Cities 111 (2021) 103094

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Accommodating green spaces in cities: Perceptions and attitudes in slums

Patrick Brandful Cobbinah a, Michael Osei Asibey b, *, Mohammed Asura Zuneidu b,
Michael Odei Erdiaw-Kwasie c, d
a
Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
b
Department of Planning, Faculty of Built Environment, College of Art and Built Environment, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
c
Transparency International Australia, Melbourne, Australia
d
Institute for Resilient Regions, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The growing assumption in urban studies literature is that residents of slum communities struggle to find space to
Accra live but not a place to recreate and enjoy green space. However, at present no research has explored slum res­
Ghana idents’ perspectives and attitudes towards urban green spaces. The purpose of this study is threefold: (i) to
Slum
establish a spatio-temporal analytical evidence of urban green spaces in slum communities; (ii) to examine slum
Sustainable development
Urbanization
residents’ perceptions on urban green space availability and use; and (iii) explore how their perceptions have
Urban green space influenced their attitudes towards urban green space management. Using two slum communities - Nima and
Agbogbloshie - in Ghana’s national capital Accra as case studies, household surveys, focus group discussions,
secondary data analysis and agency interviews were conducted. Spatio-temporal analysis showed significant loss
of green spaces (about 83% in Agbogbloshie and 92% in Nima) between 2000 and 2018. Yet, slum residents
generally expressed positive attitudes towards urban green spaces despite government agencies reporting
otherwise (χ2 = 16.140, p < 0.000). The challenge with green spaces in slums was more of an urban planning’s
neglect of slums as part of the urban system rather than residents’ attitudes.

1. Introduction urban planning means developing functional and inclusive cities.

The crumbling urban spaces in developing countries, particularly
those in Africa, is making it intolerable to think of urbanization as a
potential for development; now it appears as an antagonism against
urban functionality and human survival. Perhaps for the first time, one
can imagine that, as AbdouMaliq Simone once put it, African cities could
be “bastions of the uninhabitable” (Simone, 2016, p.135) with the pre­
vailing unsurmountable slum challenges and rapid urban green space
depletion (see Cobbinah, Erdiaw-Kwasie, & Amoateng, 2015). Mabo­
gunje (1990, 2015) was always at the radical end of the critical spatial,
social, economic and environmental spectrum of urban development in
Africa. By some means, his words do not appear very radical in the 21st
century. They rather give serious pause for thought as urban Africa
contemplates the possibility that unless there is radical change in policy
and action to promote inclusiveness, African cities may very well create
a continent that is uninhabitable. Hence, the importance of promoting
sustainable urban development (United Nations [UN], 2016), which in
Studies (e.g., Abass, Afriyie, & Gyasi, 2018; Abass, Appiah, & Afriyie,
2019; Cobbinah & Darkwah, 2016a; Narh, Takyi, Asibey, & Amponsah,
2020; Nero, 2017) reporting on the rapid deterioration of urban green
spaces in Africa including Ghana, identify low public knowledge on the
importance of the preservation of green spaces, poor attitude towards
urban greenery, institutional challenges, neglect of making provisions
for green spaces in local plans and poor management as well as weak
enforcement of laws as fundamental contributory factors. The situation
in slums could be even more pervasive considering the neglect of urban
planning authorities in promoting environmental quality, improving
access to basic community infrastructure and most importantly, pro­
tecting green spaces in such neighbourhoods.
The argument underlying this paper is that to foster inclusive plan­
ning and growth that leads to sustainable development in African cities,
attention should be focused on burgeoning slums and/ or and informal
communities and management of urban green spaces, which the UN
Sustainable Development Goal 11 emphasises. A slum-green space

