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5.0 INTRODUCTION
⮚ Structure of ATP
i. Chemically, ATP is an adenine nucleotide bound to three phosphates.
ii. There is a lot of energy stored in the bond between the second and third
phosphate groups that can be used to fuel chemical reactions.
iii. When a cell needs energy, it breaks this bond to form adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) and a free phosphate molecule.
iv. In some instances, the second phosphate group can also be broken to form
adenosine monophosphate(AMP).
v. When the cell has excess energy, it stores this energy by forming ATP from ADP
and phosphate.
vi. ATP is required for the biochemical reactions involved in any muscle contraction.
As the work of the muscle increases, more and more ATP gets consumed and must
be replaced in order for the muscle to keep moving.
C) TERMINOLOGIES
1 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
LEO say GERRRRR
LEO: Loss Electron Oxidation
GER: Gain Electron Reduction
Oxidize- to LOSE ELECTRONS and LOSE
HYDROGEN
Reduce – to GAIN ELECTRONS an GAIN
HYDROGEN
Example:
2) ELECTRON CARRIER
- Molecules that is capable of accepting one or two electrons from one molecule
and donating them to another in the process of electron transport.
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
- As the electrons are transferred from one electron carrier to another, their
energy level decreased, and energy is released.
- Two important electron carriers, a type of coenzyme:
i) NAD+ : Nicotinamide adenine diphosphate
ii) FAD : flavin adenine dinucleotide
NAD+ + 2e- + 2 H+ NADH + H+
FAD + 2e- + 2 H+ FADH2
5) DECARBOXYLATION
⮚ A reaction in which a molecule of CO2
is removed from a carboxyl group of an
organic acid.
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
5.1. 1 GLYCOLYSIS
Stages in Glycolysis
⮚ Consists of ten steps
STEP 2: ISOMERIZATION
• Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged to
convert it to its isomer,
fructose-6-phosphate.
• Isomerization is to stabilize the
structure
STEP 3:PHOSPHORYLATION
• Another ATP transfer a phosphate
group to fructose-6-phosphate
• fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated
forming fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
• catalyzed by enzyme
phosphofructokinase
• Phosphate groups are now bound at
carbon no.1 and no.6 and molecules is
ready to be split.
STEP 4: LYSIS/CLEAVAGE
● Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is then split
into two 3-carbon sugars :
i. i) Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P)
ii. ii) Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) * Both are isomer
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
STEP 5: ISOMERIZATION
• Dihydroxyacetone phosphate(DHAP) is
rearrange to its isomer,
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) for
further metabolism in glycolysis.
• 2 molecules of G3P are produced.
**Next enzyme in glycolysis uses only G3P as its
substrate.
**Step 6 onward : x2 (because the production of
2 G3P in step 5)
STEP 6: OXIDATION &PHOSPHORYLATION
• Each glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (G3P) is
oxidized by the transfer of electrons and
hydrogen atom to NAD+.
• forming NADH + H+ (NAD+ is reduced to
NADH + H+ : redox reaction)
• The product is phosphorylated, which
reacts with inorganic phosphate (Pi) (from
cytosol) to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
Number Step
No. of ATP used 2 Step 1 & 3: Phosphorylation
Production of NADH + H + 2 Step 6: Oxidation & phosphorylation
Production of ATP 4 Step 7 & 10 (2 for each): Substrate level
phosphorylation
Production of pyruvate 2 Step 10
NET ATP PRODUCED 2
Location: Cytoplasm/cytosol of a cell
Takes place with or without oxygen
AFTER GLYCOLYSIS
● Before entering Krebs cycle, the pyruvate undergoes a Link reaction /transition
stage.
● Link reaction is a
conversion of pyruvate (3C) to
acetyl CoA (2C).
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
STEPS NO
The oxidized fragment, acetate combines with coenzyme A to form
acetyl CoA which then enters into the Krebs cycle. 4
In the presence of oxygen, transport protein on membrane of
mitochondria will transport pyruvate from glycolysis into matrix of 1
mitochondria.
