-

MODULE

Basi
csofEngl
ish
Grammar

ENT05105

I
nst
it
uteofAdul
tEducat
ion
Depar
tmentofAdul
tandConti
nui
ngEducat
ionStudi
es
Ordi
nar
yDipl
omainAdultandCont
inui
ngEducati
on
thr
oughODL
 MODUL
E

Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar
ENT05105

Inst
it
uteofAdultEducati
on
Depar
tmentofAdultandConti
nuingEducat
ionStudi
es
Ordi
nar
yDipl
omai nAdultandContinui
ngEducati
on
Thr
oughODL
Copy
right
Al
lright
sr eserved.Nopartofthispubli
cati
onmayber eproducedinanyform orany
means,inf ullorinpart,exceptforshortext
ractsi
nf airdeal
ings,f
orresearchor
pr
ivate study,crit
icalscholar
lyrevi
ew ordi scour
se wi t
h an acknowl
edgement,
wi
thoutt hewr i
tt
enpermissionoftheInst
it
uteofAdultEducati
on.

©I
nst
it
uteofAdul
tEducat
ion,
2021

I
SBN

Inst
it
uteofAdultEducat
ion
Ordinar
yDi
plomai
nAdul
tandConti
nuingEducati
on
thr
oughODL
P.O.Box
20679Dar
esSalaam
Tanzani
a
Fax:
+2550222150836
Email
:
i
nfo@iae.
ac.
tz
Websit
e:
www.i
ae.ac.
tz
Acknowl
edgement
s
TheDi r
ect
oroft heInsti
tuteofAdul tEducati
on,Dr.Mi chaelNg’
umbi ,wishesto
extendhissincerethanksandgr at
it
udet ovar
iousindi
vidualswhocontr
ibutedinone
wayoranot heri naccomplishingthismodule.Thef ol
l
owi ngstaf
foftheIAEdeser v
e
specialappreciati
onf ortir
elessef for
tsanddedi cati
oni ntheproductionoft hi
s
modul e:
Dr
.Jul
i
usChal
i
gha: Head,Depar
tmentofAdul
tand
Conti
nui
ng Educat i
onStudi
es
Modest
aA.Kal
uwa: I
nst
it
uteofAdul
tEducat
ion(
Wri
ter
)
Just
ineG.Mbwambo I
nst
it
uteofAdul
tEducat
ion(
Rev
iewer
)
I
nst
it
uteofAdul
tEducat
ion(
Edi
tor
)
Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Aboutt
hismodul
e
Thi
smodul ehasbeenpr oducedbytheInst
it
uteofAdul
t
Educat
ion.Allmodulespr
oducedbytheInst
it
uteofAdul
t
Educat
ionarest
ruct
uredi
nthesameway.

Howt
hismodul
eisst
ruct
ured?
Modul
eov
erv
iew:
Themodul eoverv
iewgiv
esyouagenerali
ntr
oducti
ontothe
module.Theinformat
ioncont
ainedi
nthemodul eover
view
wil
lhel
py oudeter
mine:
I
fthemodul
eissui
tabl
efory
ou.
 Whaty
oual
readyneedt
oknow.
 Whaty
oucanexpectf
rom t
hemodul
e.
 Howmucht
imey
ouwi
l
lneedt
oinv
estt
ocompl
etet
hemodul
e.

Theov
erv
iewal
sopr
ovi
desgui
danceon:
 St
udyski
l
ls.
 Wher
etogethel
p.
 Modul
eassi
gnment
sandassessment
s.
 Act
ivi
tyi
cons.
 Uni
ts.

Westrongl
yrecommendt hatyour
eadt
heov
erv
iewcar
eful
l
y
bef
orestar
ti
ngy ourl
ear
ning.

Module
cont
ent: Themodul
eisbr
okendowni
ntouni
ts.Eachuni
tcompr
ises:
Ani
ntr
oduct
iont
otheuni
tcont
ent
.
Uni
tobj
ect
ives
Uni
tout
comes.
Newv
ocabul
ary
.
Aboutt
hismodul
e

Cor
econt
entoft
heuni
twi
thav
ari
etyofl
ear
ningact
ivi
ti
es.
Auni
tsummar
y.
Assi
gnment
sand/
orassessment
s,asappl
i
cabl
e.
Answer
stoassi
gnment
sand/
orassessment
s,asappl
i
cabl
e.

Resour
ces:
Forthoseint
erest
edi nlear
ningmor eont hi
ssubject
,we
provi
deyouwithalistofaddit
ionalresour
cesattheendof
thi
smodule;t
hesemaybebooks, arti
clesorwebsi
tes.

Your
comment
s: Whenreadi
ngt hi
smodule,wewoul dappr
eci
ateify
oucoul
d
makeaf ew comment sasfeedbackonanyaspectofthi
s
modul
e.Yourfeedbackmighti
ncl
udecomment son:
Modul
econt
entandst
ruct
ure.
Modul
ereadi
ngmat
eri
alsandr
esour
ces.
Modul
eassi
gnment
s.
Modul
edur
ati
on.
Modul
esuppor
t(assi
gnedt
utor
s,t
echni
cal
hel
p,andot
her
s)

Yourconstr
uct
ivefeedback wi
l
lhel
p us t
oimpr
ove and
enhancet
hismodul
e.
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Modul
eov
erv
iew
Wel
comet
othi
smodul
e
Welcomet otheEngl ishlanguagemodul e.Isincer elyhope
thaty ou wil
lenj oylearning theEngli
sh language.I nt hi
s
modul e,youwi llstudy“ BasicsofEngl i
shGr ammar ”.The
modul ewillequipy ouwi thnecessar
yski l
l
st hatwi llenabl
e
yout ouseandt eacht hegr ammaroft heEngl i
shl anguage
appropriat
ely and interacti
vely.I
nt his modul e,y ou are
expected to achieve a numberofl earni
ng out comes as
outl
inedhereafter.Welcome!

Modul
eOut
comes
Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hismodul
e,y
oushoul
dbeabl
e
to:
 Anal
ysewor
dcl
assesi
nEngl
ish;
 Demonst
rat
eproperuseoft
ensesi
n
communi
cati
on;
 Anal
ysewor
dfor
mat
ioni
nEngl
ishl
anguage;
Modul
eov
erv
iew

St
udySki
l
ls
Asanadul tlearner,yourappr oacht olear ningwi ll
bedi fferent
from t hatofy ourschoolday s.Inparticular,youwi l
lchoose
whaty ouwantt ost udy; y
ouwi l
lrespondt oy ourprofessi onal
and/ orper sonalmot iv
ationandy ouwi l
lmostl i
kelybef it
ting
yourst udy act i
vit
ies in ot herpr ofessionalordomest i
c
responsi bil
iti
es.Essent iall
y,y ouwillbet akingcont r
olofy our
l
ear ningenv ir
onment .Asaconsequence,y ouwi l
lneedt o
consi derper formancei ssuesr el
atedt ot i
memanagement ,
goalset ti
ng,st ressmanagementandot hers.Per haps,y ou
wi l
lal so need t of ami li
arisey ourselfwi th such areasas
essaypl anning,copi ngwi thex amsandusi ngt hewebsi teas
al earningr esource.Yourmostsi gnifi
cantconsi derati
onswi ll
bet imeandspacei .e.thet imey oudedi cat etoy ourlear ning
andt heenv ir
onmenti nwhi chy ouengagei nt hatlearning.

Wer ecommendt hatyoutaketi

menowbef or
estart
ingyour
self
-st udy t
of amil
i
ari
se yoursel
fwi t
haf ew excel
lent
resour
cel i
nksonthewebsuggestedforyouasfol
lows:

 ht
tp:
//www.
how-
to-
study
.com/
The “How t o study”websi t
eisdedi cat
ed to studyskill
s
resources.Youwi llfi
ndlinkstostudypreparati
on( ali
stof
nineessential
sf oragoodst udyplace),taki
ngnot es,and
strat
egiesforr eadingtextbooks,usingreferencesources
andhandl i
ngtestanx i
ety.

 ht
tp:
//www.
ucc.
vt.
edu/
stdy
sk/
stdy
hlp.
html
Thisist hewebsi t
eoft heVi rgi
niaTech,Di
v i
sionofSt udent
Aff
airs.Youwi llfi
ndl i
nkst otimeschedul i
ng( i
ncludinga
“wheredoest imego? ”link)
,ast udyskil
lchecklist,basic
concentrationtechniques,contr
olofthestudyenv ironment,
notet aking,how tor eadessay sforanalysi
sandmemor y
ski
ll
s( “r
emember i
ng”).

 ht
tp:
//www.
howt
ost
udy
.or
g/r
esour
ces.
php
Another“ How t o st
udy ”websi tehasusefulli
nkstot i
me
management , effi
cient r
eading,
questioni
ng/li
steni
ng/ obser
vingski ll
sandgetti
ngthemost
outofdoi ng(“hands-on”learning).Alsoi
ncl
udedar
elinkst o
memor ybui
ldi
ng, t
ipsf orst
ay i
ngmot i
vat
edanddev
elopinga
l
earningplan.

Theabov el
inksar eoursuggesti
onsf ory outogetst art
ed.
Atthet i
meofdev elopi
ngthismodule,thesewebl i
nkswer e
acti
ve,andt heymi ghtnotbeact i
veatt hemoment .Ifyou
wanttol ookformor eli
nks,gotowww. google.com andtype
“sel
f-
study basics”,“sel
f-
study t
ips”
,“ self-
study skil
l
s”or
simi
lar,t
hensear ch.
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Needhel
p?
Dearlearner,inthecour seofy ourst udy,youmayneedhel p
i
nv ari
ousi ssuessuchast hel ocationandhowt ogetsupport
from r esource cent r
es, clari
ficati
on of v arious issues
pertai
ningt oy ourstudymat erials( modules)andsoon.I f
thishappens,y ouar eadv i
sed t o askf orhelpf r
om y our
centrecoor di
natororf acil
i
tator;andy oucanal sov i
sitthe
website of t he Insti
tute of Adul t Educat
ion,whi ch is
www. i
ae.ac.tz or ask f or helpt hrough phone number
0222150836, ort hr
oughemai laddr ess:inf
o@iae.ac.
tz.
Modul
eAssessment
Eachuni thasoneassi gnmentwi tht heirmodalanswer sat
theendoft hemodul e.Al so,ther ewi llbeonet utor-mar ked
assignmentwheny oucompl etet hemodul e.Youwi l
lalsobe
givenonepr ojectwor k.Uni tassignment sar ef ory oursel f-
assessmentont heuni ty ouhav est udi ed;t heywi l
lnotbe
submi tted.You wi llsubmi tonlyone end oft he modul e
assignmentandpr ojectwor kwhi chwi llbegi vent oy oui nt he
cour seofy ourst udybymodul ef acilit
ator.Theassi gnment
andpr ojectwor kwi llbesubmi t
tedt ot hemodul ef acili
tator
duringf acet of acesessi onsort hroughemai l.Thi sispar tof
cont i
nuousassessment .
Ther ef ore,i n cont i
nuous assessmentt her e wi l
lbe sel f-
assessment sandf ourt eacher -mar kedassi gnment s,namel y
projectwor k,endoft hemodul eassi gnmentandt wot est s.
Thet wot est swi lltakeonehoureach;andy ouwi llbegi v en
twomont hsf rom t hedat ey our ecei vet heassi gnmentt o
submi ti tt oy ourmodul ef acil
i
tat or.Yourmodul ef acili
tator
willmar kandgi vey ouf eedbackt hroughanyr el
iablemeans
i
ncl udi ngf acet of acesessi ons.Cont i
nuousassessment s
willbeadmi nisteredbef or etheendofsemest erwhi l
eendof
semest erexami nationwi l
lbeadmi nistered att heendof
eachsemest er.
Gener ally,theCont inuousAssessment( CA)wi llcar ry50%
andSemest erExami nationwi llcar ry50%.Thewei ghtf or
Cont inuousAssessmentshal lbe;10% f orthef i
rstt estand
10% f ort hemi d semest ertestwhi leend oft hemodul e
assignment /homewor kwi llcarry5%,por tfolio 5%,pr oject
10% andor alquest ioningwi llcar ry10%.Hence,t het ot al
mar ksf orCAshal lbe50%.
Get
ti
ngar
oundt
hismodul
e

Get
ti
ngar
oundt
hismodul
e
Mar
ginI
cons
Whilewor kingthr ought hi
smodul e,youwi llnoti
cef r
equent
use ofmar gini cons.These i cons servet o“ si
gnpost”a
parti
cularpieceoft ext,anewt askorchangei nactiv
ity;t
hey
havebeeni ncludedt ohelpyout ofindy ourwayar oundt hi
s
modul e.A compl et
ei conseti sshownbel ow,wesuggest
thatyouf amili
ari
sey ourselfwi
tht heiconsandt hei
rmeani ng
beforestart
ingy ourstudy .