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: patrick.cobbinah@unimelb.edu.au (P.B. Cobbinah), asibeymichael@yahoo.com (M.O. Asibey), michael.erdiaw@transparency.org.au
(M.O. Erdiaw-Kwasie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.103094
Received 7 May 2020; Received in revised form 11 October 2020; Accepted 28 December 2020
Available online 23 January 2021
0264-2751/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
reflexive scholarship is required, that is, there is the need to interrogate
and understand the management of green spaces in slum communities
and the residents’ position on this phenomenon, since the rapid growth
of one (slum) results in afast decline in the other (green spaces). This is a
simple imperative for providing inclusive and functional cities in Africa,
informing all urban planning and management responses, and political
and policy decisions. Official statistics on green space decline (see
Cobbinah & Darkwah, 2016a) and slum proliferation (see Castells-
Quintana, 2017; Fox, 2014; Smit, Musango, Kovacic, & Brent, 2017) in
African cities are alarming. Yet, there is no known exploration of the
experiences, attitudes and perceptions of slum dwellers on green spaces
as well as policy responses. Meanwhile, the health of cities is largely
dependent on the availability and use of green spaces by all residents
(see Asibey, Yeboah, Poku-Boansi, & Bamfo, 2019) with some charac­
terizing them as the “lungs of the city” (Jones, 2018).
Thus, urban Africa cannot achieve sustainable development unless
these vulnerable aspects (urban green spaces, and slum communities)
are fully understood, integrated and planned for. Dominant paradigms
in urban studies research and theory do not acknowledge the intercon­
nectedness of green spaces and slum proliferation especially in devel­
oping countries because they are still examined differently on their own
right. This view is consistent with Stren’s (1992) position on urban
studies research in Africa being too reductionist. Yet, this field is still
dominated by a frontier urbanization discourse that seeks to extend the
boundaries of urban development into uncharted territories (e.g.,
climate change, infectious diseases, driverless transport infrastructure).
According to Cobbinah and Darkwah (2016b), the image of slums - and/
or informal communities - and green spaces in African cities are prob­
ably one of the oldest images of African urban evolution, and it is not
surprising that research have not yet examined this relationship.
It is within the foregoing context that this paper inquires: in what
ways can the perceptions of slum residents and attitudes be a resource to
manage and address the depletion of green spaces in African cities?
Using two slum communities - Nima and Agbogbloshie - in Ghana’s
national capital Accra as case studies, the paper provides answer to this
question by: (i) establishing a spatio-temporal analytical evidence of
urban green spaces in slum communities; (ii) examining slum residents’
perceptions on urban green space; and (iii) exploring how their per­
ceptions have influenced their attitudes towards urban green space
management, and institutional responses. The analysis would provide an
insight into the conceptualization of slums, and an important input into
slum improvement initiatives. The next section presents literature re­
view on urban development focusing on slums and green space man­
agement in Africa. The research methods and setting are further
provided. Next is the presentation and discussion of the study results.
The paper concludes with some policy recommendations.
2. Literature review – urban development and green space
management in Africa
In Africa, environmental sustainability and conservation of green
spaces are threatened by impacts of rapid urbanization in general and
slum growth in particular (Cobbinah et al., 2015; Cobbinah & Korah,
2015; UN-Habitat, 2013). In this paper, green spaces are conceptualized
as natural or semi-natural areas set aside for enjoyment and recreation
or for the protection of wildlife. They encompass open space, nature
reserve, public parks and urban forests and may contain grassy areas,
rocks, soils, and trees (Bates et al., 2014; Wei & Ye, 2014). Sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA), which is among the poorest regions in the world, accounts
for about 62% of the estimated one billion slum residents in the world
(UN-Habitat, 2013). The slum population in the region is estimated to
increase to 2 billion people by 2030 (Castells-Quintana, 2017), with the
residents lacking a combination of access to improved water and sani­
tation, adequate and durable living space, parks and secure tenure (UN-
Habitat, 2017). Unfortunately, slums are often neglected in the formal
planning procedures by city authorities because of the perception that
2
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
they threaten the urban commons (Davy, 2012). As a consequence, slum
residents are trapped in perpetual poverty, insecurity, inadequate
infrastructure provision and deteriorating environmental landscape.
City authorities have largely resorted to upgrading slums and abating
the formation of new ones as strategies to improve urban functionality
and liveability. This is evident in the urban policies of many African
cities (Del Mistro & Hensher, 2009; Fox, 2014), and consistent with the
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, target 11.1 which aims at
achieving for all, adequate, safe, and affordable housing and basic ser­
vices and upgrading of existing slums (UN, 2016).
Yet, slums and their population continue to increase in African cities
(Fox, 2014; Smit et al., 2017) with compounding adverse implications,
particularly on the destruction of green spaces in spite of their numerous
positive contributions to the social, economic and environmental con­
ditions of residents and the urban landscape. Studies (e.g., Djibril et al.,
2012; Dubbale, Tsutsumi, & Bendewald, 2010; Adjei-Mensah, 2014;
Tibaijuka, 2007) show that one of the major challenges with slum pro­
liferation to urban planners has been the difficulty in controlling the
rapid destruction and conversion of green spaces to other uses. This
phenomenon is more intense and precarious in Africa where there is
significant deterioration of green spaces in most cities (Adjei-Mensah,
2014; Cilliers, Cilliers, Lubbe, & Siebert, 2013). For instance, in the
Republic of South Africa, several towns have their total green space land
coverage reduced to less than 10% due to, among others, sprawl and
slum development (MaConnachie, Shackleton, & McGregor, 2008). This
situation is representative of many African cities where urbanization,
the emergence of slum communities and expansion of existing ones have
resulted in the rapid decline of green spaces (Cobbinah & Darkwah,
2016a; Oduwaye, 2013).
In Ghana, more than 50% of the population live in urban areas
(Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2012). Amidst the increasing rate of
urbanization and urban planning inefficiencies, urban residents grapple
with pollution, destruction of the environment including parks and
greeneries, high rents, congestion and lack of decent affordable housing
(Cobbinah & Korah, 2015; UN Habitat, 2013). Slums in Ghana develop
at city fringes or less valued urban lands, which were once green areas
including watersides, steep hills, dumping grounds and idle plots (Blight
& Mbande, 1998; Cobbinah & Darkwah, 2016b; Mougeot, 2005). The
UN-Habitat (2016) reports that about 37.9% of Ghana’s urban residents
have their shelters in the form of slum housing characterized by informal
and unimproved housing structures, poor drainage systems, deterio­
rating environmental conditions, inadequate availability of social ame­
nities and public spaces. These issues pose serious threats to urban
planning and management of the urban landscape, particularly green
areas (see Obeng-Odoom & Amedzro, 2011).
There are calls for recognition of, and understanding of how attitudes
of urban residents affect deterioration or otherwise of green spaces from
an African perspective, but not necessarily to meet standards of the
developed world. These calls have resonated among researchers because
interventions on planning the urban landscape in Africa have largely
excluded local perception and attitudes, and their influence on urban
form, particularly green spaces (Asibey et al., 2019; Cobbinah, Asibey, &
Gyau, 2021; Njoh, 2017). Yet, little is known, in terms of research, about
the extent to which slum residents perceive urban green spaces which
ultimately influence their attitudes towards them and institutional re­
sponses in urban Africa. This study addresses this gap using Ghana as a
case study.
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Study setting
Geographically, this study focused on Accra, Ghana’s largest city
(GSS, 2014). The city is arguably the biggest economic and adminis­
trative hub of Ghana, and has experienced rapid urbanization in the last
two decades (GSS, 2014). The city attracts migrants of various
P.B. Cobbinah et al. Cities 111 (2021) 103094

