SCIENCE

Based on the
COMMON CORE CURRICULUM PROGRAM

FOR
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS
BASIC NINE (BS 9)

COMPILED BY SAMSON K. ARIZI AND PRINCE OPOKU

Contents
1. STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER SUB-STRAND 1: MATERIALS 2
2. STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER: SUB-STRAND 2: LIVING CELLS 6
3. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 1: EARTH SCIENCES ........... 7
4. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 2: LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANISMS 9
5. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 3: CROP PRODUCTION...... 10
6. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 4: ANIMAL PRODUCTION11
7. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 1: THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM 12
8. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 2: THE SOLAR SYSTEM15
9. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 3: ECOSYSTEM ............. 15
10. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 4: FARMING SYSTEMS18
11. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 1: ENERGY 20
12. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 2: ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRONICS ........................................................................................ 23
13. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 3: CONVERSION AND
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ............................................................. 26
14. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 4: FORCE AND MOTION 27
15. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 5: AGRICULTURAL TOOLS 28
16. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 1: WASTE
MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................... 29
17. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 2: HUMAN HEALTH 29
18. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 3: SCIENCE AND
INDUSTRY ............................................................................................... 31
19. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 4: CLIMATE
CHANGE AND GREEN ECONOMY ...................................................... 32
20. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 5:
UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT .......................................... 33

1. STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER SUB-STRAND 1: MATERIALS

Binary Compounds
A compound is a substance formed from chemical combination of two or more elements. For example:
Water is a compound formed from the combination of hydrogen and oxygen and Carbon dioxide is a
compound formed from the combination of carbon and oxygen. Compounds are represented by chemical
formulas. There are many types of compounds. Some contain more than two elements combining to form
the compound. When only two elements combine, the compound formed is called binary compound.
Binary compound is a compound made up of only two different elements. The tables below show some
common examples of binary compounds.

Binary Chemical compounds

• Lithium fluoride, LiF
• Sodium iodide, NaI
• Potassium chloride, KCl
• Potassium iodide , KI
• Calcium sulphide, CaS
• Potassium oxide, K2O
• Lithium oxide, Li2O
• Beryllium oxide, BeO
• Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
• Calcium oxide, CaO
• Iron (II) sulphide, FeS
• Silver (I) chloride, HgCl
• Cupper (II) oxide, CuO
• Carbon (IV) oxide, CO2
• Carbon (II) oxide, CO
• Sulphur (IV) oxide, SO2
• Lead (II) oxide, PbO
• Silver (II) oxide, HgO
• copper (I) chloride, Cu2O
• Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2

Chemical symbols of the elements identified in the chemical compounds

Table 3.1 Examples of binary compounds
Binary Compound Elements
Water H, O
Ammonia N, H
Sodium chloride Na, Cl
Iron (ii) sulphite Fe, S
Carbon dioxide C, O
Calcium chloride Ca, Cl
Copper (ii) oxide Cu, O
Zinc (ii) chloride Zn, Cl
Hydrochloric acid H, Cl

Formation of binary chemical compounds

A binary compound is a compound formed from two different elements. There may or may not be more
than one of each element. A diatomic compound (or diatomic molecule) contains two atoms, which
may or may not be the same.

Distinguishing among elements, molecules, ions and compounds

Element: A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means.

Molecule: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded to each other.

An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has an electric charge. Ions with a positive charge are
called cations. Ions with a negative charge are called anions.

Compound: A compound is a chemical species that is formed when two or more atoms join together
chemically, with covalent or ionic bonds.

Writing the molecular formula of binary compounds and describe their formation
A binary compound is a chemical compound that is made of atoms of two different elements. The
prefix bi- means two or double.

Writing chemical formulae of binary compounds

The following are the guidelines that will help you to write the chemical formulae for most binary
compounds.
1. Write the symbol of the elements involved
2. Indicate their valences below the symbols
3. Interchange their valences and write them as subscripts. Do not indicate valences of 1 as subscripts.

Example
State the chemical formulae of the following compounds.
a) Calcium chloride
b) Magnesium oxide
c) Sodium chloride
d) Calcium oxide
e) Lithium chloride

Answer
a) Calcium chloride is a compound formed from Calcium and Chlorine.
Symbols: Ca Cl
Valences: 2 1
∴Calcium chloride = CaCl2

b) Magnesium oxide is a compound formed form Magnesium and Oxygen

Symbol: Mg O
Valences: 2 2
1 1
∴ Magnesium oxide = MgO
[Factor out the valences and reduce them to one except peroxides.]

c) Sodium chloride is a compound formed from sodium and chlorine

Symbols : Na Cl
Valences: 1 1
∴ Sodium chloride = NaCl

d) Calcium oxide = CaO

e) Lithium chloride = LiCl
Types of Binary chemical compounds
A binary compound encompasses a broad category of compounds that are composed of two elements
only.
They can be further classified into the following:
• Binary acid compounds. E.g. Hydrochloric acid, HCl
• Binary ionic compounds. E.g. Sodium Chloride, NaCl
• Binary covalent/molecular compounds. E.g. Ammonia, NH3

Acids, bases and salts

What is an Acid?
An Acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ion (H +) or hydroxonium ion (H3O+) in aqueous
solution. Acid may be defined as a substance that changes litmus paper red in aqueous solution. An
Aqueous Solution is one whose solvent is water.
Examples of acids are:
• HCl, Hydrochloric acid
• H2SO4, tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid or sulphuric acid
• HNO3, trioxonitrate (v) acid or nitric acid
• CH3COOH, ethanoic acid

What is a Base?
A base is a substance that produces hydroxyl ion (OH ⎯) in aqueous solution. In other words, base
release hydroxyl ion when dissolved in water. Bases may be defined as substances that changes litmus
paper blue. are hydroxides or oxides of metals. Examples of bases are:
• NaOH, Sodium hydroxide
• KOH, Potassium hydroxide
• Ca(OH)2,Calcium hydroxide
• NH3,ammonia
• NH4OH, Ammonium hydroxide

What is a Salt?
A salt is a substance formed when the hydrogen atom of an acid is replaced with a metal or ammonium
ion in a reaction. The common salt is sodium chloride, also known as table salt. It is used to season food
and improve flavour of food. Other examples of salts are as follow.
➢ Sodium iodide, NaI
➢ Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
➢ Magnesium sulphate, MgSO4
➢ Calcium sulphate, CaSO4

Characteristics of acids, bases and salts

Physical Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids:
1. They turn litmus paper red
2. Thy have sour taste
3. They have pH less than 7 i.e. pH < 7
4. They do not feel slippery but stinging
5. Strong concentrated acids are corrosive. E.g. concentrate H 2SO4

Bases:
1. They turn red litmus paper blue
2. They have bitter taste
3. They have pH more than 7 i.e. pH > 7
4. They have a soapy feel or slippery feel
5. Strong concentrated bases are also corrosive. E.g. concentrated NaOH

Properties of salt:
1. As they are ionic compounds, they conduct electricity in molten as well as the aqueous state.
2. They are hard, brittle, crystalline solids and are non-volatile in nature.
3. Most of the salts are water-soluble. For example, All salts of Sodium, Potassium, and Ammonium
are water-soluble.
4. Some of them are water-insoluble also. For example Carbonates, Sulphides, Sulphites, and
Phosphates are water-insoluble. (Except for Ammonium, Sodium, and Potassium)

pH Scale
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a substance. pH of a substance is
determined by using the pH scale. The pH scale is a scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an
aqueous solution. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. Substances with pH less than 7 are acidic while those
with pH more than 7 are basic or alkaline. Neutral substances such as water and salts have pH of 7.

Acid – base Indicators

An acid – base indicator is a substance or dye (pigment) which changes colour depending on the
acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of the solution added to it. The change of colour of the indicator depends
on the pH of the solution to which the indicator was added to. The most common acid – base
indicators is the red or blue litmus paper. Other examples of acid – base indicators are methyl orange,
methyl red and phenolphthalein.

Chemical bond
Chemical bonding is the attraction between two or more atoms that allows them to be able to form a
stable chemical compound.

Types of inter- atomic bonds

The primary atomic bonds in materials are
▪ ionic,
▪ covalent, and
▪ metallic.

