Chemistry

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Kjyhk; gjpg;G - 2019
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cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. f.ngh.j. (cau;ju) ,y; ngsjpftpay;> ,urhadtpay; kw;Wk;
caupay; ghlq;fSf;fhd ghlj;jpl;l jputpaq;fs; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Kd;ida Mrpupau;
mwpTiug;G topfhl;bf;Fg; gjpyhf Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;b mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,jd; tpisthf fw;wy; - fw;gpjj ; y; Kiwapaypy;> kjpgg
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ntspafg; gjpg;Gf; FO:

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nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
Nguhrpupau;. H. M. D. N. gpupae;j - rpNu\;l Nguhrpupau;> ,urhadj;Jiw>
Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
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= [atu;jj
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jpUkjp. jPgpfh nej;rpq;` - Mrpupa MNyhrfu; (Xa;T)>
ngz;fs; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G - 07.
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jpUkjp. N. jpUehTf;fuR - rpNu\;l Mrpupau; (Xa;T)>
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nry;tp. C. A. N. ngNuuh - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
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jpUkjp. W.K.W.D. rhypfh khjtp - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
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jpUkjp. H.M.D.D. jPgpfh nkdpNf - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
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nkhopr; nrk;ikahf;fk;:
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gzpg;ghsu; ehafj;jpd; nra;jp iii

gzpg;ghsupd; nra;jp iv
fiyj;jpl;lf; FO v - vi
cs;slf;fk; vii - ix
1.0 mZf; fl;likg;G 1 - 44
1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if

1.1.1 fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)
1.1.2 mZtpd; fU
1.1.3 Neu;f; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)
1.1.4 ,ujNghu;l;bd; nghw;jfl;L Nrhjid
1.1.5 mZntz;> rkjhdpfs; kw;Wk; jpzpntz;
1.1.6 mZj;jpzptyF
1.1.7 xU %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpT kw;Wk; njhlu;ghf jpzpT
1.1.8 mad;fs;
1.2 kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; kw;Wk; rlj;jpd; miynahj;j ,ay;Gfs;

1.2.1 rf;jpr;nrhl;lhf;fk;
1.3 mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpud; rf;jp kl;lq;fs;

1.3.1 Ijurd; epwkhiy
1.3.2 Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtq;fs;
1.3.3 Xgpw;wy;fSk; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fSk;
1.4 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
1.4.1 mghT jj;Jtk; (fl;bnaOg;gw; Nfhl;ghL)
1.4.2 ngsyp jtpu;f;iff; Nfhl;ghL
1.4.3 `{z;bd; tpjp
1.4.4 RUf;fg;gl;l ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
1.5 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;gy;
1.6 s kw;Wk; sp njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Mtu;j;jd Nghf;Ffs;

1.6.1 mZf;fs; kw;Wk; mad;fspd; gUkd;fs;
1.6.2 madhf;fw; rf;jp
1.6.3 ,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jp
1.6.4 ,yj;jpudhl;lk;
vii
2.0 fl;likg;Gk; gpizg;Gk; 45 - 95
2.1 gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfs;

2.1.1 Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fs; kw;Wk; Y}apapd; Gs;spf;Nfhl;Lf;
fl;likg;Gf;fs;
2.2 <jw; gq;fPl;L tYg; gpizg;Gfs;
2.3 tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhbj; js;Siff; nfhs;if

(VSEPR - nfhs;if)
2.3.1 mZ Xgpw;wy;fspd; fyg;ghf;fk;
2.3.2 ,ul;il kw;Wk; Kk;ikg; gpizg;G cUthjy;.
2.3.3 gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
2.3.4 %yf;$Wfspd; KidTj; jd;ikapy; kpd;ndjpu; jd;ikapdJk;
Nfj;jpu fzpj xOq;fikg;gpdJk; jhf;fk;
2.3.5 ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd;
2.3.6 kpd;ndjpu;j; jd;ikapd; gUkdpy; jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; fhuzpfs;
2.4 mad; gpizg;G / mad; ,ilj;jhf;fk;
2.5 cNyhfg; gpizg;Gf;fs;
2.6 Jiz / top / ,uz;lhk; epiy ,ilj; jhf;fq;fs; / ftu;r;rpfs;
3.0 ,urhadf; fzpg;Gfs; 96 - 136
3.1 xl;rpNaw;w vz;

3.1.1 %yf;$W xd;wpy; my;yJ gy;yZ mad; xd;wpy; my;yJ Nru;it
xd;wpy; cs;s mZnthd;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzptjw;F
gpuNahfpf;ff; $ba mbg;gil trjpfs;.
3.1.2 xU jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,yj;jpud; ,lkhw;wg; ghijiaf;
fhz;gjw;F> mZf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisg; gad;gLj;jy;.
3.2 mNrjdr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;

