Basie ¬lectrical Engineering

10
(ii) Total Capacitance,
C = C, + C, + C,
...

(Parallel Connectin
= 10 t 50 + 25
85 uF
Part-2 : Series Connection
In series connection, charge on each capacitor is same.
1

C 10 50 25

25
Cea 4
uF

25
Q= Cea V= x 250 = 1562.5 uC
4
Similarly

Q 1562.5
156.25 V
10

Q= CjV ’ Vy= 62.5 V

Q= C;V3 ’ V, = 31.25 V
1.9 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE VALUE : GTU, May-2011
GTUQuestions
1. Explain the factors affecting the resistance of a conducting material. [May-2011, 3-Marks
Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors.
1. Length of conductor ()
2. Cross sectional area (a)
3. Type of material
4. Temperature
1. Length of conductor :
If the length of the conductor increases, the distance that the free electrons will travel also increas
As the distance is increased, the free electrons will be obstructed by more atoms and molecules wn
are present in the long conductor. Therefore the resistance of the conductor is increased.
In others words, i.e.
Ra l|
In Fig. 1.18, two conductors of same 28
material having equal area of cross
sectional are shown. But length of one FIG, 1.18
2/ w
conductor is l and that of another conductor is 21. Resistance of conductor having length
be twice than that having length I.
 D. C. Clreults 11
2 Cross sectional area :
For given free electrons if the area of cross section 20

of the conductor is increased, the path for the flow

of free electrons is increased. Hence
opposition
offered is decreased. So resistance offered by the
conductor is also decreased.
In other words, () (b)
FIG. 1.19
i.e. Ra!
a

In Fig l.19 (a) and (b), the length of wire is the same but in (b) the area of cross section is double
than that in (a). So the resistance of conductor in (b) will be half of that in (a).
3. Type of material:
Different substances have different atomic structures because each material has different atomic weight
and atomic number. So the resistance offered by each material will be different because of different
number of free electrons available.
In Fig. 1.20 two conductors having equal length l and
equal cross sectional area a are shown. One is copper
wire and the other is aluminium wire. The resistance of
aluminium wire is more. In this case the resistance of COPPER ALUMINIUM
aluminium conductor i.e. 1.6 of times that of copper FIG. 1.20
conductor.

(4) Temperature:
When the temperature of a substance increases, the molecules vibrate more rapidly, impending the
movement of free electrons through the substance. On increasing the temperature, there is no further
increase in free electrons in a conductor. On account of this, the resistance offered by the conductor
increases.

1.10 RESISTIVITY OR SPECIFIC RESISTANCE (9) : GTU, December-2010

GTUQuestions
1. Define : Resistivity December-2010, 1-Mark]
We leamt that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
Ral ... ()
and resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section.

Ral .. (1)
a

Combining (i) and (i)

Ra

R=9 ... (iii)

22 Basic Electrical Engineeri
are connected
(iii) Node It is ajunction, in a circuit where at least two circuit elements
(iv) Branch : It is a part of a network that lies between two nodes.
the starting node.
togethe
(v) Loop : It is a closed path where the traversal ends upon
within it.
(vi) Mesh lt is a loop that does not contain any other loop
of electric circuit easil.
In some cases it has been found that it is difficult to get the solution these cases.
the help of Ohm's law. On the other hands, Kirchhoff's laws are very useful in These
form the basis of all network analysis and are applicable to any network whether elements are lineat lay
nonlinear, time-varying or timeinvariant. Kirchhoff gave the following laws governing the performang
of an electric circuit known as
1. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) 2. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
k Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) :
It is stated as follows:
The algebraic sum of all the voltage in any closed path or circuit (mesh or loop) at any instant
equal to zero. It satisties the physical law of the conservation of energy.
Mathematically,
v(t) = 0 ...1.10.1
closed path
If we start from any point in a closed path ofa network and go back to that point, after going round
the closed path, there is no increase or decrease in potential at that point. This means that the algebraic
sum of emfs and the algebraic sum of voltage drops or rises meeting on the way is zero.
Determination of Sign :
A rise in potential can be assumed tobe positive, while a fall in potential can be considered negative.
The reverse is also possible to assume and both conventions will give the same result.
(i) If we go fromn the positive terminal of the battery or source to the negative terminal, there is
a fall in potential and so the emf should be assigned a negative sign.
If we go from the negative terminal of the battery or source to the positive terminal, there
is a rise in potential and so emf should be given a positive sign.
Fig. 1.22 shows the sign convention for the battery of source.

