .

12
2.4.3.2 Pile capacity in cohesive soils

a) Unit friction resistance

The skin frictional resistance can be found as:
f c = a C„ (2.8)
where, a adhesion
= factor
Cu = average undisturbed undrained cohesion of soil around the pile shaft.

The dependence of the adhesion factor, a , on the soil strength has been
investigated by Tomlinson 20 who has proposed the design curves presented in Fig.-2.3 for
adhesion factors for piles driven into clays.
Experiments have shown that the bearing capacity of piles driven in clays increases with
time after driving, Seed and Reese 17. The increase in capacity is largely attributed to the
change in water content as the excess pore pressures generated during installation
dissipates.

b) Unit point resistance

The unit point resistance,qp of a pile in cohesive soils is given by:

q p = N,, (2.9)

where, Nc = bearing capacity factor

When the pile penetrates at least 5 diameters into the bearing stratum, then
complete mobilization of the end bearing takes place and bearing capacity factor, N, can
be taken as equal to 9, Mayerhof 13 .

13


00147041,111 34%009 Mtropros C44 si'S

600 rkl
1.00

14,

1,N1
• a-.
t t
77. C7iy
Sof f
• I
a N.
'
•

ttit
f ClAr

OWL
V 104, Zare JIM)
tfroCreUreteCtS4oaong 1CovAstih Cw RIM ,

(-Andra d si•etowv it ttosttot Cv

Sr,
00-

tiN. t.
s4, No.

1 1 *#
41-..1'"-
: •
gem ow .44
t if)
CA
4) .7
text'anted' Sitwang Stekrwith Cc, I OA 2

Fig. 2.3: Design curves for adhesion factor for piles driven into clays

14
2.4.4 Selection of Number, Spacing and Arrangement of Piles

a) Number of Piles
The total number of piles required to support the whole structure is determined by
dividing total vertical load by the safe bearing capacity of a single pile, the figure so
obtained being rounded-up to the next integer. Therefore,

NP = Q (2.10)
Qsqlb

where, NP =
Total number of piles required,
Q =
Total load on pile foundation, and

Qsafe = Safe bearing capacity of a single pile.

Spacing of piles
The center to center spacing between piles is decided by the following
considerations:
a) Practical aspects of pile installation i.e., if spacing is too close; pile heave
and ground heave can be detrimental.
b) The nature of load transfer to soil and the resulting possible change in the
bearing capacity of groups of piles.

i) Spacing for point bearing piles

In case of piles founded on very hard stratum and deriving their capacity mainly
from end bearing, the spacing will be governed by the competence of the end bearing
strata. The minimum spacing in such cases shall be 2.5 times the diameter of the shaft, IS:
2911 — 19796.

15
ii) Spacing for friction piles
Piles deriving their bearing capacity primarily from friction shall be sufficiently
apart to ensure that the zones of soil from which the piles derive their support do not
overlap to such an extent that their bearing values are reduced. Generally, the spacing in
such cases shall not be less than 3 times diameter of the shaft, IS: 2911 — 1979 6.

c) Arrangement of piles
After deciding the spacing, the piles are laid out in the shape of triangular, square
or rectangular pattern. The best arrangement for a given number of piles is shown in Fig.
2.4.

2.4.5 GROUP CAPACITY

Because of the overlapping of stresses and changes in soil conditions within the
stressed zone, the capacity of the pile group need not be the sum of the capacities of
individual piles in the group.
For groups of friction piles with pile spacing of the order of 2 to 3 times the pile
diameter and deriving their principal support in granular material, the capacity of the group
can be considered equal to or greater thap the capacity of a single pile times the number of
piles in a group. However, it may be mentioned here that the safe pile group capacity in
sand is generally governed by the settlement.
For a group in cohesive soil, the capacity may be approximated considering the
shearing resistance of the soil on the perimeter surface of the group plus the bearing
capacity of the soil at the tip within the plan area of the group but in no case the capacity is
more than the individual pile times the number of piles in the group.

16
 s
$ 1 1 I
I 14)

I.
3 PILES o
4 PILES 10
L.. 6 PILES
5 PILES

0 0
L_
7 PILES 6 PILES

11 PILES

SINGLE FOR AW/&L

no LE Ft A WALL
E ROW FOR A ALL

Fig.2.4. Typical pile group patterns (a) For single Footings, (b) For Foundation Walls

17
2.4.6 PILE GROUP SETTLEMENT
The settlement of the pile group may be estimated by assuming the spread of the
structural load at a dispersion of one horizontal to four vertical with the load being
transferred to the soil through an equivalent foundation raft. For point bearing piles, this
raft may be assumed to be located at two-thirds the penetration depth into the bearing
stratum and in friction piles, it may be at two thirds the pile length. The settlement of the
equivalent raft foundation may be taken as the settlement of the group.
In checking the potential settlement of the pile group, it may be noted that the
influence of the group extends to a greater depth than that for loading of a single pile. In
analyzing group capacities and settlements, the effect of adjacent pile groups and the
possibility of overlapping of loaded areas should be considered.
The methods generally adopted for computing settlement of group are described
below:

2.4.6.1 Settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils

De Beer and Marten 4 proposed a method for computing the settlement on the basis
of static cone penetration data. The method consists of dividing the static cone penetration
diagram into layers of approximately equal qc values. In case the SCPT data is not

available, then suitable values can be obtained from the corresponding vertical effective
stress. The layers are considered till the significant depth below the equivalent raft which is
equal to twice the lesser dimension of the pile group. The settlement is evaluated as the
sum of settlements of each layer within the significant depth.

The settlement of a layer is computed as:

Po + AP
S,2.303
= loglo (2.11)
c PO

c = 1.5 (2.12)
Po

18


where, S, Settlement
= of the layer considered, in mm
AH= Thickness of the layer, in mm
AP = Average increase in vertical stress in the layer obtained assuming 1H:2V
dispersion of load, in kN/m2
Po = Mean effective overburden pressure, in kN/m2
c Constant
= of compressibility,
(lc = Average static cone penetration resistance for the layer considered, in MN/m2

2.4.6.2 Settlement of pile groups in cohesive soils

The settlement is calculated in accordance with the consolidation theory. Based on
consolidation test, the amount of settlement due to consolidation can be calculated by
using the following equations, Peck15.

a) Normally consolidated clays

CH P + AP
= login ° (2.13)
1+ e , Po
The compression index Cc is closely related to the liquid limit (w1 ) for normally

loaded sedimentary clays, and is evaluated as:

Cc = 0.009(w1 —10 (2.14)

b) Over consolidated clays

e° —e H
(2.15)
1+eo

where, e0 = Initial void ratio corresponding to overburden pressure

= Initial overburden pressure, in kN/m2

AP = Pressure inclement due to foundation load, in kN/m2

e Final
= void ratio corresponding to (Po + AP)

Thickness of layer, in mm.