Formation of inter-atomic bonds

An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of some electrons from one atom to another.
The atom losing one or more electrons becomes a cation—a positively charged ion. The atom gaining
one or more electron becomes an anion—a negatively charged ion. These ions attract each other.
A covalent bond consists of the mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two
atoms. These electrons are simultaneously attracted by the two atomic nuclei.
Metallic bonding is often described as an array of positive ions in a sea of electrons. The metal is
held together by the strong forces of attraction between the delocalised electrons and the positive ions.

Examples of substances that exhibit ionic, covalent and metallic bonding.

Type of Bond Ionic bond Covalent bond Metallic bond

Description It is done between It is done between 2 It is the strong

metal and non non metals and they attraction between
metal.The metal loses both share electrons closely packed
 and electron and positive metal ions
gives it to the and a 'sea' of
nonmetal. delocalised electrons

Examples NaCl, MgCl2, KCl, H2O, NH3, Diamond, iron, gold, nickel,
NaF, FeS, CaCl2, Hydrogen gas, copper, silver, lead
Nitrogen gas, silica

2. STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER: SUB-STRAND 2: LIVING CELLS

Biological molecules and show atoms in the molecules
Definition: A biomolecule (biological molecule) is a chemical compound found in living organisms.
These include chemicals that are composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and
phosphorus.
The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.

Biological molecules found in organisms

The four major classes of biological molecules are:
1. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are molecules that provide energy to living cells and are used for
energy storage. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and include simple sugars
like glucose and fructose, as well as complex sugars like starch and cellulose.
2. Proteins: Proteins are complex molecules made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
They have a wide range of functions in the body, including catalyzing chemical reactions,
transporting molecules, and providing structural support to cells and tissues.
3. Lipids: Lipids are a diverse group of molecules that are insoluble in water. They include fats, oils, and
waxes, and play important roles in energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure.
4. Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are molecules that store genetic information and provide the instructions
for the synthesis of proteins. They are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Atoms in the biological molecules

Biological molecules are made up of various types of atoms, which are the basic building blocks of matter.
The atoms commonly found in biological molecules include:
1. Carbon (C): Carbon is the backbone of organic molecules and is found in all biological molecules,
including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
2. Hydrogen (H): Hydrogen is found in all biological molecules and is often attached to carbon,
nitrogen, or oxygen.
3. Oxygen (O): Oxygen is found in carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, and is essential for
respiration and energy production.
4. Nitrogen (N): Nitrogen is found in proteins and nucleic acids, and is essential for the formation of
amino acids and nucleotides.
5. Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus is found in nucleic acids and is important for energy storage and transfer.
6. Sulfur (S): Sulfur is found in some amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine, and is important for
protein structure and function.
7. Other trace elements, such as calcium, magnesium, and iron, are also found in biological molecules
and play important roles in various biological processes. Overall, the combination of these different
atoms and their arrangements give rise to the complex and diverse properties of biological molecules
3. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 1: EARTH SCIENCES
Nitrogen cycle as a repeated pattern in nature.
The nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen moves through both living
and non-living things: the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals and bacteria.

The Processes of nitrogen cycle

The processes of the nitrogen cycle include:
1. Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH 3) by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil and water. Some plants, such as legumes, also have nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in their roots that help them to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
2. Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrate and ammonium from the soil to synthesize amino acids and other
nitrogen-containing organic compounds.
3. Ammonification: Decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, break down the organic nitrogen
compounds found in dead plants and animals, as well as animal waste, into ammonia.
4. Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrate back into atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2), which is released
into the air.

Relationship between the nitrogen cycle and the environment

The nitrogen cycle is an essential process that is closely linked to the environment.
▪ Nitrogen is an important element that is required for the synthesis of DNA, RNA, proteins,
and other essential biological molecules in all living organisms.
▪ The nitrogen cycle involves the transformation of nitrogen compounds through a series of
processes that occur in soil, water, and the atmosphere, and is therefore critical for the health
and balance of ecosystems.
 ▪ The nitrogen cycle plays a significant role in maintaining the balance of nutrients in the
environment.

Why the nitrogen cycle is a repeated pattern in nature

The nitrogen cycle is a repeated pattern in nature because nitrogen is an essential element for life and is
constantly being used and recycled by living organisms. Nitrogen is a vital component of many
biological molecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins, and is required for the growth and
development of all living organisms.

Importance of the Nitrogen cycle to the environment

▪ It is essential for the growth of living organisms since nitrogen is an essential element for the
growth and development of living organisms, and the nitrogen cycle ensures that there is a
continuous supply of nitrogen available in the ecosystem. Nitrogen is a key component of
DNA, RNA, and proteins, and is needed for the synthesis of many important biological
molecules.
▪ It help maintains the balance of nutrients in ecosystems.
▪ Helps to reduce soil erosion
▪ It has positive and negative impacts on the environment.

Importance of nitrogen to the environment

1. Nitrogen is essential nutrient for plant growth
2. Nitrogen is an important component of biodiversity
3. Nitrogen helps to maintain soil fertility
4. Nitrogen affects climate change

How certain plants such as leguminous crops can replenish nitrogen in the soil
Leguminous crops, such as beans, peas, and alfalfa, ability to replenish nitrogen in the soil through a
process called nitrogen fixation. These crops form a symbiotic relationship with certain species of
bacteria called Rhizobia, which live in nodules on their roots.The Rhizobia bacteria are able to convert
atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonium (NH4+), a form of nitrogen that can be used by plants.
In return, the leguminous plant provides the bacteria with the energy and nutrients they need to carry
out this process. As the leguminous plant grows, it takes up the ammonium produced by the Rhizobia
and uses it to synthesize amino acids, proteins, and other important biological molecules. When the
leguminous crop is harvested or dies, the nitrogen-rich organic matter that remains in the soil can be
broken down by decomposers, releasing ammonium and other nitrogen compounds back into the soil.
This helps to replenish the soil with nitrogen, which is important for maintaining soil fertility and
productivity.

Disruption of the Nitrogen Cycle

There are several human activities that can disrupt the nitrogen cycle, including:
1. Fertilizer use
2. Industrial processes.
3. Deforestation
4. Discharge of wastewater and sewage into water bodies can introduce excess nutrients, including
nitrogen, which can cause algal blooms and fish kills.
5. Nitrogen deposition: Nitrogen deposition refers to the transfer of nitrogen compounds from the
atmosphere to the earth's surface. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion and agricultural
practices can increase nitrogen deposition, which can have negative impacts on ecosystems.

Effects of Disruption of the Nitrogen Cycle

Disruption of the nitrogen cycle can have a number of negative effects on ecosystems and human
health, including:
1. Eutrophication: Excess nitrogen in water bodies can lead to eutrophication, a process in which
algae and other plants grow rapidly, deplete oxygen in the water, and create dead zones where
fish and other aquatic organisms cannot survive.
2. Air pollution and acid rain
3. Loss of biodiversity
4. Soil degradation
 5. Climate change
6. Human health impacts: Excess nitrogen in drinking water can have negative impacts on
human health, including increased risk of cancer, birth defects, and other health problems.

4. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 2: LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANISMS

The life cycle of grasshopper which depicts incomplete metamorphosis
Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis, which means they do not go through a complete
transformation from a larva to an adult. Instead, they develop through three stages: egg, nymph, and
adult.

Stages of life cycle of a grasshopper

1. Egg stage: Female grasshoppers lay their eggs in soil or plant matter. The eggs hatch in the spring
or summer, depending on the species and environmental conditions.
2. Nymph stage: The newly hatched grasshopper is called a nymph. Nymphs resemble adult
grasshoppers but are smaller and do not have fully developed wings. They molt, or shed their
exoskeletons, several times as they grow and develop. Each molt reveals a larger and more
developed grasshopper.
3. Adult stage: After several molts, the grasshopper reaches the adult stage. The adult grasshopper
has fully developed wings and reproductive organs. Male grasshoppers use their wings to make
chirping sounds to attract females for mating.

Why the life cycle of the grasshopper is described as incomplete metamorphosis

The life cycle of a grasshopper is described as incomplete metamorphosis because it does not have a
complete transformation from a larva to an adult. Instead, grasshoppers undergo a gradual change in
form as they develop from a nymph into an adult.

Examine how the activities of grasshopper affect humans

• Agricultural damage: In large numbers, grasshoppers can cause significant damage to
agricultural crops, reducing crop yields and leading to economic losses for farmers.
• Disease transmission: Grasshoppers are not known to transmit diseases to humans, but they
can carry and spread diseases among plants and animals.