Act
ivi
ty Assessment Assi
gnme Case
nt st
udy

Di
scussi
o Group Hel
p Not
eit
!
n act
ivi
ty

Learni
ng Readi
ng Ref
lect
ion Study
Out
comes skil
ls

Summar
y Ter
minol
ogy Ti
me Ti
p

Computer-
BasedLearni
ng Audi
o Vi
deo Feedback

Module Basi
c Answerst
o
Outcome Compet
ence Assessments
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Uni
t1
1.
0Anal
yseWor
dCl
assesi
nEngl
ish

1.
1Int
roduct
ion
Dearl ear
ner,youar ewelcomet othef i
rstuni tofthemodul e“ Basicsof
English Grammar ”.Ihope y ou wil
lagr ee with me that,some oft he
i
mpor t
antmat eri
alsusedint heconstructionofourhousesar ebui ldi
ng
blocks.Asi tisforbuil
dinghouses,wor dsar ethefundament albuildi
ng
blocksoflinguist
icexpr
essionsinallnaturalhumanl anguages.Therefore,
thisunitwillequipyouwi t
hv al
uableskillspertai
ningtowor dcl assesin
EnglishLanguage.Itismyhopet hatyouwi llenj
oylearni
ngthisunit.

Lear
ningOut
comes
Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisuni
t,y
ouwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
1.
1.1 Def
inekeywor
ds:
wor
d,wor
dcl
ass,
and
gr
ammar
;
1.
1.2 Ident
if
ywor
dcl
assesi
nEngl
i
shl
anguage
and
1.
1.3 Expl
ainf
unct
ionsofwor
dsi
nEngl
i
sh
Language.

1.
1.1Def
ini
ti
onsofkeyWor
ds
Dearlear
ner,therearemanywor
dsi
nEnglishl
anguageandsome
new onesar ecr eat
edever
yday
.Infact
,weusemostoft hese
wordsinourdailyli
fe.
Bef
oregoingi
ntodet
ailaboutwordclassesinEngl
ish,
letushav
ea
l
ookatthefol
l
owingkeywor dsr
elat
edt othi
sunit
.

1.
1.1.
1 Awor
d
Dearl earner,Ihopethet er
m‘ word’isfamil
iartoy ou.Forexampl e,
weal way susewor dswhenwr i
ti
ngnotesorwhenchat ti
ngwi thour
fri
endsusi ngourmobi l
ephones.Hav eyouev erthoughtofwhata
‘
wor d’ i
s?Wel l,
a‘wor d’
maybedef i
nedasasi ngl
euni tofl
anguage
thathasmeani ngandcanbeut ter
edorwr it
ten.Forexample,‘book’,
j
umpandf l
ightar eallmeani ngfulwordsandcanbeut t
eredor
writ
ten.Howev er,somewor dsmayhav emor ethanonemeani ng;
thewor d‘ f
li
ght’,f
orexampl e,hast wodif
fer
entmeani ngs:airtravel
andt heactofr unningaway .
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

1.
1.1.
2 Gr
ammar
Dearlearner
,i neverylanguaget hereareagr eedprinciplesand
patt
ernsthatunder
lieorgoverntheuseofwor ds, phr
ases, clauses,
andsentences.Thi
smakesi tnecessar
ytoattemptanex ami nati
on
ofhowal anguageisactuall
yusedi nwrit
ingandi nspeech.Pl ease
fi
ndthemeani ngofphrases,cl
auses,andsentences

Can y ou t hi
nk of any ungrammat icalconst
ructi
ons iny our
vernacular
?Whydoy out hi
nktheyar eungrammatical
?Probably
theyareungr ammat i
calbecausetheydonotabi debyt heagr
eed
pri
nciplesori nst
ruct
ionsthatstat
ewhaty ouareallowedornot
all
owedt odoi nthatl
anguageinwrit
ingandinspeech.
Forexampl e,i
tisungrammati
cali
nEnglishlanguagetowri
teorsay
bookr
‘ eadmy ’becausethi
sconst
ructi
onr equi
resthever
b‘read’t
o
comef irst
,foll
owedbypr my
onoun‘ ’thent henoun‘book’
,hence
r
‘eadmybook’ .
Dearl eaner
,fr
om theaboveexplanat
ion,youmighthavenoti
ced
that
, grammarisasetofr
ulesthatgoverncombi
nati
onofwordsto
makel ar
gerst
ret
chesoflanguageuni
t sli
kephr
ases,cl
ausesand
sentences.

1.
1.1.
3 Wor
dCl
asses
Dearl ear ner,y ouwi llagr eewi thmet hat,i
ftherewer enomeanst o
groupt hi ngsi ncl asses, itcouldbev erytir
esomet ot reatev eryt
hing
i
ndependent ly.Forex ampl e,insteadofl i
sti
ngi t
emsl i
ke:bowl s,
knives,spoons,and f rying pans,wemaysi mplysay“ utensil
s”.
Theref ore,gr oupi ngt hi
ngsi ntocl asses,notonl ymakesi teasierto
groupt oget hert hingsbasi ngoncommonorshar edf eatures,but
also,itiseasyf orstudent st olearnbet terandremembert hingsi na
whol er athert haneachi ni solation.Wor dsinnaturallanguagesar e
also gr ouped accor ding t o some shar ed feat ures t hereby
constitut i
ngwor dclasses.Ther efore,awor dclassr eferst oasetor
categor yofwor dshav i
ngsomef eaturesorat t
ri
but esi ncommon
anddi fferentiatedf rom ot hersbyki nd,type,orqual i
ty.Thet erm
“wordcl ass”isal socalled“ par tsofspeech” .

1.
1.2Wor
dCl
assesi
nEngl
ishLanguage
Dearl ear ner,doy our ememberwhatIsai dwhenIwasi ntroducing
you t ot hi
s uni t?Isai dt hatthere are manywor ds in Engl ish
l
anguageandsomenewonesar ecreatedeveryday .Weal sol earnt
thatwecanl earnbet t
erandr emembert hi
ngsinawhol et haneach
i
ni sol
at ion.Fort hisreason, wordsi ntheEngl i
shl anguagear e
categor izedint otwomaj orgroups:
Thef i
rstgr oupi sf orwordswhosenumber sar eindef i
niteandi tis
calledt heopencl assorthel exi
cal
.Thisgroupi nclude;mai nv erbs
(e.g.run,eat , speak),nouns(e.g.Jackson,house,room) , adjectives
(e.g.happy ,t all
,beaut if
ul)
,and adv er
bs ( e.g.wel l,wr ongl y
,
traditi
onal l
y).
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Undertheopencl ass,newwor dscanbeaddedt otheclassast he

need arises.The cl ass ofnouns,f orinst
ance,i s potenti
all
y
i
ndefi
nite,sinceitiscont i
nuall
ybeingexpandedasnew sci ent
ifi
c
di
scoveriesar emade,newpr oductsaredevel
oped,andnewi deas
are explored. In t he late twentiet
h century,for exampl e,
devel
opment sincomput ert
echnologyhavegivenri
setomanynew
nouns:I nternet,websi t
e,emai l,newsgroup,bitmap,modem,
multi
medi a,etc.
Thesecondgr oupi sforwor dswhosenumber scannotbeex t
ended
bycr eatingnew member s,thi sclassisknownascl osedcl ass,
minorwor dcl assesorgr ammat icalcategory.Ex amplesofmi nor
word cl asses i ncl
ude auxiliaryv erbs (e.g.can,shoul d,may )
,
determiners( e.g.the,thi
s,ev er
y),pronouns( e.g.he,t hey,them),
preposit
ions( e.g.of,
at,over,on),conjuncti
ons( e.g.and,that,
when)
andinterject
ions( e.
g.oh,ah, ghosh) .
Now,l
etusseeindetai
leachwordcl
assundert
het
wocat
egor
ies
ofmaj
orandminorwordcl
asses.

1.
1.2.
1Maj
orEngl
ishWor
dCl
asses
Dearlearner
,wehavelear
ntthatthemaj orwordcl
assesreferto
wordswhosenumber sareindef
ini
t e.Thati
s,new wordscanbe
addedt othecl
assastheneedar ises.Thati
swhyt heyarealso
cal
ledtheopencl
ass.
Whatdoy outhi
nkar
etherel
evantcl
assesunderthi
scategor
yand
why?Somegui di
ngt
ipstoanswerthi
squestionmaybe;doesthe
cl
assall
ownewmember stoj
oinit
?Iftheansweri
syes,y
ougotthe
answerr
ight
.
Itismyhopet hati
ny ouranswer
syou i
ncluded t
hef oll
owing
classeswhichbelongtothemajorwor
dclass:nouns,adject
ives,
verbs,andadver
bs.

1.
1.2.
1.1 NOUNS
Dearlearner,t
ounder st
andt hi
ssect
ionwell
,youhavet oknowthat
the name ofany thing iscall
ed a noun.Forexampl e;Rehema,
Tanzania,town,str
eetandhungerar eallnouns.Therefor
e,words
thatreferto people,places,thi
ngsorabstractideasarecalled
nouns.

Ty
pesofNouns
Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentway
sofcat
egor
izi
ngnounsasdescr
ibedbel
ow:

i
. Pr
operNouns
Pr
opernounsar
ethosewhi
chbeart
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:
(
a) Ref
ert
o speci
fi
cref
erent
sand notshar
ed.For
 example,namesofpeopleorpl
aceareuni
queto
themselv
es;Jamesrefer
stoonepar
ti
cul
arper
son;
whil
eKili
manjar
oisonl
yone.

(
b) Propernounsusuallydonotal
lowplur
alf
ormse.g.
i
tiswr ongtotal
kof‘ t
woTangas’,or‘
twoLondons’
,
but
,“Tanga”and“London”r
especti
vel
y
(
c) Pr opernounsareusual
lywr
itt
eninanini
ti
alcapi
tal
l
etterregar
dlessoftheposit
iontheyoccupyinthe
sentencee.g.DaresSalaam,John;Ili
veinDares
Salaam notindaressalaam;mynamei sJohn,not
j
ohn.
(
d) Pr oper nouns ar e not usual
l
y used with
determiners.Forexampl
e:-You cannotsay ‘
an
Arusha’
, ‘
theJames’
.
Fr
om theabovechar
act
eri
sti
cs,howwoul
dyoudef
inea
pr
opernoun?

i
i. CommonNouns
Acommonnouni sanamegi venincommont oev er
ypersonor
thi
ngofthesameclassorki nd.Examplesofcommonnounsar e
suchasboy,woman,teacher,doct
or,girl
,of
fi
cer,poet,dr
amati
st,
vil
l
age,
cit
y,t
own,
regi
on,distr
ictandplace.

i
ii
. Concr
eteNouns
Aconcretenounisthenameofathi
ngthatcanbetouchedorseen.
Examplesofconcretenounsar
esuchastabl
e,st
one,spoon,gl
ass,
moon,sunandt r
ee.

i
v. Abst
ractNouns
Dearl earner
,cany ouimagi nehow y ouf eelwheny ouhav enot
eatenf oodordr ankwaterforqui t
esomet ime?Hopef ull
yy oufeel
hungryandt hir
sty,don’
t’you?Cany out ouchorseehungerand
thi
rsty?Iam sur ey oucannot !Anabst r
actnouni s,therefore,the
nameofqual it
y,acti
onorst ate.I
treferst onon–phy sicalnot i
ons.
Exampl esofabst ractnounsi ncl
udef reedom,l i
bert
y,thought ,joy
,
sorrow, l
ovedeath,goodness, ki
ndness, chil
dhood,j
ustice,l
ife,tr
uth
andbeaut y.

v
. Col
l
ect
ive/Gr
oupNouns
Acoll
ect
ivenounrefer
st oanamef oracollecti
onoranumberof
peopl
eorthi
ngs.Examplesofcoll
ect
ivenounsinclude;
crowd,mob,
team,bl
ock,army,famil
y,nati
on,parl
iament,commi tt
ee,poul
tr
y,
catt
leorcl
ass.Forexampl
e;anar
myofsol
dier
s, af
lockofs
heep,a
herdofcat
tle,apri
deofli
on,acr
owdofpeople,agangofthi
eves
etc.