3.2.1 XuZ mad;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l mad; Nru;itfspd; ngauPL.
3.2.2 ntt;NtW Vw;wq;fSila ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l
fw;wad;fis cUthf;Fk; %yfj;ij cila mad; Nru;itfspd;
ngau;fs;.
3.2.3 vspa gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;
3.2.4 gy;yZ mad;fs;
3.2.5 mNrjd mkpyq;fs;
viii
3.3 mZj;jpzpT> %y; kw;Wk; mtfhjNuh khwpyp
3.3.1 mZj;jpzptyF> %y; kw;Wk; mtfhjNuhtpd; khwpyp
vd;gdtw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd ,izg;G.
3.3.2 %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
3.3.3 %y;
3.3.4 %yu; jpzpT
3.4 ,urhadr; #j;jpuq;fspd; tiffs;

3.4.1 ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;jpypUe;J jpzpTr; rjtPjk;.
3.4.2 Nru;itfspd; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzp;jy;. (%yf;$w;W / mDgt)
3.4.3 mDgtr; #j;jpuj;jpzpT kw;Wk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpzpT
vd;gdtw;iwg; gad;gLj;jp %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzpjy;.
3.5 fyitapy; $W xd;wpd; mikg;G

3.5.1 gpd;dj;jpy; jug;gLk; mikg;G
3.5.2 xU fiurypy; rjtPj mikg;G (Vftpdf; fyit)
3.5.3 %yw;wpwd;
3.5.4 %yu;j;jpwd;
3.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.

3.6.1 nrt;itghu;j;jy; / rupghu;jj
; y; Kiwapy; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr;
rkg;gLj;jy;.
3.6.2 xU jho;j;Njw;W Kiwapd; jhf;fr; rkd;ghLfisr; rkg;gLj;Jjy; /
<Lnra;jy;.
3.6.3 vspa fUj;jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.
3.7 fiury;fisj; jahupj;jy;
3.8 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fis mbg;gilahf cila fzpj;jy;fs;
ix
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 1 mZf;fl;likg;G
1. mZf;fl;likg;G
cs;slf;fk;
1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if 1.4 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G

1.1.1 fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
(gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;) 1.4.1 mghT jj;Jtk; (fl;bnaOg;gw;
1.1.2 mZtpd; fU Nfhl;ghL)
1.1.3 Neu;f; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; 1.4.2 ngsyp jtpu;f;iff; Nfhl;ghL
(gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)
1.1.4 ,ujNghu;l;bd; nghw;jfl;L Nrhjid 1.4.3 `{z;bd; tpjp
1.1.5 mZntz;> rkjhdpfs; kw;Wk; 1.4.4 RUf;fg;gl;l ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
jpzpntz;
1.1.6 mZj;jpzptyF
1.1.7 xU %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpT 1.5 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;gy;
kw;Wk; njhlu;ghf jpzpT
• Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapd; ePz;l tbtk;
1.1.8 mad;fs;
1.2 kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; kw;Wk; rlj;jpd;

1.6 s kw;Wk; sp njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Mtu;j;jd
miynahj;j ,ay;Gfs;
• kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; ,ay;Gfs; Nghf;Ffs;
[fjp(c), miyePsk;  mjpu;ntz;  1.6.1 mZf;fs; kw;Wk; mad;fspd;
rf;jp (E)]
gUkd;fs;
1.2.1 rf;jpr;nrhl;lhf;fk;
• kpd;fhe;j epwkhiy • te;ju;thYR Miu
• c kw;Wk; h • gq;fl
P ;L Miu
• h
h   mv • cNyhf Miu
• rlj;jpy; miy - Jzpf;ifj; • mZthiuapd; Mtu;j;jdg;
Jtpj ,ay;G
Nghf;Ffs;
1.3 mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpud; rf;jp kl;lq;fs; • mad;fspd; ,yj;jpudpiy
• %yfq;fspd; njhlu; madhf;frf;jp aikg;Gfs;
khw;wq;fs;
1.3.1 Ijurd; epwkhiy • madhiuapy; Mtu;j;jdg;
• rf;jpkl;lq;fspd; ,yj;jpud;fs; Nghf;ffs;
fhzg;gly;
1.6.2 madhf;fw; rf;jp
1.3.3 Xgpw;wy;fSk; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fSk; • Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpfspy;
• gpujhd rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; (n) Mtu;j;jdg; Nghf;Ffs;
• Nfhz ce;jr; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;(l)
• fhe;jr; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; (ml)
• fwq;fw; rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz; (ms) 1.6.4 ,yj;jpudhl;lk;
1
rlj;jpd; ,ay;Gfs;> elj;ij njhlu;ghd fw;ifNa ,urhadk; MFk;. gpugQ;rj;jpd;