H =

19
2.4.7 DESIGN LOAD ON A SINGLE PILE
The following approximate method is commonly used in practical design for
groups of identical piles subjected to central or eccentric vertical forces or moments,
Whitaker24. The cap is assumed to be rigid and the reaction of any pile is assumed to be
proportional to the displacement of the pile head.

2.4.7.1 Axial Load

If a concentrated vertical load 'V' is applied at the center of gravity of the pile
group, the displacement of the head of each pile will be the same and the loads on the piles
are, therefore assumed to be equal.
Thus,
V
V = (2.16)
P n
where, Vp = Load on each pile,
V = Total load acting on the pile group, and
n = Number of piles.

If an eccentric vertical force 'V' is applied to the foundation, at a distance 'e' from
the center of gravity of the row of piles, this is equivalent to a vertical force 'V' at the
center of gravity plus a moment M = V x e, acting on the pile group. The reaction of any
pile due to the moment will be proportional to its distance from the center of gravity.
If a rectangular group of piles is subjected to moments about both axis XX and YY
through the center of gravity of the pile group, as well as to a vertical force acting at the
center of gravity then,

V +
Pi_ (2.17)
n 2 [-1 X 22
y

where, P, = Load taken by the it'pile,

V = Total vertical load acting on the pile group,
n = Number of piles in the pile group,
Mx = Moment acting about the XX axis,

20
 Xi = Distance of the center of ith pile from the center of gravity of the group
in X-direction (measured from YY axis),
2
X = Sum of the squares of the distances of centre of piles from center of
gravity of group in X-direction (measured from YY axis),
MY = Moment acting about the YY axis,
Yi = Distance of the center of ith pile from the center of gravity of the group
in Y-direction (measured from XX-axis), and
„,2
= Sum of squares of the distances of center of piles from center of
gravity of the group in Y-direction (measured from XX-axis).

In the above equation, the sign of the second term will be positive for piles to the right of
axis YY and the third term will be positive for piles below the axis XX for moment
directions as shown in Fig.2.5. After calculating the load acting on each pile by the above
method, the critically loaded pile is considered for structural design.

Sectijn AA

Fig.2.5 Pile Group subjected to Moments

21
2.4.7.2 Lateral Load Analysis
• The equivalent cantilever method recommended by IS: 29116 has been adopted.
In this method a long and flexible pile, fully or partially embedded, is treated as a
cantilever fixed at some depth below the ground level, Fig.2.6.
Determine the depth of fixity and hence the equivalent length of the cantilever using
the plots given in Fig.2.6.

FREE HEAD PILE

--FIXED HEAD PILE

Le

.FOR PILES IN SANDS

AND NORMALLY LOADED
CLAYS

1.5

FOR PILES IN
1.30 PRELOADED CLAYS
2 4 lt)
L1/R OR

Fig. 2.6: Determination of depth of fixity of a pile

where, R and T are the relative stiffness factors and are defined as:

El
R =-- 4 for piles in cohesive soils (2.18)
K

EI
T 51 for piles in cohesionless / granular soils. (2.19)

r7h Horizontal
= subgrade reaction, in kN/m3
K=
constant for preloaded clays, in kN/m2
E=
Young's modulus of the pile material, in kN/m2 and
I Moment
= of inertia of the pile cross-section, in m4.

22


Typical values of the parameters `77h ' and ' ' are presented in Table-2.5.

Table-2.5: Typical values of `77h ' and 'K' (IS: 2911-1979)

(a) Typical values of 77h

77h in kN/m3
Soil type
Dry Submerged
Loose sand 2600 1460
Medium sand 7750 5260
Dense sand 20750 12450
Very loose sand under repeated loading - 400
Very soft organic soil - 110-270
Very soft clay
Static loads - 450
Repeated loads - 270

(b) Typical values of K for preloaded clays

Unconfined Compression Strength in kN/m2 K in kN/m2

20-40 775
100-200 4880
200-400 ' 9775
>400 19550

Check for Lateral Load Capacity

Knowing the values of the parameters R and T the depth of fixity, Lf , for a fully

embedded or a partially embedded pile can be found using above charts. For a permissible
pile head lateral deflection Yo , the corresponding permissible lateral load, can be found as:

3Y M
Q=
b ° for a free head pile (2.20)
+L f )

23
 12Y0 EI
Q = for a fixed head pile. (2.21)
(LI L f

where, L, = unsupported length of pile

L1 = depth of fixity of pile.
For bridge structures, Yo = 5mm and for jetties = 15 to 25mm.

The actual lateral load acting on a pile, Qa , is known and the same is compared

with Q . If Q < Qa,„ then the pile section has to be increased.

The fixed end moment, M f , of the equivalent cantilever is higher than the actual

maximum moment, M , in the pile. The actual maximum moment in the pile to be used for
design is obtained by multiplying the fixed end moment of the equivalent cantilever by a
reduction factor, m , which can be graphically found out from Fig.2.7 and Fig.2.8. If the
fixed end moment of the equivalent cantilever is given by:

M f = Q(Li + L1 ) for free head pile (2.22)

QV, + L f )
A f = for fixed head pile. (2.23)
2

1-U

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIR IIIII
--",- FOR PILES t1
P RELOADED CLAYS
--.- SANDS Itt
RE DUCM

FA
0-6 4
IIPPIP1
SANDS AND
TJ O

NOR M Ally
Li f tUADCO CLAYS
44
/11

0.
6 'a • 10 12
tifR OR Lirr

Fig.2.7. Reduction Factor for free head pile

24
 TOR FILES IN PRCLOA go CLAYS
FOR PILES Ik SAMOS 101)
NORMALLY LOADED CLAYS

145 24)
Lip OR Lilt

Fig.2.8 Reduction Factor for fixed head pile

Thus, the actual maximum moment acting on a pile is, M = m ( MF.) (2.24)

2.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

2.5.1 Design of Pile

The load from the superstructure is transferred to the piles through pile cap. So, a
pile should have adequate strength to sustain the design load and satisfy the design criteria
as a reinforced concrete column. A pile is usually designed as a column carrying axial
loads and moments.

2.5.1.1 Calculation of moments due to Handling

In the case of precast driven piles, stresses may be induced in the pile during lifting
and handling. These stresses induced by bending in the cross section of a precast pile may
be estimated just as for any reinforced concrete section in accordance with relevant
provisions of IS: 456-20007. The calculations with regard to moments depend on the
method of support during pile handling and design bending moments due to handling of
piles are summarized in Table-2.6. ( IS: 2911-1979, part 1, Sec. 3).

25
 Table-2.6: Bending moments due to handling of piles
Location of point of support
Number of points of pick Bending moment to be
from and in terms of length
up allowed for design
of pile for min. moments
WL
Two 0.207L
46.6
0.145L, the middle point WL
three
will be at the center 95

where, W= Weight of pile, and L=Length of pile.