Count
abl
eandUncount
abl
eNouns
Dearlearner
,inallthesub-
cat
egori
esofnounsmentionedabove,
ther
earesomewhi chcanbecount
ed(count
abl
enouns)andother
s
cannot(uncount
ablenouns)
.

Forexampl
e,y
oucancountci
ti
esi
nTanzani
a;howmanyar
ethey
?
Acount ablenounist henameofat hingthatcanbecount edor
di
videdintosingul
arorpl ur
al.Examplesofcountablenounsar e;
book,tabl
e,pen,camer a,st
udioetc.Thesewor dscanadher eto
pl
uralform byaccepti
ngthe‘-s’f
orm andappearas;books,t
ables,
pens,cameras,st
udiosetc.

Ont heotherhand,anuncountablenounisthenameofat hi
ngthat
cannotbecount edordi vi
dedintosingul
arandpl ur
al.Examples
i
nclude:mi l
k,r
ice,ice,coff
ee,t
ea,ink,oxygen,l
iber
ty,j
usti
ce,li
fe,
tr
uth,beauty,democr acy,wool
,money ,honesty
,goldandbut ter.
Therefor
e,nounsf r
om anysub-categoryabovecanbeei t
herplural
orsingul
ar.
Dearl
earner
,youareencour
agedtorev
iset
hisuni
tandmakey
our
ownassessmentbyatt
empti
ngtheassi
gnmentgi
venbel
ow:

Exer
cise
1.Makeadi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenabst
ractandconcr
etenouns.
2.Listdownothercountabl
eanduncountabl
enounsandal
l
ocat
e
them tot
hei
rrespect
ivewordcl
asses.

1.
1.2.
1.2ADJECTI
VES
Dearlearner,
Ihopey ouhaveenjoyedthepr evi
oussectiononnouns.
Youar enow wel comet oournextpar t
,whi chi sonadj ecti
ves.
Adjecti
ves are wor ds we cannot av oid using in our dai l
y
conversati
ons.You wi llhearone say i
ng ‘ these fl
ower s are
beauti
ful’
,‘that boy is handsome’.The wor d‘ beauti
ful ’and
‘
handsome’ar eexamplesofadj ect
ives.Whatki ndofi nfor mation
dot heycommuni cat
et ous?Cany ougi v etheiropposites?The
opposi
tesar
eal
soadj
ect
ives.

Howcouldwet hendefi
neadj
ecti
ves?Adjecti
vesarewordsusedto
expr
essthequal i
tyofanoun.Forex ample,wordsli
kebeauti
ful
,
good,t
all
,shor
t,andugl
yar
eadjecti
ves.

Ther
ear
evar
ioust
ypesofadj
ect
ivesasf
oll
ows:
i
. Adj
ect
ivesofqual
i
ty
Anadjecti
veofqual
it
yi sanadject
iveusedtotel
laboutt
hequali
ty
of a person or thing. Examples i
nclude weal
thy,regi
onal
,
fundamental
,el
ementaryandpri
mar y
.
Pl
easeobser
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences:
 Ki
swahi
l
iisar
egi
onall
anguage.
 Myf
at saweal
heri thyper
son.

 Educat
i smypr
oni imar
ypr
ior
it
y.

Thewordsi
nit
ali
csi
ntheabov
esent
encesshow adj
ect
ivesof
qual
i
ty.
Ki
ndlycomposeapar agraphofnotmor
ethanf
if
tywor
dsanduse
al
ladj
ecti
vesofqual
i
tylistedabov
e.

i
i. Adj
ect
ivesofQuant
it
y
Anadj ect
iveofquant i
tyistheoneusedt otellaboutamountor
numberoft hi
ngs.Relevantquest
ionsare‘
howmanyorhowmuch.
Wor dssuchasli
ttl
e,many ,much,enough,
no,any,whol
e,some,al
l
,
great,hal
fandsuf f
icientareadject
ivesofquanti
ty.Lookatthe
fol
lowingexamples:

 Ther
eisl
i
ttl
ejui
cei
nthegl
ass.

 Myf
atherr
ecei
vedenoughmoney
.

Thewordsini
tal
i
csareexamplesofadject
ivesofquant
it
y.Composet
en
sent
encesusi
ngall
adject
ivesofquant
it
yli
stedabove.

i
ii
. Demonst
rat
iveAdj
ect
ives
Demonstr
ati
veadject
ivesar
eadj ect
ivesusedtopointoutwhich
per
son orthing we speak about.Examples ofdemonst
rat
ive
adj
ecti
vesincl
udethis,t
hat,these,t
hoseandsuch.Thegui
ding
quest
ionsare“
whichone;whichones?”Forex
ampl
e:
 Thi
s book i
s v
ery
i
nter
est
ing.

 Thatper
soni
ssi
ck.
 These pl
ant
s ar
e
gr
een.
 Thosepupi
l
sar
ecl
ever
.
i
v. I
nter
rogat
iveAdj
ect
ives
An int
err
ogati
ve adj
ecti
veis an adj
ecti
vet hati
s used t
o ask
questi
onrel
ati
ngtopossessi
on,pl
ace,
time,r
easonetc.

Wordssuchaswhat ,which,whose,whereandwhenareexampl
es
ofi
nter
rogat
iveadj
ecti
ves.Observethefol
lowi
ngexampl
es:
 Whosepl
acesdoy
ouwi
sht
o
v
isi
t?

 Wher
ebooki
sthi
s?

 Whendi
dyoubuyy
ourcar
?

 Whydoy
ouwantt
ogohome?
Thei
tal
i
cizedwor
dsi
nthesent
encesabov
ear
eexampl
es
ofi
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ives.

Composeapar agr
aphofonehundredwordsusi
ngdemonst
r at
ive
andi
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ivest
henunder
li
neeachoft
headj
ect
ive..

1.
1.2.
1.3VERBS
Dearlear
ner,thereareseveralacti
onst haty
oudof r
om thesunr i
se
tosunset .Forex ample;youwakeup,y oupray ,youdophy sical
exer
cisesorwashy ourbody ,yout akey ourbreakfastandsoon
unti
lyougot osleep.Ifyousay‘ Ipraybef oregoingt obed’or‘Ir
un
ever
ymor ning’,t
hewor ds‘pray’and‘ run’ar
eex ampl esofverbs.A
verbis a wor d used to express an act ion,state ofbeing or
possessi
on.
Forexampl
e:
 Iwenthome.
  Shei
spoor
.
 Ihav
eanewsal
ooncar
.
The words i
nit
ali
cs ar
ever
bs t
hatex
press act
ion,st
ate and
possess

Sub-
cat
egor
iesofVer
bs
Ver
bsar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosub-
cat
egor
iesasf
oll
ows;

i
. Regul
arv
erbs
Theseareverbswhi
chhaveallthefourfor
msofanEngli
shver
b.
Forexample,youcanuset hev er
b‘push’toseehow i
tsbase
changesi
tsformi
nrel
ati
ontotenses/t
imeasfol
lows;

 Theaddi
ti
onof‘
-
s’ont
hebase‘
push’
=pushes
 Theaddi
ti
onof‘
-i
ng’
ont
hebase‘
push’
=
pushi
ng
 Theaddi
ti
onof‘
-
ed’
ont
hebasepush=pushed
Themaj or
it
yofEngl
i
shwor
dsar
eregul
aral
thought
her
ear
eal
so
i
rregul
arver
bs.

i
i.I
rr
egul
arv
erbs
Doy our emembert hesituat
ionbackinschoolwhensomeofus
thoughtthatallEngli
shwor dsbearthe‘ -
ed’endingt oformthei
r
pasttense?Ofcoursewewer epart
lyr
ight,butthefactist
hatt
here
areexcepti
onsascer tai
nv er
bsdonotbeart he‘-ed’endi
ngtof
orm
thei
rpasttense.Thesearecalledi
rr
egularverbs.
I
rr
egul
arv erbsarel i
keregul
arverbsi nhavingthe‘-
s’and‘ -i
ng’
f
ormspr edi
ctabl
efrom t
hebasebutt heydiff
erfr
om regul
arv erbs
i
nthat,t
heydonothav ethepredi
ctable‘-
d’or‘-
ed’endi
ngs.Thi s
meansthattheverbdoesnotendin‘-ed’i
npastandpastpart
iciple.
Forexampl e,t
hev erb‘fi
nd’whichi
sani r
regularverbcanchange
i
nto‘found’insi
mpl epastandpastpart
ici
ple.Otherirr
egul
arv
erbs
i
ncludeverbsli
ke:eat,cat
ch,speak,
hear
,seeandt hink.
Dearlear
ner ,Ihopeyouhavebeenabl etolearnthedist
inct
ion
bet
ween r egul
arand ir
regul
arverbs.Forbetterunder
standi
ng,
pl
easeattemptthefol
l
owingacti
vi
ty:
Lear
ningact
ivi
ty
Identi
fyten r
egul
arand t
en ir
regularver
bs then constr
ucttwo
sentencesforeachver
b.Onesent enceforeachr egularver
bin
presenttenseandonesentencef oreachir
regularverbinpast
tense.

1.
1.2.
1.4 ADVERBS
Dearl
ear
ner
,Ihopeyouhaveenj
oyedl
ear
ningv
erbs.Now y
ouar
e
goi
ngtol
ear
ntheadv
erbs.

Anadverbi
sawor dwhichgi v
esinf
ormati
onaboutav er
b,an
adj
ect
iveoranot
heradverb.Lookattheexamplesbel
ow:
 Shewr i
tesquickly.
 Jamesi sverysad.
 Heexpl ai
nedt hepoem qui
tefai
rl
ywell
.

Thei tali
cizedwor dsar eexampl esofadv erbsbecauset heytell
mor eaboutav erb,adject
iveandot heradver
bs.I
nthef ir
stsent
ence,
thewor d‘quickly’explai
nshow‘ wri
ti
ngwasdone( speed)and‘very’
i
nt hesecondsent enceexplainstheintensi
tyofsadnesswhi l
ethe
wor d‘fai
rl
y ’i
nt het hi
rdsentenceexpl ai
nshow wellthepoem was
explai
ned.Ther efore,therelevantquesti
onsincl
ude‘ how’towhat
extentetc.

Ty
pesofadv
erbs
Dearlear
ner,adverbs,l
ikeot
herword cl
asses,arediv
ided i
nto
cat
egori
es.Engl
ishissaidtohav
ealmosteighttypesofadver
bs,
whichi
ncludet
hef ol
lowi
ng:

i
. Adv
erbofPl
ace
Adverbofpl
aceisanadverbwhichisusedt oshowwhereanact
ion
i
sdone.Adv erbsofplaceincl
ude;:here,ther
e,up,down,bel
ow,
above,away
,out,
in,
everywher
e,etc.Forexample;

nt
 Iwasbor her
e.
easecomeher
 Pl e.
 I
twasr
ai ngev
ni ery
wher
e.
i
i. Adv
erbofFr
equency
Anadv
erboff
requencyshowshowof
tenanact
ioni
sdone.

Adver
bsoffrequencyincl
udewordssuchasonce,t wice,of
ten,
never
,al
way
s,occasionall
y,agai
n,f
requent
ly,sel
dom andsome
ti
mes.

i
ii
. Adv
erbsofManner
I
tisanadv erbusedtoshow how anact ionisdone.Wordslike
qui
ckly,bravel
y,happil
y,hard,well,clearl
y,soundl
y,probably
,
possibl
y,evi
dentl
y,unf
ort
unatel
y,l
ucki
ly,andsadlyareadver
bsof
manner.Observethefoll
owingexamplesi nwhichadver
bsarei n
i
tal
ics:
 St
udent
sli
vef
ri
endl
yint
hehost
els.
 Boy
spl
ayf
oot
bal
lski
l
lful
l
y.

i
v. Adv
erbsoft
ime

Adverbsoftimeshowwhenanact i
onisdone.Wor dssuchas:dai
l
y,
l
ately
,already,never
,si
nce,justnow,y est
erday,and todayare
adverbsthatshow whenact
ionstakeplace.Lookatt hewordsin
i
tal
icsinthefoll
owi
ngexamplestohel
pyouunder standbett
er:
 Thet
eacheri
snoti
nthecl
ass
now.