Activities of the grasshopper in everyday life

Main activities of grasshoppers in everyday life include:
1. Feeding: Grasshoppers are herbivores that feed on a wide range of plants, including grasses,
leaves, and flowers. They use their mandibles to chew and consume plant material.
2. Mating: During the breeding season, male grasshoppers will use their wings to produce chirping
sounds to attract females for mating. The female will lay her eggs in soil or plant matter.
 3. Molting: As grasshoppers grow and develop, they must periodically shed their exoskeletons, a
process known as molting.
4. Jumping: Grasshoppers are known for their ability to jump long distances, which allows them to
quickly move through their environment and escape from predators.
5. Evading predators

Activities of agrasshopper that are harmful or beneficial to humans

The activities of grasshoppers can have both harmful and beneficial effects on humans. Some of these
activities include:
1. Feeding: In large numbers, grasshoppers can cause significant damage to agricultural crops,
reducing crop yields and leading to economic losses for farmers.
2. Biological control
3. Disease transmission: Grasshoppers are not known to transmit diseases to humans, but they can
carry and spread diseases among plants and animals.
4. Ecological balance: Grasshoppers are an important part of many ecosystems, serving as a food
source for other animals such as birds, lizards, and small mammals. Maintaining a healthy
grasshopper population can help to support biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
5. Cultural significance: In some cultures, grasshoppers are eaten as a food source, providing a source
of protein and other nutrients

Activities to reduce the effect of grasshoppers on humans

There are several ways to reduce the effects of grasshoppers, particularly when they are causing
significant damage to crops. Some of these strategies include:
1. Cultural control: Planting crops earlier in the season or using crop rotation can help to reduce the
risk of grasshopper damage.
2. Chemical control: Pesticides can be used to kill grasshoppers or deter them from feeding on crops.
3. Biological control: Introducing natural predators or parasites of grasshoppers can help to reduce
their population and limit damage to crops.
4. Mechanical control: Physical barriers or traps can be used to prevent grasshoppers
5. Integrated pest management (IPM): A comprehensive approach that combines multiple control
methods, including cultural, chemical, biological, and mechanical controls, can help to reduce the
impact of grasshoppers while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and non-target
species.

5. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 3: CROP PRODUCTION

Differences in maturities of crops grown
The stages of crop maturity can vary depending on the crop and the growing conditions, but generally,
the following stages can be observed:

1. Germination: This is the stage when the seed begins to sprout and develop roots and shoots.
Germination is triggered by favorable growing conditions such as adequate moisture, temperature,
and oxygen.
2. Vegetative growth: This is the period when the plant produces leaves and stems, and the plant
increases in size. During this stage, the plant requires nutrients, water, and sunlight to continue
growing.
3. Reproductive growth: This is the stage when the plant begins to produce flowers, which will
eventually lead to the production of fruits or seeds.
4. Maturity: This is the stage when the plant has reached its full size and has produced fruits or seeds.
At this point, the plant is ready to be harvested.
5. Senescence: This is the final stage of the plant's life cycle, when the plant begins to die off and the
leaves and stems begin to dry up. This stage can vary in duration depending on the crop and the
growing conditions.
 It is important to note that the timing of these stages can vary depending on a number of factors,
including the specific crop, the climate, and the growing conditions. Additionally, different crops
may have additional or slightly different stages of maturity depending on their unique characteristics.

6. STRAND 2: CYCLES: SUB-STRAND 4: ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Different types of feed with different types of animals
An Animal feed is a type of food grown or developed for livestock and poultry.
Modern feeds are produced by carefully selecting and blending ingredients to provide
highly nutritional diets that both maintain the health of the animals and increase the
quality of meat, milk, or eggs.

Basic types of feeds

Animal feeds are classified as follows:
(1) concentrates foods
(2) roughages,

Concentrate foods
Concentrates are high in energy value, including fat, cereal grains and their by-products (barley, corn,
oats, rye, wheat), high-protein oil meals or cakes (soybean, canola, cottonseed, peanut [groundnut]),
and by-products from processing of sugar beets, sugarcane, animals, and fish.

Roughages
These include pasture grasses, hays, silage, root crops, straw, and stover (cornstalks).

Basic Nutrients in Animal Feeds

The basic nutrients that animals require for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and good health
include
1. carbohydrates,
2. protein,
3. fats and oils,
4. minerals,
5. vitamins, and
6. water.
The energy needed for growth and activity is derived primarily from carbohydrates and fats. Protein
will also supply energy, particularly if carbohydrate and fat intake is inadequate or if protein intake
exceeds the needs of the body.

Appropriate feed for animals

There are three appropriate feeds for farm animals. These are:

1. Traditional feed: This is generally used to refer to food scraps as found in every household and the
by-products as obtained from industries related to food processing. Some of the common examples
of traditional feed are:
✓ Peanuts, corn and soy which are by-products of oil crop milling;
✓ Slop, a food scrap fed to pigs;
✓ Chicken scratch, scrap fed to chicken;
✓ Spent grain, a by-product of the brewing industry etc

2. Compound feed/ Concentrates: These are compound blends made keeping a specific animal in
mind. Thus raw materials and other additives are formulated as per the requirements of specific
animals so as to ensure maximum benefit to the targeted animal. Examples of concentrates are
cottonseed meal, soybean meal, groundnuts, flaxseed, canola, corn, millet, wheat, barley, and
sunflower seed
3. Premixes: These are sometimes classified under compound feed or sold separately. They include a
blend of micro ingredients in commercial rations and can be easily procured from companies
selling premixes in the sacked form. The farmers can also make their own mixes by using their
 own special formula and yet be assured that their farm animals are getting the recommended levels
of nutrients. Some of the micro ingredients which form a part of the premixes are:
✓ Vitamins;
✓ Minerals;
✓ Antibiotics;
✓ Chemical preservatives;
✓ Fermentation products

7. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 1: THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

The circulatory system
The circulatory system also called the cardiovascular system consist of organs that help the circulation
and transport of blood containing nutrients, hormones, oxygen and blood cells to all parts of the body.
The circulatory consist mainly of the heart, the blood and the blood vessels.
• The Heart pumps blood lungs for oxygen to be oxygenated and it pumps oxygenated blood to all
parts of the body
• The blood carries oxygen and food nutrients to all parts of the body and carries wastes materials to
excretory organs to be excreted.
• The vessels are pipes through which blood moves.
There are three main blood vessels; veins, arteries and capillaries.

Parts of the Heart

Part of the Heart Function
Vana cava it is the main vein. It brings deoxygenated blood from all
part of the body to heart.
Right auricle (atrium) it relaxes and expand to receive deoxygenated blood from
the vana cava. It contracts to pump blood under pressure
into the right ventricle.
Tricuspid valve it prevents back flow of blood from the right ventricle into
the right auricle.
Right ventricle it relaxes and expands to receive blood from the right
auricle. It contracts to pump blood under pressure into the
lungs through the pulmonary artery.
Pulmonary vein It transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Pulmonary artery it transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the
lungs for gaseous exchange.
Left auricle (atrium) it relaxes and expands to receive oxygenated blood from
the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
Left ventricle it relaxes and expands to receive oxygenated blood from
the right auricle and contract to pump oxygenated blood
into the aorta.
Bicuspid valve/mitral it prevents the back flow of blood from left the ventricle
valve into the left auricle
Aorta it is the main artery. It carries oxygenated blood to all parts
of the body.

Blood circulatory system in humans

The sequence of blood flow is thus:
Deoxygenated blood→vana cava → right auricle → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary
artery → lungs for oxygenation → pulmonary vein → left auricle → bicuspid valve → left ventricle →
aortic valve → aorta → to all parts of the body.