During hoisting, the pile will be suspended from one point near its head and the
bending moment will be the least when it is pulled at a distance of 0.293L from the pile
head. The value the of bending moment will be,
WL
(2.25)
23.3

The maximum of the moment due to loads and moment due to handling is taken for
reinforcement calculations in the pile.

2.5.1.2 Calculation of Effective Length of a pile

The cross-section of a pile is usually designed as a column for the loads assigned to
it. A column may be classified as a short or a long column depending on its effective
slenderness ratio. A short column has a maximum slenderness ratio of 12. Its design is
based on the strength of the materials and the applied loads. A long column has a
slenderness ratio greater than 12. A long column is designed to resist the applied loads plus
additional bending moments induced due to its tendency to buckle.
The method proposed by IS: 2911-19796 has been adopted in this investigation to
calculate the effective length of the pile. The salient features of this method are:

26
 If the pile is completely embedded, and if Cu KAT I ni 2 or N„g ?_ 5 of

the top soil, then the pile is designed as a short column.

If the pile projects above the ground level then the effective length (Le ) of
the pile is calculated as the distance, between the two points of
contraflexures.
a) If the top of the pile is fixed, then the distance between the upper point
of contraflexure and ground level (LI ) is taken as 3/4 times the length
of the pile projecting above the ground level.
3
i.e. , L1=
L projected above ground level

b) If the top of pile is not fixed, then L1 = L projected above ground level

c) In the case of good soils (Cu > 10 KA I I m2 or N avg > 5), the distance

between lower point of contraflexure and the ground level (L2 ) is

taken as,
L2 = lm below ground level

3 * Dia. of pile

d) And in the case of weak soils (Cu < 10 KN I m2 or N avg <5), L2 is

taken as,

L2 = I* depth of top soil stratum

2
3m
10 * Dia. of pile
The effective length of pile is thus, sum of LI and L2 , that is, Le L1 + -L2 (2.26)

2.5.1.3 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT IN PILES

2.5.1.3.1 Longitudinal reinforcement in the pile

The longitudinal reinforcement is designed in accordance with IS: 2911-19796.
Some of the points to be noted are:

27


i. In Driven Pre-cast concrete piles, all the main longitudinal bars shall be of the
same length and should fit tightly into the pile shoe, if there is one. Shorter rods
to resist local bending moments may be added, but the same should be carefully
detailed to avoid any sudden discontinuity of steel which may lead to cracks
during heavy driving.
ii.. In Bored Pre-cast Concrete Piles, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
provided for the entire length of the pile so as to withstand handling stresses.
iii. In Bored Cast -in- situ Piles and in Driven Cast -in- situ Piles, the minimum
area of longitudinal reinforcement within the shaft shall be 0.4 percent of the
sectional area calculated on the basis of outside area of the casing or the shaft.

2.5.1.3.2 Lateral Reinforcement

The diameter and the spacing of the lateral reinforcement should be selected so as
to impart adequate rigidity to the reinforcing cage during handling and installation. In
Driven Precast Concrete Piles, the concentration of driving stresses in the pile more near
the two ends requires more lateral reinforcement in these regions than what is provided in
the middle portion of the body of the pile.
In the body of the pile, the minimum lateral reinforcement shall be 0.2 percent of
the gross volume of the pile, and in the end regions of the pile, for a length equal to 3 times
the least lateral dimension, the minimum reinforcement shall be 0.6 percent of the gross
volume of the pile. The transition between the close spacing of lateral reinforcement near
the ends and the relatively larger spacing in the middle portion of the pile shall be gradual
over a length equal to 3 times the least lateral dimension of the pile. These details are
pictorially represented in the Fig.2.9.
The other codal provisions related to structural design of piles have been
summarized in Table-2.7. For aspects of structural design of piles which are not addressed
by IS: 2911-19796, reference may be made to the codal provisions related to column design
in IS 456-20007.

28
 Table-2.7: Summary of provisions related to design of columns (IS 2911, IS 456:2000)

S. Design aspect Driven precast Bored Bored Drive

No Concrete piles precast cast-in- n cast-
' concrete situ in-situ
piles piles piles
1. Min. longitudinal 1.25% for L<30 D 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%
reinforcement 1.50 for 30D 5_ L __ 40D
(as % of c/s area) 2.00% for L>40D

Min. diameter of
2
longitudinal steel 12 12 12 12
(mm)

3. Min. lateral 0.2% in the body of the pile 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%
reinforcement.
0.6% in the ends upto 3D
(as /o of gross
volume)

Min. diameter of
4.
lateral steel (mm) 6 6 6 6

5. Min. pitch of lateral

reinforcement (mm) 150 150 150 150

Min. clear cover

6. (mm) 40 40 40 50

7. Min. grade of for hard driving (driving M-25 M-15 M-15

concrete
stress> 100 kgf/cm2) M-20
for easy driving (driving
stress< 100 kgf/cm2) M-15 •

where, L = Length of the pile, and D = Diameter of the pile

29
 PERCENT OP 3-6 PERCENT
VOLUME OF VOLUN OF TM
PK. PART OF PILE

0 It IN14 TEEL,M(N'MUI t I PERCENT FOR t 300

1-5 PERCENT FOR 100 t L 0
2-0 PERCENT FOR t 40 0

Fig.2.9 Minimum steel requirements of precast concrete pile

2.5.1.4, Driving Stresses

Precast concrete piles should also be checked for stresses developed in the pile
during driving. The driving stresses on a pile can be estimated by the following formula
recommended by IS: 2911-19796.

Driving resis tan ce

DrivingStress
= x (2.27)
A

where, A = Cross-sectional area of pile

= Area of concrete + equivalent area of reinforcement, and
ri Efficiency
= of blow.

30
 The driving stress calculated from the above formula should not exceed the
permissible stress of concrete in compression. The driving resistance may be either using
Engineering News Formula or Hiley's formula, as it takes into account various energy
losses during driving in a more realistic manner.

