176 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

N (4) Variations in relative loads on combined bases (e.g.

n=
A bases carrying two or more columns).

Thus in a general case the total pressure under a base with a

T S
= − small out-of-balance moment is
A A
T MT
=t−s t= ± for single axis bending (see Fig. 10.17 (a) and
A Z
(b)), and
Alternatively,
T M Tx M Ty
P+F S t= ± ± for biaxial bending (see Fig. 10.18).
n= − A Zx Zy
A A
The moment MT is calculated by taking moments about the
=p+f−s centroid at the underside of the foundation. In these cases it
This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.16. is usually beneficial to consider the total bearing pressure
which allows for the balancing effect of the resultant force
It should be noted that where the soil level has been due to eccentric loads and/or applied moments.
significantly reduced by a major regrading of the site or
by construction of basements and the like, consideration As with simple beam design if
should be given to the effects of heave particularly in clays MT T
or where there are artesian groundwater pressures. >
Z A
It is almost always sufficiently accurate to take the weight
the pressure will be negative and tension, theoretically,
of the new foundation and backfill as equal to the weight of
will be developed. However, for most foundations it is
soil displaced, i.e. FB ~ SB. Thus the equations for net increase
impossible to reliably develop tension, and the foundation
in load and net increase in soil pressure simplify to:
pressure is either compressive or zero.
N = P + FS − SS
For a simple rectangular foundation
and
MT T
P + FS − SS >
n= ⎛ BL2 ⎞ BL
A ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
= p + fS − sS 6M T
>T
When the ground levels and surcharge pressures are only L
nominally changed, FS ~ SS , and so the formulae reduce to
MT L
>
N=P T 6

P L
n= or eT >
A 6

=p where eT is the resulting eccentricity of the foundation.

i.e. the net increase in soil load is equal to the load from the
superstructure as mentioned previously.
In the examples above, the foundations have been axially
loaded such that the total bearing pressure is given by
P+F
t= (see Figs 10.15 and 10.16)
A
While this is the most common situation, and it is clearly an
efficient design principle to create a foundation which uses
the maximum available bearing pressure over its entire
base, there are many occasions when this is not practical
and non-uniform foundation pressures have to be con-
sidered. This non-uniformity is typically caused by:
(1) The applied superstructure load P not being on the
centroid of the foundation.
(2) The superstructure being fixed to the foundations such
that moments are transferred into the foundation (e.g.
fixed bases of rigid sway frames).
(3) The application of horizontal loads.
Therefore if eT is less than L/6, the foundation will be
fully in compression. This is known as the middle third rule
which is illustrated in Design Example 6 in Chapter 11
(section 11.3.2).
Where eT is greater than L/6, a triangular stress distribu-
tion is generated under part of the base and zero under the
remainder, and the maximum bearing pressure is calcu-
lated using the shortened base theory, which, for a rectangular
base is
2T
tmax =
3B ⎛⎜ − eT ⎞⎟
L
⎝2 ⎠
(see Fig. 10.17 (c)).
Again benefits can be made by considering the total bearing
pressure, thus utilizing the foundation loads which reduce
the overturning and increase the effective length of the
pressure diagram. Consideration should also be given to
the positioning of the base so that the vertical loads P and
F are used to counteract the effects of any moment or
 Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 177

(a) loading diagram

L
C
L P T
width of rectangular typical loading
base = B eP combination
M

T =P+F
H PeP + M + Hh
F eT =
h T
eT M = Te T

(b) bearing pressure T M

distribution where t max = +
A Z
L
eT < T Te T
6 t min = +
t max A Z
T 6Te
T MT = + 2 T
t min = − LB LB
A Z
T 6Te
= − 2 T
LB LB

L
(c) bearing pressure
distribution where 2
L 2T
eT > L t max =
eT – eT BL b
6 2
= 2T
L
3B ( 2
)
– eT

t min = 0
t max

Note: tension (–ve) pressure Note: centre of pressure × base area

cannot be generated between diagram is on the line of the resultant
underside of base and soil, force T. This applies for all foundation
therefore pressure is positive shapes but in this case forms a
(i.e. in compression) or zero
Lb = 3 ( L2 – e )T
triangular stress/force block

length of base
in compression

Fig. 10.17 Foundation in bending about single axis.

horizontal loads. In the example shown in Fig. 10.17, the
load P should be to the left of the centreline such that the
formula for calculating the total eccentricity becomes
−PeP + M + Hh
eT =
T Eccentrically loaded rectangular pad or strip foundations
The ideal situation is that eT should be zero or
M + Hh
eP =
P
While it is appropriate to compare the existing load with
the new load on the ground when designing axially loaded
foundations, in the more general case where the loads are
eccentric, it is necessary to consider the allowable bearing
pressure (net or total) with the applied foundation pressure
(net or total) and it is recommended that pressures are com-
pared rather than loads in all cases to maintain consistency
and avoid confusion.
are generally designed on the middle third rule where this
applies. For other shapes and conditions a trial and error
basis is adopted. A base size is selected and the resulting
bearing pressures compared with the allowable; the base
size is adjusted up or down and the calculations repeated
until the maximum bearing pressure is close to the allow-
able. Experience will soon enable the engineer to make a
fairly accurate first guess on the size of base required and
reduce the number of iterations necessary.
178 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

eTx eTy

ePx ePy
T T

Mx My
P P

Hy Hx
F F
h h

L B
side elevation end elevation

PePx + Mx + Hy h PePy + My + Hx h
eTx = eTy =
T T
MTx = TeTx MTx = TeTx

B Mx
P My L
y

eTx
ePx
Hy

ePy
x Hx

eTy

T 6TeTx 6TeTy
t= − − T 6TeTx 6TeTy
LB L2B LB 2 t= + +
2
LB LB LB 2

Fig. 10.18 Foundation in biaxial bending.

