Last edited: 9/5/2021

9. TARGET ORGANS OF THE THYROID

Endocrinology | Target Organs of the Thyroid Medical Editor: Ilia-Presiyan Georgiev

OUTLINE

I) EFFECTS ON THE CELL

II) EFFECTS ON THE LIVER
III) EFFECTS ON THE HEART
IV) EFFECTS ON THE CNS
V) EFFECTS ON THE BONES
VI) EFFECTS ON THE ADIPOSE TISSUE
VII) EFFECTS ON THE MUSCLES
VIII) EFFECTS ON THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

I) EFFECTS ON THE CELL

(1) Thyroid hormone (T3 and T4) Figure 1 Effects of TH on the cell.
circulates the bloodstream
o Bound to thyroxine binding globulin
 A protein made by the liver II) EFFECTS ON THE LIVER
o T4 (Thyroxine) is major component (1) TH exerts it effects
T4 passes through the lipid bilayer of the cellular
by a mechanism similar to the aforementioned and
membrane
produces proteins that stimulate
(2) Inside the cell o Glycogenolysis
 The conversion of glycogen into glucose
the enzyme 5’-deiodinase removes an iodine form
• Glycogen is a polymer of glucose
thyroxine
o A storage molecule of glucose
o From the 5’-carbon atom
o Converts T4 into T3 (Triiodothyronine)
 The active form of the thyroid hormone
o Gluconeogenesis
Another enzyme - 5-deiodinase can remove an iodine  The conversion of non-carbohydrates into glucose
form thyroxine • Glycerol, amino acids and lactate (the
o From the 5-carbon atom conjugate base lactic acid) located in the liver
o Converts T4 reverse T3 o the expression of LDL receptors (LDL-R)
 Inactive form
(3) T3 binds to
 LDL - low-density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol)
a transcription factor
o To exert its effects, it needs retinoic acid (RXR) to
bind to the transcription factor as well
When both substances bind to the transcription factor
o It is activated
o Moves inside the nucleus
o Stimulates a specific gene sequence
(4) The gene sequence
undergoes transcription, translation and modifications Figure 2 Effects of TH on the liver.
o The end result is the synthesis of a protein
 Sodium-potassium ATPase (Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase)
III) EFFECTS ON THE HEART
This protein merges with the cell membrane
o Acts as a sodium-potassium pump (1) TH exerts its effects on the cardiomyocytes
 Pumps 3Na+ out of the cell Stimulates the expression of beta-1-adrenergic
 Pumps 2K+ inside the cell receptors
 Requires an ATP molecule to be convert to an o These receptors bind epinephrine and
ADP molecule for energy norepinephrine
(5) This leads to
increased number of sodium-potassium pumps
o Requires more energy

(2) TH also affects the non-contractile muscle cells

• Macromolecules (carbohydrates, fats, etc.) of the SA node and the AV node
Stimulates the expression of beta-1-adrenergic receptors
o These receptors bind epinephrine and norepinephrine

Target Organs of the Thyroid ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY: Note #9. 1 of 4

 VI) EFFECTS ON THE ADIPOSE TISSUE

(1) TH stimulates lipolysis

The process of of breakdown of triglycerides into fatty
acids and glycerol by activating specific enzymes
o Triglycerides are the main component of the adipose
tissue
o The produced glycerol goes to the liver and is
converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis

Figure 3 Effects of TH on the heart.

IV) EFFECTS ON THE CNS

(1) TH affects the CNS in several ways

↑ dendrite formation
Figure 6 Effects of the TH on the adipose tissue.

↑ myelination
VII) EFFECTS ON THE MUSCLES
↑ number of synapses
(1) The protein metabolism
is the sum total of:
As a result of all this hyperthyroidism can lead to anxiety o Catabolism
and irritability  Conversion of proteins to amino acids
o Anabolism
 Conversion of amino acids into proteins
(2) TH regulates the activity of both
keeping them balanced

Figure 4 Effects of TH on the CNS. (3) Hyperthyroidism causes

the balance shifts to catabolism
V) EFFECTS ON THE BONES

(1) In the bones there are o not to be mistaken with lethargy

two types of important cells

o Osteoblasts
 Responsible for bone deposition
o Osteoclasts
 Responsible for bone resorption
(2) TH regulates
and maintains the balance between the two
o prevents excessive osteoblastic or osteoclastic
activity
o The process is called bone remodeling Figure 7 Effects of TH on the muscles.
(3) TH affects the chondrocytes
in the epiphyseal plates VIII) EFFECTS ON THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
o The chondrocytes undergo
 Proliferation (1) Layers of the skin
 Hypertrophy Epidermis
 Eventually ossification o Stratum Corneum
o This causes the bones to grow in length o Stratum Lucidum
o Interstitial growth  Only found in thick skin
o Stratum Granulosum
(4) TH stimulates
o Stratum Spinosum
Endochondral ossification o Stratum Basale
o Turning cartilage into bone
Dermis
Contains the blood vessels that provide nutrition

Figure 8 Layers of the skin.

Figure 5 Effects of TH on the bones.

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 (2) TH increases
the metabolic rate

o the body tries to regulate it

Blood vessels dilate and increase the blood flow
o The skin to look soft and flushed
o Skin radiates heat
The apocrine and merocrine sweat glands start producing
sweat
TH ↑ the sweat glands sensitivity to catecholamines
o Epinephrine
o Norepinephrine

(3) Hypothyroidism causes

Brittle nails and thin hair
(4) Hyperthyroidism causes
Thick hair

IX) EFFECTS ON THE GI TRACT

(1) TH stimulates the secretions

of the entire GI tract
o Alkaline fluid
o Intestinal fluid, etc.
(2) TH enhances the motility
of the entire GI tract
o Stimulates the contractions of the smooth muscle
cells
(3) Hyperthyroidism causes
Diarrhea
(4) Hypothyroidism causes
Constipation

Figure 9 Effects of the TH on the GI tract.

Target Organs of the Thyroid ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY: Note #9. 3 of 4

 X) REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Which enzyme produces active triiodothyronine?

a) Thyroid peroxidase
b) 5-deiodinase
c) 5’-deiodinase
d) T3-oxigenase

2) What substance is required for T3 to exert its effects?

a) Retinoic acid
b) Thyroid binding globulin
c) Oxygen
d) Sodium

3) What is NOT correct about the effects of T3 on the

cell?
a) ↑ number of sodium-potassium pumps
b) ↑ the cellular ATP levels
c) ↑ in burning fuel
d) ↑ heat production

4) Which effect of TH is NOT exerted on the liver?

a) Glygenolysis
b) Gluconeogenesis
c) Increased LDL uptake
d) Lipolysis

5) Which effect of the TH does NOT result from

cardiomyocyte stimulation?
a) ↑ the contractility
b) ↑ stroke volume
c) ↑ the blood pressure
d) ↑ the heart rate

6) What is WRONG about the effects of TH on the CNS?

a) ↑ quality of synapses
b) ↑ dendrite formation
c) ↑ the number of the neural connections
d) ↑ myelination

7) What effect of the TH is NOT exerted on the

chondrocytes?
a) Proliferation
b) Hypertrophy
c) Remodeling
d) Ossification

8) Which is stimulated by TH?

a) Catabolism
b) Anabolism
c) Both
d) Neither

9) Which layer of the epidermis is only found in thick

skin?
a) Stratum Corneum
b) Stratum Lucidum
c) Stratum Granulosum
d) Stratum Spinosum

10) Hypothyroidism may cause which symptom?

a) Diarrhea
b) Constipation
c) Thick hair
d) Anxiety

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

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