The modified Hiley formula is given by the following equation,

WI1i
Qu = (2.28)
S+ 2
I (CI c2 + C3 )]

where, Qu=
Ultimate driving resistance in kN. The safe load is estimated by dividing it
with a factor of safety of 2.5.
W= Weight of hammer in kN,
H=Height of free fall of hammer in mm taken at its full value for trigger-
operated drop hammers, 80 percent of the fall of normally proportioned winch-
operated drop hammers, and 90 percent of the stroke for single-acting hammers.
When using the McKiernan-Terry type of double-acting hammers, 90 percent
of the maker's rated energy in kN mm per blow should be used for WH. The set
should be corresponding to the maximum speed.of the hammer.
S Final
= set or penetration per blow in mm,
CI = Temporary compression of dolly and packing,

= 0.117 Q. I A, where the driving is without dolly or helmet and cushion

about 25mm thick

= 0.905 a I A, where the driving is with short dolly upto 600mm long,

helmet and cushion upto 75mm thick,

C2 = Temporary compression of pile,

= 0.0657 Qu Ll A,

C3 = Temporary compression of ground

= 0.355 Q. IA,

L Length
= of pile in meters, and

31
 A Area
= of cross-section of pile in mm2
Efficiency of the blow, which represents the ratio of energy after impact to
77=
striking energy of the ram.
W+P 2 e 2
(for W>P.e) (2.29)
W+P

W+P2e (W—P2 e \2
(for W (2.30)
W+P W+P

P = Weight of pile, anvil, helmet and follower if any in kN

E = Coefficient of restitution of the materials under impact. IS: 2911-1979 (Part
/ sec3)6 Recommends the value of 'e' as given in following Table-2.8

Table-2.8: Values of coefficient of restitution, 'e'

S.No. Description e
1 For steel ram of double-acting hammer striking on steel anvil and 0.50
- driving reinforced concrete pile.

2 For cast-iron of single-acting or drop hammer striking on head of 0.40

reinforced concrete pile.

3 For single-acting or drop hammer striking a well conditioned 0.25

driving cap and helmet with hard wood dolly in driving
reinforced concrete piles or directly on head of timber pile

4 For a deteriorated condition of the head of pile or dolly 0.00

The values of 77 in relation to e and to the ratio of P/W, are given in Table-
2.9.Where the pile finds refusal in rock, 0.5P should be substituted in the above expression
for a.

32
 Table-2.9: Values of efficiency, '77'
P/W e = 0.5 e = 0.4 e = 0.32 e = 0.25 e = 0.0
0.5 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.67
1.0 0.63 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.50
1.5 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.40
2.0 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.33
2.5 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.28
3.0 0.42 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.25
3.5 0.39 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.22
4.0 0.36 0.31 0.28 ' 0.25 0.20
5.0 0.31 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.16
6.0 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.14
7.0 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.12
8.0 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.11

2.5.2 DESIGN OF PILE CAP

2.5.2.1 General
A pile cap is a structural member, which connects all the piles in a group at their
top. The design of pile-supported footings (pile cap) does. not differ much from that of a
footing resting directly on soil. The difference between footings supported on soils and a
pile cap is that, while the reaction from the soil will be in a well distributed form over the
entire interface between the footing and the soil, the pile reactions are concentrated at the
points of contact between the piles and the cap.
It is however too conservative and hence unnecessary to consider the pile reactions
as concentrated at the center of pile cross-section; instead it is in order if it is assumed that
the pile reaction is distributed over the area of contact between the individual pile in the
group and the pile cap, for the purpose of design. This aspect will be given due
considerations while discussing the contribution of any pile to the load on the critical
section for the design of the pile cap.

33
 The self weight of the pile cap is assumed to be transferred to the piles. There is no
intention to transfer even a part of the weight to the top soil, even though the pile cap is
constructed on the same. Even otherwise, considering the enormously higher stiffness of
the piles when compared to the soil at the interface, it is obvious that the major part of the
self weight of the pile cap will be borne by the piles, Kurian l I .
There are two approaches in present use for the design of pile caps involving two or
more piles, one being (a) conventional method (the pile cap is assumed to behave as a short
deep beam, transferring the load from the column to the piles by bending action) while the
other is (b) truss analogy method (the pile cap is assumed to behave as a truss or as a space
frame where in the steel reinforcement performs the role of tension members or ties and
the concrete acts as struts): The truss analogy method is recommended only when the
number of piles in the pile caps is less than 6, Mallick12. Therefore, only the details of the
conventional method for the design of the pile cap are described here. On account of the
similarity in the structural action, a pile cap is designed on similar lines as a footing
supported on soil for various effects produced on critical sections.

2.5.2.2 DESIGN STEPS FOR A PILE CAP

The structural design of a pile cap is carried out through the following steps.
(1) Calculation of reactions coming from each pile,
(2) Calculation of bending moment,
(3) Check for two-way shear,
(4) Check for one-way shear, and
(5) Check for development length.
Each of these steps is discussed in detail in this section:

2.5.2.3 Calculation of reactions coming from each pile

As explained earlier, the column loads are applied to the pile cap, which in turn
transmits the same to the piles below as shown in Fig.2.10. In this process of load
transmission, the pile cap is subjected to flexure due to the concentrated column load. Like
soil reaction, the reactions offered by the piles on the pile cap are equal but opposite to the
axial loads transmitted to the piles by the pile cap.

34
 For the computation of moments and shears, IS: 456-20007 recommends that the
reaction from any pile may be treated as concentrated at the center of the pile. It is essential
to make the correct assumptions for evaluating all the combined forces. acting on the
foundation.
A pile cap can also be subjected to moments transmitted through the supported
column. The reactions of the piles, if the group of piles is subjected to moments about the
axis XX and YY can be found as described in Section 2.4.7.1.

Colutun

pile cap C
olumn Load

T
p'1 pile
reaction

Fig.2.10 Reactions on pile cap

2.5.2.4 Calculation of Bending Moment

After determining all the pile reactions, the bending moment at any section of the
pile cap can be determined by passing through the section a vertical plane which extends
completely across the cap, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire
area of the cap on one side of that plane. The greatest bending moment is to be used in the
design of the pile cap that supports a column, pedestal or wall. For this purpose, IS: 456-
20007 recommends that the greatest bending moment is the moment computed at a section
located as follows:
At the face of the column, pedestal or wall, for footings supporting a
concrete column, pedestal or wall.
Halfway between the center line and the edge of the wall, for footings under
masonry walls, and

35
 (iii) Halfway between the face of the column or pedestal and the edge of the
gusseted base, for footings under gusseted bases.

From the maximum bending moment, the effective depth of the pile cap and hence,
the area of steel required can be obtained.

2.5.2.5 Check for One-way Shear

The critical section for one-way shear is located at a distance equal to the effective
depth of the pile cap from the face of the column. For calculating the shear force at a
critical section, if a sector of the pile cross section lies outside the critical section, then
reactive pressure over the sector lying outside has to be considered as contributing to a
partial load on that critical section, Fig. 2.11. For considering this IS: 456-20607
recommends the following empirical rule. If the center of the pile of diameter Dp is at a
distance equal to or more than Dp /2 outside the critical section, Fig. 2.11. The full pile

reaction is effective on the critical section. Similarly if the center is located at a distance
equal to or more than Dp / 2 inside the critical section, the pile does not contribute any

load on the critical section, but for intermediate positions of the pile center a straight line
interpolation is recommended, between full value at Dp / 2 outside the section and zero

value at Dp / 2 inside the section.