10.11 Structural design of foundation
members
This section covers the design of the foundation elements in
terms of the structural resistance to the applied forces, but
does not cover durability factors which are catered for by
reference to BS 8110(1) or BS 5950.(2)
The vast majority of foundations are constructed from con-
crete, either plain or reinforced, precast or in situ, though a
few foundations utilize masonry or steel grillage systems.
Each of these materials are currently designed using limit-
state design methods familiar to most practising engineers.
The simplest to design are the mass concrete or plain
masonry foundations which rely on natural load spread
through the foundation to enable the point or line loads at
the top of the foundation to be distributed out to the full
area of the base of the foundation. The load spread is usu-
ally taken to occur along a 45° line such that the thickness
at the base of the foundation should be no less than the
maximum outstand between the edge of the column or
wall applying the load to the foundation and the edge of
the foundation (see Fig. 10.19). No other structural design
is required for such foundations providing they are not
required to span over soft spots. It should be remembered,
as with any structural element, that the worst case loading
condition needs to be determined and the loading case
which produces the highest column axial load may not be
the one which creates the worst bearing pressure or ele-
mental stresses. This is particularly so when considering
foundations which are required to resist column base
 Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 179

wall or column Table 10.4 Typical load cases for ultimate limit-state
design of structural foundation members

Partial safety factor for loads

maximum
outstand = a
Load case Dead Imposed Wind
γG γQ γW

Dead + Imposed 1.4 1.6 –

Dead + Wind uplift 1.0 – 1.4
45° Dead + Wind downthrust 1.4 – 1.4
thickness of Dead + Imposed + Wind 1.2 1.2 1.2
foundation h ≥ a Accidental loading 1.05 0.35a 0.35

a Except for areas of storage where γQ = 1.0

Fig. 10.19 Load spread in mass concrete foundation.

moments and/or wind loads (it is frequently the case that
the size of a base on a bracing line is determined by the
minimal dead load and maximum wind uplift) or when
designing balanced bases.
In the normal case the total unfactored column/wall load
from the superstructure will be of the form
P = G + Q + PW
where G = superstructure dead load (vertical)
Q = superstructure imposed load (vertical)
PW = superstructure wind load (vertical component)
and the factored load from the superstructure will be
Pu = γGG + γQQ + γW PW
where γG, γQ, γW are the appropriate partial load factors for
the case under consideration, which can be taken from
Table 10.4.
The unfactored (characteristic) foundation load has pre-
viously been expressed (see Fig. 10.16) as
F = FB + FS
where FB = load of the foundation and backfill
FS = foundation surcharge load.
For ultimate limit-state calculations it should be rewritten as
F = FG + FQ
where FG = foundation dead load (= FB + dead load com-
ponent of FS)
Tu = (γGG + γQQ + γWPW) + (γ GFG + γ QFQ)
or = γG(G + FG) + γ Q(Q + FQ) + γ WPW
In simple cases where wind loads are not critical the calcula-
tions can be made simpler by using an overall combined
partial load factor γP for the superstructure load such that
Pu = γPP
Frequently γ P is taken conservatively as 1.5 (being half-way
between γG = 1.4 and γQ = 1.6 for the dead + imposed case)
on the basis that very few building structures support
a total imposed load greater than the total dead load.
Alternatively a closer assessment can be made on the ratio
between dead and imposed loads and the value of γP
obtained from Fig. 10.20.
Similarly combined partial safety factors γF and γT can be
used for the foundation and total loads where
Fu = γ FF
Tu = γTT
Again these may be obtained from Fig. 10.20. The use of
these combined factors is illustrated in the design examples
in Chapters 11–14.
Having calculated the factored loads it is then necessary to
establish the factored foundation pressures, and to determine
100 0
dead + imposed

dead + imposed

FQ = foundation imposed load (= imposed com- 75 25

imposed

ponent of FS)
dead

and the factored load from the foundation will be 50 50

Fu = γGFG + γQFQ
% of

% of

(γG and γ Q can be taken from Table 10.4). 25 75

The total unfactored (characteristic) load is

0 100
T = (superstructure load) + (foundation load)
T=P+F 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6
= (G + Q + PW ) + (FG + FQ) combined partial load factors γP, γF, γT

and the total factored load at the underside of the Fig. 10.20 Combined partial safety factors for dead +
foundation is imposed loads.