ngsjpf gjhu;jj
; k; rlkhFk;. ,J ntspia milg;gJk; jpzpT cilaJkhd vJthfTk;
mikayhk;. vkJ cyfpYs;s gjhu;j;jq;fs; jkJ ,ay;Gfspy; ngUksT NtWgl;L
,Ue;jNghJk;> ,urhaduPjpahf NtWgl;l Rkhu; 100 %yfq;fspypUe;J kl;Lk; Mf;fg;gl;ld>
MfNt ,urhad uPjpahf NtWgl;l Rkhu; 100 tiu mZf;fspypUe;J cUthdit
MFk;. (118 %yfq;fs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Mdhy; ghuk; $ba mZf;fs; FWfpa
tho;Tilad> mj;Jld; ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLtJk; ,y;iy)
1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if

cyfk; cUthf;fg;gl;l mbg;gilf; $Wfspd; ,ay;G gw;wp Kw;fhyj; jj;Jttpayhsu;fshy;
Nehf;fg;gl;lJ. vk;gpNlhf;y]; (Empedocles) (fp.K. 440) ,dhy; kz; (epyk;)> neUg;G>
tsp> ePu; vd;gtw;why; vy;yhg; nghUl;fSk; Mf;fg;gl;ld vd ek;gg;gl;lJ. mj;Jld;
,e;Jf;fshy; Nkw;$wg;gl;l ehd;F %yfq;fSld; ntspahYk; (Mfhak;) MdJ vd
ek;gg;gl;lJ. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; jpNkhfpwPw;w]; (fp.K. 460-370) mj;Jld; NtW fpNuf;f
jj;Jttpayhsu;fSk; ~~gpupff; KbahjJ|| my;yJ ~~ntl;lg;glKbahjJ|| vd;W fUj;Jg;gl
mike;j mw;wNkh]; (atomos) mZ vdg;gl;l gpupf;fKbahj> kpfr;rpwpa Jzpfi ; ffshy;
cyfg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; Mf;fg;gl;ld vd tpgupj;jdu;.
,Ue;jNghJk;> gpd;du;> gpNsl;NlhTk; mup];Nlhl;bYk; tFj;j Kw;wpYk; gpupf;f Kbahj

Jzpf;iffs; ,Uf;fKbahJ vDk; mup];Nlhl;bypd; jj;Jtk; Kjd;ik ngw;W gy
E}w;whz;Lfshf Nkiyf; fyhr;rhuj;jpd; mZ vd;w ghu;it eyptile;jJ.
1808 ,y; Mq;fpy tpQ;QhdpAk; ghlrhiy MrpupaUkhd N[hd; jhw;wd; (John Dalton
1766-1844) vd;gtu; ehk; mZf;fs; vd miof;fpd;w rlj;jpd; NkYk; gpupf;f Kbahj
fl;blj;Jz;Lfspw;F Vw;Wf; nfhs;sj;jF tiutpyf;fzk; xd;wpid tFj;jhu;.
jhw;wdpd; mZf;nfhs;if ehd;F tplaq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.

1. mZf;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk; kpfTk; rpwpjhd NkYk; gpupf;fKbahj Jzpf;iffshy;
%yfq;fs; Mf;fg;gl;ld.
2. jug;gl;l xU %yfj;jpd; vy;yh mZf;fSk; (jpzpT> gUkd;) xj;jd. Mdhy; xU
%yfj;jpd; mZf;fs; kw;w vy;yh %yf mZf;fspYk; NtWgl;ld.
3. jug;gl;l xU %yfj;jpd; mZf;fs; NtnwhU %yfj;jpd; mZf;fshf ,urhaduPjpapy;
khw;wg;gl KbahJ. ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; %yk; mZf;fis Mf;fNth mopf;fNth
KbahJ.
4. ntt;NtW %yfq;fspd; ,uz;L my;yJ Nkw;gl;l mZf;fshy; vspa KOntz;
tpfpjj;jhy; Mf;fg;gl;l Nru;khdNk Nru;itfs; MFk;.
2
jhw;wdpd; mZkhjpupahdJ ~~Nfhy;g; ge;J khjpup|| (Golf ball model) vd miof;fg;gLfpdw

; J.
cU 1.1(a) N[hd; jhw;wd; cU 1.1(b) Nfhy;g; ge;J khjpup
N[hd;];ud; [p. ];Nuhdp (Johnstone G. Stoney 1826-1911) vd;gtu; 1891 ,y; kpd;idf;
fhTk; mbg;gil myif ~~,yj;jpud;|| vdg; ngaupl;lhu;. MdhYk; ,Ug;gpidf; fhl;l
vt;nthU gupNrhjidr; rhd;Wk; ,Uf;ftpyi ; y. 1800 fspd; eLg;gFjpapypUe;J Vwf;Fiwa
ntw;wplkhf tspafw;wg;gl;l fz;zhbf; Foha;fspy; kpdd ; pwf;fk; njhlu;ghd fw;iffis
Muk;gpj;jdu;. ,t;tikg;gpidg; gpupj;jhdpa ,urhadtpayhsUk; ngsjpftpayhsUkhfpa
Nru; tpy;ypak; FUf;]; (Sir William Crookes 1832-1919) fz;Lgpbj;jjJld; ,J FUf;];
Foha; my;yJ fNjhl;Lf;Foha; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
mNdhl;L
fNjhl;L
; Oj;jk;
cau; kpdd
cU 1.2 xU fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;Foha;
cau; kpd;dOj;j KjYld; ,U kpd;tha;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;lNghJ fNjhl;L vd