(i) Fall in voltage (ü) Rise in voltage

Fig. 1.22 Sign convention for voltages of battery or source
The arrOw head indicates the direction of the path to be traversed.
(ii) When current flows through aresistance, there is avoltage drop across it. Ifwe go through the resistance
in the same direction as the current, there is a fall in the potential and so the sign of the voltage drop
is negative. If we go through the resistance in the direction opposite to the direction of the current
flow, there is arise in the potential and hence this voltage drop should be given apositive sign.
Fig. 1.23 shows the sign convention for potential difference across the resistance.
 D.C. Circuits 23
+ R
+

Path direction Path direction

(i) fall in potential

(i.e. Voltage drop) (ii) Rise in potential
(Voltage rise)
Fig. 1.23 Sign convention for potential difference across the resistance
Explanation :
Consider Fig. 1.24, in which the direction of path is taken clockwise.
across the resistances will be voltage drops and hence we Accordingly the potential differences
assign negative sign as : follows
RI
B

SRA R2
+
E3

R3
D
E2

Fig. 1.24 Kirchhoff's voltage law

I|R, is -ve (fall in potential)
I,R, is ve (fall in potential)
IR, is -ve (fall in potential)
LR4 is -ve (fall in potential)
E, is -ve (fall in potential)
E, is -ve (fall in potential)
E, is +ve (rise in potential)
Using KVL,
(HR,) + (-R3) + (-E) +(-,R,) + (-E) + Ej + (-l;R) = 0
IR, + I,R, + I;Ry t lËRy = E - E - E, ...1.10.2
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rise of emfs
In other words, the sum of products of resistance and current through each of the conductor for any
Closed path is equal to the sum of emfs in that path with proper sign. If there is no source of emf, right
side of equation will be zero.
2. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) :
stated as follows.
The algebraic sum of currents meeting at any junction or node at any instant in an electric circuit
is zero.
Explanation :
Consider five conductors carrying currents I,, I, ,, L, and Is meeting at a junction 0 as shown in Fig.
1.25.
24 Basic Electrical Engineerin
By, convention, currents entering the junction are taken to be positive and current leaving the junctio
are taken to be negative. The currents of current source entering the junction are taken positive and vica
versa.

Is
12

Fig. 1.25 Kirchhoff's current law

In Fig. 1.26, we have
I, + (-) + I3 + (-L) + IL = 0
I, , t I; - L4 + l_ = 0
I, + 13 + Is = Ih + l4
sum of currents entering the junction = sum of currents leaving the junction ...1.10.3

Thus, above law can also be stated as follows :

Sum of currents flowing towards the junction in any electric circuit is equal to the sum of currents
flowing away from that junction.
Kirchhoffs current law is also known as point law. It is based on the conservation of charge at
node.
D. C. Circuits 21
1.9 Ohs Law :
A The relationship between the current flowing through a conductor and the potential difference across
he conductor is given by Ohm's law.
The Ohm's law states that the potential difference across a conductor is directly
proportional to the
eurrent flowing through the conductor, the temperature of the conductor remaining constant.
ie.
or V= RI ...1.9.1
where, V=potential difference across a conductor
I= current flowing through the conductor
R= constant of proportionality called as Resistance of the conductor
The Ohm's law can also be written as
V
I= D
R Ampere ...1.9.2