backgrounds from both within and outside Ghana because of its diverse ones. However, these elements of urban development (urban planning,
economic, administrative and industrial opportunities. Due to its management and landscaping) are absent (Agyei-Mensah & Owusu,
cosmopolitan nature, rapid population growth and high land and 2012).
housing prices have resulted in the development and expansion of slums
and/or informal settlements. Accra was selected for this study based on:
3.2. Research approach
(i) its rapid urban population growth; (ii) presence of oldest and biggest
slum communities; (iii) evidence of depleting urban green space; (iv)
This research commenced with a review of relevant and related
urban planning challenges such as haphazard developments and
literature on slum development, urban green spaces and urban planning
congestion; and (v) available background data on the city.
at both international and local scales. The review focused on books,
Two suburbs in the city, Nima and Agbogbloshie (see Fig. 1), were
journals, conference papers and reports, policy documents and existing
selected to explore slum resident’s perspective on urban green space
literature on the topic understudy (e.g., Bowler et al., 2012; Cobbinah
depletion and preservation. Agbogbloshie, similar to Nima (oldest slum
et al., 2015; Cobbinah & Korah, 2015; Cobbinah and Darkwah, 2016a;
in Ghana), is a community in Central Accra which has witnessed a steady
MaConnachie et al., 2008; Quagraine, 2011). The global review focused
increase in population from 7055 people in 2000 to 17,504 in 2010.
on studies and publications on the concepts and theories of slums and
Residents are mainly Ghanaians and other foreign nationals from West
urban green space planning by urban studies researchers and develop­
Africa (Agyei-Mensah & Owusu, 2010). The suburbs were selected for
ment agencies (e.g., UN-Habitat). The local review focused on urban
this study because they remain among the largest slums in Ghana and
planning and development documents, such as metropolitan medium-
are characterized by poor sanitary conditions, limited provision of
term development plans, population and housing census reports and
utility services, sub-standard buildings, rapid diminishing of green
policies for the city of Accra (e.g., Accra Metropolitan Assembly [AMA],
spaces (Agyei-Mensah & Owusu, 2012; Obeng-Odoom & Amedzro,
2014; GSS, 2014).
2011).
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from six
Nima and Agbogbloshie are densely-populated suburbs in Accra with
relevant planning-related agencies in Accra, including the Development
average household sizes of about 5.9 and 5.7 persons respectively,
Planning Office and the Physical Planning Department of the Accra
compared to the citywide average of 5 persons. It is expected that their
Metropolitan Assembly. Officials of the Land Use and Spatial Planning
proximity to the seat of government (Jubilee House), Kotoka Interna­
Authority, Department of Parks and Gardens, Ministry of Inner-City and
tional Airport and the Central Business District (CBD) of the city would
Zongo Development and the People’s Dialogue on Human Development
contribute to conscious attempt in improving upon the urban landscape
(local NGO on slum development) were also involved in interview
including the provision of green spaces and maintenance of existing
conversations based on their interests, availability and knowledge on

Fig. 1. Geographical location of Agbogbloshie and Nima.

3
P.B. Cobbinah et al. Cities 111 (2021) 103094

the research phenomenon. The semi-structured interviews centered on their attitudes towards management of such spaces”. This was accepted
three key themes: (i) the urban landscape (green space) and slum con­ at p ≤ 0.05.
ditions in Accra and the selected neighbourhoods; (ii) the development The qualitative analysis was essentially description and explanation
and management of urban green spaces in the slum communities; and of perceptions and attitudes towards planning and management of urban
(iii) institutional engagement with locals in urban green space man­ green spaces. Themes, codes and categories based on the interview
agement. In addition, representatives of the traditional authorities transcripts were developed (Nowell, Norris, White, & Moules, 2017)
(tribal leaders) in the two selected communities were interviewed to using the NVIVO 12 software. Data from the interviews and surveys
obtain first-hand local leadership perspectives on the state and extent of were triangulated and results made available to the institutions and
green space depletion of their communities. Fundamentally, such in­ local community through community meetings to address any gaps and
terviews showed local leadership position on, and dissatisfaction with inconsistencies that might have occurred and to guarantee validity. The
the extent of planning authorities’ role in urban green spaces in Accra. qualitative data were analysed and presented under four key themes,
At the community level, a total of 395 household participants (191 in namely, (i) the importance of green spaces from the perspective of re­
Nima and 204 in Agbogbloshie) were involved in household survey spondents, (ii) the factors accounting for the diminishing nature of
questionnaire administration. This sample was based on the total urban green spaces in the study communities, (iii) the attitudes and
number of households of the two communities which is 33,968 (16,466 efforts of residents towards urban green space management and provi­
in Nima and 17,502 in Agbogbloshie). The Slovin’s formula was used to sion, and (iv) agency perspectives on protecting and improving green
determine the sample size. This formula states that: n = N/1 + N(α)2, spaces in the slum communities.
where n remains the sample size, N is the sampling frame (total
households), and α is the margin of error (0.05). The convenience 4. Results and discussion
sampling technique was employed to select the household participants,
focusing on both male and female heads of households. The household 4.1. Basic characteristics of households and spatio-temporal analyses of
questionnaire consisted of a series of demographic questions such as green spaces
age-sex composition, educational status, household level of knowledge
and perception on urban green spaces and how their perceptions influ­ As presented in Table 1, the household survey showed that there are
ence their attitudes towards such spaces. more males (55%) than females (45%) across the two study commu­
Additionally, two focus group discussions (FGDs) with residents in nities. The general cultural practice of males being heads of households
the two communities were conducted. The number of participants of in many African cities explains the male participant dominance. There
each group discussion was ten; five males and five females. The partic­ were more respondents (74%) in the 20–49 age cohort, depicting the
ipants were selected based on: (i) their position as residents in the youthful nature of the population and emphasising the claim that the
communities; and (ii) having resided in the communities prior to the city attracts young migrants of various backgrounds from both within
year 2000. The group discussions were facilitated by two of the re­ and outside Ghana due to its diverse economic, administrative and in­
searchers; one facilitated the discussions while the other took field notes. dustrial opportunities (Agyei-Mensah & Owusu, 2010). It was further
Recordings were made using digital recorders after seeking the consent observed that most respondents (87%) have attained some level of
of interviewees. The recordings were later transcribed under appro­ formal education with the highest being the Senior High School level
priate themes. (38%).
To determine the extent of loss of green spaces within the case study On the spatial evolution of green spaces, institutional interview data
communities over the past two decades (specifically, between 2000 and show that both communities do not have formal implementable local
2018), a land cover analysis for the years 2000, 2010 and 2018 was plans because of their perceived unauthorized locations (e.g., stream­
conducted using the ArcGIS software version 10.5. Through remote banks) and classification as informal:
sensing, satellite images were downloaded from the United State
Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer website. These images were in
the form of Landsat 7 ETM (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) for the study
areas for respective years. Radiometric and line corrections were further Table 1
done with the QGIS 2.18 to address the errors associated with each Background characteristics of respondents (n = 395).
image cluster for the respective years. This helped to improve the quality Agbogbloshie Nima Total
of the remotely-sensed data for accurate interpretation. To determine Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
the changes in land uses (specifically, the green spaces) over the speci­
Sex of household respondents
fied periods, the total pixel count of each class was computed in the Sex
attribute table of the classification output. This was then multiplied by Male 126 62 91 48 217 55
the size of a pixel (30 m × 30 m) to ascertain the total area covered by Female 78 38 100 52 178 45
each defined class. The total acres covered by vegetation and the other Total 204 100 191 100 395 100