From the computed value of the shear force due to deSign loads at the critical
section, the nominal shear stress r, can be obtained from the following equation:

r
V.= (2.31)
bd
where, vu = Shear force due to design loads,

b = Breadth of the pile cap, and

d = Effective depth of the pile cap.
Permissible shear stress, z,, can be obtained by the following equation

0.850.8f, (V1+5,0 —1)

= (2.32)
6/3

36


0.116 f ckbd
where, 13 — , 101:1
100A„

fek = Characteristic compressive strength of concrete in MPa, and

As,Area=
of tension reinforcement, mm2.

The section is safe in one-way shear if the permissible shear stress is more than or
equal to the nominal shear stress.

Crifioal SL c fion

Pile cross section

---
.......
,' - - ....s . r'
'''''—'• ' N.1
/ Y e JX

Critica( I It
1/

Pile cross section X

...... ... o, ,..,.............,
V
/
section-, '-,.__... 1 \ ,
.....__,..e

inside .
.I i -11'0' A-7'.- 0..itSide
i 2 2 I
I It
Centre t
I

0
D i vt~~iic 1t pile cenSre
Irons crt ir_nt section

inside -

Fig.2 .11 Pile effect on critical section for ,one-way shear

2.5.2.6 Check for Two-way Shear

For calculating the two-way shear, the critical section is assumed to be located at a
distance equal to half of the effective depth of the pile cap from the face of the column.
The nominal shear stress for this two-way shear action may be calculated in accordance
with the IS: 456-20007, as follows:
V
= u (2.33)
bod

37


where, r, = Nominal two-way shear stress,

bo = Perimeter of the critical section,

d Effective
= depth of the pile cap, and
V„ = Two-way shear force.

The nominal two-way shear stress at the critical section should not exceed K,r, .

where, K,. = 0.5 +

short dim ension of column or pedestal

A = and 1-, = 0.25 Vf N I mm2
long dim ension of column or pedestal

2.5.2.7 Check for Development Length

A basic requirement in any reinforced concrete structure is that the steel and the
surrounding concrete should act together and there should be no slip of the bar relative to
surrounding concrete. To ensure that the design section satisfies this requirement, it is to be
checked for development length.
The critical section for checking the development length of the reinforcement bars
in a pile cap is assumed to be the same as that specified for bending moments. The
development length in accordance with IS: 456-20007 is given -by,
0.87 f
4, = Y (2.34)
4 rbd

where, 4,Development
= length,

0 Nominal
= diameter of the bar,

f y = Characteristic strength of steel, and

rbd = Design bond stress, Table-2.10.

Table-2 10: Design bond stress for plain bars in tension, IS 456:2000

Grade of concrete M 15 M 20 M 25 .M 30 M 35 M 40
Design bond
2 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
stress rbd N/mm

38
 For deformed bars, the above values are to be increased by 60 percent. Standard
bends or hooks are to be provided, if the check for development length is not satisfied.

2.5.2.8 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT

The pile cap usually supports column and this is positioned at the centre of gravity
of the pile group, so the pile cap incorporates column dowel bars in exactly the same way
as provided in column bases. Allowance shall be made in length and width of the cap to
allow for piles being slightly out of true position after being driven.
The pile cap along with the column pedestal shall be deep enough to allow for the
necessary anchorage of the column and pile reinforcement. Although they are assumed to
act as a simply supported beam and are designed for the usual conditions of bending
moment and shear force, there is a tendency to fail in bursting due to high principal
tension. This should be resisted by reinforcement going around outer piles in the group
(usually 12mm dia. @ 150mm c/c). Generally adopted configuration for pile caps along
with plan arrangement of reinforcement details are shown in Fig.2.12 (a) and Fig.2.12 (b).
The clear overhang of the pile cap beyond the outermost pile in the group shall normally be
100 to 150 mm, depending upon the pile size.
A leveling course of plain concrete of about 80 mm thickness may be provided
under the pile caps, as required. The clear cover for the main, reinforcement for the bottom
of cap shall not be less than 60 mm. The reinforcement from the pile should be properly
tied to the pile cap. A typical arrangement of bars in a pile cap supporting a column
between two piles is illustrated in Fig.2.13.

NOR= NTAL TIES TO

RESIST BURSTING

MAIN STE INAI„

Fig.2.12 (a) Plan arrangement of reinforcement ofpile caps

39
 Fig.2.12 (b) Plan arrangement of reinforcement of pile caps

NOM/ANTAL TIES YO STARTER OAR

RESEW' OURSTiNG CLEAN oYeANAN0
(USUALLY AU 6130) GENERALLY =IMO

gIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII HEA

111111111131111111111111
,.ir gromeari ...._.4.
. 1Nor --rgok wig
REINFT,

tiliMigiaaillilli a6
'till
- law mem Itirt. moteamemmenu Nes;
LEAN CONCRETE .TOE STEEL GRADE
a
IIF REutiteo BEAM
PILE 11Pfill
BARS ROAD AT STANDARD
selltmo i0 GET REQUMED
OEVEU)PMEN't LENGTH
SECTION. A A SECTION - BB

PLAN --BOTTOM STEEL

Fig.2.13 Typical details of a 2-Pile Cap

40
 CHAPTER- 3
FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPED COMPUTER PACKAGE

3.1 GENERAL
This package provides the essential guidelines at each step of the design process
and assists the user on the choice of the data. There is ample flexibility to the user in
selecting suitable data. The computations at each step are flashed on the screen so as to
keep the user abreast with the calculation process and stepwise development of results.
This package can be run on any personal computer and has been developed in Turbo C++
programming language. The package has been prepared using a user friendly scheme,
providing necessary guidance on input of data at every step:
3.2 ESTIMATION OF SCOUR DEPTH
The procedure for estimation of scour depth has been explained in Section 2.2. The
package calculates the maximum scour depth below the bed level of the stream. For this the
user has to enter the values of reduced level corresponding to high flood level and bed
level, maximum discharge occurring at the bridge site and the mean size of bed material.
The flow chart for computing scour depth is presented in Fig.3.1.

/ Input
NFL, BL,
discharge, dm

Output Z
Maximum scour depth

CENDD
Fig.3.1 Flow chart to compute Scour depth

41
3.3 PROPORTIONING OF PILE GROUP

3.3.1 Characterization of Soil Profile

Based on soil exploration data available for the bridge site, the user will have the
representative soil profile for the site. The package will prompt the user for the type of soil,
unit weight of the soil and the value of angle of internal friction if it is a sandy soil or the
value of cohesion if the soil at site is a clayey soil.

3.3.2 Safe Pile Capacity

The procedure for evaluation of the safe pile capacity of the individual piles has
been .explained in Section 2.4.3. The package computes the soil capacity on the basis of
static formulae given in Eq.-2.3. The user has to enter the length and diameter of the pile
and the package evaluates the safe capacity of the pile. The flow chart for calculation of
the capacity of a single pile is shown in Fig. 3.2(a), Fig. 3.2(b).