Fig. 1.21 Ohm's law

Ohm's law also gives the volt-ampere relationship for an element.
Ohm's law can be applied to a part of the circuit or to the full circuit in which the curent flows.
Ohm's law can also be applied to AC circuit or circuits with unidirectional source.
Ohm's law can also be stated as under :
Statement :
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential diference applied
across its ends or the ratio of potential difference applied across a conductor and the current flowing through
t remains constant provided the physical conditions of the conductor remains the same. This ratio is called
the resistance of the conductor.
Mathematically,
I = R
Ohm's law is not applicable to any nonlinear element such as diode transistor, zener diode, etc. It
S applicable only to the linear elements. This is the biggest limitation of Ohm's law.
19/5 and 12.1
Referring
Delta-star
2,
the
resistance to
Fig.
Transformation
1.37(1),
R12
isthe
inare
resistances
parallel :

with
connected
the
series

bination in
Delta.

We
[June
observe
of
R3 2012,
and that
Jan.
between
R3l.
2013,

the June
terminals
2013)
 Basic Electrical Enginer
34
and 2 is given by,
Equivalent resistance between the terminals 1
R12 (R23 + R1)
R12 || (R23 t R3i) = R2 + R3 + R31
connected in star (or Wye). We
Referring
terminals
to
1
Fig.
and 2,
1.37(ii),
the
the resistances
resistance R, is
are
in series with R2.
observe betwe
that
the
terminals 1and 2 = RË + R2
.:. Equivalent resistance between the
the resistances as measured
These two networks will be electrically equivalent if between
any
of terminals is the same in both the arrangements.
terminals 1 and 2of delta connection and
Accordingly equating the resistances between the its equiv
we get from Eqs. (1.12.1) and (1.12.2) as,
star connection,
R12 (R2 + R31)
R, + R =
Ry2 + R3 + R3I
and 3, we have,
Similarly, equating the resistances between the terminals 2
R23 (R3I + Ri2)
R t R3 =
R12 + R23 + R31
we have,
Similarly, equating the resistance between the terminals 3 and 1,
R31 (R12 + R23) ..)
Ra + R, = R12 + R23 + R31
By adding equations (1.12.3) to (1.12.5), we get
2(R1R23 + Rz3R31 + R3|R12)
2(R, + R t R:) = R12 + R23 + R31

R, + R + Rg =
(RyRz3 + R23R31 +RR12) ...IL
R12 + R23 + R31
Subtracting Eq. (1.12.3) from Eq. (1.12.6) we get,
RyRz3 + R23R31 + R3|R12 R12 (R23 + R31)
(R; + Rz + R3) - (R, + R) R2 + R23 + R31 R2 + R23 + R31
R2 x R1
R12 + R23 + R31
.:. R3 R3| x R23 ....
R12 + R23 + R31
Similarly, subtracting Eq. (1.12.4) from Eq. (1.12.6), we get,
..LL
R, =
Rj2 XR31
Ry2 + R23 + R31
Similarly, Subtracting Eq. (1.12.5) from Eq. (1.12.6), we get,
Rz3 x Ry2
K2 Ri2 + R23 + R31 connecte
Note : From Eqs. (1.12.7) to (1.12.9), we observe that the equivalent star resistanceconnectedtw
given terminal is given by the product of the two delta resistances that are
terminal divided by the sum of the three delta connected resistances.
 35
D.C. Circuits
Note : When three cqual resistances are connected in delta, the cquivalent star resistance is iven
by,
In delta connection,
R1 R =R = R
then in equivalent star connection,
R, = R = R
RxRA RA
R + Ra + R 3

Ry = Ra
3
ie. Equivalent star resistance is one third of delta-connected resistance.
1.12.2 Star-Delta Transformation : (Jan. 2011, Jan. 2013, June 2015]
nthe preceding delta to star transformation, we have obtained the following equations.
Ry2 x R31
RÊ R12 + R + Ry ...i)
R23 XR12 ...(i1)
R = R +R3 + R31
Ry x R23
Rg = R12 + Rz3 + R1 ...(i)
Multiply equations (1) and (ii), (ii) and (ii) and (ii) and ()
R R23 R31
R, R, = (R12 + R +R3) .iv)