classes were then determined for both study communities for the year Age of respondents
2000, 2010 and 2018. Age group
≤20 years 9 4 2 1 11 3
Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were employed to
20–29 years 24 12 35 18 59 15
analyse the collected data. The quantitative data were analysed with the 30–39 years 65 32 43 23 108 27
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 21) software, while quali­ 40–49 years 44 22 81 42 125 32
tative data were analysed using the NVIVO 12 software. The quantita­ 50–59 years 50 25 14 7 64 16
tive data, specifically, age-sex composition, educational status and ≥60 years 12 6 16 8 28 7
Total 204 100 191 100 395 100
perception on relevant issues regarding the phenomenon under study
were interpreted using appropriate tables in simple frequencies and Education attainment of respondents
percentages. The Pearson Chi-square test was used to determine the Level
None 34 17 17 9 51 13
degree of association between the perception of slum residents on the Primary School 21 10 15 8 36 9
importance of urban green space and their attitudes towards manage­ Junior High School (JHS) 15 7 28 15 43 11
ment of such spaces. The Pearson Chi-square test was further run to test Senior High School (SHS) 64 31 86 45 150 38
the hypothesis that “there is a significant association between the Tertiary 70 34 45 24 115 29
Total 204 100 191 100 395 100
perception of slum residents on the importance of urban green space and