 Shewi
l
l esoon.
beher
enev
 Ihav ert
ast
ed
beer
.
Now l
ookatthefoll
owi
ngex
ampl
est
oseehow adv
erbscanbe
usedi
nsent
ences.
 Theyquar
rel
wit
hvi
l
l sagai
ager n.
 ssomet
Pupi
l imesv
isi
tpat
ient
sin
hospi
tal
s.

 Theyal
way
svi
situsdur
ing
Chr
ist
mas.
Dear learner,I encour
age you to read var
ious sour ces of
i
nformationandfindoutther
emaini
ngtypesofadv er
bs, i
.
e.adverb
ofcertainty
,adverb ofdegr
ee,i
nterr
ogati
veadv erb and rel
ati
ve
adver
b.

Hopefull
yy ouenjoyedthi
ssecti
ononmaj orwor dcl
asseswher e
specif
ical
lyyou havelearntaboutnouns,v er
bs,adjecti
vesand
adverbs.Thenextsecti
onisaboutthemi norwor dclasses.These
ty
pesofwor dclassesareequall
yi mportantsincewi t
houtthem
phrasesandsentenceswouldnotconveycompl etemeaning.

Kindl
yt akeadeepbr eat
handbreakf orawhi
lebef
oreweproceed!I
knowt hatlearningaboutwordclassesissoenj
oyabl
ethaty
oumay
fi
ndyour selfstudyi
ngwithoutbr
eaking!

Ihopeyouarenowrelaxedandwemaypr oceedwi
ththenex
tpar
t.
Welcomeback!Thenextpar
tisaboutmi
norwordcl
asses.

1.
1.2.
2Mi
norEngl
ishWor
dCl
asses
Dearl
ear
ner,yousti
l
lrememberwhatwesai daboutt hemajorword
cl
assesortheopenclass.Wesaidthat
,theyar eclassest
owhi ch
new wor
dscanbeaddedasneedsar i
se.Unl i
ket hiscl
ass,the
minorwordclassesarecalledcl
osedclassesbecauset heyare
madeupoff i
nit
esetsofwordswhi
charenev erexpanded.

Forexample,wenev erinv
entnew preposi
ti
ons,det
erminer
sor
conj
unct
ions.Letusl
ookatthef
oll
owi
ngmi norwordcl
asses:

1.
1.2.
2.1 Det
ermi
ner
s
Dearl
ear
ner,det
ermi
ner
s,justli
ket
hewor
dit
sel
f,gi
veasi
gnalor
det
ermi
nethatanounwi
llf
ollow.
Pleaseuseoneoft hestudyl
i
nksl
ist
edundert
hesect
ionof“ st
udy
skil
ls”atthepr el
i
mi nar
ypagesofthi
smodul et
of ind outthe
meani ngofdet
erminers.
Deter
mi nersareofmanyt ypesincl
uding:ar
ti
cles,demonstrati
ves,
possessiveQuantif
ier
s,etc.Forthepurposeoft hi
scourse,arti
cles
asdet erminerswil
lbeext ensivel
yelaborat
ed.Youar et herefore
encouragedt ost
udyintensi
velyaboutothert
ypesofdeterminers.

Ar
ti
cles
Ar
ti
clesar
eimpor
tantsi
ncet
heymaket
henouncl
ear
er,t
ellus
whichpar t
icularitem arerefer
redt oandsomet i
meshel pust o
i
dentif
ywhet hersomet hi
ngi sspecifi
corgener al.Forex ample,
whenonesay s‘ agir
lisoutsi
de’thi
smeanst hatnooneknowst he
gir
l.Butifsomebodysay s‘t
hegirli
sout side’t
hismeanst hegirli
s
knownt oev eryone.I
nthoseexampl es,thearti
clesare;‘
a’and‘t
he’.
Otherart
icl
esar e‘
an’andthezeroarti
cle.

Ty
pesofAr
ti
clesi
nEngl
ishl
anguage
Pl
easestudyt
hefol
lowingtypesofar
ti
clest
hor
oughlysoast
ouset
hem
ef
fect
ivel
yint
heEngli
shlanguagecommunicat
ion.

a.TheDef
ini
teAr
ti
cle
Thedefini
teart
icl
eis‘the’
.Itiscall
eddef i
nit
ebecausei tli
mit
sthe
meaningofanount oonepar t
icul
arthing.Forexample,yourf
ri
end
mightask,‘
Areyougoingtot hepartythisweekend?’Theunder
li
ned
defi
nit
earti
cletel
lsyout haty ourfri
endi srefer
ri
ngt oaspecifi
c
part
ythatbothofyouknowabout .

Thedef i
nit
ear
ti
clei
susedinmanysituat
ions.Thefol
l
owingare
someoft hem,t
rytouset
heart
icl
e‘t
he’beforethenamesinthe
bracket
s:

 Poi
ntsont
hegl
obe(
theEquat
or,
theNor
thPol
e).

 Mount
ainr
anges(
theUdz
ungwaMount
ains,
the

Andes)
.

I
slandchai
ns(
thePaci
fi
cIsl
ands)
.

 Geogr
aphi
cal
areas(
theEast
,theMi
dwest
).

 Ri
ver
s,seas,
andoceans(
theMi
ssi
ssi
ppi
Riv
er,

t
heAt
lant
icOcean,
theNi
l
eRi
ver
).

Ont
heot
herhand,
thear
ti
cle‘
the’
isnotusedbef
oret
henamesof
:
  Cont
inent
s(Nor
thAmer
ica,
Asi
a,Af
ri
ca)
.

 St
ates(
Alabama,
Washi
ngt
on, ada)
Nev .
b.I
ndef
ini
teAr
ti
cles

Dearl
ear
ner
,pl
easet
ryt
hef
oll
owi
ngexer
ciseonar
ti
cles:

Choosethecor
rectarti
cleamong:
a,an,
theandx(
noar
ti
cle)t
o
complet
ethesentencesbelow;

i
. Ar
eyoucomi
ngt
o……par
tynextSat
urday
?

i
i
. Ibought
……newTVsety
est
erday
.

i
ii
. Ithi
nk……manov
ert
her
eisv
eryi
l
l.Hecan'
tst
and
onhi
sfeet
.

i
v. Iwat
ched….Vi
deoy
ouhadsentme.

v
. Shewaswear
ing….Ugl
ydr
esswhenshemethi
m.

v
i. Shei
s……ni
cegi
rl
.

vi
i
. Doy
ouwantt
ogot
o……r
est
aur
antwher
ewef
ir
st
met?

v
ii
i.Hei
s……engi
neer
.

i
x. Het
hinkst
hat
……l
ovei
swhatwi
l
lsav
eusal
l
.

x. Fr
ankf
ound……umbr
ell
aIwasl
ooki
ngf
or.

I
tismyhopet hat
,youwer
eabl
etodot
heabov
eex
erci
secor
rect
ly.
Congr
atul
ati
ons!

In addi
ti
on,the fol
lowing ext
ractwi
l
lhel
pyou st
rengt
hen y
our
knowledgeonindefi
nit
earti
cles:
Dearlear
ner,t
heindefi
nit
ear t
icletakestwoforms.I
tassume ‘ a’
for
m whenitprecedesawor dt hatbegi
nswithaconsonantsound
and‘an’for
m wheni tprecedesawor dthatbegi
nswithav owel
soundwithexcepti
onsofsomef ew wordssuchas‘hour’whose
pronunci
ati
onstar
tswi
thsound/a/
.Theindef
ini
tear
ticl
eindicat
es
thatanounref
erstoagener
ali
dearat
hert
hanaparti
culart
hing.
Forexample,youmi ghtaskyourfr
iend,‘ShouldIbri
ngagi f
ttot
he
part
y?’Yourfr
iendwi l
lunder
standthaty ouar enotaski
ngabouta
speci
fi
ct y
peofgi ftoraspecifi
citem.Thei ndef
ini
teart
icl
esonl
y
appearwithsi
ngularnouns.Forexampl e,‘Pl
easegivemeabook’ .
Thiswil
lmeananybook.
c.Zer
oAr
ti
cle
Occasionall
y,arti
clesareomi t
tedaltoget
herbeforecertai
nnouns.
I
nt hesecases,t hearti
cleisimpliedbutnotactuall
ypresent
.This
i
mpl i
edar t
icl
ei ssometimescalleda‘ z
eroart
icl
e.’Oft
en,theart
icl
e
i
somi t
tedbef orenounst hatrefertoabstr
actideas.Lookatt he
fol
l
owi ngexampl es:
 Let
’sgooutf
ordi
nnert
oni
ght(
notf
ora/
thedi
nner
).
 Cr
eat
ivi
tyisav
aluabl
equal
i
tyi
nchi
l
dren(
nota/
the
cr
eat
ivi
ty)
.
 IstudiedFr
enchi
nhi
ghschoolf
oroney
ear(
nota/
the
French).
 Mysist
erwasal
way
sgoodatMat
hemat
ics(
nott
he
Mat
hemati
cs)
.

1.
1.2.
2.2 PRONOUNS
Dearl earner,pr
onounsar ewor dswhichst andforanoun,awhole
nounphr aseorsev er
alwhol ephrases.Pronounsareamongstthe
buil
dingbl ocksofasent ence.Commonpr onounsarehe,she,you,
me,I ,we,us,t hi
s,them,that.Apr onouncanactorf uncti
onasa
subject,directobject,i
ndirectobjectetc.Observethef ol
lowi
ng
exampl es:
(
i)Repl
aci
nganoun
 Bri
annai udentandshewi
sast l
lsi
tfort
het
est
tomorr
ow.
 Ihav edcarandMagokehasgotabr
egotar ownone.

(
ii
)Repl
aci
nganounphr
ase
 Mybr
otherhasar
ri
ved.Hewi
l
lbeher
efort
woweeks
 Abi
gel
ephanti
smi ng.I
ssi twast
obesol
dtoChi
na.

Ty
pesofpr
onouns
 Therearesever
alt
ypesofpronounsincludi
ng;personal
,possessi
ve,
refl
exi
ve,demonstrat
ive,inter
rogati
ve,reciprocal and relat
ive
pronouns.Ki
ndl
ystudyall
typesofpronounsIntensiv
ely.
Thetabl
ebelow prov
idesexamplesofsomet y
pesofpronouns.
However
,youareencouragedtolear
nmor efr
om var
ioussources
soastogetathor
oughgraspofknowledgeonthi
spar
t.

Tabl
e1.Pr
onounsChar
t

Subject Object Possessiv

e Possessi
ve Reflexi
ve
Pronouns Pronouns Adject
ives Pronouns Pronouns
1stPerson I Me my mine my self
2ndPerson you You your yours yourself
rd
3 Per son he Him his his himself
(Male)
3rdPerson she Her her her
s her
sel
f
(Female)
rd
3 Per son i
t I
t i
ts - i
tself
1stPerson we Us our our
s oursel
ves
(Plur
al)
2ndPerson y
ou y
ou y
our y
our
s y
our
sel
ves
(Plur
al)
3rdPerson t
hey t
hem t
hei
r t
hei
rs t
hemsel
ves
(Plur
al)

Kindl
ynoticethediff
erencebetweenpossessi
veadj
ect
ivesand
possessi
vepronounsf
rom thet
ableabov
e.