miof;fg;gLk; ntg;gkhf;fg;gl;l kiwVw;wg;gl;l jflhdJ fz;Zf;F Gyg;glhj> gpupf;f
Kbahj fjput; r
P y; fw;iwfis cUthf;Fk;. ,f;fjpuf; isg; ghu;fK
; bahjhapDk; ,f;fjpuf
; s;
jhoKf;fj;jpy; cs;s thAnthd;wpd; xspu;Tf;Ff; fhuzkhff;$baJ. mj;Jld; xsptPRk;
kw;iwa gjhu;jj ; q;fisAk; Mf;ff;$baJ. fNjhl;bypUe;J tPrg;gl;l fjpu;gG
; fs; Mjyhy;
,J ~~fNjhl; fjpu;fs;|| vdg; ngau; toq;fg;gl;lJ.
gpdG
; ,f;fjpuf
; s; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; tpyfYf;F cs;shf;fg;gl KbAk; vdTk; kiwVw;wj;ijf;
fhTfpd;wJ vdTk; mwpag;gl;lJ. rpy tpQ;Qhdpfs; ,f;fjpu;fis miyfs; vdTk;
NtW rpyu;; ,it Jzpf;iffs; vdTk; fUjpdu;.
gpupj;jhdpa tpQ;Qhdp (British Scientist) n[. n[. njhk;rd; (J. J. Thomson) (1856-1940)
vd;gtu; ,f;f Njhl;Lf; fjpu;fs; fNjhl;Lg; gjhu;j;jj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sdty;y vd
mtjhdpj;jjJld; 1897 ,y; ,f;fNjhl;Lj; Jzpf;iffs; kiwVw;wKila Jzpf;iffs;
3
s
vdTk; tpgupj;jhu;. ,tu; JisAs;s xU mNdhl;ilAila fNjhl;Lf; Foha; xd;iwg;

gad;gLj;jpdhu;. gupNrhjid mstPLfspd;gb ,yj;jpud;fspd; kpd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fk; mjd;
jpzptpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjk; 1.76  108 $Nyhk; fpuhk;-1 (Cg-1) vdg; gpd;du; ,tu;
fzpj;jhu;.
mNdhl;L (+)
fNjhl;L (-)
cau; kpd;dOj;jk;
GNshurd; jpiu
cU 1.3 njhk;rdpd; fNjhl;Lf;Foha;
1.1.1 fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)
• fNjhl;Lf;fjpu;fs; Neu;Nfhl;by; nry;fpd;wd. xU xspGftplhg; nghUs;> cNyhfr;

rpYit Nghd;wnjhd;W xU kpd;dpwf;ff;Foha; xd;wpy; fNjhl;Lf;fjpu; ghijapy;
itf;fg;gl;lNghJ fNjhl;Lf;F vjpu;g;Gw Kbtplj;jpy; cNyhfr; rpYitapd; xU
epoy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;j epoy; Vw;gLj;jg;gly; ,f;fjpu;fs; Neu;Nfhl;by;
nry;tjw;Fr; rhd;whFk;.
fNjhl;L
fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fs;
fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fs;
JLg;Gr; rpy;Y mNdhl;L
fNjhl;L
mNdhl;L
cNyhfg;
(cNyhfg; nghUs;)
nghUsps; epoy;
cU 1.4 fNjhl;Lf;fjpupd; ,ay;Gfs;
• jpzpTk; ,af;frf;jpAk; nfhz;l Jzpf;iffspd; fw;iwfNs fNjhl;Lf;fjpu;fshFk;.

xU kpd;dpwf;ff;Fohapy; fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ghijapy; ,Nyrhd JLg;Gr; rpy;Y
itf;fg;gl;lNghJ JLg;Gr;rpyy
; pd; jfLfs; RoYk;. ,J ,yj;jpud;fs; (fNjhl;Lf;fjpuf
; s;)
ce;jj;ijf; nfhz;bUg;gjw;F xU rhd;whff; fUjyhk;. (vt;thwpUg;gpDk; ,k;Kbtpy;
xU re;Njfk; cz;L. ,q;F Foha; ntg;gkiltjhYk; JLg;Gr; rpy;Y Roy KbAk;
vd;gNj mJ)
4
• fNjhl;Lf;Fohapd; ghijapy; gpuNahfpff ; g;gLk; xU kpdG ; yj;jpy; Neu;Vw;wKs;s jfl;il