4
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
“We [Physical Planning Department] normally do not prepare local
plans or schemes for slum communities. In fact, it is difficult to do
that, and you will end up incurring huge cost implementing them
because of the extent of haphazard development in those commu­
nities. Even in communities that have plans, it is near impossible to
ensure their smooth implementation. What we normally do in those
communities is to embark on demolition or eviction exercises to
improve liveability, but these measures are often strongly opposed
by the residents” ….
Physical Planning Official
The above quote suggests that despite the unavailability of imple­
mentable local plans, there are some planning interventions that are
unwelcome by the local people. This study thus used the spatio-temporal
analysis to establish the extent of green space decline in the commu­
nities. The spatio-temporal analyses show that in the year 2000, the total
land area of Agbogbloshie was 276 acres out of which 162.2 acres (59%)
was built-up area, 43.5 acres (16%) remained undeveloped and 70.3
acres (25%) of green spaces (see Fig. 2). Nima on the other hand had a
total land area of 403 acres out of which the built-up area and green
space constituted 336.7 acres (84%) and 65.3 acres (16%) respectively
(see Fig. 3).
The spatio-temporal analytical evidence in 2010 however showed a
significant decline in land uses (specifically, green spaces) in the two
study communities. In 2010, the built-up area of Agbogbloshie was
259.9 acres (see Fig. 4), while the green spaces had a 77% reduction
from 70.3 acres (in 2000) to 16.1 acres. In the case of Nima, the total
built-up area was 395.3 acres with an open green space of 6.7 acres (see
Fig. 2. Land cover map of Agbogbloshie in 2000.
5
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
Fig. 5). Thus, the green space reduced substantially by 90% from 65.3
acres to 6.7 acres over the ten-year period.
Further analyses showed that in 2018, the developed part of
Agbogbloshie increased from 259.9 acres (in 2010) to 263.9 acres
whereas the green space reduced from 16.1 acres to 12.1 acres (see
Fig. 6). Similarly, the built-up area of Nima increased from 395.3 acres
to 396.6 acres with the green space reducing from 6.7 acres to 5.4 acres
between 2010 and 2018 (see Fig. 7). The analyses on the state of green
spaces in the study communities between 2000 and 2018 show a sig­
nificant loss of green spaces (83% in Agbogbloshie and 92% in Nima).
Institutional interview data identified urbanization, sprawl and
competition among land uses as drivers of green space decline:
“Green spaces have diminished over the years because of pressure on
spaces for development, lack of commitment by local planning au­
thorities to implement proposals in planning schemes and the pro­
liferation of unauthorized developments on available green
spaces”….
Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority Official
The above findings corroborate earlier assertions (see Adjei-Mensah,
2014; Singh, Pandey, & Chaudhry, 2010) that the lack of priority given
to green spaces by city planning authorities, weak planning responses,
encroachment and alteration of green spaces to other land uses, rapid
urbanization and infrastructural development among others contribute
to rapid decline of green spaces in growing informal conurbations.
Hence, the need to explore and understand the perception of affected
slum residents and how these perceptions may have influenced attitudes
towards urban green space, results of which are presented in the next
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
Fig. 3. Land cover map of Nima in 2000.
section.
4.2. Perception on green spaces in slum communities: agency and
household perspectives
4.2.1. The importance of green spaces from the perspective of respondents
Contrary to the claim of Djibril, Coulibaly, Wang, and Ousmane
(2012) that residents are ignorant about the significance of green spaces,
results from the household survey show respondents demonstrated a
reasonable understanding of green spaces and their importance. The
survey results reveal that approximately 93% of the residents perceive
green spaces to be important to the social, economic and environmental
conditions of the slum communities. According to the respondents,
green spaces improve the aesthetics of the environment, minimise soil
erosion and air pollution, and are used for social gathering purposes
such as community activities:
“Green spaces make the environment look beautiful, protect our
houses from being destroyed by strong winds and also reduce soil
erosion”….
A resident of Agbogbloshie
“Green spaces give us fresh air. … If the last tree dies, the last human
also dies…meaning trees are important” ….
A resident of Nima
The assertions made by residents were validated during interviews
6
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
with some agency officials. For instance, the Department of Parks and
Gardens official stated that:
“Slum dwellers know that green spaces protect the environment from
erosion, reduces the extent of air pollution in the urban area and
enhances upon the aesthetics of the urban area”.
The level of importance placed on green spaces by the respondents
indicates that slum residents appear to appreciate the significance of
green spaces to the general urban landscape. This could go a long way to
influence their attitudes towards the creation and preservation/man­
agement of green spaces as reported in several other studies (Asibey
et al., 2019; Bates et al., 2014; Byrne & Sipe, 2010).
On the contrary, the spatio-temporal analysis of the communities and
interviews with some urban planning agencies show otherwise that slum
residents are unfamiliar and do not understand the significance of green
spaces, thus, resulting in their rapid decline in the study communities
and other slums in Ghanaian cities. To such agencies (specifically, the
Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority), slum residents are mainly
concerned about converting such spaces to either residential or com­
mercial uses for survival:
“They (slum residents) don’t know the benefits of green spaces and
therefore no efforts have been made to create more. They are only
concerned about clearing green spaces to either build their houses or
set up facilities to undertake their economic activities. This practice
is seen in almost every slum in Ghanaian cities” ….
Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
Fig. 4. Land cover map of Agbogbloshie in 2010.
The foregoing analysis shows mixed responses to local perception on
urban green spaces. On the one hand, local respondents and some
institutional officials (e.g., Department of Parks and Gardens) indicate
strong local understanding of the meaning and importance of green
spaces in slum communities. On the other hand, the spatio-temporal
analysis and some institutional officials (e.g., Land Use and Spatial
Planning Authority) reveal that slum communities do not appreciate the
essence of green spaces as they are rapidly encroached. Thus, while this
finding, to some extent, lends credence to the literature that the
deprived consciousness on the importance of green space has subjected
the local people to see green space management as the sole duty of
government and therefore do not maintain them (e.g., Djibril et al.,
2012), it also contradicts existing literature showing that slum residents
understand the importance of having green neighbourhood but the
socio-economic pressures make this perception difficult to actualize.
4.2.2. Nature of urban green spaces in slums: respondents’ perspective
Findings identified unplanned urban growth (by all households
interviewed), limited attention to park development and preservation
(by 20% of the households interviewed), laxity in the enforcement of
laws to protect green areas (25%), encroachment on green spaces by
slum dwellers (35%) and poor cooperation between residents and city
authorities to preserve green spaces (54%) as factors influencing the
state of green spaces in the case study communities (see Table 2). These
factors were similarly mentioned and extensively discussed by all
agency officials. They explained how rapid urbanization in the study
areas and unstructured and weak enforcement of building regulations
have led to encroachment on green spaces by residents for residential
and economic activities, without conscious attempts to create new or
preserve existing ones:
7
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
“Slum communities are informal settlements where land use is not
formally planned, therefore, the most recognized open space one can
find in a typical slum is a market as people need to sell and buy, and
there is no creation of green space”.
People’s Dialogue on Human Settlements Official
“Slum residents are more interested in putting up structures to lay
their heads and hence have no interest in green space creation”.
Department of Parks and Gardens Official
Additionally, the uncooperative nature of the residents with local
planning authorities was reported to have significantly contributed to
the deteriorating state of the green spaces. According to agency officials,
slum residents are disobliging, and demonstrate no commitment to­
wards the protection of green spaces:
“Uncooperative behaviour of slum residents is causing serious
threats to green spaces. They think that the preservation of green
spaces is the work of only the city authorities. Instead of them to help
preserve the green spaces they are unconcerned and have destroyed
many green spaces for commercial activities” …
Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority Official
This quote was validated by a participant during a focus group dis­
cussion in Nima who acknowledged that slum residents should develop
positive behaviour towards environmental protection and green space
development, despite the general community perception of limited
government support but harsh development initiatives including forced
evictions and demolition exercises:
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
Fig. 5. Land cover map of Nima in 2010.
“People walk over green spaces… animals are left to graze on green
spaces and some people even think that green space protection is not
their business but the responsibility of government”…
A female Participant during a focus group discussion at Nima
Low priority by planning authorities was noted to have contributed
to the state of green spaces in the study communities. The official from
the Department of Parks and Gardens mentioned that green spaces do
not fall within the ‘topmost’ priority of the central and decentralised
governments, considering urgent calls to address poverty, improve ac­
cess to education and health as well as ensure general improvement in
income of the citizenry. These reasons may seem more pressing than
management of green spaces, and that it is perhaps understandable that
there has never been a budgetary allocation for green space develop­
ment in the study communities. The ‘seeming’ neglect by planning au­
thorities in educating and consciously creating as well as preserving
green spaces in slums were reported by residents and agency officials:
“Local authorities do not educate people on the importance of green
spaces at the same time they do not punish people who destroy green
spaces. Also, they do not plant trees and green grass. I have never
seen or heard of anybody coming to talk to us on green spaces. What
they do is to destroy [demolish] our buildings and sack [evict] us
from here [the community]”…
Male participants during a focus group discussion at Agbogbloshie
“It is undeniable fact that we are unable to constantly engage citizens
and educate them on the importance of green spaces…but it is due to
inadequate logistics and personnel. At the moment, we have one
8
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
tipper truck, two pick ups, and one saloon car… which is woefully
inadequate to function effectively”…
Department of Parks and Gardens Official
These findings are however at variance with studies in other African
cities such as Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban, Nairobi and Casa­
blanca where governments and city authorities are as much concerned
about green spaces as they are about other development issues (Langer
& McNamara, 2011). In this study, low prioritization of green spaces by
planning authorities has contributed to the depletion and, in the worst
case, complete abandonment of green spaces in the study communities.
The Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority official indicated that
there is a misconception that green spaces are not important because
they do not contribute directly to economic growth of the country. As
such, it was observed from the field survey, interview findings and re­
view of relevant literature (e.g., Cobbinah & Niminga-Beka, 2017) that
there is an increased and intense competition between green spaces and
other land uses where green areas are sacrificed for commercial and
residential uses. Although increase in urban population requires corre­
sponding increase in space for additional residential and commercial
uses as well as green spaces, the findings from this study show otherwise,
with a significant proportion of green areas encroached upon or rezoned
for other uses. However, as argued by Darkwah and Cobbinah (2014),
urbanization should not be the only reason for the deterioration of urban
greenery, instead efforts should be dedicated to the administration of
human-centred anthropogenic factors such as intrusion on green spaces
in the urban centre and land use changes.
P.B. Cobbinah et al. Cities 111 (2021) 103094