START

Input
Length of pile, diameter, FOS,
Klko

Input
/Soil
profile details: Soil type
and its unit weight /

Fig.3.2 (a) Flow chart to compute single pile capacity

42
 START

Input
Loads on the foundation,
Number of piles (NP) and
Pile group configuration

Compute
Group capacity based on single pile capacity
(SGP)
SGP = Single pile capacity * NP

Compute
Group capacity treating the pile group as a
pier (PGC)

Group capacity = PGC Group capacity = SGP

/
Output
Group capacity

C ENDD

Fig.3.3 Flow chart to compute Group capacity of pile group

44
3.3.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE

The procedure for calculating the axial load for the structural design of pile has
been explained in Section 2.4.7.1. The user has to enter the moments acting in the X and Y
directions on the pile group and the package calculate the maximum axial load acting on
the single pile using Eq. 2.17 considering the effect of the axial load and possible biaxial
moments on the pile group. The pile group will also be subjected to lateral loads. The
lateral loads in any direction are equally apportioned to all the piles in the pile group. The
lateral loads induce moments in the piles and these moments are calculated using the IS
code recommended equivalent cantilever method.

3.3.5.1 Equivalent Cantilever Method

The procedure for obtaining the design moment acting on a pile is explained in
Section 2.4.7.2. The user has to enter the lateral loads acting on the pile group in X and Y
directions and the velocity of the stream at the bridge site. The stream velocity is required
to determine the horizontal force due to water current. The user has to enter the pile head
condition, that is, whether it is a fixed head pile or a free head pile.
The user also has to enter the type of soil, that is, whether it is sandy soil or
normally loaded clay or preloaded clay. If the soil is sandy or normally loaded clay, the
user has to input the value of horizontal subgrade reaction and if the soil is preloaded clay,
then the user has to input the value of the constant 'IC. The package computes the actual
lateral load acting on a pile and compares it with the permissible value of the lateral load.
If the value of the permissible lateral load is less than that of actual lateral load,
then the package asks the user to increase the cross-section of the pile along with
information on the design lateral load. The package calculates the length of the equivalent
cantilever and the reduction factor based on LI/T and Ll/R values using the charts given in
IS: 2911(Part I / Sec I)-1979 and finally gives the maximum moment for the design of pi'e.
The flow chart for calculating design moment for a pile is shown in Fig.3.4.

45
 ESTARTD
Input
Depth of pile cap, lateral load along
XX and YY axis, velocity of water

Sands and normally loade Preloaded clays

clays Type of
soil

Horizontal suhgrade Constant 'K'

reaction

Compute
Qact,Qper

Increase
diameter of
pile

Yes

/
Output
Design moment

Fig.3.4 Flow chart for calculating design moment on a pile

46
 GTAR1D

Yes
Pile head
condition

Li = 3/4 * Lpile projected above g.1 Li 3/4=

* Lpile projected above g.I

C„ >=10
Yes If soil strata is clay
or
Navg >-=5
If soil strata is sand

1M
L2 = L2 3m
3 * diameter of pile 10*diameter of pile

Output
Effective Length of the pile (Le)
• (L1+1-2)

END

Fig.3.5 Flow chart for calculating the effectiite length of a pile

48
 START

Input

Grades of concrete and steel, clear cover of

Longitudinal reinforcement

Compute

d'/D, Pu/(fck*D2) and Mi(fck*D3)

V
Input

p/fck from SP: 16 charts

Call Longitudinal Reinforcement

Call Lateral Reinforcement

END

Fig.3.6 Flow chart for calculating reinforcement in the pile

49
 PIM

Ett3a.s. aro IWO git•-tda

3.3.6 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE CAP

114 F7,
The design steps with relevant codal provisions ha e..been_discussed in detail in .
Section 2.5.2. The schematic diagram showing the flow chart of control for structural
design of pile cap is presented in Fig.3.7.

3.3.6.1 Calculation of Bending Moment

The critical section for bending moment in the pile cap is at the face of the column
as per recommendation of IS: 456-20007. The package calculates the bending moments at
the critical sections about both X as well as Y axis. It then evaluates the minimum depth of
the pile cap required for the bending moment, and then gives the user the choice of
selecting any depth of the pile cap greater than the minimum depth.

3.3.6.2 Calculation of Reinforcement

The package calculates the amount of reinforcement required about both X as well
as Y directions and also calculates the spacing between bars for the selected bar diameter.

3.3.6.3 Check for One-way Shear

The critical section for one-way shear is at a distance, 'd' away from the face of the
column. The formulation and the various codal provisions governing the design for one-
way shear have been described in Section 2.5.2.5. The package calculates one-way shear at
the critical section and compares it with the nominal shear stress. If the section is unsafe
for one-way shear, the package calculates the minimum depth upto which the depth of pile
cap should be increased to bear the design one-way shear.

3.3.6.4 Check for Two- way Shear

The formulation and the various codal provisions governing the design for two-way
shear have been described in Section 2.5.2.6. The package checks the two-way shear at the
critical sections. If the section is unsafe for two-way shear, the package calculates the
minimum depth upto which the depth of pile cap should be increased to bear the design
two-way shear.

50
3.3.6.5 Check for Development Length
The package uses the codal provisions discussed in Section 2.5.2.7 to check the
development length of the reinforcement bars at the critical' section.

START

Input
Dimensions of Pier Cap
Grades of Concrete and Steel

Compute
Depth of Pile Cap from
Maximum Bending Moment

Compute
Reinforcement required for Pile Cap

Unsafe
Check Depth of Pile
Increase
Cap for One Way Depth
Shear

Safe

Unsafe
Check Depth of Pile
Increase
Cap for Two Way
Depth
Shear

Safe

Unsafe
Check Development
Length Provide Hooks

CEND-

Fig.3.7 Flow chart for Structural design of pile cap

51
 CHAPTER- 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL
The features of the software package developed for the design of pile foundations
along with user guidelines have been discussed in the preceding chapters. The package has
been used to solve a number of numerical problems. To illustrate the practical application
of the software package, the design of a typical pile foundation for a river bridge has been
illustrated. The problem parameters and the computer generated output file is presented
together with supporting long hand calculations for verification of the results obtained
from the software package developed in this thesis.