1.
1.2.
2.3PREPOSI
TIONS
Dearl earner
,y ouar enow i ntroducedt oanew wor dcl asscalled
prepositi
on.Doy our emembert hosemoment si nschool swhen
Englishteachersusedt eachingandl earni
ngmat eri
alsli
kebal l
sor
fr
uits?Remember ,ateacherwoul dputabal lont hetableandask
studentst orepeataf terhim orher ;‘
Theballisont het abl
e!’or
woul dshiftandputi tundert het abl
eandaskst udentstosay‘ the
ballisunderthet able!
’Thiswast helessonon‘prepositi
ons’.I
nt he
gi
v enexampl es,‘on’and‘ under ’areexamplesofpr epositi
ons.The
l
essononpr epositi
onsi samongstar easmast eredwel lbymost
EnglishTeacher shencet hel essonsbecomev er yint
erestingand
enjoyabletobot hteachersandst udents.
Commonpr
eposi
ti
onsi
ncl
ude;abov
e,about
,acr
oss,
agai
nst
,al
ong,
amongst ,around,at ,befor
e,behi nd,below,beneath,besi de,
between,beyond,by,down,duri
ng,except,f
or,f
rom,in,i
nside,i
nto,
l
ike,near,of,
off
,on,since,
to,t
oward, t
hough,under
,unti
l,up,upon,
with,overandwit
hin.

Whati
sapr
eposi
ti
on?
Apreposit
ionis a wordt hatindi
cates t
he relati
onship bet
ween
anounandt heotherwor dsofasentence.Itexplai
nsr el
ati
onships
ofsequence,space,andl ogi
cbetweentheobj ectofthesent ence
andther estofthesent ence.Ithel
psusunder standorder,ti
me
connect
ions,andposit
ions.
Therearev ar
ioustypesofpreposi
tions;si
mpleprepositi
on,whichis
aone- wor
dpr eposi
tion.Forexample;away,at,by,f
or,from,in,i
nto
etc. A preposit
ioncanal sober eali
zedbyt wowor ds,andt hus
caledacompoundpr
l eposit
ionsuchas;accor di
ngt o,becauseof,
diff
erentf
rom, dueto,inst
eadofetc.
Dear l earner
,t he classi
fi
cations above are based on t he
constructi
on oft he preposi
tions t
hemselves.Apartfr
om t his,
prepositi
onsar ealsocategori
zedbasingont hei
rmeaningwher e
weget ,forexample;pr
eposit
ionsofti
me, pl
ace,movement,
etc.
Kindlystr
engt
henyourunder
standi
ngonpreposi
ti
onbycompl
eti
ng
thefollowi
ngsent
enceswi t
ht hecor
rectpr
eposi
ti
ongiv
eninthe
brackets.
(
about
,af
ter
,away
,at
,by
,for
,fr
om,
in,
int
o,of
f,on,
to,
wit
h)
i
. Iasked mynei
ghbourt
olook_
___
___
__mycat
tl
e
whenIwentt
oDodoma.
i
i
. All
booksar
eprov
ided_
___
__t
heschool
.Pupi
l
sdon'
t
havet
opay___
__them.

i
i
i. Themeet
ingi
s__
___Sept
ember15t
h__
___9a.
m.
i
v. Ifyou ar
ei nt
erested __
___
_wor
king ov
erseas,y
ou
shoul
dapply______thatj
ob.
v
. Arushaisabi
gci
ty,
buti
tisv
erydi
ff
erent_
___
___
_Dar
esSalaam.
v
i. Mysuper
visorgotangr
y__
___
_mewhenIar
ri
vedl
ate
__
___t
hesecondtime.
v
ii
. Iam notfami
li
ar__
____
_thismachi
ne. Coul
dyou
expl
ain_
___
__mehowitwor
ks?
v
ii
i. Shewr
otet
het
ext_
___
__Ki
swahi
l
i,t
hent
ransl
atedi
t
 _
___
__Engl
i
sh.
i
x. Hel
eftt
hehouse,
got_
___
__hi
scaranddr
ove_
___
__.
x. Duetobadweathercondi
ti
ons,t
hepl
anecoul
dnot
take_
___
____
___
__ti
me.
xi
. Shewasembarr
assed_
___
__t
hewaypeopl
ewer
e
st
ari
ng_
___
_her
.
xi
i
. Theyapol
ogi
zed_
___
__t
hehost_
___
__ar
ri
vi
ngl
ate.

1.
1.2.
2.4 Conj
unct
ions
Wel
comet
othi
ssect
ionaboutconj
unct
ions.
Dearl ear
ner,y
ouwillagreewithmet hat,oneoft heeasi
estwayt o
l
earni sbyknowingt hemeani ngofwor dsinthet ext
;thewor d
“conjunct
” means “ combined or j oi
ned t ogether
”. Hence,
conjuncti
onsarewor dsusedtoj oi
nwor ds,phr
asesandcl ausesto
show r el
ati
onshi
pbet weenthei deasint heclause.Exampl esof
conjuncti
onsarealt
hough,but,so,t
hat,andwho.
Conj
unct
ionsar
eoft
wot
ypes,
namel
y;

i
. Coor
dinat
ingConj
unct
ions
Thesear econjuncti
onsthatconnecti ndi
v i
dualwordsorgr oupsof
wordst hatperfor
mt hesamef uncti
oni nasent ence.Thismeans
theunitsthatarejoi
nedhavet hesamest atusi
nasent ence.These
coordinat
orsaresuchas;and,but ,for,nor,or,nei
ther
,eitheretc.
Please make sev eralsentences usi ng each oft he identi
fi
ed
conjuncti
ons.

i
i. Subor
dinat
ingConj
unct
ions
Asubordi
nati
ngconj
unct
ioni
ntr
oducesasubor
dinat
ecl
ausewhi
ch
cannotst
andbyi
tsel
fasacomplet
esent
ence.

Asubordinat
ingconj
uncti
onalsoconnectsasubordi
nat
eclauseto
anindependentcl
ausetof or
m acompl exsent
ence.Pl
easestudy
abouti
ndependentcl
auses?
Subor
dinat
orsar
egr
oupedi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies,
namel
y;

a.Si
mpl
eSubor
dinat
ors
Thesearesubordi
nator
sconsi
sti
ngofonewordsuchas;al
though,
si
nce,t
hat,
unless,unt
il
,whi
l
e,whereby
,whi
l
st,
etc.

b.Compl
exSubor
dinat
ors
Complexsubordinatorsconsistofmorethanonewor d.Ex
ampl es
ofsuch wor ds include;in ordert
hat,such that
,exceptt hat
,
assumingthat,
sot hat,asforas,asl
ongas,assoonas,solongas,
i
nsof oras,asif
,ast hough,et
c.

c.Cor
rel
ati
veSubor
dinat
ors
Corr
elati
vesubordinator
sareconj unct
ionsthatconsistoftwoor
more wor ds t
hatf uncti
on togetherand consistofpai rs.For
example;as…as,if…than,nosooner …t
han,eit
her…or,nei
ther…nor
,
notonly…butal
so,both…and,etc.
Dearlearner
,att heend ofthismodule,youar
eprovi
ded wi
th
sever
alrefer
encesonwor dclasses.Pl
easeuset
hem t
olookfor
det
ail
edinfor
mat i
onaboutconj
uncti
ons.
Youhav ecover
edthesecti
onaboutopenandt hecl
osedwor d
cl
asses.Cany
ouexplai
nthedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hetwoconcept
s?
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

1.1.
3Funct
ionsofWor
dCl
assesi
nEngl
ishLanguage
use
Inthissect i
on,y ouwillstudyaboutf unctionsofwor dclassesin
Englishlanguageuse.Dearl earner,ausef uldi st
inct
ioningrammar
i
st hatoff orm andf unction.Gr ammat i
calf ormi sconcernedwi t
h
thedescr i
pti
onofwor dcl assesint ermsofwhatt heyare(i.
e.nouns,
verbs,prepositi
ons,conjunct i
onset c.
),andgr ammat i
calfuncti
onis
concernedwi tht hedescriptionofwhatt hesewor dclassesdo/ t
he
rol
est hatdifferentconstituentsplayi nclausesorsent ences.For
exampl e;anounmayf unct i
oni nthesent enceasasubj ectoran
object.
Letusseegr ammati
calfunct
ionsofwordclasses.Consi
derthe
fol
lowing t
wo examples where nouns can occupy dif
fer
ent
funct
ionsi
nthesent
ence.

i
. Msechuki
l
ledt
hel
i
on.

i
i
.Thel
i
onki
l
ledMsechu.
I
nroman‘i’above,thenounMsechudoestheki
ll
ing,meani
ngiti
s
he Subj
t ect;wher eas i
nroman ‘i
i
’,t
he noun Msechu i
s ki
l
led,
meani
ngitistheObject
.
Pl
easeobser
vealso t
hefoll
owing exampl
esi
nthet
abl
e.Wor
d
cl
assesar
ebol
dedint
hefi
rstcol
umn:

Tabl
e2.Funct
ionsofWor
dCl
assesi
nEngl
i
shLanguageUse

Sentence WordClass Funct

ion
Upendolovesfl
owers Noun Subject
Heisti
red Pr
onoun Subject
Evalov
esli
nguisti
cs Noun Object
Iwantit Pr
onoun Object

Exer
cise
1.Prov
idemoreexamplesofotherwor
dcl
asseswhi
chf
unct
ion
asCompli
mentsofsent
ences.
1.
2Uni
tSummar
y
Dearlear ner,youhav ecomet otheendofuni tOnewhi ch
wasaboutanal y
sisofwor dclassesi nEngli
shLanguage.I n
thi
suni t,youhav elear
ntthemeani ngofsomekeywor dsi n
theuni t(wor d,wordclassandgr ammar ).Also,y
oul earnt
aboutt he meani ng ofmaj orand mi norwor d classes.
Addit
ional l
y,youhav el
earntaboutf unct
ionsofwordclasses
i
nEngl ishl anguageuse.Last l
y,ineachsubuni ttherear e
acti
vi
tieswhi chy ouhavedonet ot estyourunderst
andingof
theunit.

1.
3Uni
tAssi
gnment
Pleaserevi
seonmaj orandminorwor
dclassesinEngl
ish
andexplainhow eachwordcl
asspl
aysasigni
fi
cantr
olein
yourevery
dayli
fe.
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Uni
t2
2.
0Demonstrat
ingpr
operuseofTensesi
nEngl
i
sh
LanguageCommunicat
ion
2.
1Int
roduct
ion
Dearlear
ner,youar enowwel cometouni ttwooft
hemodulewhi ch
i
sabout‘ Demonst rat
ingproperuseoft ensesi
nEngli
shLanguage
communi cat
ion.’Inthisunit
,youwi l
llearnthemeaningoft ense,
i
dentif
yandanal ysetensesinEngli
shLanguageandlastl
ystudythe
funct
ionsoft ensesi nEngli
shlanguagecommuni cati
on.Youar e
welcome!

Lear
ningOut
comes
Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisuni
t,y
ouwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
2.
1.1 Defi
netheter
mtenseasusedi
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguage;
2.
1.2 I
denti
fyandanal
yset
ensesi
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguage;
and
2.
1.3 Expl
ainfunct
ionsoft
ensesi
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguageuse.

2.
1.1TheConceptofTensei
nEngl
ishLanguage
Thet er
m ‘ t
ense’i st r
aditi
onallyused t o mean t he waya v erb
changesi tsendi ngtoexpr esst heti
meoft heactiondenot edbyt he
verb.Tensei sbasi call
yat erm usedi ngrammart oindi cat ethe
ti
meoft heact ionorev ent,alsoinor dertoensur ethatsent ences
aregr ammat icallycor rect.Thatmeans,speaker s/wri
tersshoul d
obser vetensedi st
inctionandt husshow t het i
meatwhi cht he
actiontakespl acesoast oav oidmisunder st
anding.
Englishhasonl ytwot enses;thepr esentandthepastt ense.The
argumentt hatEngl i
shhasonl ytwot ensesisbasedont hef actthat
i
nt het wot ensest her ear echangeswhi charemadei nt hebase
form oft hev erb.Forex ampl e,whenwewantt osaywhatwedo
regularl
y,weusesi mpl epr esenttense.Thet enseusest hebase
form ofthev erbwhi chchangesonl yinthethir
dper son,i.
e.‘ Igot o
school
’
,‘Yougot
oschool
’
,‘Hegoest
oschool
’
.

Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

I
nthepastt ense,t
hetenseisfor
medbyaddi
ng‘-
ed’t
ot hebase
f
orm ofregularver
bs;forexampl
e,i
nthever
b‘t
ouch’
,‘Itouched
y
ourbook’.

Therearehowev
eri
rr
egul
arv
erbsi
nEngl
i
shwhi
chdonotf
oll
ow
thi
spatt
ern.