The composition and functions of blood

The blood is the major fluid of the human body that transport essential food nutrient, hormones and
dissolved gases to all parts of the body.
The blood consists of two main components:
 1. Blood plasma It is the liquid component of blood. It is straw coloured and watery medium of
the blood. It covers 55% of the blood. It contains about 90% of water. It also contains salts,
wastes substances (such urea, excess salts), hormones, dissolved sugar and proteins (amino
acids).
2. Blood cells: The blood cells are the cellular or elemental part of the blood. There are three main
blood cells in the blood. These are:
1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
2. White blood Cells (leucocytes)
3. Blood Platelets (thrombocytes)

Explain the functions of the parts of the circulatory system

▪ The heart pumps blood to the lungs for oxygen to be added to the blood
▪ The heart pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
▪ The blood transport oxygen to the body tissues
▪ The blood transport food nutrients to the body tissues
• The blood carries wastes to the excretory organs to be excreted
• The blood help to defend the body against diseases
• The blood help to regulate body temperature
• The blood vessels are tubes through which blood flows to the heart and all parts of the body

The longitudinal section of a mammalian heart

Describe diseases, causes and prevention of the circulatory system

1. Diseases that affect the blood cells:
✓ Sickle cell anaemia
✓ Leukaemia
2. Diseases that affect the heart:
✓ Heart attack or failure (coronary thrombosis)
✓ Heart cancer
✓ Myocardial infarction
✓ Peacemaker
3. Diseases that affect the blood vessels
✓ Varicose veins
 ✓ Arteriosclerosis
• Other diseases include:
✓ Piles or haemorrhoid
✓ Stroke
✓ Hypertension
✓ Hypotension

What blood pressure?

Blood pressure is expressed in terms of systolic pressure over diastolic pressure in millimetres of mercury
𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒍𝒆
(mmHg). i.e. Blood Pressure = mmHg
𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒍𝒆
For example the normal Blood Pressure (BP) in an adult is 120/80mmHg.
Blood pressure is one of the vital signs along with body temperature and body weight taken at the
hospital. The instrument for measuring blood pressure is called sphygmomanometer or ‘sphyg’ for or
short.
A person whose systole is 140 or higher and diastole is 90 or higher is said to have high blood pressure
or hypertension (stage 2).
A person whose systole is lower than 90 and diastole lower 60 is said to have low blood pressure or
hypotension.
When a person’s Blood Pressure reaches 180/120 mmHg or higher, then the person is refereed as
Hypertensive Patient.

Managing/ Preventing Hypertension

1. take in a balanced diet
2. reduce salt intake in diet
3. take in more vegetables and fruits
4. reduce or do not take alcohol
5. reduce fats and oil in diet or reduce intake of cholesterol
6. avoid smoking
7. reduce intake of caffeine
8. exercise regular and adopt active lifestyle
9. avoid stress and anxiety
10. adequate rest and sleep (at least 7 or 8 hour sleep)
11. check your blood pressure regularly in case of ageing or elevating blood pressure.

How respiratory system and the circulatory system complement each other
The respiratory and circulatory system complement each other by providing the necessary gas
exchange and transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. Without proper
function of these two systems, the body would not receive the necessary oxygen needed to survive and
waste products would accumulate leading to diseases and potentially death.

The concept of respiration

Respiration is the breakdown of food substance, usually glucose in the cells of organisms to release
energy with or without the use of oxygen. The energy released from respiration is needed for life
processes such as growth and repair; movement and control of body temperature in mammals.
Respiration is chemical reaction that happens in all living cells, including plant cells and animal cells.
Note that respiration is not the same as breathing. Breathing is the process by which organisms take in
oxygen and give out CO2 through the lungs or respiratory organ. It is gaseous exchange in the
respiratory organ (lungs).

How deoxygenated blood from circulation is oxygenated through inhalation for

respiration to take place
Deoxygenated blood form circulation is oxygenated through inhalation as a result of the gas exchange
process that occurs in the lungs. When we inhale, air enters the lungs and fills up tiny air sacs called
 alveoli. Gaseous exchange occurs in the alveoli. Oxygen diffuse from the air into the blood and carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood to be exhaled into the atmosphere. Oxygenated blood travels from the
lungs through the pulmonary veins to the heart which is pumped into the aorta to supply oxygen to
body’s tissues and organs. The oxygenated blood is used in cellular respiration which produces energy
in the form of ATP. Inhalation allows oxygen to enter the lungs and be transported to the body’s cells
through the circulatory system.

8. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 2: THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The Movement of non-planetary bodies in the solar system
Non planetary bodies in the solar system are celectial object that do not meet the criteria for a planet.
These include: asteroids, comets, dwarf planets, Kuiper belt object, Oort cloud object, moon, trans –
neptunian, meteoroids, dust and clouds.

The Movement of Non planetary bodies in the solar system.

Non- Planetary bodies Description
Asteroids Rocky objects that orbit the sun often in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
Asteroids move in elliptical orbit around the sun with
some having their own moons.
Comets Icy bodies that originate from the outer solar system They
have highly elliptical orbits that take them close to the
sun, where their icy nuclei evaporate and creates a visible
coma and tail.
Kuiper Belt Object (KBOs) Small icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune, including
pluto and other dwarf planet
Oort Cloud Object Hypothetically icy bodies that potentially exist in distant,
spherical cloud surrounding the sun
Moons Natural satellite that orbit planets
Trans- Neptunian Object A broad class of object in the Kuiper Belt and beyond
(TNOs) that are typically smaller than dwarf planet and can be
classified as plutoids, cubewanos and other types
Meteoroids Small bits of rock or metal that are typically left over
from the formation of the solar system and can enter the
Earth’s atmosphere as meteorites
Dust and Gas Interstellar dust and gas clouds exist within the solar
system and can be seen as nebulas or absorbed planets
and moons.
Dwarf Planets (Pluto, Cares, They are smaller to planets in terms of physical makeup.
Haumea, Makemake and They do not have their orbit cleared of debris and other.
Eris) They orbit the sun similar to the planets.

9. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 3: ECOSYSTEM

Composition of an ecosystem and how the components depend on each other for
survival
An ecosystem is the interaction between living and non – living things functioning together as a
unit. Ecosystem is community and its environment.

Composition of an Ecosystem
Ecosystem is made up of all the living and non – living part of the environment. Examples of the living
components (also called biotic factors) of the ecosystem are plants and animals in the community.
The non- living component (also called abiotic factors) include physical factors (abiotic factors) that
affect the organisms in the ecosystem. These include rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity, light
intensity, type and pH of soil.
How the Components of an Ecosystem depend on each other
The living organisms within the ecosystem depend on the non-living elements for survival, while the
non-living elements rely on the living organisms for cycling of nutrients and other essential processes.
Here are a few ways in which the composition of the ecosystem depends on each other:
1. Biotic factors depend on abiotic factors: Living organisms require abiotic factors like water,
air, and soil for survival. For example, plants require water and nutrients from the soil for
growth, while animals require air to breathe.
2. Abiotic factors depend on biotic factors: Non-living elements depend on living organisms for
essential processes like decomposition and nutrient cycling. For example, dead plant and
animal matter provides nutrients for soil microorganisms, which in turn release nutrients into
the soil for plants to use.
3. Biotic factors depend on other biotic factors: Living organisms depend on other organisms
for food, shelter, and other essential needs. For example, predators depend on their prey for
food, while some plants depend on pollinators like bees for reproduction.
4. Abiotic factors depend on other abiotic factors: Non-living elements also interact with each
other. For example, water and temperature levels can affect soil quality and nutrient
availability.

How organisms depend on each other in different ecosystems

Organisms in an ecosystem depend on each other for survival and well-being. The interactions between
organisms can be categorized into three main types: competition, predation, and mutualism.
1. Competition: Organisms in the same ecosystem may compete with each other for resources
such as food, water, and shelter. For example, two species of birds may compete for the same
food source, leading to a decrease in the population of one or both species.
2. Predation: Predators depend on their prey for food, and the prey may also depend on the
predator to keep their population in check. For example, if the population of herbivores like
deer increases too much, they may overgraze the vegetation and cause damage to the
ecosystem. However, if their predator, such as a wolf, hunts them, it can help to regulate the
herbivore population and maintain a balance in the ecosystem.
3. Mutualism (Symbiosis): Some organisms have a mutually beneficial relationship, where both
species benefit from the interaction. For example, some species of plants have evolved to have
a symbiotic relationship with certain fungi that live in their roots. The fungi provide the plants
with essential nutrients and help them absorb water from the soil, while the plants provide the
fungi with carbohydrates produced through photosynthesis.

Differences between an ecosystem and a habitat

Habitat
A habitat refers to the specific
environment in which a particular
organism or species.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem refers to the interaction
between all the living and non-living
components of a particular
environment.