Pyruvate (3C) undergoes decarboxylation by removing carboxyl group
(in form of CO2) 2
CO2 will diffuse out of the cell.
The remaining 2 carbon fragment isoxidized forming acetate. NAD+
accept the hydrogen removed during oxidation and reduced into NADH 3
+ H+.
Definition:
● Breakdown of acetyl coenzyme A to carbon dioxide and water through a series of
chemical reaction to produce ATP, NADH + H+ and FADH2.
● Location: Mitochondrial matrix
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
Create a mnemonic.
Example:
Cinta———-Citrate
Ini———-Isocitrate
Akan———-alpha-ketoglutarate
Sentiasa———-Succinyl-CoA
Segar———-Succinate
Flexible———-Fumarate
Manis———-Malate
Ok!———-Oxaloacetate
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate answer. Please choose the correct ones.
STEP 1: FORMATION OF CITRATE
● Unstable bond attaching acetyl group to
coenzyme A breaks.
● 2C acetyl group becomes attached to 4C
oxaloacetate forming citrate (6C)
STEP 2: ISOMERIZATION
● Atoms of citrate (6C) are rearranged by
two preparation reactions:
- Removal of water molecule
- Addition of water molecule
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
● Citrate is converted to its isomer,
isocitrate (6C).
STEP 3:OXIDATION AND DECARBOXYLATION
● Isocitrate is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to
NADH+H+
● The resulting compound is decarboxylated
(CO2 is released)
● Isocitrate (6C) is converted into
α-ketoglutarate (5C)
STEP 7: HYDRATION
● With addition of water, fumarate (4C)
rearrange its chemical bond and is
converted to malate (4C).
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
STEP 8:OXIDATION
● Malate (4C) is oxidized to oxaloacetate
(4C).
● By transferring 2 hydrogen atoms to NAD+
● NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+
● Oxaloacetate can now combine with
another molecule of acetyl coenzyme A,
and starts new cycle .
*Mention the steps where the energy and ATP,NADH and FADH2 are produced.
Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.
Introduction
Definition Of Oxidative Phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron
transport chain
Occurrs in the mitochondria and chloroplast
⮚ to synthesis ATP
b) Chemiosmosis
Definition Of Chemiosmosis:
● Movement of hydrogen ion (H+)
● From high hydrogen ion concentration into low hydrogen ion
concentration
● From intermembrane space to the mitochondrial matrix
● through ATP Synthase
● to catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
Location: Innner membrane and matrix of mitochondria
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
Total Production of ATP in Active Cells (per one molecule of glucose)
1. Substrate Level Phosphorylation;
Glycolysis 2 ATP
Krebs Cycle 2 ATP
2. Oxidative Phosphorylation
Glycolysis 2 NADH + 2 H+ x 3 ATP 6 ATP
Link Reaction 2 NADH + 2 H + x 3 ATP 6 ATP
Krebs Cycle 6 NADH + 6 H+ x 3 ATP 18 ATP
2 FADH2 x 2 ATP 4 ATP
TOTAL 38 ATP
5.2 : FERMENTATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Definition Of Anaerobic Respiration
A type of respiration where organic molecules are partially oxidized in the absence of oxygen
Produces small amount of energy
Definition of Fermentation
The process in which pyruvic acid/ pyruvate is converted into lactate/lactic acid or
ethanol and carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen.
a) Fermentation
BIO - ACTIVE LEARNING – CELLULAR RESPIRATION & FERMENTATION
i. Alcohol Fermentation
b) Importance of Fermentation
Importance of fermentation in industry
Bakery ● Addition of yeast to dough. Release CO2, rising bread and
soften texture
Dairy industry ● Lactate fermentation by Lactobacillus sp.
● Convert lactose to lactate
● Lower pH of milk
● Causing coagulation of protein forming yogurt
Vinegar, beverage ● Wine: alcoholic fermentation of yeast in grapes
and alcohol ● Beer: alcoholic fermentation of yeast on maltose (barley
production seeds)
Local examples ● Tempe, Thosai, tapai