The two exampl es abov e show that,tense i

s deter
mined by
changesi nthebasef or
m oft hev er
b.Ifther
eisnochangeoft he
basef orm ofthe‘verb’thenitisnotr egar
dedastense.Theref
ore,
thereisnof uturet enseinEngl i
shLanguagebecauset her
ei sno
futur
et enseendingi nEnglishLanguage.Hence,Engl
ishLanguage
expressesfuturetimebyav ari
etyofothermeansli
keuseof‘wil
l’
.
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

2.
1.2I
dent
if
yingTensesi
nEngl
ishLanguage
Thev er
bsinEngl i
shlanguagecantel
ltimei nv ari
ousforms.We
haveseenprevi
ouslyt
hatt her
earet
wotensesi nEnglishLanguage.
Eachoft hetenseshasf ourfor
msorsub- divi
sionsi nrel
ati
onto
aspectwhichshow continuit
yorcompletenessofanact ionand
ti
mewhi char
e;

i
. I
ndefini
teorsi
mple
i
i
. Conti
nuousorprogressi
ve
i
i
i. Perf
ectorcompleteand
i
v. Perf
ectconti
nuous

2.
1.2.
1Pr
esentTense

Dearlearner
,thepresentt
enseexpr
esseseventsoracti
onsthatare
occurri
ng now,r el
ativ
et othe speakerort o act
ions t
hatar e
habit
uall
yper f
ormedandmaynotnecessar i
lybehappeningr i
ght
now.Thepr esenttensehasfourf or
msasshowni nthef i
gure
bel
ow;

Fi
g.1.For
msoft
hepr
esentt
ense

Thefol
l
owi
ngar
eexampl
esofdi
ff
erentf
ormsofpr
esentt
enseasshowni
n
fi
gur
eabov
e;

 Si
mpl
ePr
esentTense.Forexampl
e:Icook;
She/Hecooks.

 Pr
esentConti
nuousTense.Forexampl
e:Iam cooki
ng;
She/
Heiscooki
ng;Theyar
ecooking.

 PresentPer
fectTense.Forexampl
e:Ihav
ecooked;
She/He
hascooked.

 PresentPer
fectCont
inuousTense.Forexampl
e:Ihav
ebeen
cooking;
Theyhavebeencooking
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

2.
1.2.
2PastTense
Dearlearner,
pasttenser ef
erstoanacti
onorst
atewhi chhastaken
place i
nt he pastata def i
nit
et i
me wit
h a gap between its
completionandpr esentmoment .Thepasttenseal sohasf our
formslikeinpresenttense.Thefourfor
msofpasttenseareshown
i
nt hefi
gurebel ow;

Fi
g.2.For
msoft
hePastTense

Thefoll
owi
ngareexamplesofdi
ff
erentf
ormsoft
hepastt
enseas
descr
ibedi
nthefi
gureabove;

 Si
mpl
ePastTense.Forexampl
e:Icooked;
She/Hecooked.

 PastCont
inuousTense.Forexampl
e:Iwascooki
ng;
She/He
wascooki
ng; Theywer
ecooking.

 PastPerf
ectTense.Forexampl
e:Ihadcooked;
She/Hehad
cooked.

 PastPer
fectCont
inuousTense.Forexampl
e:Ihadbeen
cooki
ng;Theyhadbeencooking.

2.
1.2.
3Fut
ureTi
me
Thefutur
eti
meshowst hataneventhasnotyethappenedandi
tis
expect
edtohappeni
nthefutur
e,ormightnev
erhappen.

I
ti sexpr essed by;the si
mplef ut
ure,fut
ure cont
inuous,f
uture
perf
ect,andt hef ut
ureperfectconti
nuousassummar izedi
nt he
fi
gurebelow:
 Fi
g.3.Way
sofex
pressi
ngf
utur
eti
me

Dearlearner
,Ihopey ouhavebeenabl
etoseehowverbschangein
presentandpastt ense.Toassesswhethery
ouhaveunderstood
thelessonont enses,youareencour
agedtoatt
empttheexerci
se
provi
dedbelow;

Exer
cise

1.I
neachfor
m offut
ureti
megi venabov
e,const
ructatl
east
t
wosent
encest
hatappr
opri
atel
ymatchwit
hthem.

Thetablebelowsummari
zest
hemeaningandexampl
esf
oreach
tensecategory
.Pl
easest
udyi
tthor
oughl
y.

Tabl
e3.Meani
ngandexampl
eofEngl
i
shLanguaget
enses
Past Present Fut
ure
Si
mpl
e Anact iont hat Anact i
ont hati
s
endedi nt he habit
ual or
past . repeated.
Verb Paint ed Paints/Paint Willpaint
Example Hepai nt ed Shepai ntsever
y Shewi l
l paint
yester day . weekend. tomor r
ow.
Conti
nuous Anact iont hat Anact i
oni nthe Anact i
ont hatwill
washappeni ng processof happeni nthef ut
ure
whenanot her happeningnow. foralengt hoftime.
actionf inished.
Verb Was/ wer e Am/are/
is Wi
l
lbepai
nti
ng
painting pai
nti
ng
Example Iwaspai nting Sheispai
nti
ng Theywi l
lbepaint
ing
whenIsawt he now. wheny ouarri
ve
accident . tomorrow.
Perf
ect Anact iont hat Anactionthat Anactionthatwil
l
fi
nishedbef ore happenedatan fi
nishbeforeanot
her
anot heract i
on unsai
dt i
mei n acti
onort i
meinthe
ortimei nt he thepast. fut
ure.
past .
Verb Hadpai nted. Hav
e/has Wi
l
lhav
epai
nted
 pai
nted
Exampl
e Wehadpai nted Shehaspai
nted Hewill
havepaint
ed
thehouse manyhouses. theclassr
oom befor
e
beforetherai
n t
heteacherent
ers.
start
ed.
Perf
ect Anact i
onthat Anact i
onthat Anact i
onthat
Conti
nuous happenedov er happensov er happensov erti
mei
n
ti
mei nthepast ti
me, starti
ngin thefutur
ebef or
e
beforeanother thepastand anotheract
ion.
acti
on. continuinginto
thepr esent.
Ver
b Hadbeen Hav e/hasbeen Wil
lhavebeen
painti
ng painti
ng pai
nti
ng
Exampl
e Shehadbeen Ihav ebeen Wewillhavebeen
painti
ngfora painti
ng pai
nti
ngforseveral
whilewhenshe l andscapes hour
sbef or
ewecan
start
edclasses. sinceIst ar
ted seehowitlooks
school .
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

2.
1.3Funct
ionsofTenses
Dearl ear
ner, bynowy oushouldbeabletoexplainthefunctionsof
eacht enseinEngl i
shlanguagebasi
ngonmeani ngandexampl es
alr
eadygi ven.Bel ow aresomeoft hefunct
ionsofeacht enseas
extractedfrom t heabov etabl
e;andyouwi l
lr equir
edtogoi nto
detailbycitingmor eexamplesofthefuncti
onsofeachf orm of
tense.

Tabl
e4.Funct
ionsoft
ensesi
nEngl
i
shLanguage

Past Present Future

Functions Functions Functions
 Expr essesanact i
on  Expr essesan  Expr essesaplan
thatendedinthe actiont hatis foranact ioni
nthe
past.E.g.Hepainted habitual or future.
yesterday. repeat ed. E.g.Shewi l
lpai
nt
E.
g.Shepai nt
sev er
y tomorr ow.
weekend.
 Act ionthatwas  Act ioni nthe  Act iont hatwi ll
happeningwhen processof happeni nt he
anotheraction happeni ngnow. futuref oral ength
fi
nished. E.
g.Shei spainting oftime.
E.g.Iwaspai nt
ingwhen now. E.g.Theywi l
l be
Isawt heaccident. painti
ngwheny ou
arri
vet omor row.
 Act ionthatfinished  Act iont hat  Act iont hatwi ll
beforeanother happenedatan fi
nishbef ore
acti
onort i
mei nthe unsaidt imeinthe anot heract ionor
past. past. ti
mei nt hef utur
e.
E.
g.Wehadpai ntedt he E.g.Shehaspai nt
ed E. g.Hewi llhav e
housebef orether ain manyhouses. paintedt hecl assroom
star
ted. beforet het eacher
enters.
 Act ionthat  Act iont hat  Act iont hat
happenedov ertime happensov er happensov ert i
me
i
nt hepastbef ore ti
me, starti
ngin inthef utur ebefore
anotheraction.E.g. thepastand anot heract ion.
Shehadbeen continuinginto E.g.Wewi l
l hav ebeen
pai
nt i
ngforawhi le thepr esent. painti
ngf orsev eral
whenshest arted E.g.Ihav ebeen hoursbef orewecan
cl
asses. painti
ngl andscapes seehowi tlooks.
si
nceIst ar t
ed
school.
2.
2Uni
tSummar
y
Dearl eaner,youhav enow comet otheendofuni ttwo.In
thisunit,youhav ebeenabl etol earnthemeani ngoftense,
categoriesoftensesandt heirfuncti
ons.Also,youhavebeen
exposed t o dif
ferentexampl esofsent encesconstruct
ed
from diff
erenttenses.Hopefull
yy ouhav eenjoy
edtheunit.

2.
3Uni
tAssi
gnment
Afterlearni
ng t hi
s uniton ‘ demonst rati
ng properuse of
tensesincommuni cati
on’:
1. a)Make pr acti
ce on usi ng tensesappr opr
iat
elyby
writi
nganessayusi ngt hef ol
lowi ngsub-headi
ngs:
i. How y ou obt ained i nformation about t he
I
nsti
tuteofAdultEducat ion;
ii
. Howy ouappli
edf orstudi es;
ii
i. Wheny oucommencedy ourstudies;
iv. Howy ouproceedwi t
hst udies.
b)Under li
neeachoft het ensei ny ouressayandst ate
whet heriti
sinpresentorpastt ense.
 Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

Uni
t3

3.0WordFor
mat
ionPr
ocessesi
nEngl
ish
Language
3.
1Int
roduct
ion
Dearlearner
,youarenowwel comet ounitthreeofthemodul e,
whichisabout‘wordfor
mat i
oni ntheEngli
shl anguage’.I
nt hi
sunit,
youwi l
ll
earnthemeaningoft heterm“wordf ormation”,i
dentif
y
“t
ypesofwor dformati
on”and“ descri
bewor df or
mat i
onpr ocesses”
i
nEngl i
shlanguage.Youarewel come.

Lear
ningOut
comes
Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisuni
t,y
ouwi
l
lbeabl
eto:
3.
1.1 Expl
aint
hemeani
ngofwor
dfor
mat
ion;
3.1.
2 I
dent
if
yty
pesofwor
dfor
mat
ioni
nEngl
i
shl
anguage
and
3.
1.3 Descr
ibewor
dfor
mat
ionpr
ocessesi
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguage.

Dearlearner,f
orbet
terunderst
andi
ngofthi
suni t
,iti
simpor
tantf
or
yout ohav ebasicknowledgeaboutmorphologyandmor phemes
beforelearni
ngthemeaningofwordfor
mat i
onandwor dformati
on
processes.

Whati
sMor
phol
ogy
?
Et
ymologi
call
y,t
heword‘morphol
ogy’hasbeenderi
v edfr
om Greek
word;‘
morphormorphos’whichmeans‘shapeorform’.Ther
efore,
morphol
ogymaybedefinedasthest
udyoff or
m orforms.
I
nl i
ngui
sti
cs‘
morphology’ref
erstot hebr
anchoflingui
sti
cst
hat
deal
swithwor
ds,
theirint
ernalst
ruct
ureandhowtheyarefor
med.

Whati
saMor
pheme?
Amor phemei sthesmallestpartofawor dthathasgr ammat i
cal
f
unctionandmeani ng.Forexampl e,inthewor d‘ r
econsi der
ati
on’
t
herear ethr
eemor phemes;re-
,consider
,-at
ion.Li kewise,thewor d
‘
buyers’ismadeupoft hr
eemor phemes‘ buy’,‘er
- ’and‘ s’
- .Noneof
t
helistedmor phemecanbef ur
therdivi
dedi ntomeani ngfuluni
ts.
Morphemest hathaveto beat tached t
o ot heruni t
sar ecall
ed
boundmor phemes.
Morphemes t hatcan st and alone as wor ds ar
e caled f
l r
ee
morphemes.Fr eemor phemesmaybel exicalasin‘serv
e’and
pr
‘ ess’orgrammaticalasin‘and’
and‘ at
’.
Dearlear
ner,Morphemescanbegr oupedint
ot wolar
gegroupsof
fr
eeandboundmor phemesasdescr ibedbelow;

Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

i
. Fr
ee/
Independentmor
phemes
Freemorphemesaremorphemesthatcanoccural
oneaswords
andhavemeaningorf
ulf
ilagrammaticalf
unct
ione.gman,
and,
run,but
,book,
etc.