A habitat is a smaller area within an An ecosystem includes all the

ecosystem, and it focuses on the interactions between the biotic and
requirements of a specific species. abiotic factors of a larger area.
 A habitat only includes the specific
physical and biological factors that are
required by a particular species for
survival, such as the specific food,
shelter, water, and climate requirements
of a species
A habitat provides the necessary
resources for an organism's survival.
An ecosystem includes all the living
and non-living components of a
particular environment, including all
the species that inhabit it, as well as the
abiotic factors such as soil, air, and
water.
An ecosystem considers the
interactions and interdependence
between all the organisms in a
particular environment.

Construct food chain and food web found in an ecosystem

Food Chain: It is a way of showing the feeding nature of organisms in a habitat.
Food Chain is defined as the linear feeding relationship that shows how energy from an organism is
transferred to another organism through feeding and being fed by another organism. It shows how
energy from the sun is passed to other organism. The pattern of food chain in an ecosystem is thus:
Producer→ Primary Consumer → Secondary Consumer → tertiary consumer
Examples of food chains:
1. Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
2. Phytoplankton → Krill → Squid → Penguin → Seal
3. Acorn → Squirrel → Hawk
4. Algae → Snail → Fish → Osprey

Food Web: It is a complex feeding relationship in any ecosystem. It is a number of food chain linked
together. So many food chains can be derived from a food web. Example of food webs is shown below.
Examples of food webs:
1. Grass → Grasshopper → Toad → Snake → Hawk → Beetle → Sparrow → Coyote
2. Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Krill → Squid → Octopus → Penguin → Leopard Seal →
Killer Whale
3. Sunflower → Caterpillar → Spider → Bird → Mouse → Snake
4. Algae → Zooplankton → Fish → Shark → Killer Whale → Seabirds → Seals
Activities that affect balance in an ecosystem
1. volcanic eruptions 2. Farming 3. Mining 4. Galamsey
5. Pollution 6. Use of Pesticides 7. Bush burning

How Human activities affect the balance in an ecosystem

• Habitat destruction and fragmentation
• Introduction of invasive species
• Pollution: Human activities such as industrialization, agriculture, and transportation can
release pollutants into the environment, which can negatively affect the health and survival
of organisms in the ecosystem.
• Overexploitation: Human activities such as overfishing, hunting, and harvesting of
resources can lead to overexploitation of certain species, which can disrupt the balance in
the ecosystem.
• Climate change: Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation can
contribute to climate change, which can affect the balance in the ecosystem.

10. STRAND 3: SYSTEMS: SUB-STRAND 4: FARMING SYSTEMS

The Different Plant And Animal Waste Used In Preparing Different Types Of Manure

What is Manure?
Plant and animal manure are organic materials that are used to fertilize soil for agricultural
purposes. Both types of manure provide nutrients, organic matter, and beneficial microorganisms that
improve soil fertility and crop productivity.

List types of manure used by farmers

Manure can be obtained from two sources:
1. Plant manure/ green manuring
2. Animal manure

Materials used in preparing manure and their sources

Manure can be prepared from a variety of organic materials, including:
1. Animal waste: It includes materials such as manure, urine, and bedding from livestock such as
cows, pigs, chickens, and horses.
2. Plant material: Examples of plant materials that can be used include leaves, grass clippings,
straw, and sawdust.
 3. Food waste: Food waste such as kitchen scraps and expired produce can also be composted to
make nutrient-rich manure.
4. Fertilizer: Commercial fertilizers can be used to prepare manure, either on their own or in
combination with other materials.

Categorize manure into those from plant wastes and animal wastes
Plant Wastes
Plant-based manure: This type of
manure is derived from plant materials
such as leaves, grass, and food scraps.
Plant-based manure is also rich in
nutrients and can be used to improve
soil health and promote healthy plant
growth.
Animal Wastes
Animal manure: This type of manure
comes from livestock and includes waste
materials such as manure, urine, and
bedding. Animal manure is rich in
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium, which can provide
important benefits to crops and soil
health.

Plant parts/wastes and animal parts/wastes that are used to prepare manure
Plant- based manure: Animal – based manure
• Leaves • Cow dung
• Grass • Horse manure
clippings • Sheep and goat manure
• Hay • Chicken and poultry droppings
• Straw • Fish waste (including fish heads, bones, and
• Wood scales)
shavings • Blood and bone meal (made from animal by-
• Sawdust products)
• Fruit and • Feather meal (made from ground poultry
vegetable feathers)
waste • Dairy cow manure
• Coffee • Pig manure
grounds • Rabbit droppings
• Tea leaves
• Eggshells
• Seaweed
• Comfrey
leaves
• Alfalfa hay

The use of different animal and plant manures under different soil and climatic
conditions
Manure Importance/ Functions/ Uses
Poultry droppings: Poultry manure is high in nitrogen and phosphorus and is
often used as a fertilizer for crops that require high levels of
these nutrients, such as vegetables, fruits, and grains. It can
be used in a variety of soil types and climates, but should be
used with caution as it can be high in salts and can burn
plants if not properly composted.
Cow dung: Cow manure is rich in nitrogen and organic matter, making
it an excellent fertilizer for crops such as corn, wheat, and
soybeans. It is also suitable for a wide range of soil types
and can be used in both wet and dry climates.
Animal parts and Animal parts and carcasses can be used to make bone meal
carcasses and blood meal, which are high in phosphorus and nitrogen,
respectively. These are often used as fertilizer for plants that
require high levels of these nutrients, such as tomatoes,
peppers, and strawberries.
 Pig dung: Pig manure is high in nitrogen and phosphorus, making it
suitable for crops that require high levels of these nutrients.
It is often used for corn, vegetables, and fruits, but can be
too salty for some crops and soil types.
Human excreta: Human waste can be composted and used as a fertilizer for
crops. It is rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium, and can be particularly useful in areas where
other sources of organic matter are scarce. However, the use
of human waste as fertilizer can be controversial and is
subject to strict regulations in many areas.
Domestic refuse: Domestic waste such as kitchen scraps, leaves, and grass
clippings can be composted and used as fertilizer for plants.
This can be a convenient and sustainable way to reduce
waste and improve soil health.
Leaves, waste fruits, These plant-based materials are rich in organic matter and
plant parts, and can be used to improve soil structure and fertility. They are
shavings: often used as a component of compost or as a soil
amendment to improve soil health and promote healthy plant
growth

11. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 1: ENERGY

Conservation of Energy
Energy conservation refers to the practice of reducing energy consumption by using less energy to
perform the same tasks or by using energy-efficient technologies.

Various strategies of conserving energy

There are many strategies that can be used to conserve energy, including:
1. Energy-efficient lighting: Using LED or CFL bulbs instead of incandescent bulbs can significantly
reduce energy consumption.
2. Smart heating and cooling: Installing programmable thermostats, using ceiling fans, and properly
sealing and insulating buildings can reduce heating and cooling costs.
3. Energy-efficient appliances: Choosing appliances with an Energy Star rating can significantly
reduce energy consumption.
4. Renewable energy: Using solar panels, wind turbines, and other renewable energy sources can
help to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
5. Behavior changes: Simple behavior changes, such as turning off lights when leaving a room,
unplugging electronics when not in use, and taking shorter showers, can also help to conserve
energy.
6. Industrial and commercial practices: Energy conservation can also be achieved through industrial
and commercial practices such as reducing waste, using energy-efficient equipment, and
implementing energy management systems.

Importance of energy conservation in daily life

Energy conservation is important in everyday life for several reasons:
1. Reducing energy bills
2. Preserving finite/non – renewable resources
3. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
4. Increasing energy security
5. Improving air and water quality: Burning fossil fuels for energy can also contribute to air and
water pollution. By reducing energy consumption and using renewable energy sources, we can
improve air and water quality, which can have significant health benefits.
Refraction of Light
Refraction of light is the bending of light rays when it travels through materials of different optical
densities.

Activity to show that light bends as it travels from one medium to another

• Materials: A glass of water, A pencil, A piece of paper

• Procedure:

1. Fill a glass with water.

2. Place the glass on a flat surface.
3. Place a piece of paper behind the glass, so that you can see the glass from the side.
4. Hold a pencil upright and place it in front of the glass at an angle.
5. Observe the position of the pencil in the glass.
6. Slowly move the pencil towards the glass until it touches the surface of the water.
7. Observe the position of the pencil in the glass again.