Fig. 6. Land cover map of Agbogbloshie in 2018.

4.2.3. Attitudes and efforts of residents towards urban green space Male participants during a focus group discussion at Agbogbloshie
management
The above (i.e. 93% of household respondents knew the importance
According to the UN (2016), effectively developing, managing and
of urban green spaces and 74% hold the view that green spaces need to
sustaining green spaces are important actions towards the attainment of
be protected in the communities) notwithstanding, only 14% of the
the SDG 11.7, “providing universal access to safe, inclusive and acces­
household respondents indicated that they perform direct roles or ac­
sible, green and public spaces, in particular, for women and children,
tivities to help protect green spaces in the communities. This however
older persons and persons with disabilities”. By implication, both resi­
contradicts studies in cities in other parts of the global south (Asibey
dents and city authorities should consciously contribute towards pre­
et al., 2019) where residents exhibit positive attitudes (commitment to
serving urban green spaces even in the poorest and most vulnerable
pay towards maintenance and voluntarism to ensure safe use of facilities
communities, such as slums. Findings from this study show some resi­
and sensitisation on the need to maintain urban green spaces) towards
dents require measures to be instituted to manage green spaces, while
management of urban green spaces and parks because of the good
others demonstrate a ‘do not care’ attitude towards green spaces’.
knowledge on their importance. The major activity however mentioned
The household survey showed that approximately 74% of the resi­
by the 14% of household respondents in protecting green spaces was
dents hold the view that green spaces need to be protected because of
encouraging residents to desist from destroying them.
their contributions to wellbeing and the urban environment. This gives
During the focus group discussions and household interviews, resi­
an indication that perception on the importance of green spaces (as re­
dents further suggested some measures to help control the deteriorating
ported by 93% of the residents) can influence attitudes towards their
rate of green spaces in the communities. Significant among them
protection. As a result, they have formed community associations such
include, (i) enforcing regulations or bye-laws to prevent people from
as “keep-fit clubs” and youth groups that discuss among others, issues on
cutting down trees, (ii) encouraging the practice of afforestation in every
green space development and management. Also, interviews and focus
community and prosecuting defaulters, (iii) educating residents on the
group discussions held with members of the communities reveal that
benefits of creating and preserving green spaces in the urban centre, (iv)
residents are concerned about the need to create, protect and restore
creation of enough buffer to protect lawns, (v) demarcating or rezoning
depleted green spaces:
areas purposely for developing green space areas, (vi) improving upon
“There has been excessive cutting down of trees and destruction of collaboration between city authorities and residents on preserving green
green spaces lately. The lack of trees and green spaces make the spaces, and (vii) enacting and enforcing laws on illegal destruction of
community very hot since green spaces absorb some of the heat green spaces.
produced by sunlight thereby cooling the environment. The lack of
“We should plant more trees and green grass in our community in
green spaces doesn’t make the community appear beautiful and
addition to public education on the importance of green spaces. Also,
attractive”…

9
P.B. Cobbinah et al. Cities 111 (2021) 103094

Fig. 7. Land cover map of Nima in 2018.

Further, agency officials called for a change in attitudes of slum

Table 2
residents towards green spaces in their respective slum communities:
Factors for the rapidly declining state of green spaces.
Factor Agbogbloshie Nima Total “The poor attitudes of slum residents towards green space preser­
(n = 204) (n = 191) (n = 395) vation is worrying …. They dump refuse on green space areas and
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % they also encroach upon those areas for other land uses”….

Rapid and unguarded 204 100 191 100 395 100 Ministry of Inner City and Zongo Development Official
urbanization
Little attention to park 43 21 36 19 79 20 The association between perception on urban green space (inde­
development and preservation pendent variable) on attitudes towards green space development
Laxity in the enforcement of laws 51 25 47 25 98 25
(dependent variable) in the case study communities was assessed using
to protect green areas
Encroachment on green spaces 78 38 60 31 138 35 the Chi-square test statistic at p ≤ 0.05, i.e. the perception of slum res­
Poor cooperation between 119 58 94 49 213 54 idents on the importance of urban green space and the influence of that
residents and city authorities to on their attitudes towards management of such spaces. The computed
preserve green spaces Chi-square test on the association between the two variables was sig­
nificant with a statistic value of 16.140 and p-value of 0.000 (see
youth in the community need to be encouraged to protect green Table 3). The association between perception of slum residents on the
spaces”…. importance of urban green space and the influence of that on their at­
titudes towards management of such spaces is statistically significant.
Male participant in a focus group discussion at Nima The foregoing resonates scholarly opinions on the need to pay
attention to successful integration of, and planning for, local perception
Some residents reported otherwise that some individuals have poor
on green spaces and how it impacts on attitudes towards their preser­
attitude towards green spaces in the respective communities:
vation and development (Amoako & Cobbinah, 2011; Asibey et al.,
“Residents do not pay attention to green spaces just like any other 2019; Cobbinah & Korah, 2015). This is deemed relevant considering
environmental issue. Hardly will you find people planting trees or that perceptions go a long way to influence attitudes and active partic­
flowers within or around their homes. What I have witnessed is ipation in development efforts. Since local communities directly bear the
people destroying the little available green space”…. positive and negative impacts of community development initiatives,
their participation is crucial. This can act as a catalyst for development
A resident of Nima by encouraging a sense of responsibility and providing strength in
addressing a felt need, specifically green spaces.