4.2 THE PROBLEM

A pile foundation is to be designed for a river bridge crossing. The soil profile
obtained from site investigations at the bridge site is presented in Fig. 4.1.The hydraulic
data at the bridge site, direct load, moments and lateral forces at the soffit of the pile cap
are as follows:
Reduced level of high flood = + 100.000 M
Reduced level of low flood = + 96.000 M
Reduced level of river bed = + 95.000 M
Maximum design discharge at bridge site = 4000 m3/s
Mean velocity of flow = 2 m/s
Mean grain size of bed material = 0.5 mm
Total vertical load = 4000 kN
Total moment in x- direction (about L-L axis) = 1000 kN
Total moment in y- direction (about T-T axis) = 500 kN
Total horizontal force in x-direction (along L-L axis) = 60 kN
Total horizontal force in y-direction (along T-T axis) = 80 kN

52
 1000 RFT.
96.0 T.FT,
95.0 TH,

y = 20 kN/m3 Na„g= 23 (I) = 32° Sandy soil

Fig.4.1 Soil Profile at bridge site

4.3. OUTPUT FILE OF RESULTS:

The output file obtained from the package developed is presented below. The
supporting long hand calculations for the same problem are given in Appendix A.

********************************************************************
DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS FOR RIVER BRIDGES
File name ->pile

********************************************************************

********************************************************************
DETAILS OF MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH

********************************************************************

Reduced level of High Flood Level = 100.00

Reduced level of Bed Level = 95.00

Discharge of water = 4000.00 m3/sec

Medium size of bed material = 0.50 mm

Maximum Scour depth = 8.82 m

********************************************************************

53
DETAILS OF SOIL PROFILE:

Coefficient of horizontal stress =0.75

Type of soil -> sandy

Bulk unit weight of soil = 20.00 kN/m3

angle of internal friction = 32.00

value of Nq = 26.00

value of Ko = 0.45

limiting value of unit skin friction resistance= 80.00 kN/m2

********************************************************************

DETAILS OF PILE CAPACITY ARE:

Length of pile = 20.00 m

Diameter of pile = 1.00 m

SKIN FRICTION CAPACITY = 295.16 kN

POINT RESISTANCE CAPACITY = 2283.49 kN

ULTIMATE CAPACITY OF PILE = 2578.65 kN

Factor of safety = 3.00

SAFE CAPACITY OF PILE - 859.55 kN

********************************************************************

DETAILS OF PILE GROUP CAPACITY:

Total No. of piles in the group - 6

No. of piles in XX-direction = 2

No. of piles in YY-direction = 3

CENTRE TO CENTRE SPACING

between piles in XX-direction = 3.00 m

between piles in YY-direction = 3.00 m

Total LOAD on the pile group = 4000.00 kN

LENGTH of pile group =20.00 m

BREADTH of pile group - 7.00 m

WIDTH of pile group = 4.00 m

54
NET PILE GROUP CAPACITY = 5157.29
********************************************************************

DETAILS OF LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS:

Horizontal load along X-axis = 60.00 kN

Horizontal load along Y-axis = 80.00 kN

Velocity of water = 2.00 m/s

Value of Horizontal subgrade reaction = 5000.00 kN/m3

Length of equivalent cantilever = 14.50 m

Actual lateral load on pile = 23.24 kN

Permissible lateral load on pile = 24.17 kN

Pile is SAFE AGAINST LATERAL LOADS

Design lateral load on pile = 24.17 kN

Design diameter of pile = 1.00 m

Maximum moment acting on the pile = 172.20 kNm

********************************************************************

RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE

********************************************************************

The Axial load applied = 805.56 kN

Maximum moment acting on the pile = 172.20 kNm

The Length of the pile = 20.00 m

The Diameter of the pile = 1.00 m

Grade of Concrete = 25.00 Mpa

Grade of longitudinal Steel = 415.00 Mpa

LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT

Area of longitudianal reinf. required = 3141.60 mm2

Clear cover for longitudinal reinforcement = 40.00 mm

Diameter of longitudinal bars = 25 mm

Number of longitudinal bars = 10

55
LATERAL REINFORCEMENT

Diameter of lateral reinforcement = 8 mm

Pitch provided = 384 mm

********************************************************************

RESULTS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF. PILE CAP

********************************************************************

Total vertical load coming on to the pile cap = 4000.00 kN

Total moment coming on to the pile cap

In X-direction (anti-clockwise +ve) = 1000.00 kNm

In Y-direction (anti-clockwise +ve) = 500.00 kNm

Total No. of piles in the group 6

=

No. of piles in X-direction 2

=

No. of piles in Y-direction =

CENTRE TO CENTRE SPACING

between piles in X-direction = 3.00 m

between piles in Y-direction = 3.00 m

Size of pier on pile cap in X-direction = 0.50 m

Size of pier on pile cap in Y-direction = 0.50 m

Clear overhang of the pile cap = 0.10 m

Clear cover to the main reinforcement in the pile cap = 60.00 mm

Grade of concrete to be used for the pile cap = 25.00 Mpa

Grade of steel to be used for the pile cap = 415.00 Mpa

LOADING CONDITIONS ON PILES

pile[1] load=805.56 kN

pile[2] load=722.22 kN

pile[3] load=638.89 kN

56

pile[4] load=694.44 kN

pile[5] load=611.11 kN

pile[6] load=527.78 kN

Ultimate Bending Moment in X-direction = 4641.61 kNm

Ultimate Bending Moment in Y-direction = 2708.33 kNm

Provide 28 mm bars at a spacing of 165 mm c/c in x-direction

Provide 25 mm bars at a spacing of 300 mm c/c in y-direction

Design one-way shear stress= 0.27 Mpa and nominal one-way shear stress=
0.27 Mpa.

Design two-way shear stress= 1.25 Mpa and nominal two-way shear stress=
1.13 Mpa.

Development length required= 1128.28 mm

Straight length available beyond critical section = 3250.00 mm

Overall depth of pile cap = 1.00 m

The section is checked satisfactorily for ONE WAY SHEAR and TWO WAY SHEAR

The section is safe for Development length.

Provide horizontal ties of 12mm dia. @ 150mm c/c around outer piles in
the group to resist bursting.

57
 CHAPTER- 5
CONCLUSIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The conclusions of the analytical study carried out in this thesis are presented .in
this chapter and suggestions have been made for further investigations.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS

1. A user friendly interactive package for design of pile foundations for river bridges

has been developed in this thesis. The software can be used for computation of

scour depth, proportioning of pile group, structural design of pile and the structural

design of the pile cap.

2. The structural design of the piles and the pile cap as incorporated in this package

conforms to the provisions of IS: 456-2000 and IS: 2911-1979.

3. Relevant knowledge base derived from codal provisions and standard design

practices, is in-built in the package and the same can be accessed online so as to

enable the user to make the right design choices.

4. The typical design output obtained from the software package has been validated

by hand calculations.

5. The proposed software package will be particularly useful for design optimization

of pile foundations in response to field conditions whereby design engineers will

have a handy and convenient software tool to quickly reconfigure the design of pile

foundations depending on field conditions and hence achieve better performance

and economy.