Nehf;fp tpyfy; miltjhy; fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fs; kiwVw;wKilait. ,it fhe;jg;
Gyj;jpy; ghjpf;fg;gl;L .............................................................. ve;nthU............................
fhl;L k; tpyfiy .................................... mikAk; . MfNt ,yj; jpud;f s;
kiwVw;wKilad vDk; KbTf;F ,JTk; xU rhd;whFk;.
fNjhl;L mNdhl;L
fNjhl;Lf; fjpu; kpdG

; yk;
cU 1.5 Gwj;jpYs;s kpd;Gynkhd;Wld; fNjhl;Lf;fjpupd; ,ilj;jhf;fk;
• fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;ghdJ kpdd ; pwf;ff;Fohapy; vLf;fg;gl;l thAtpNyh my;yJ

fNjhl;Lg; gjhu;j;jj;jpNyh jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
• ntt;NtW thAf;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLk; fNjhl;Lj; Jzpf;iffspd; Vw;wj;jpw;Fk;
jpzptpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjk; (e/m tpfpjk;) jpUj;jkhf xNu msthFk;.
,yj;jpud;
Neu; kpdN
; dw;wg;gl;l
Nfhzk;
cU 1.6 J. J. njhk;rDk; mtupd; khjpupAk; (fhl;LU)

1899 ,y; n[. n[. njhk;rd; vd;gtu; jdJ fz;Lgpbg;GfspypUe;J “gpsk; Gbq;” mZf;
fl;likg;Gf; nfhs;ifiaf; nfhLj;jhu;. 1909 ,y; nea;jJ ; sp NrhjidapypUe;J nwhNgl;
kpy;ypf;fd; (Robert Milikan, 1868 - 1953) xU ,yj;jpudpd; Vw;wk; 1.602  10-19C vdf;
fzpg;gjpy; ntw;wp ngw;whu;. gpd;G jdJ gupNrhjidg; ngWkhdj;ijAk; njhk;rdpd;>
Vw;wj;jpw;Fk; - jpzptpw;Fkpilapyhd tpfpjj;ijAk; gad;gLj;jp ,yj;jpudpd; jpzpitf;
fzpj;jhu;.
1.602 1019 C
,yj;jpudpd; jpzpT = 8
 9.10 1028 g
1.76 10 C / g
cU 1.7 nwhNgu;l; kpy;ypf;fd; kw;Wk; Xu; ,yj;jpudpd; jpzpTk;
5
,j;jpzpthdJ xU Ijurd; mZtpd; (kpfTk; ,Nyrhd jpzpTila mZ) Rkhu;

1
gq;fhFk;. xU ,yj;jpudpd; rhu;Vw;wk; -1 MFk;.
1837
1.1.2 Xu; mZtpd; fU
N[u;kd; ngsjpftpayhsu; a+[pd; Nfhy;l; ];ud P ; (Eugen Goldstein) vd;gtu; rlj;jpy; Neu;
Vw;wKs;s Jzpf;iffspd; ,Uf;ifiag; gupNrhjiduPjpahf ep&gpj;jhu;. ,tupd;
gupNrhjid jhoKf;fj;jpy; tsp milf;fg;gl;l kpd;dpwf;ff;Fohapy; Jthukplg;gl;l
fNjhl;Lg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. Rkhu; 10>000 Nthw;W cau; mOj;jk; fNjhl;by; gpuNahfpff ; g;
gl;lNghJ JthuKs;s fNjhl;bd; gpd;dhy; ntspwpa rptg;G xspu;T mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ.
cau; mOj;jk; Fohapy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lNghJ thAf;fspy; gpufhrkhfTs;s rpwpa
vz;zpf;ifahd mad;fs; kpd;Gyj;jhy; Ntftsu;r;rpf;Fs;shf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,it
thAf;fspd; mZf;fis NkhJk;NghJ mtw;wpypUe;J ,yj;jpud;fis ntspafw;wp NkYk;
$ba Neuad;fis cUthf;Ffpdw ; d. ,t;tad;fSk; ,yj;jpud;fSk; kPsTk; Nkd;NkYk;
mZf;fis Nkhjp NkYk; Neuad;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,e;Neu;j;Jzpf;iffs;
ahTk; kiwf; fNjhl;bdhy; ftug;gLtJld; rpyrpy fNjhl;bYs;s Jisfspd; %yk;
ntspNaWfpd;wd. ,it fNjhl;bd; Jisfs; my;yJ fhy;tha;fspy; cUthf;fg;gLt
jdhy; ,e;Neu;f;fjpu;fs; “fhy;tha; fjpu;fs;” vd Nfhy;l; ];uPd; mioj;jhu;. ,it
jpll
; khf Neu;kpd;tha; my;yJ mNdhl;bypUe;J cUthf;fg;glhjitahapDk; ,f;fjpu;fs;
Neu;kpd;tha; my;yJ mNdhl;bd; mUNf cUthf;fg;gLtjhy; ,it Neu;f;fjpu;fs;
vdTk; mwpag;gl;ld.
mNdhl;L cau; kpd;dOj;jk;