10
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
Table 3
Test statistic of association between perception on urban green space on atti­
tudes towards green space development and preservation.
Chi-square tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.
(2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi- 16.140a 1 0.000
square
Continuity 12.304 1 0.000
correctionb
Likelihood ratio 21.766 1 0.000
Fisher’s exact test 0.000 0.000
Linear-by-linear 19.209 1 0.000
association
N of valid cases 395
a
0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count
is 14.68.
b
Computed only for a 2 × 2 table.
4.2.4. Agency perspectives on protecting and improving green spaces in slum
communities
This section presents findings on the measures to improve upon
protection of green spaces in slum communities from the perspective of
the agency officials. Agency officials mentioned four key ways of man­
aging green spaces in slum communities: (i) strict enforcement and
implementation of the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act
925), (ii) public education on the significance of green space, (iii)
strengthening institutional capacities and improving effective collabo­
ration among institutions, and (iv) formation of youth groups as urban
green space taskforce in the communities.
First, all agency officials indicated enforcing the implementation of
the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925) by the local
planning authorities is one way through which green spaces can be
preserved and improved in slum communities. Currently, the Land Use
and Spatial Planning Act 2016, Act 925 has been developed.
“to revise and consolidate the laws made on land use and spatial
planning, as well as provide for sustainable development of land and
human settlements through a decentralised planning system”.
The Act specifies that in the preparation of (spatial) plans at the local,
regional and national levels, guidelines prepared by the Land Use and
Spatial Planning Authority mandate planning professionals to follow
strictly to land use processes. This planning approach is expected to
reflect the principles of the new urbanism theory, touted as the new
planning paradigm to promote sustainable and resilient city develop­
ment. Of relevance to this paper, Section 4(k) states that the Land Use
and Spatial Planning Authority for the purpose of achieving its objec­
tives shall through local planning authorities.
“ensure the control of physical development in uncontrolled or less
controlled but sensitive areas such as forest reserves, nature reserves,
wildlife sanctuaries, green belts, coastal wetlands, water bodies,
water catchment areas, mining areas, open spaces and public parks”
Section 85(j) further states that the Land Use and Spatial Planning
Authority through the local planning authorities shall provide guide­
lines in respect of zoning schemes affecting “the creation of green belts”.
These provisions, according to the Land Use and Spatial Planning Au­
thority official are to ensure the zoning of areas for the creation of green
spaces and control the depletion of such areas. The interview findings
revealed that slums communities in Ghana mostly lack implementable
local (spatial) plans because they are frequently described as ‘urban
nuisance’. More frequently, planning authorities use forced evictions
and demolitions as planning interventions which are strongly opposed
by the residents. The agency officials admitted that it is difficult to
promote the management of green spaces in the slum communities due
to local opposition and unplanned nature of development.
11
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
Complicating matters further is the complex land ownership
arrangement in the case study communities. Findings show that land is
owned by multiple groups in the communities: government, traditional
leaders, families and clans, with each ownership category determining
the use of land. Agency officials called for clarifying and/or addressing
land ownership and land use challenges to help ensure improved man­
agement of green spaces. Officials further called for the strict imple­
mentation of the Act 925 as they deemed could help improve the
creation and safeguard existing green spaces in the communities. For
instance, the official at the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority
remarked that:
“The Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925) gives Land
Use and Spatial Planning Authority the mandate under Articles 4 (h)
and 85 (j) to protect green belts, open spaces and public parks.
Therefore, strict implementation of this law without political inter­
ference would help safeguard green spaces”.
Second, all agency officials stated that continuous public education
on the dangers of destroying and significance of green spaces has the
potential to positively influence attitudes towards green spaces. As
earlier reported, approximately 93% of the slum residents perceived
green spaces to be important towards improving quality of the urban
environment and will subsequently support initiatives to promote green
spaces in their environment. This notwithstanding, the spatio-temporal
analysis and interview findings revealed that a significant proportion of
green areas in the communities have been depleted. Therefore, at least,
annual sensitization of slum residents on the importance of keeping a
green environment, according to agency officials, will certainly lead to
the protection of green space in the communities. On this, previous
studies (e.g., Asibey et al., 2019; Bates et al., 2014; Byrne & Sipe, 2010)
show that sensitisation on the importance of green spaces could influ­
ence attitudes towards management and maintenance practices.
Third, agency officials stated that strengthening institutional ca­
pacities and improving effective collaboration among institutions can
influence efforts towards the creation and preservation of green spaces.
Interview findings show that despite existence of a number of agencies
in charge of city planning and green space management, there are no
known implementable plans for slum communities with several insti­
tutional challenges. Even in non-slum communities with implementable
local plans, implementation remains a challenge due to logistical con­
straints, political interference, land tenure challenges and nonchalant
behaviour of developers. These challenges confirm the claim of Yeboah
and Obeng-Odoom (2010, p.94) that:
“…the planners and the planning agencies themselves work within
severe constraints, ranging from issues in land ownership and supply,
through poor funding and inadequate human resources, to a weak
legislative framework. They are correct in saying that: ‘We are not
the only ones to blame’”.
Premised on the above, all officials stressed on the need for them to
be adequately resourced with the requisite funding, personnel and other
relevant logistics towards the preparation and implementation of local
plans for slum communities. For instance, it was reported that in­
stitutions such as the Department of Parks and Gardens and Land Use
and Spatial Planning Authority need to be provided with the adequate
funds (adequate budgetary allocation) and logistics to enable them to
support the formulation and implementation of local plans, which focus
on creation and protection of greens spaces.
Also, due to the unclear nature of stakeholder collaboration and
coordination, officials called for enhanced collaboration among relevant
institutions tasked with the responsibility of green space development.
For instance, official of the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority
mentioned that there should be clear guidelines on collaboration to­
wards urban green space development among them, the Ministry of
Inner-City and Zongo Development, Department of Parks and Gardens
P.B. Cobbinah et al.
and local planning authorities at the district assemblies. The interview