58
 5.3 SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

At present the package is for designing of pile and pile cap. The package can be
modified to accommodate graphical drawings based on the output of design such as cross-
section of pile, longitudinal section of pile and reinforcement details of pile cap.

59
 REFERENCES

1. Bowles, J. E. (1979), "Foundation Analysis and Design", McGraw-Hill, New York.

2. Bramlette McClelland (1972), "design and performance of a Deep Foundation in
Clay", General Report, ASCE, Special Conference on Performance of Earth and
Supported Structures, Vol. 2, pp.11-114.
3. Broms, B. (1966), "Methods of calculating the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles-
a summary", Sols-Soils, Vol. 5, No.18-19, pp.21-31.
4. De Beer, E. and Marten (1957), "Method of Computation on a Upper Limit for the
Influences of Heterogeneity of Sand Layers in the Settlement of Bridges", Proc. 4th
Int. Conf. on SMFE, London, Vol. 1.
5. Hand Book on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing — SP: 34 (S & T) — 1980,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
6. IS: 2911 Part I, Code of Practice for Design and Construction of pile Foundations,
Concrete piles
Section 1 : Driven cast-in-situ concrete piles - 1979
Section 2 : Bored cast-in-situ concrete piles - 1979
Section 3 : Driven precast concrete piles - 1979
Section 4 : Bored precast concrete piles — 1979
7. IS: 456-2000, Indian Standard Code of Practice for Plain. and Reinforced Concrete.
8. IRC: 78-2000, Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges-
Section: VII.
9. Jain, A.K. (1993), "Reinforced Concrete-Limit State Design", Nem Chand & Bros.,
Roorkee, Fourth Edition.
10. Kulwahy, F.H. (1984), "Limiting Tip and Side Resistance, Fact or Fallacy",
Symposium on Analysis and Design of Pile Foundations, ASCE Proceedings, pp.
80-98.
11. Kurian, N. P (1992), "Design of Foundation Systems, Principles and Practices",
Norosa Publishing House, New Delhi.
12. Mallick, S.K. (1996), "The Truss Method for Pile Caps", The Indian Concrete
Journal, Vol. 70, No. 3, March, pp. 163-166.

60
13. Mayerhof, G. G. (1976), "Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Pile Foundations",
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Div., ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT3.
14. McCarthy (1988), "Essentials of Soil mechanics and Foundations", Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
15. Peck, R. B., Hanson, W. E., and Thornborn, T. H. (1974), "Foundation
Engineering", Second Edition, Wiley eastern Limited, pp. 214-215.
16. Ravi Kiran, A. (1998), "A Computer Package on Design of Pile Foundations", M.
E. Dissertation, University of Roorkee, Roorkee.
17. Seed H. B. & Reese, L. C. (1955), "The Action of Soft Clay Along Friction Piles",
Proc. of ASCE, Vol. 81, pp. 842.
18. Swamisaran (1996), "Analysis and Design of Substructures — Limit State Design",
Oxford & IBH Publishing CO. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
19. Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. B. (1976), "Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice",-
John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.
20. Tomlinson, M. J. (1987), "Pile Design and Construction Practice", 3rd Edition, A
Viewpoint Publication.
21. Tomlinson, M ,J (2001), "Foundation Design and Construction", 7th Edition,
Prentice Hall Publication.
2nd
22. Unnikrishna Pillai, S, and Menon, D. (2003), "Reinforced Concrete Design",
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill publication.
23. Victor, D. J. (1973), "Essentials of Bridge Engineering", 5th Edition, Oxford & IBH
Publishing CO. PVT. Ltd., New Delhi.
24. Whitaker, Thomas (1970), "The Design of Pile Foundation", Pergamon Press Ltd.,
Great Britain.

61
 APPENDIX —A
SUPPORTING LONG HAND CALCULATIONS FOR THE
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

Scour Depth Calculations:

Design Discharge for foundation per meter width at-
effective linear water way = (4000/303.58) = 13.176 m 3/sec/m

Silt factor = 1.76 0.5 = 1.24

-1/3
[13.1762
Mean scour depth below HFL = 1.34 = 6.96m
1.24

Maximum scour depth below bed level = 8.916m

Proportioning of Pile Group:
Single pile capacity
Skin resistance = 8.38 7C
* * 1.0 *11.18 = 294.47 kN
Point resistance = 111.8 * 26 * it/4 * 1.02 = 2283.29 kN
Safe capacity = 859.25 kN
Total number of piles = 6
Pile group capacity based on single pile = 859.25 * 6 = 5155.50 kN
Dimensions of pile group = 4.0 m X 7.0 m
Group capacity
Skin resistance = 8.38 22
* * 11.18 = 2061.44 kN
Point resistance = 2906.8 * 4 * 7 = 81390.4 kN
Safe capacity of the pile group =27817.28 kN
Net pile group capacity = 5155.50 kN
Lateral load analysis:
Maximum pressure of water acting at HFL = 4.16 K
Let the total depth of pile cap is assumed as 0.75m
Load on pile cap due to water current = 2.75 * 1.5 * 0.75 * 4 = 12.36 kN

62
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PILE CAP:
Pier size = 0.5 x 0.5 m.
Grade of Concrete = M25
Grade of Steel = Fe415
Pile cap size = 4.2 x 7.2 m
Reactions from piles:
Pilel = (666.67 + 83.33 + 55.55) = 805.56 kN
Pile2 = (666.67 + 0 + 55.55) = 722.22 kN
Pile3 = (666.67 - 83.33 + 55.55) = 638.89 kN
Pile4 = (666.67 + 83.33 - 55.55) = 694.44 kN
Pile5 = (666.67 + 0 - 55.55) = 611.12 kN
Pile6 = (666.67 - 83.33 - 55.55) = 527.78 kN
Ultimate bending moment in x-direction = 4641.605 kNm
Ultimate bending moment in y-direction = 2708.605 kNm
Depth to resist maximum bending moment = 4641.605 x 106 = 0.138 * 25 * 4.2 * 1000 *
d2
d= 0.56 m
Let overall depth = 1.0 m.
Area of steel required in x-direction = 14792.122 mm2.
Area of steel required in y-direction = 8256.667 mm 2.
Providing in x-direction 28 mm 0 bars at 165 mm c/c..
Providing in y-direction 25 mm 0 bars at 300 mm c/c.

Check for One-way shear:

r,0.27
= Mpa and r, = 0.27 Mpa.
Safe against one-way shear.
Overall depth required for One-way shear --- 0.92 m.

64
Check for Two-way shear:
r y= 1.13 Mpa and rc = 1.25 Mpa
Safe against two-way shear.

Check for Development length:

Ld = 1128 mm, the straight length available = 3250 mm.
So safe against development length.
Provide horizontal ties of 12 mm dia. @ 150 mm c/c. around outer piles in the group to
resist bursting which is caused due to high principal tension.

65