Jisnfhz;l fNjhl;L
cU 1.8 JthuKila fNjhl;il cila fNjhl;Lf;Foha;
1.1.3 Neu;f;fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)
• ,it Neu;Nfhl;by; nry;tJld; jdJ ghijapy; itf;fg;gl;l nghUspd; epoiyAk;

nfhLf;fpd;wd.
• jkJ ghijapy; itf;fg;gl;l gw;rpy;iy ,tw;why; mirf;fKbAk;.
• fhy;tha; fjpu;fs; Neu;Vw;wg;gl;lit vd;gJld; mNdhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ghijapy; xU
kpd;Gyj;ijg; gpuNahfpf;Fk;NghJ mit kiwVw;wj; jfl;il Nehf;fp tpyf;fg;gl;ld.
6
• mNdhl;Lf; fjpuf ; spd; ,ay;Gfs; kpdd

; pwf;ff;Fohapy; vLf;fg;gl;l thAtpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
ntt;NtW thAf;f ; s; jUfpdw
; ntt;NtW Neu;ff ; jpuf
; s; NtWgl;l jpzpTfSk; NtWgl;l
Vw;wq;fisAk; nfhz;litahFk;. MfNt NtWgl;l thAf;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
Neu;f;fjpu;fspd; e/m tpfpjk; xU khwpypad;W.
1907 ,y; fhe;jg;Gyj;jpy; vt;thW tpyfYf;Fs;shf;fg;g|Lfpd;wd vd;gJ njhlu;ghd

fw;ifapypUe;J ,q;F cUthf;fg;gl;l Jzpf;iffs; xNu jpzpTilad my;y vd
mwpag;gl;ld. rpwpJ Ijurd; thA cs;s Fohapy; cUthf;fg;gl;l kpff;Fiwe;j jpwDila
Jzpf;ifahdJ ,yj;jpudpd; jpzpitg;Nghy; Vwf;Fiwa 1840 klq;FilaJ. ,it
GNuhj;jd;fs; MFk;. GNuhj;jdpd; rhu;Gj; jpzpT 1 amu MFk;. xU GNuhj;jdpd; jpzpT
1.672  10-24 g my;yJ 1.007276 amu (mZj;jpzpTmyF) my;yJ Da (Dalton).
GNuhj;jdpd; Vw;wkhdJ ,yj;jpudpd; Vw;wj;jpw;Fr; rkKk; vjpuhdJkhFk;. MfNt

GNuhj;jdpd; jdpahd Neu;Vw;wk; 1.6  10-19 Mf Neu;Vw;wj;jpy; mikAk;. ,JNt ve;jj;
Jzpf;ifAk; fhTfpd;w Mfr; rpwpa Neu;Vw;wk;> ,J xU myF Neu;Vw;wk; vdf;
nfhs;sg;gLk;. GNuhj;jdpd; rhu;G Vw;wk; +1 MFk;.
gpuhd;]; tpQ;Qhdp n`d;wp ngf;uy; (Hentry Bequeral 1852 - 1906) vd;gtuhy; 1896 ,y;
fjput
; r
P y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;likiaj; njhlu;eJ; > gpupjj
; hdpa ngsjpftpayhsu; gpuG Vu;d];l;
,ujNghl; (Lord Ernest Rutherford 1871 - 1909) vd;gtuhy; fjpupaf;fg; gjhu;j;jq;fshy;
my;gh  gPw;wh > fhkh  vd;Dk; %d;W tif fjpu;g;Gfspd;  ntsptPry;
fhl;lg;gl;lJ.  fjpu;g;Gfspd; ghij kpd;Gyj;jhy; tisf;fg;gLk;.
my;gh ( fjpu;fs; Neu;Vw;wKs;s Jzpf;iffisf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; - Jzpf;iffs;

vd miof;fg;gl;lJld; Neu;Vw;wg;gl;l jfl;lhy; tpyfYf;F cs;shf;fg;gLfpd;wd. gPww ; h
 fjpu;fs; my;yJ - Jzpfi ; ffs; ,yj;jpud;fs;> mit kiwVw;wj; jfl;lhy; tpyfYf;F
cs;shf;fg;gLtd. %d;whtJ tif fjpug ; g
; hf mikAk; fjput; r
P y; cau;rf;jpfF ; upa
fjpug
; G
; fs; ,it fhkh  fjpuf
; s; vd miof;fg;gLfpdw; d. fhkh ( fjpuf
; s; Vw;wkw;wd.
Mjyhy; X- fjpuf ; is xj;jd> mj;Jld; Gwj;jpYs;s kpd; my;yJ fhe;jg; Gyq;fspdhy;
ghjpg;Gwhjd.
<af;Fw;wp
 - fjpu;fs;
- fjpu;fs;
- fjpu;fs;
kpd;Ndw;wg;gl;l
jl;Lf;fs; xspg;glj; jl;L
fjpu; njhopw;ghl;Lg;
gjhu;j;jk;
cU 1.9 xU kpd;Gyj;jpy; my;gh  gPw;wh > fhkh  fjpu;g;Gfspd; elj;ij
7
cU 1.10 n`d;wp ngf;uy; Vu;d];l; ,ujNghl; gpuG