Ty
pesoff
reemor
phemes
(
a) Lexi
cal
/Cont
ent
/Ref
erent
ialmor
phemes
Thesearef reemor phemest hathav esemant i
ccont ent/meaning.
Theyusuallyr ef
ertoat hing,qualit
y ,st
ateoract i
on.Theyi ncl
ude;
nouns,verbs,adjecti
ves,andadv erbs.E.g.stay,buil
d,dog,Patri
ck,
happy,i
ntell
igent,qui
ckly,al
way s,etc.Lexicalmorphemesf ormt he
open cl
assofwor dsi nal anguage( t
heycan i ncorpor
ate new
member sint hem).
(
b) Funct
ional
/gr
ammat
icalmor
phemes
Grammat icalmor phemesar efreemor phemeswhi chhav e
l
ittl
e or no meani ng on t heir own,but whi ch show
grammat i
cal rel
ati
onshipinandbet weensent ences.Theyare
represent
ed by pr eposi
tions, conj uncti
ons, ar ti
cles,
demonst r
atives,auxi
li
aryverbs(helpingverbs),
andpr onouns.
Forexampl e;wi t
h,the,thi
s,but ,can,me,who,be,do,hav e
etc.
i
i. Bound/
Dependentmor
phemes
Boundmor phemesar emor phemeswhichneveroccuraloneas
wordsbutaspartsofwords;afreemor
phememustbeat tachedt
o
anothermorpheme( usual
l
yaf reemorpheme)i
nor dertohave
di
sti
nctmeaning.
E.g.‘-
er’i
nwor ker,‘-
er’i
ntal
ler
,‘-
s’i
nwalks,‘
-
ed’inpassed,
‘r
e-’i
n
reappear,‘un-’in unhappy
/undo,‘-
ness’i
nr eadi
ness,‘
-abl
e’in
adjustabl
e,etc.
Ty
pesofboundmor
phemes
(
a) Der
ivat
ional
aff
ixes
Thesecreate/deri
venew wor
ds,usual
l
ybyeitherchangingthe
meaningand/orthepar
tofspeechorbothoft
hewor dstheyare
at
tachedto.
(
i) Suf fi
xes

Tabl
e5.Noun-
for
mingsuf
fi
xes
S/ V + - = N
N
1. Assi
st + -
ance = assi
stance
2. Assi
st + -
ant = assi
stant
3. conf
ess + -
ion = conf
ession
4. employ + -
ee = employee

Tabl
e6.Adj
ect
ive-
for
mingsuf
fi
xes

S/ V + - = Adj
.
N
1. Eat + -
abl
e = eatable
2. Act + -
ve = acti
ve
3. compul
se + -
ory = compul sor
y
4. di
ff
er + -
ent = dif
ferent

(
ii
) Pr
efi
xes
Tabl
e7.Ver
b-f
ormi
ngpr
efi
xes

S/ - + N = V
N
1. be- + fr
iend = befr
iend
2. en- + danger = endanger
3. em- + power = empower

(
b) I
nfl
ect
ionalaf
fi
xes
Infl
ecti
onalmor phemes ar e morphemes whi ch ser v
e a pur ely
grammat icalf unct ion,such as r eferri
ng t o and gi vi
ng ex tr
a
l
inguisti
cinformat ionaboutt healreadyexistingmeani ngofawor d
(e.
g.,number ,per son,gender ,case,et c.),expressing sy ntacti
c
rel
ations between wor ds (e.g.possession,compar ison),among
others.Forinstance,t hedi ff
erentformsoft hev erbspeakar eal l
consideredtobev er bst oo,namely,speak,spoken,speaki ng.Ina
l
ikemanner ,
thecompar ati
veandsuper lati
vef or
msoft headj ectiv
e
strongar ealsoadj ecti
v es,namely,stronger,strongest.InEngl ish,
thereareonlyei ghti nfl
ect i
ons.
 Pl
ural Noun + ‘
-
s’=boy
s
 Possessi
ve Noun + ‘
-
s’=boy
’s
 Compar
ati
ve Adj + ‘
-
est
’=ol
dest
 Pr
esent Ver
b + ‘
-
s’=wal
ks
 Past Ver
b + ‘
-
ed’
=wal
ked
 Pastparti
cipl
e Verb+ ‘
-
en’
=dri
ven
 Presentparti
cipl
e Ver
b + ‘
-
ing’
=dr
ivi
ng

Dearl
earner
,Ihopeyouarenow knowl
edgeableaboutt
heter
m
‘
morphol
ogy’andmoredeepl
yabouta‘ morpheme’
.Now,letus
st
udythewordfor
mat
ion.
3.
1.1Wor
dFor
mat
ion
Dearlearner
,hav eyoueveraskedy
our
sel
fwhyar
enew wor
ds
neededinthelanguage?
Perhaps itis par t
ly because ofnew i nventi
ons and changes
occurri
nginoursoci eti
es;everylanguagei sinneedofnewwor ds;
borrowed,derivedorformedot herwise.Thisissimplybecausethe
i
nv enti
onofnewt hi
ngsneednewwor ds.Thehumancommuni t
yi s
steadil
y growing and dev el
oping,justas t he toolwe use t o
communi cate:Language.Whennewi nventi
onsandchangesent er
ourl i
ves,wear eintheneedofnami ngt hem andofcour set o
communi cate aboutt hem.Language i st heref
ore,dynamicand
changesconst antl
y.
Dearlear
ner,fr
om t he above expl
anati
on,wordf ormati
on may
meancreati
onofnewwor dsi
nt helanguage.Pl
ease,pr
ovideal
so
yourowndefi
nit
ion.

3.
1.2Wor
dFor
mat
ionPr
ocesses
Dearlearner
,av ari
etyofwaysareusedtocr eat
enewwords.Below,
youhav ebeenpr ovi
dedwithsomeofwor dformat
ionpr
ocessesin
Engl
ishlanguage;theyhavebeenill
ustr
atedandex ampl
esfortheir
usehav ebeengivenforeaseofunderst
anding.
Wordformat
ionpr
ocessescangener
all
ybegr
oupedi
ntot
womaj
or
cat
egori
es;
i
. Maj
orwor
dfor
mat
ionpr
ocesses
Ref
ert o al
lwordf or
ming processes t
hatf
orm word
cl
asseswhichoccurfr
equentl
yint heuseoft
heEngl
ish
l
anguagecommunicati
on.
i
i
. Mi
norwor
dfor
mat
ionpr
ocesses
Ref
ertoallwordf or
mat i
onprocessest
hatfor
m word
cl
asses whi
ch occur less f
requent
lyi
nt he Engl
i
sh
l
anguagecommunicat
ion.

3.
1.2.
1COI
NAGE
Refer
stoinvent
ionoftot
all
ynewwor dsinalanguageasar esul
tof
commer ci
alandtechnol
ogicaladvancementsandi nnov at
ions.For
example,i
nvent
ionofnew wor dsforcommer cialproductshasl ed
tosuchtermsasGoogle,Aspir
in,Vasel
ine,
Kleenexet c.

3.
1.2.
2BORROWI
NG
Bor
rowingi
nvolv
escopy i
ngawor dthatori
ginal
l
ybelongedtoone
l
anguage i
nto another l
anguage.Speaker s of t
he borrowi
ng
l
anguage mustl ear
n atleastsome mi nimum oft he sour
ce
l
anguageforthebor r
owingt otakeplace.Engli
shlanguagehas
bor
rowedfr
om hundredsoflanguages,i
ncl
udingthef
oll
owing:
 eek-chor
Gr us
  Fr
ench-mut
ton
 Spani
sh-r
anch
 Ger
man-semest
er
 Swahi
l
i–saf
ari
,panga
Otherborrowedwor dsinclude;croissant(Fr ench),dope( Dutch)
,
pi
ano( It
ali
an),sofa( Ar
abic),ty
coon( Japanese),y ogur
t( Turki
sh)
,
and zebra(Bantu).Thebor r
owedwor dnev err emainsaper f
ect
copyofitsori
ginal
.Itismadet ofitthephonol ogical
, morphologi
cal
,
andsyntacti
cpatternsofit
snewl anguage.
Ont heot herhand,ot herlanguagesalso borrowedwor dsfr
om
Engli
sh languageasi n Arabi
cuse ofEngl i
sh borr
owed words;
tel
evi
sion, r adio, and super market, Japanese use of
suupaamaaket t
o (supermarket
), t ai
purai
taa ( t
ypewr
it
er),
Hungariansuseofspor t,kl
ub,andfut
bal.Frenchalso,
useofdur
ing
l
eweekend, l
estress,
etc.

3.
1.2.
3COMPOUNDI
NG
Compoundi ngi saprocessofformingnew wor dsbyjoiningmor e
thanonewor dswherebyt henew wordholdsadi f
ferentmeani ng
from thepreviousmeaningofthejoinedwords.Wisni
cwski( 2007)
definescompoundi ngasapr ocessofput ti
ngwor dst ogetherto
buil
danewonet hat'
'
doesnotdenotet wot
hings,butone''andthat
i
s' '
pronouncedasoneuni t
'
Engli
shcompoundsi nvolvecombi nati
onofsamewor dsi
none
cl
assorf r
om diff
erentclasses.Forexample:teapot,
mosqui
tonet
,
softdri
nk,seat
belt
,writ
ingpad, skydr
ive,wat
erproof
,etc.
Compoundi
ngi sverycommoninGermanandi nEngl
i
shbutl
ess
commoninlanguagessuchasFr
enchandSpani
sh.

3.
1.2.
4BLENDI
NG
Dearlearner
,blendinginvolv
est akingt woormor ewor
ds,r
emov i
ng
partsofeach,andj oini
ngt her esiduest ogethert
ocreat
eanew
wordwhosef orm andmeani ngar et akenf r
om thesour
cewor ds.
Blendi
ngi stypical
lyaccompl i
shedbyt aki
ngonl yt
hebeginni
ngof
onewor dandj oini
ngittotheendoft heot herword.
Forexampl
e;
 Smog der ivesf om smokeand f
r og whi chmeansa
combi nationoft hesetwosubstances.
 mot elder iv
esf rom motorandhot elwhichref
ersto
hotelst hat ar e convenient i
nv ar
ious wayst o
mot ori
sts.
 prevacidder ivesfrom pr
eventandacid.
 eracism der i
vesf om er
r aseandracism whichmeans
eraseraci sm.
  webi narderivesf om webandsemi
r nar.
Ot
herexamplesincludet hef oll
owi ng:
 bitresultedf r
om t hewor dbi naryanddi gi
t
 brunchr esult
edf rom thewor dsbreakfastandlunch
 telecast r esulted f rom t he wor ds televi
sion and
broadcast
 infotainmentr esul t
edf rom t hewor ds;
i
nfor mationandent ertai
nment
 simul castresultedf rom t hewor ds
si
mul taneousandbr eakfast
 Spangl ishresultedf rom t hewor dsSpani shandEnglish

Dearlearner,sinceyounowar efami
li
arwit
hbl
endingpr ocess,you
are encouraged t o enri
ch yourknowl
edge by vi
sit
ing v ar
ious
educati
onallinksont hesubj
ect.