R12 Rz3 R31

R Rg = ...<v)
(R12 + Rz3 + Ry)'
R2 R23 R' ...(vi)
R, R, = (R12 + R3 + R3i)'
Adding the equations (iv), (v) and (vi), we get
R2 Rzs R3 (R12 + Rz + Rg1)
R R + R, R, + R, R, = (R12 + Rz3 + R3)
R12 R23 RI ..(vü)
R12 + R3 + R31

= R3 x
R12 XRl
Ri2 + R2) + Ru
= R, x R21 ..(viiü)
Similarly.
R, R, + R, Rg + R, R, = R x Ryi ...(ix)
and R, R, + R, R, + R, R, = R, x Ri2 ...(x)
 36
between
by
those
the and Hence,
Equivalent Note two Note
third
any that
terminals
: from
When star two Eq.
a R12 R,
delta resistance. given
(1.12.10), R12 = R31 = R23 = Eqs.
= =
three
= R plus
R23
3 resistances = = =
y R3 R.+ (viii),
= terminals
equal the RÊ R,
= R Ry R
R31 product (1.12.11) t R2 t
= R, R2 R3 R2(ix)
Ry
= resistances R2 t+ + +
will is + R2 + R2 + R2 and
R given
of R3 R2 R,
RÊ R3
= also those and R, R3 R2 R3
R3R2 Ri R3
R2 R3(x),
Ry (1.12.12)
by + + +
+ be
are R3 R3 we
two the R3
Ry
identicalconnected RË R1 R1have
resistances sum
+ we
Ry
Ry' of
observe
given the
in
= connected two
by
star,
3 that
Ry star
then the
resistances
between
equivalent

those that
delta Electrical
Eag Basic
two are
resistance
connected
terminals

divi betve
2.2 Superposition Theorem :
Super position is a general principle that allows us to determine the effect of several energy sources
acting simultancously on asystems by considering the effect of each source acting alone and then combining
(super posing) those effects.
Super position Theorem for dc networks is stated as follow :
Ina linear dcnetwork containing more than one independent energy source, the overall response (hat
is current through or voltage across) in any branch is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses due
to each independent source acting one at a time with all other ideal independent sources set equal to zero.
A linear network is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they do no change with voltage or current.

[75]
76
Basic Electrical Engineering
Setting an ideal current source equal to zero means that the
source is replaced by an open circuit.
Similarly, setting an ideal voltage source equal to zero means that the source is
It is to be noted that a short circuit may be replaced by a short circuit
considered be a voltage source of value zero voltage and
to
an open circuit may be considered to be a
current source of value zero ampere. Thus, setting a source
equal to zero means that its contribution has been made equal to
zero.
The super position theorem is applicable to all linear networks,
time varying or time invariant. It holds
for all possible locations, types and wave forms of the
independent sources.
2.4 Thevenin's Theorem :

Sometimes, it is desired to determine the current through or voltage across any one branch in
a network without calculating the currents or voltage in other branches of the network. In such cases, it
is not necessary to write complete set of equations for the whole network and then solving those equation
for this single current or voltage in particular branch. In other words, it is always not necessary to analyze
the complete circuit. Thevenin's theorem may conveniently be used for such problems.
Thevenin's theorem for de networks :
It may be stated as follows

"A linear two terminal active dc network N consisting of independent and/or dependent voltage and
curent sources and resistors can be replaced at a pair of terminals a-b by a simple equivalent network
consisting of a single voltage source VTh in series with a single resistance RTh:
Network Theorems 77