Hentry Bequeral Lord Ernest Rutherford
1.1.4 ,ujNghl;bd; nghd; ,jo; gupNrhjid
1908 - 09 ,y; mtUld; ,ize;J N[hfhnd]; `hd;]; tpy;nfk; nfa;fu; (Johannes

Hans Wilhem Geiger 1882 - 1945) vd;w N[u;khdpa ngsjpftpayhsu; ,tu;fSld; gl;lnewp
gapYk; Vu; n d]; khu; ] ; n ld; (Ernest Marsden) ck; Nkw;n fhz;l xU njhlu;
gupNrhjidfspy; nghd; my;yJ NtW cNyhfq;fspd; kpf nky;ypa jfLfis (,jo;fis)
fjput
; r
P y; Kjy; xd;wpypUe;J cUthf;fg;gLk; - Jzpfi; ffspd; ,yf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jpdhu;.
my;ghf; fjpu; Kjy;
tpyfyile;j nky;ypa nghd; ,jo;

Jzpfi; ffs; jpUk;gyile;j
Jzpf;iffs;

 - Jzpf;iffspd;
fw;iw
nky;ypa nghd; ,jo;

tl;l tbthd mjpfsthd GNshurd; jpiu
GNshurd; jpiu Jzpfi; ffs;
tpyfyila tpyi
; y
cU 1.11 ,ujNghl;bd; nghd; ,jo; gupNrhjid
ngUk;ghd;ikahd Jzpf;iffs; tpyfy; vJTkpd;wp my;yJ xU rpwpa tpyfYld;

kl;Lk; mt; ,jo;fspD}L CLUtpaikia mtjhdpjj ; du;. mj;Jld; rpy - Jzpfi
; ffs;
ngupa Nfhzq;fspy; rpjwg;gl;ld. (my;yJ tpyfYf;Fs;shf;fg;gl;ld.) kpfr; rpwpa -
Jzpf;fiffs; midj;Jk; jhk; te;j topNa gpd;dile;jd. ,g;gupNrhjid KbTfis
tpsf;Fk;NghJ> ,ujNghl; xU Gjpa mZ khjpupia Kd;itj;jJld; mZtpd; ngUk;gFjp
ntw;wplkhf mikAk; vdTk; Fwpg;gpl;lhu;. ,f;fl;likg;Ng - Jzpf;iffs; rpwpa
my;yJ tpyfypd;wpa nghd;,jo;fSf;Fr; nry;y mDkjpff ; pd;wJ. MfNt ,ujNghl;bd;
Kd;nkhoptpd;gb xU mZtpd; Neu;Vw;wq;fs; ahTk; fUtpy; nrwpthf;fg;gl;bUe;jJld;>
mZtpy; xU mlu;j;jp $ba rpwpanjhU ika mfdpg; gFjpAk; (core) cz;nldf;
fhl;lg;gl;lJ. ,Ue;jNghJk; ,r;rpjwy; gupNrhjidapy; xU - Jzpf;ifahdJ fUtpw;F
8
mz;ikapy; te;jNghJ mJ $ba js;Sif tpiria mDgtpj;jikahy; $basT

tpyfYf;Fs;shf;fg;gl;lJ. NkYk; fUit Nehf;fp Neubahfr; nry;Yk; xU - Jzpf;if
ahdJ $basT js;Sifia mDgtpj;jikahy; ,aq;Fk; Jzpf;ifapd; jpirf;F
vjpuhf Kw;whfj; jpUk;gpaJ.
fU
,yj;jpud;
cU 1.12 ,ujNghl;bd; khjpup (1911)
gpujhdkhfj; jpzpT epwkhiyapid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L mZf;fspd; jpzpTfs;

mtw;wpYs;s GNuhj;jd;fs;> ,yj;jpud;fspd; jpzpTfspypUe;J ngUksT $Ljyhff;
fhzg;gLtjhf mwpe;jikiaj; njhlu;e;J fw;iffspdhy; 1932 ,y; Nru; N[k;];
rhl;tpf; (Sir James Chadwick 1891 - 1972) vDk; gpupj;jhdpa tpQ;Qhdp epa+j;jpuidf;
fz;L gpbj;jhu;. epa+j;jpud; xd;wpd; Vw;wk; 0(g+r;rpak;) ck; jpzpT 1.6749 10-24g my;yJ
1.008665 amu MfTk; cz;L.
cU 1.13 N[k;]; rhl;tpf; ePy;\; Nghu;
,ujNghl;bd; fhyj;jpypUe;J mZf;fUf;fs; njhlu;ghfg; ngsjpftpayhsu;fs; Nkd;NkYk;

fw;iffisj; njhlu;e;jhu;fs;. 1913 ,y; ePy; n`d;wpf; Nltpl; Nghu; (Niels Hentrick
David Bohr 1885 - 1962 ) vDk; ngsjpftpayhsu;> mf;fhyj;jpy; ngwg;gl;l rpe;jidfis
,izj;Jr; #upaidr; #of; fpufq;fs; Rw;wp tUtJ Nghyf; fUitr; #o ,yj;jpud;fs;
xOf;Ffspy; mikAk; vd KbT nra;jhu;.
fU
,yj;jpud;
cU 1.14 Nghupd; khjpupAU
9
,yj;jpud;fs; xOf;Ffspy; tupirg;gLj;J tjw;Ff; fUtpwF