findings revealed that the Ministry of Inner-City and Zongo Develop­
ment which is tasked with the responsibility to develop Zongo com­
munities in the country has initiatives for green space development in
the Zongo and slum communities across the country. These initiatives
can be shared with the Department of Parks and Gardens and Land Use
and Spatial Planning Authority to support implementation. This and
other collaborations when ensured, can result in the development of
green spaces and attainment of other development initiatives (Cobbi­
nah, Asibey, & Opoku-Gyamfi, 2019).
Finally, agency officials called for the formation of youth groups and
community associations and strengthening of existing ones to serve as
‘urban green space protection taskforce’ to either create new or ensure
the preservation and sustainability of existing greeneries in the slum
communities. To the officials, these groups should be tasked with the
responsibility of green space creation and the preservation of existing
one in the communities. A lesson from the South African experience can
be learned: owing to the loss of green spaces in several towns in South
Africa (MaConnachie et al., 2008), youth groups and community asso­
ciations were formed with support from local planning authorities to
ensure the creation of new greeneries and preserve or maintain existing
ones.
5. Concluding remarks and policy recommendations
The study has explored urban green space management from the
perspectives of slum residents and agencies in Ghana’s national capital.
It examined ways in which the perception of slum residents and attitudes
can be used to manage and address the depletion of green spaces in
African cities. Findings show that green spaces are virtually non-existent
in the case study communities despite slum residents perceiving green
spaces to be important to the urban landscape. The spatio-temporal
analysis revealed a significant decline (about 83% in Agbogbloshie
and 92% Nima) in the proportion of green areas in the communities in
about two decades (i.e. between 2000 and 2018). Several factors
(largely human-induced) were mentioned to have accounted for the
rapid deterioration of green spaces in the communities. Key among them
include rapid urbanization, land ownership and tenure arrangements,
neglect or little attention to park development and preservation by
residents and city authorities, laxity in the enforcement of green space
protection laws by local planning authorities, encroachment on green
spaces and weak coordination and cooperation between residents and
city authorities to preserve green spaces, as well as institutional chal­
lenges (logistical, finance and human resource).
Findings from the study further showed that residents exhibited
positive attitudes and were willing to contribute towards addressing the
declining rate of green spaces in the communities. This however con­
tradicts findings from the spatio-temporal analysis and interview find­
ings from the relevant agencies which suggest that residents are largely
unconcerned about the destruction of green spaces in the communities.
Interview findings from agency officials revealed four ways of address­
ing the deteriorating nature and improving upon green spaces in slum
communities and Ghanaian cities, namely, strict enforcement and
implementation of the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act
925), public education on the significance of green space, strengthening
institutional capacities and improving effective collaboration among
institutions, and the formation of youth groups and community associ­
ations as urban green space taskforce in the communities.
Premised on the foregoing, this study argues that exploring and
integrating local aspirations and attitudes towards green space man­
agement into urban planning practice in Ghanaian slum communities
and cities in general, is by no means an undemanding task. This study
recommends the training and education of city land use planning and
urban green space management authorities. As earlier reported, slum
residents and agency officials understand the importance and implica­
tions of urban green space on the social, economic and environmental
12
Cities 111 (2021) 103094
landscape of slum communities. They however find it challenging to
incorporate local perceptions and attitudes into implementable local
plans as well as enforce urban green space development and protection
in land use planning practice. Given that slum communities often do not
receive official planning response but harsh resisted measures (e.g.,
demolitions), it is important for planning authorities to be educated on
the ways of integrating slum communities into mainstream planning
practice. This will lead to the preparation of implementable and
acceptable local plans for slum communities. It is argued that education
on the relevance of local perception and its influence on attitudes in
planning for functional and adaptable urban futures is important.
Relevant land and urban green space management agencies should be
educated via workshops, seminars and training sessions on the impor­
tance of slum residents’ perceptions and attitudes in urban green space
management. This is to ensure that future city planning and manage­
ment officials have a comprehensive understanding of the centrality of
local expectations and attitudes in making urban areas work.
This study again calls for improvement in institutional collaboration
and coordination which should emphasise clearly defining the roles of
institutions towards plan implementation. There should be a participa­
tory approach in integrating aspirations and attitudes of slum residents
on green spaces into implementation and management efforts. This is
very significant considering the increasing number and range of stake­
holders in urban green space development and management. The in­
terests and needs of the wide range of stakeholders (residents, local and
national institutions and the private sector) should be incorporated into
local plan preparation and implementation to ensure effective devel­
opment and preservation of green spaces. Again, the study calls for
conscious efforts to ensure the enforcement and compliance with local
land use, zoning and planning laws to preserve areas demarcated as
green spaces as stated in the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016
(Act 925). There should also be the need to consciously identify and
address all institutional challenges.
In sum, the importance of integrating aspirations of slum residents
on green space into urban planning is a public policy issue, as it is re­
ported to advance the functionality of cities, support sustainable
development efforts, and promote inclusivity particularly in this period
of rapid urbanization. A disregard of local interest in green space
management in the face of unplanned urbanization and slum expansion
may result in adverse outcomes. The study thus concludes that slum
residents’ perception on urban green spaces influence attitudes towards
their management. Hence, the need to integrate residents’ aspirations in
urban planning efforts to safeguard urban green spaces in the slum
communities.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
The first or lead author, Patrick Brandful Cobbinah spearheaded the
entire research process.
The corresponding and second author Michael Osei Asibey facili­
tated the writing of the paper and made the relevant inputs in the
writing of the paper. He ensured that the descriptions are accurate and
agreed by all authors.
The third author (co-author) was involved in writing of the paper,
facilitating and undertaking the data collection, data collation and
cleaning and analysis for this paper
The last author, Michael Odei Erdiaw-Kwasie assisted in the writing
of the paper.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
P.B. Cobbinah et al. Cities 111 (2021) 103094

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