• Observations: When the pencil is placed in front of the glass, it appears straight. However,
when the pencil is placed in the water, it appears to bend at the surface of the water. The
portion of the pencil that is in the water appears to be in a different position than the portion of
the pencil that is in the air.
• Explanation: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another is called refraction.
When light passes from air into water, it slows down and changes direction. This change in
direction causes the pencil to appear bent at the surface of the water.
• Conclusion: This activity demonstrates that light bends as it passes from one medium to
another.

Images are formed in cameras

The Pin- hole Camera
A pin-hole camera is a simple camera without a lens but a tiny aperture, the pin hole. The pin-hole
camera is a light-tight or light-proof box inside painted black. It contains a small or pin sized hole on
one side and a screen at the opposite end. The camera is light-proof and the inside is painted black to
avoid multiples reflections of lights from the image.

Formation of images in the Pin – Hole Camera

Light rays from various parts of the object placed in front of the pin-hole camera travels in a straight
line through the hole and hit the screen forming tiny patches of image. The image becomes inverted
because light rays from the top of the object hit the screen near the top. The image formed is also real
because it is formed by actual intersection of light rays and it can be formed on a screen. The image is
also diminished. If the hole is made smaller, the image becomes very sharp. But if the hole is made
bigger the image becomes blurred and brighter. This is because bigger holes act as multiples of holes
allowing light from many parts of the object to produce overlapping images forming a blurred image.
Formation of shadows
A shadow is an area of darkness cast on a screen when an opaque object is placed in front of a light
source. Shadows occur because the straight paths of light are blocked by an opaque object creating a
dark spot on the screen. For example, we produce shadows of our bodies when we stand in front a light
source such as a fluorescent bulb or torch light. Our shadows are formed on the ground or wall serving
as the screen. Trees produce shadows which serve as shade during sunny days.

Umbra and penumbra

When light from a source is blocked by an object, it creates two distinct areas of shadow: the umbra
and the penumbra.
The umbra is the darkest part of a shadow and is formed when all the light from a source is blocked
by an object.
The penumbra is the lighter part of a shadow that surrounds the umbra. distinct.

Formation of an eclipse
An eclipse is said to have occurred when light from the sun is cut off from reaching the earth or the
moon. In this case the three heavenly bodies i.e., the Earth, Sun and Moon should be in a straight line.
There are two types of eclipse formation namely:
✓ Eclipse of the sun or solar eclipse
✓ Eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse

Eclipse of the Sun (Solar Eclipse)

The eclipse of the sun or solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth such
that the shadow of the moon falls on the earth. The moon is a natural satellite that revolves around the
earth. As the moon orbit the earth, it sometimes comes directly between the sun and the earth. In this
instance, the moon casts its shadow on parts of the earth. Since the sun is an extended source of light,
portion of the earth experience total eclipse while other portion experience partial eclipse. During a total
solar eclipse, the Moon completely covers the Sun, and the sky becomes dark as if it were night.
Eclipse of the Moon (Lunar Eclipse)
Eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon such
that the shadow of the earth falls on the moon. During lunar eclipse, the moon may partially be seen or
completely out of sight. This is because the moon has moved into the shadow of the earth. As the moon
moves out of the shadow of the earth, different shapes of the moon are seen from the earth. Eclipse of
the moon occurs often and can last for days.

12. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 2:

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS
Transformation of electrical energy to other forms of energy
Electrical energy can be transformed into various other forms of energy through the process of energy
conversion. Here are a few examples:
1. Heat energy: Electrical energy can be transformed into heat energy through the use of electric
heaters.
2. Light energy: Electrical energy can be transformed into light energy through the use of light bulbs
or LEDs.
3. Mechanical energy: Electrical energy can be transformed into mechanical energy through the use
of electric motors.
4. Sound energy: Electrical energy can be transformed into sound energy through the use of speakers.

Connecting Bulbs in Series

Bulbs in series refer to a circuit configuration where two or more light bulbs are connected end-to-end
in a single path so that the current flows through one bulb and then through the other. In a series circuit,
the same current flows through each component, so the total current is equal to the current flowing
through each bulb.

Advantages of bulbs in series:

1. Saves energy: Bulbs in series use less energy because the total voltage of the circuit is divided
among the bulbs. This means that the bulbs will glow less brightly, but will use less
electricity.
 2.Balanced lighting: Because the voltage is divided among the bulbs in a series circuit, all bulbs
will glow with the same brightness, which can be useful in some applications where balanced
lighting is desired.
Disadvantages of bulbs in series:
1. Failure of one bulb affects all bulbs: If one bulb in a series circuit fails or is removed, the
entire circuit will be broken, and none of the bulbs will light up.
2. Lower efficiency: Since the voltage is divided among the bulbs in a series circuit, the overall
efficiency of the circuit may be lower, and more energy may be lost to heat.

Connecting Bulbs in Parallel

Arranging bulbs in parallel means that each bulb is connected to the power source independently, with
its own separate branch of the circuit. In a parallel circuit, the positive terminal of the power source is
connected to one end of each bulb, while the negative terminal of the power source is connected to the
other end of each bulb. This results in a circuit where current flows through each bulb independently,
with no effect on the other bulbs in the circuit.

Advantages of bulbs in parallel:

1. Brighter light: When bulbs are connected in parallel, each bulb receives the full voltage of the
power source, which means they will glow brighter compared to bulbs connected in series.
2. Flexibility: Bulbs in parallel are more flexible than bulbs in series, as individual bulbs can be
turned on or off without affecting the operation of other bulbs in the circuit.
3. Redundancy: If one bulb in a parallel circuit fails or is removed, the other bulbs in the circuit
will continue to operate normally, providing a degree of redundancy.
4. Higher efficiency: Bulbs in parallel circuits have higher overall efficiency than bulbs in series
circuits, as there is less energy lost to heat.

Disadvantages of bulbs in parallel:

1. Uneven lighting: Bulbs in parallel may not provide even lighting if the bulbs have different
resistance levels, which can result in some bulbs glowing brighter than others.
2. Shorter lifespan: Since the bulbs in a parallel circuit receive the full voltage of the power
source, they may burn out faster than bulbs in a series circuit.
3. Higher energy consumption: Bulbs in parallel circuits have higher energy consumption
compared to bulbs in series circuits, as the bulbs receive the full voltage of the power source
and require more energy to operate.

Ohm’s law
Ohm's law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided that the temperature and other physical
conditions of the conductor remain constant.
In mathematical terms, Ohm's law is expressed as I = V/R,
where I is the current flowing through the conductor in amperes (A),
V is the voltage across the conductor in volts (V), and
R is the resistance of the conductor in ohms (Ω).

Examples of Calculations Involving V = IR

1. If a circuit has a resistance of 10 ohms and a current of 2 amperes flowing through it, what is the
voltage across the circuit?

Solution:
 Using Ohm's law, we can calculate V = IR = 2 A×10 Ω = 20 V.

2. A light bulb has a resistance of 50 ohms and is connected to a 120-volt power source. What is the
current flowing through the bulb?

Solution:

Using Ohm's law, we can calculate I = V/R = 120 V / 50 Ω = 2.4 A.

3. A resistor is connected in series to a 9-volt battery, and the current flowing through the circuit is
0.5 amperes. What is the resistance of the resistor?

Solution:

Using Ohm's law, we can calculate R = V/I = 9 V / 0.5 A = 18 Ω.

4. An electric motor is rated at 24 volts and has a resistance of 3 ohms. What current will the motor
draw when it is connected to a 24-volt power source? Ans: 8 A.

Forward Bias and Reverse Bias

Biasing is the process of using dc voltage to establish desired operation of a diode. There are two
ways of biasing a diode, namely: forward bias and reverse bias.

Forward-bias of a p-n junction diode

A p-n junction diode is said to be forward bias if the P-type of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal of a battery and the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. In this case
current flow through the circuit.

Reverse bias of a p-n junction diode

A p-n junction diode is said to be reverse bias if the P-type terminal of the diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery while the N-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In
this case, current does not flow through the circuit.

Resistors in a Circuit
A resistor is an electronic component that resists the flow of electric current. When a resistor is placed
in a circuit with an LED, it can be used to limit the amount of current flowing through the LED and
prevent it from burning out.
 Capacitors in a Circuit
A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electric charge. When a capacitor is placed in a
circuit with an LED, it can be used to smooth out variations in the voltage supply and provide a more
constant voltage to the LED.

13. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 3:

CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
How energy can be converted from one form to another
Energy can be converted from one form to another through various physical processes. For example,
when we use a battery to power a light bulb, electrical energy is converted to light and heat energy.
When we burn fuel in an engine, chemical energy is converted to mechanical energy to move a vehicle.
Here are some examples of how energy can be converted from one form to another:
1. Chemical to thermal energy: When we burn wood, natural gas, or other fossil fuels, chemical energy
is converted to heat energy.
2. Electrical to mechanical energy: When we run an electric motor, electrical energy is converted to
mechanical energy to drive a machine or appliance.
3. Radiant to thermal energy: When we stand in sunlight, radiant energy is absorbed by our skin and
converted to thermal energy, making us feel warmer.
4. Mechanical to electrical energy: When we use a generator, mechanical energy (e.g. from a turbine) is
converted to electrical energy.
5. Nuclear to electrical energy: In a nuclear power plant, the heat generated by nuclear reactions is used
to generate steam, which then drives a turbine to produce electrical energy.

Differences between conversion of energy and conservation

Conversion of energy refers to the process of
transforming energy from one form to another.
For instance, conversion of electrical energy
to light energy in a bulb, or conversion of
chemical energy to kinetic energy in a car.
This process involves the transfer of energy
from one object or system to another.
On the other hand, conservation of energy
refers to the principle that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed, but can only be
transferred or converted from one form to
another. In other words, the total amount of
energy in a closed system remains constant,
and energy cannot be created or lost in the
system.

Application of Conversion of Energy to life

1. Power generation: Energy conversion is used to generate electricity, which is used to power
homes, businesses, and industries.
2. Transportation: Energy conversion is used in the form of internal combustion engines, electric
motors, and other systems to power vehicles such as cars, trucks, trains, and airplanes.
3. Cooking: Energy conversion is used to convert the chemical energy stored in fuels such as wood,
gas, and electricity to heat energy used for cooking.
4. Heating and cooling: Energy conversion is used to heat and cool homes and buildings through the
use of furnaces, boilers, air conditioners, and heat pumps.
5. Lighting: Energy conversion is used to convert electricity into light for indoor and outdoor
lighting.
6. Electronics: Energy conversion is used in electronic devices such as smartphones, computers, and
televisions to convert electrical energy into other forms of energy such as light, sound, and
electromagnetic waves.
7. Medical devices: Energy conversion is used in medical devices such as X-ray machines,
ultrasound machines, and MRI scanners to produce images and diagnose medical conditions .

Application of Conservation of Energy

Here are some applications of the law of conservation of energy to life:
1. Energy efficiency: The law of conservation of energy is used to design and improve energy-
efficient systems, such as buildings, appliances, and vehicles. By minimizing energy waste, we can
reduce our environmental impact and save money on energy bills.
2. Renewable energy: The conservation of energy principle underlies the use of renewable energy
sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power. These sources of energy are sustainable
because they do not deplete natural resources and can be replenished over time.
3. Climate change: The law of conservation of energy is also relevant to climate change, as the
burning of fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which traps
heat and causes global temperatures to rise. By reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and
transitioning to renewable energy sources, we can mitigate the impacts of climate change.
4. Energy storage: The conservation of energy principle is also important for energy storage, which
enables us to use energy when it is needed, rather than when it is generated. Energy can be stored
in various forms, such as batteries, fuel cells, and pumped hydro storage, allowing us to access
energy even when it is not being generated by renewable sources.

14. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 4: FORCE AND

MOTION

Newton’s Laws of motion

Law I. Every body continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is acted on
by a resultant force.
Law II. The change of momentum per unit time is proportional to the impressed force and takes place in
the direction of the straight line along which the force acts.
Law III. Action and reaction are always equal and opposite.

State Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton's third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means
that when one object exerts a force on another object, the second object will exert a force back on the
first object that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion and its importance to life

Newton's third law of motion has several important applications in everyday life, some of which
include:
 1. Rocket propulsion: Rockets work on the principle of action and reaction, where the force that
propels a rocket is generated by the expulsion of exhaust gases from the rocket's engines.
2. Walking: When we walk, we push the ground behind us, and the ground pushes us forward. This is
an example of the action-reaction forces mentioned in Newton's third law.
3. Swimming: When we swim, we push the water behind us with our arms and legs, and the water
pushes us forward, propelling us through the water.
4. Driving: The force that propels a car forward is generated by the interaction between the tires and
the road. As the tires push back against the road, the road pushes forward on the car, creating
motion.
5. Flying: The thrust generated by an airplane's engines is an example of the action-reaction forces
described by Newton's third law.

15. STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY: SUB-STRAND 5:

AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
Identify materials used in making simple agricultural tools
1. Wood: Many simple agricultural tools, such as hoes, shovels, and rakes, are made from wood. Durable
and easy to work with, wood is a popular choice for tool handles and other components.
2. Metal: Some agricultural tools, such as plows and sickles, are made from metal. Metal tools tend to be
more durable than wooden ones, but they can also be more expensive and difficult to work with.
3. Fiberglass: Fiberglass is a lightweight and durable material that is sometimes used to make agricultural
tools such as shovels and hoes.
4. Plastic: Some simple agricultural tools, such as watering cans and seedling trays, are made from
plastic. Lightweight and easy to clean, plastic tools can be a good choice for small-scale agriculture.

Simple agricultural tools assembled from the environment

Simple agricultural tools can be assembled from various materials available in the environment. Some
examples include:
1. Hoe: A hoe can be made by attaching a wooden handle to a flat metal blade, which is typically
made of iron or steel. The blade can be sharpened using a grindstone or a file.
2. Machete: A machete can be made by forging a long, thin blade from iron or steel and
attaching it to a wooden handle. The blade can be sharpened using a grindstone or a file.
3. Shovel: A shovel can be made by attaching a wooden handle to a flat metal blade, which is
typically made of iron or steel. The blade can be shaped by heating it in a fire and then
hammering it into shape.
 4. Rake: A rake can be made by attaching wooden or bamboo tines to a wooden handle. The
tines can be shaped by heating them in a fire and then bending them into shape.
5. Sickles: Sickles can be made by forging a curved blade from iron or steel and attaching it to a
wooden handle. The blade can be sharpened using a grindstone or a file.

16. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 1:

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Investigate the scientific methods used in waste management
Scientific method of waste management refers to a systematic approach used to manage waste in a
way that minimizes its negative impact on the environment and human health.

Scientific used in waste management

Method Waste Description
Management
Landfills Landfills are the most common method of waste disposal. This
method involves burying waste in large pits and covering it with
soil.
Incineration Incineration is a method of waste disposal that involves burning
waste at high temperatures. This method is often used for
medical waste, hazardous waste, and other types of waste that
cannot be safely disposed of in landfills.
Recycling Recycling involves converting waste into new products.
Composting Composting involves the decomposition of organic waste into
nutrient-rich soil. This method is often used for food waste, yard
waste, and other types of organic waste.
Bioremediation Bioremediation is a method of waste management that involves
using microorganisms to break down pollutants in the
environment. This method is often used to clean up
contaminated soil and water.
Plasma Gasification Plasma gasification involves exposing waste to high
temperatures and ionizing gases to create plasma. This method
converts waste into syngas, which can be used to generate
electricity.
Pyrolysis Pyrolysis involves heating waste in the absence of oxygen to
break it down into a gaseous and solid residue. The gaseous
residue can be used as fuel, while the solid residue can be used
as a fertilizer or building material.

Scientific principles underling the methods used in waste management

The scientific principles underlying the scientific method of waste management are:
1. Reduction
2. Reuse
3. Recycling
4. Recovery
5. Disposal

17. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 2:

HUMAN HEALTH
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic diseases that cannot be spread from one person
to another and are caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. These
diseases generally develop slowly over time and can last for a long period. Examples of NCDs
include:
 1. Cardiovascular diseases: These include heart attacks, stroke, and high blood pressure.
2. Cancer: This is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body.
3. Chronic respiratory diseases: These include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
and asthma.
4. Diabetes: This is a condition where the body cannot produce or properly use insulin, a
hormone that regulates blood sugar.
5. Neurological disorders: These include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple
sclerosis.
6. Kidney diseases: These include chronic kidney disease and kidney failure.
7. Osteoporosis: This is a condition where the bones become weak and brittle, making them
more prone to fractures.
8. Obesity: This is a condition where a person has an excess amount of body fat, which can lead
to other health problems such as heart disease and diabetes.