The voltage source VTh 1S the voltage across the terminals a-b when they are open-circuited. This
voltage is called the Thevenin equivalent voltage VTh:
The cquivalent Thevenin resistance RTh has value given by the ratio of the open-circuit voltage and
circuit current at the terminals a-b of the original network N.
That is,
Open circuit voltage across the terminals a-b of network N
RTh Short circuit current through the terminals a-b of the network N
f all the sources are independent, the Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh is the total resistance at
the open-circuited terminals a-b when all independent voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and
all ideal current sources are replaced by open circuits or with their internal resistance if given in the network.
Consider a linear active network N connected to an arbitrary load resistance R, as shown in
Fig. 2.1. For the purpose of determining the curent through or voltage across the resistor R, connected
between the terminals a-b, the rest of the network may be replaced by a simple equivalent network containing
Vh in series with RTh:

a
a

RTh
Active
NetworkN RL= VTh RL
b
b

Thevenin Equivalent
(a) Network, N (b)
Fig. 2.1 (a) Original network (b) Thevenin equivalent network
 K all ne me.
portion of the circujt
circuit,
2.6 Nerton's Theorem : applicable for a with
theorem which is current source in parallel
Norton's theorem is also an equivalent network by a
With the help of this theorem, we can replace
re a complex
can be written simplyby paraphrasing
theorem and
of Thevenin's
asingle resistor. Norton's theorem isthe dual
Thevenin's theorem.
It may be stated for de networks as follows : dependent voltage and
independent and /or
consisting of simple equivalent network
Alinear 2-terminal active dc network, N terminals a - b by a
be replaced at a pair of RN:
current sources and resistors can with a single resistor RN
urce
consisting of a single current source Iy in parallel
when they are short circuited. This
The source current I is the current through
the terminals a-b current through the terminals
current is the
the Norton equivalent current Since the
called is, IN'sc
C s short-circuited. it may be also denoted by Ie: That
a-b when they are
resistance between the terminals a-b of the original
resistance R.. is the
The Norton equivalent removed and allother sources are replaced by their internal
network N with the load orexternal circuitry is open circuit for current source_
short circuits for voltage sources and
resistance in case of practical source or
network, N and its Norton equivalent network are shown in Fig. 2.2
The linear active the same way as the Thevenin equivalent
resistance, Ry is calculated inexactly
Ihe Norton equivalent
resistance
i.e. RN = Rh
Network Theorems 79

Active
Network. N RL RN RL

Equivalent of
Network N
(a)
(b)
 1.5.1 Independent Sources :
Output characteristics of an independent source are not dependent on any network variable such as
current or: voltage. Its characteristics however, may be time-varying. There are two types of independent
sOurces

(1) Independent voltage source (2) Independent current source

 Supplied to it decreases.
Fig. 1.6 Practical current source
1.52 Dependent (controlled) Sources :
If the voltage or current of a
source depends in turn
upon Some other voltage or current exiting at some other
location in the electrical system under examination, it
is called as dependent or controlled source. To
distinguish
between independent and dependent sources we introduce
the diamond symbols shown in Fig. 1.7.
The dependent sources are of four kinds depending
on whether the control variable is voltage or current and
the controlled source is a voltage or current source.
(i) Dependent voltage source (i) Dependent curent source
Fig. 1.7 Dependent sources
Ideal voltage source :
It maintains constant terminal voltage. The value of this voltage at any instant is independent of the
value or direction of the current that flows through it. The symbol for such voltage source is shown in
Fig. 1.3. It is also called as constant voltage source.
 CircuitsD.
C.
nt
Source
h
nce
d
d

or
of
an
Fig.
ideal D.C.Source ()
. 13
tage
Ideal
No
urcevoltage
A.C.Source(ü)
is
zero.source

ore, vs(t)

the
inal

age

ains

5
 There are two types of independent current source
(1) Ideal current source
2 (2) Practical current source
Tdeal current source : is (t)
The current supplied by the ideal current source is constant
and independent on any other voltage or current source in the
remained circuit. Note that the source resistance is infinite.
The symbol of an ideal current source is shown in Fig. 1.5.
It is also called a constant current source. D.C.Source A.C.Source

Fig. 1.5 ldeal current source