3.
1.2.
5CLI
PPI
NG
Dearlear
ner,welcomet ol ear
n f or
mati
on ofnew wor dsfrom
cl
ippi
ng.Ihopey ouhav ecomeacr ossusesofsomecommon
wordssuchas“gas”,“
exam” ,et
c.Haveyoueverr
eal
isedthatt
hese
wordswerenoti
nt hei
rful
lforms?Letusmovetoget
her!
Cli
ppingisawor dformati
onprocesswherebyawor dofmorethan
onesy l
l
ablei sreduced to ashorterf
orm.I n addi
ti
on,cl
i
pping
focusesonr educingonepartofawor dasar esul
tofhavi
nganew
wordwhi chisshor t
erthantheprevi
ousone.Thisisal
soknownas
shorteni
ngs.Itconsist
soffourty
pesasfoll
ows;
i
. Back cl
ippi
ng: For example, t
he word ‘memo’ f
rom
memorandum;gymfrom gymnasti
c/gy
mnasi
um
i
i
.Fore-
cli
ppi
ng:Forexampl
e,t
hewor
d‘phone’f
rom t
elephone,
v
arsi
tyf
rom uni
ver
sit
y
i
i
i.Middl
ecl
ippi
ng:Forex
ampl
e,t
hewor
d‘f
lue’f
rom i
nfl
uenza,
Tecfr
om det
ect
ive
i
v.Compl
exclippi
ng:Forexample,the wor
d‘or
g-man’f
rom
or
gani
zat
ionman,opartf
rom opt
ical
art
Dearl
earner,
otherexamplescanbe,‘
fax
’fr
om f acsimil
e,‘
gas’
from
gasol
i
ne,‘ad’f
rom adver
ti
sement,‘
l
ab’fr
om laboratory
,‘ex
am’from
examinat
ion.

3.
1.2.
6BACKFORMATI
ON
Dearlearner
,backf
or mat
ionpr ocessinvolves r
educti
onpr ocess
wherebytypi
cal
l
yawor dofonet ype(usuall
yanoun)isr educedto
for
m awor dofanothertype(usuall
yav erb)
.Thef ol
l
owingar ethe
examplesofnewwor dscreat
edbyr educti
onprocess;
NOUN-VERB
 edi
tor-edi
t
 t
elev
isi
on-t
elev
ise
  donat
ion–donat
e
 emot
ion-emot
e
 opt
ion-opt
 wor
ker-wor
k
Dearlearner
,notethatbackformat
ion pr
ocess al
way
sinvol
ves
reduct
ionorinot
herwordstheremustbechangingoft
hefor
m of
theword.

3.
1.2.
7CONVERSI
ON/
CATEGORYCHANGE/FUNCTI
ONALSHI
FT
Alwaysremembert hat,assigninganal readyexist
ingwor dtoanew
syntact
ic category/a change i ni tsf uncti
on to anot herwor d
categoryiscalledfunctionalshift.Itisanobv iouspr acti
cei nour
dail
ycommuni cati
oninusi ngEngl ishlanguage.Forexampl e,when
anouncomest obeusedasav erb(wi t
houtanyr educti
on)l i
kein
‘
Jumachai rthemeet ing’.Thewor d‘chair
’isanounbuti nthat
sentence it has been assi gned anot her word cat egoryt hus
automatical
lyitchangesi t
sf uncti
ont oav erb.
Dearlear
ner,in or
derto underst
and wel
lthisconcept
,obser
ve
examples bel
ow on how wor ds change t
hei
rcategoryinthe
sent
ences:

 chai
r(N)
-somebodyhast
ochai
rameet
ing(
V)
 but
ter(
N)-t
obut
tert
hebr
ead(
V)
 per
mit(
V)-anent
ryper
mit
(N)

 must(
v)–amust(
asi
n-doi
ngt
hehomewor
k
i
sa must(
N)
 empt
y(A)-t
oempt
ythel
i
tter
-bi
n(V)

Obser
vemor
eexampl
esbel
ow:
i
) Verbs becomi guess,and spy
ng nouns ( )become
nounsasin‘ cesofaguess’
sour ,aspy
‘ ’.
i
i
) Phrasalv
erbs( t
o pri
ntout,tot
akeov
er)become
nouns(apri
ntout
,atakeov
er)
.
i
i
i) Ver
bs(seet hr
ough,st
andup)becomeadj
ecti
ves,as
nsee-
i throughmateri
alorast
and-
upcomedi
an.
i
v) Adjecti
vesasi nadi r
tyf l
oor,anempt yr
oom,some
crazyideas,andthosenast ypeopl
ecanbecomethe
verbs;todir
ty,t
oempt y,orthenouns;acr
azyandt
he
nasty

3.
1.2.
8ACRONYMS
Dearl earner
,acr onymsar e new wordsf or
med f r
om t he i
nit
ial
l
ettersofasetofot herwords.Thepronunciat
ionconsist
sofsay i
ng
eachl ett
ersepar atelyasi nCD ( CompactDi sc)
,orVCR ( Video
CassetteRecor der)orpronouncedassinglenewwor ds,asinNASA
(Nati
onalAer onauticsandSpaceAgency ),UNI CEF(Unit
edNations
Int
ernati
onalChi l
dren’sEmer gencyFund)
,UNESCO( Unit
edNations
 Educati
onal
,Scienti
fi
c,and Cul
tur
alOr
gani
zat
ion)
,radar(
radi
o
detect
ingandr
anging).
Pl
easeobser
veot
herexampl
esgi
venbel
ow:
 a.
k.a→ al
soknownas
 ht
ml→ hy
per
tex
tmar
k-upl
anguage
 www→wor
ldwi
deweb
 ATM→Aut
omat
icTel
l
erMachi
ne
 FAQ→ Fr
equent
lyAskedQuest
ions

3.
1.2.
9DERI
VATI
ON
Dearlearner,deri
vati
on,isthe mostcommon wor dformat
ion
pr
ocesswher ebynew wor dsar
eformedbyaddi ngmorphemesto
st
ems.These mor phemes are added tot he tar
getstem by
af
fixat
ion,t
hroughprefi
xesandsuf
fi
xes(Yul
e,2006).
Whi l
epr ef
ixeslikeun-ordi s-usuall
ydonotchanget helexical
categoryofawor d,suff
ixes,suchas- nessor- at
ion,usual
lydo.
Takingtheexampl eshappy→ unhappyandhappy→ happi ness,it
i
sobv i
oust hatbecauseoft hesuffx-
i nesst helexi
calcategoryof
happyhaschanged.Themeani ngisalway ssl
ight
lychanged,butin
awayt hatthef i
nalwordi
sst il
lcl
osel
yr elat
edtothef or
merwor d.
Ther
eareofcour semor epref
ixesandsuff
ixes,eachindi
cati
ng
anot
heraspectofchangemadetothemeani
ngoft heor
igi
nalword,
e.
g.

Tabl
e8.Der
ivat
ional
Mor
phemes

S/
N Prefi
x Meaning Exampl e
1. di
s-,
un-,
ant
i-
,(de-
) opposi
te,
negat
ive disr
espect , unst eady,
anti
bi otic
2. ex- out,upwar d,prevous excl
i ude, expand
3. a- without,not atheist
4. re- again,repeatedly Replay ,redo
5. non- absence, negation non-smoker
S/N SUFFIXES MEANI NG EXAMPLE
1 -er
,-or
,-ar createsanagentnoun Desi gner ,act or( – one
whodesi gns/ acts)
2 -
ati
on,
-ment verb-t
o-noun hesitat i
on,treatment
deriv
ation
3 -
less l
ackof mer ciless
4 -
ize,
-at
e createsv er
bs terr
or i
ze, hyphenat e
5 -
al,-
abl
e,-
ary
,-f
ul createsadjectives accident al,
bel i
evable,
i
magi nary,peacef ul

3.
1.2.
10MULTI
PLEPROCESSES
Dearl
ear
ner
,ther
earesomewor dswhosef
ormat
ioni
nvol
vesmore
thanonepr
ocess.Theref
ore,whenmorethanoneprocesshas
 beeninvol
vedinthef
ormat
ionofnewwor
ds,t
hepr
ocessi
scal
l
ed
mult
iplepr
ocess.
Obser
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngex
ampl
es:

Tabl
e9.Mul
ti
plePr
ocess

S Wor
d Pr
ocess Newwor
d
N
1. Snow+ba Compoundi
n Snowbal
l
l
l g (N)
2. Snowbal
l Conv
ersi
on Snowbal
l
e
(N) d(V)

Another example of mul

ti
ple pr
ocesses i
s expl
ained i
nthe
descri
pti
onbelow;
Amer ican Engl i
sh expressi del
on ‘ i’was borrowed f
rom German
word‘ deli
catessen’the wor d‘delicat went cl
essen’under i
pping
processasar esul
tthewor d‘del
icate’inEngl
ishwasf or
med.Itis
obvioust hat,
itispossibl
et ousemul ti
plepr
ocessesi
nf or
mingnew
wordsi nEnglishlanguage.
Thus,youar
eal soencouragedtolookforotherwor
dst
hatar
e
i
nvolv
edinmult
ipl
eprocessesinEngl
i
shLanguage.

Basi
csofEngl
ishGr
ammar

3.
2Uni
tSummar
y
Dearl
eaner,youhav enowcomet ot heendofunitthree.In
thi
sunit
,youhav ebeenabl etolearnthemeani ngof‘wor d
for
mati
on’,i
dentif
ytypesofwor df ormati
on’and‘described
wordformationprocesses’inEnglishlanguage.Hopefully
,
youhaveenjoyedtheunit
.

3.
3Uni
tAssi
gnment
Aft
erstudyi
ngthi
sunit
,‘anal
ysi
ngwordfor
mat
ioni
nEngl
i
sh
l
anguage’at
temptthef
ol l
owi
ngquest
ions:

1.Menti
onthewordf
ormati
onprocessi
nvol
vedi
neach
oft
hegiv
enwordsi
ntheboxbel
ow;

I
rr
egular
,unpack,showr
oom,phone,pub,mot
el,
I
nter
pol,

TB,
saf
ari
,USA

2.Changet
hewor
dsgi
veni
ntheboxbel
owi
ntoanounor
ver
b

Decol
oni
ze,
account
,empl
oy,
dismi
ss,
dir
ect
,cool
,

donat
e,secur
e,l
ead

3.Useaffixat
ionmethodtofor
mf iv
ewordswit
hpref
ix,
fi
vewithsuf f
ixandtheot
herfi
vewit
hbothpr
efi
xand
suff
ix.
Ref
erenc
es

Ref
erences
Cr
yst
al,
D.( .TheCambr
2003) idgeEncy
clopedi
aoft
heEngl
i
shLanguage,
2nd

ed .Cambr
idge Uni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

Aar
tsB.etal
,
.( .TheOxf
2014) ordDi
cti
onar
yofEngl
i
shGr
ammar
,2nded.

Oxf
ord Uni
ver
sit
y Pr
ess.

Kol
l
nM.andFunkR.( .Under
1998) standi
ngEngl
i
shGr
ammar
.Al
l
ynand

Bacon.

Gr
eenbaum S.( .Oxf
1996) ordEngl
i
shGr
ammar
.Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

Gr
eenbaum S.andNel
sonG.( .AnI
2009) ntr
oduct
iont
oEngl
i
shGr
ammar
,3r
d

ed.Pear
son,
Bör
jar
sK.andBur
ri
dgeK.( .I
2010) nt
roduci
ngEngl
i
shGr
ammar
,

2nded. Hodder
.

Pi
nkerS.( .TheSt
2007) uffofThought
:LanguageasaWi
ndowI
ntoHuman

Nat
ure. Vi
ki
ng.

Ter
riL.(
1998)
."L2Acqui
sit
ionofEngl
i
shBi
ndi
ngDomai "Mor
ns. phol
ogyand

I
ts I
nter
facesi
nSecondLanguageKnowl
edge,
ed.byMar
ia-
Lui
se

Beck. JohnBenj
ami
ns.

ht
tps:
//key
dif
fer
ences.
com/
dif
fer
ence-
bet
ween-
for
mal
-and-
inf
ormal
-

wr
it
ing.
html
,Ret
ri
evedon13thApr
il
,2020at12:
30pm.

ht
tps:
//www.
easy
pacel
ear
ning.
com/
all
-l
essons/
grammar
/758-
tenses-
tabl
e-

engl
i
sh-
grammar
-l
ear
ning-
engl
i
sh,
Ret
ri
evedon13thApr
il
,2020at19:
40pm.

ht
tps:
//st
udy
.com/
academy
/lesson/
teachi
ng-
semant
ics-
to-
engl
i
sh-
language-

l
ear
ner
s.ht
ml,
Ret
ri
evedon14th,
Apr
il
,2020at13:
30pm.
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nstit
uteofAdult
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nfo@iae.ac.t
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