Causes of Non- communicable Diseases

Lifestyle factors Unhealthy lifestyle behaviors such as tobacco and alcohol use, poor
diet, physical inactivity, and stress increase the risk of developing
NCDs.
Environmental factors Exposure to pollution, chemicals, and radiation can increase the
risk of NCDs such as cancer and respiratory diseases.
Genetic factors Some NCDs have a hereditary component, meaning that they can
be passed down from one generation to the next.
Age The risk of developing NCDs increases with age, as the body
becomes more susceptible to wear and tear.
Chronic conditions Chronic conditions such as obesity, hypertension, and diabetes
increase the risk of developing NCDs.

Symptoms, effects and prevention of noncommunicable diseases

Disease Symptoms Effects Prevention
Cardiovascular Chest pain, shortness Heart attack, Regular physical activity,
disease (heart of breath, irregular stroke, heart healthy diet, not smoking,
disease) heartbeat, fatigue failure controlling blood pressure
and cholesterol
Type 2 diabetes Frequent urination, Nerve damage, Healthy diet, regular
increased thirst, kidney physical activity,
fatigue, blurred vision damage, vision maintaining healthy weight
loss,
amputations
Cancer Fatigue, unexplained Tissue Avoiding tobacco and
weight loss, lumps or damage, organ excessive alcohol
growths, changes in failure, death consumption, healthy diet,
bowel or bladder regular cancer screenings
habits
Chronic Coughing, wheezing, Reduced lung Avoiding exposure to air
respiratory shortness of breath, function, pollution, avoiding tobacco
diseases chest tightness respiratory smoke, regular physical
failure activity
Alzheimer's Memory loss, Cognitive Regular physical and mental
disease and confusion, personality decline, activity, healthy diet,
dementia changes, difficulty dependence on managing chronic conditions
performing familiar others for daily such as high blood pressure
tasks care and diabetes

The causes, symptoms, effects and prevention of cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells
in the body. The causes of cancer are complex and can involve a combination of genetic,
environmental, and lifestyle factors.

Some Causes of Cancer:

 • Genetic mutations: Inherited genetic mutations can increase the risk of developing certain
types of cancer.
• Environmental factors: Exposure to certain substances, such as tobacco smoke and air
pollution, can increase the risk of developing cancer.
• Lifestyle factors: Poor diet, lack of physical activity, and excessive alcohol consumption
can increase the risk of developing cancer.

Symptoms of Cancer:

• Fatigue
• Unexplained weight loss
• Pain
• Skin changes, such as yellowing or darkening
• Changes in bowel or bladder habits
• Persistent cough or hoarseness

Effects of Cancer

• Cancer can cause physical pain and discomfort, as well as emotional stress and anxiety.
• Cancer can also have a significant impact on a person's quality of life and ability to
perform daily activities.
• In some cases, cancer can be life-threatening if left untreated or if it spreads to other parts
of the body.

Prevention of Cancer

• Eat a healthy diet that is high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
• Engage in regular physical activity.
• Avoid tobacco products and limit alcohol consumption.
• Protect skin from excessive exposure to sunlight.
• Get regular check-ups and cancer screenings.

Common cancers that affect humans and link them to life style
Common Cancers Life Style
Lung cancer smoking tobacco or exposure to second-hand smoke
Skin cancer This cancer can be caused by excessive exposure to
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds,
toning skin creams
Breast cancer alcohol consumption, lack of physical activity, and being
overweight.
Colorectal cancer: Diet high in red and processed meats, alcohol
consumption, and lack of physical activity
Prostate cancer: Diet high in red and processed meats and lack of
physical activity.

18. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 3:

SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY
Scientific concepts, principles and processes involved in industries in the
environment

Local Industries in the Community

Most local industries base their production on scientific principles. Examples of science related
business or industries in most of the localities in Ghana are:
 1. Blacksmithing 5. Kekey production
2. Soap making 6. Vegetable crop production
3. Gari processing 7. Fish smoking
4. Salt making 8. Biogas production

Products of industries within and outside their community and describe the process
of production
Industry Raw Materials Used Products
Soap making Fats/ oils eg palm oil; soda or potassium Soap
hydroxide (ashes)
Gari processing Cassava dough, fire wood or LPG Gari
Salt making Seawater, brine (salt solution) salts
Blacksmithing Iron ore, steel, palm kernel shells • Simple implements
such as hoe, cutlass
• Artworks such as
gongs, bells etc….
Kenkey Production Corn dough, corn husk or plantain leaves, Kenkey
fire wood or LPG
Fish smoking Fresh fish, firewood or LPG Smoked fish

Crop production Seeds or seedlings Vegetable crops such

as tomatoes, cabbage,
peper, etc

Biogas production Organic matter such as animal dropping Biogas

(e.g. cow dung) and dead remains of plants
and animals. Domestic wastes

Scientific concepts, principles and processes underlying the production of common

everyday industrial products
Local Industries Scientific Concepts, Principles underlying the
production
Soap making Saponification
Gari processing Surface area, separation of mixtures, fermentation, food
processing
Salt making Evaporation, crystallization
Blacksmithing Combustion, energy transformation, heating, hammering
and shaping
Kenkey Production Hydration, separation of mixtures, fermentation,
aflatasation, boiling
Fish smoking Evaporation or drying, Heating, food preservation,
Crop production Germination, pollination, fertilization, fruit formation.
Biogas production Fermentation, decomposition

19. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 4:

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN ECONOMY
Natural and human factors that influence climate change and green economy in their
localities
Climate change refers to the long-term changes in the average temperature, rainfall, and wind patterns
of a region or the Earth as a whole. It is caused by both natural and human factors
Green economy is characterized by low carbon emissions, efficient use of natural resources, and social
inclusion.

Natural factors that influence climate change

 1. Solar radiation
2. Volcanic eruptions
3. Ocean currents
4. Natural disasters (Natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and wildfires can contribute to
climate change and disrupt green economy initiatives)

Human Activities that influence Climate change

1. Fossil fuel consumption
2. Deforestation
3. Industrialization
4. Agricultural practices

Ways of minimizing human activities that influence climate change

1. Reduce energy consumption
2. Use renewable energy
3. Promote afforestation and reforestation
4. Reduce waste
5. Support green policies
6. Adopt sustainable agriculture practices

20. STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: SUB-STRAND 5:

UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

Parts that are used for agricultural and non-agricultural purposes

Plants have various parts that can be used for both agricultural and non-agricultural purposes. Here are
some examples: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bark, wood and resin.

Plant parts used for agricultural and non-agricultural purposes

Plant Parts Use for Non- agricultural Purpose
Root Some roots such as ginger and turmeric are used for
medicinal purposes, while others are used for flavoring in
foods and drinks.
Stems Stems of some plants such as aloe vera and cactus are
used for medicinal purposes, while others are used to
make furniture and baskets.
Leaves Leaves of some plants like tea and eucalyptus are used
for medicinal purposes, while others like bay leaves and
basil are used for flavoring in foods and drinks.
Flowers Flowers of some plants like roses and lavender are used
for their fragrance and as a source of essential oils.
Fruits Fruits of some plants such as olives and coconuts are
used to produce oil, while others are used for medicinal
purposes.
Seeds Seeds of some are used for their nutritional value, while
others like castor beans are used to produce oil.

Uses of the plant parts for agricultural purposes

Parts of Plant Use for agricultural Purpose
1. Leaves: • Used as animal feed
• Used for mulching and composting to improve
soil fertility
• Harvested and dried to make tea or herbal
supplements
2. Stems • Used as a source of fiber for textiles and rope-
making
• Cuttings can be planted to grow new plants
• Used as a support structure for climbing plants

3. Roots • Used for food (e.g. carrots, potatoes, cassava)

• Used as medicine (e.g. ginseng, turmeric)
• Anchors the plant and absorbs water and
nutrients from the soil

4. Seeds • Used for food (e.g. apples, bananas, oranges)

• Used to produce oils and extracts for food
flavoring and cosmetics
• Used to make wine, juice, and other beverages

5. Flowers • Used for ornamental purposes (e.g. flower

arrangements, landscaping)
• Used for medicinal purposes (e.g. chamomile,
lavender)
• Used to attract pollinators for fruit and seed
production.