; k; ,yj;jpudpwF
; k; ,ilNaahd
epiykpd; ftu;r;rpfs;; ikaehl;l tpirf;Fr; rkkhf mike;J ,Uj;jy; mtrpak; vd
mtu; KbT nra;jhu;. NtWtifapy; $Wtjhdhy; ,yj;jpud;fs; fUitr; Rw;wp xU
khwhNtfj;jpy; khwh ,ilj;J}uj;jpid Ngzpatz;zk; gazpf;fpd;wd. mtu;
mwpKfg;gLj;jpa khjpupahdJ ,ujNghl; - Nghu; khjpup my;yJ Nghupd; khjpup vdg;gLk;.
fUtpy; fhzg;gLk; Jzpf;i ffs; epa+f;fpspNahd;fs; vdg;gLk;. MfNt ,it
GNuhj;jd;fisAk; epa+j;jpud;fisAk; cs;slf;fpait MFk;. xU epa+f;fpisl;
(Nuclide) vd;gJ xj;j vz;zpf;ifahd GNuhj;jpud;fisAk; epa+j;jpud;fisAk; nfhz;l
xU mZtpd; fUthFk;. MfNt epa+f;fpisl;Lfs;> epa+f;fpspNahd; Jzpf;iffshy;
mike;jdthFk;.
1.1.5 mZntz;> rkjhdpfs; ,tw;Wld; jpzpT vz;
,ujNghl;Lld; ,ize;J nraw;gl;l xU Mq;fpyg; ngsjpftpayhsu; n`d;wp [tpd;

n[g;up Nkh];yp (Henry Gwymn Jeffery Moseley 1887 - 1915) vd;gtu;> mZf;fspy;
fUtpYs;s Neu;Vw;wq;fs; jdp ,yj;jpud; myFfshy; mjpfupf;fpd;wd vdf; fz;lhu;.
xt;nthU %yfq;fspd; mZf;fSk; mtw;Wf;NfAupa GNuhj;jd; vz;zpfi ; fia cilad.
Fwpj;j ve;jnthU %yfj;jpdJk; mZnthd;wpYKs;s GNuhj;jd; vz;zpf;ifahdJ
mk;%yfj;jpd; mZntz; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
mZntz;(Z) = GNuhj;jd; vz;zpf;if = xU mZtpYs;s ,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;if
xU mZ Njwpa kpd;Ndw;wk; mw;wJ. Vnddpy; mZ nfhz;Ls;s GNuhj;jd;

vz;zpf;iff;F ,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;if rkkhFk;. cjhuzkhff; fhgdpd; vy;yh
mZf;fSk; MW GNuhj;jpud;fs;> MW ,yj;jpud;fs; nfhz;lit. mNjrkak; xl;rprdpd;
vy;yh mZf;fSk; vl;Lg; GNuhj;jd;fs;> vl;L ,yj;jpud;fs; nfhz;lit. MfNt
fhgdpd; mZntz; 6 ck;> xl;rprdpd; mZntz; 8 ck; MFk;.
gpupj;jhdpa tpQ;Qhdpfshd J. J. njhk;rd;> gpuhd;rp]; tpy;ypak;]; m];ud; (Francis

William Aston 1877 - 1945) Mfpatu;fshy; jahu;g;gLj;jg;gl;l “jpzpT epwkhiy tiuG”
,idg; gad;gLj;jp 1912 - 13 ,y; KjyhtJ rkjhdp (Neadpd;) fz;lwpag;gl;lJ.
jug;gl;l %yfnkhd;wpd; mZf;fs;> jhk; nfhz;Ls;s epa+j;jpud; vz;zpf;ifapy;
NtWglKbAk;. vdNt mtw;wpd; jpzpTfSk; NtWglyhk;. xU mZtpYs;s GNuhj;jd;
vz;zpf;ifAk; > epa+j;jpud; vz;zpf;ifAk; Nru;e;J (epa+f;fpspNahd;) jpzpntz; vd
miof;fg;gLk;.
jpzpT vz; (A) = GNuhj;jpud; vz;zpf;if (Z) + epa+j;jpud; vz;zpf;if.
xU Fwpjj ; mZitf; Fwpgg

; jw;F mZf;FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ ,lJgf;fj;jpd;
Nky; jpzpT vz;Zk; ,lJgf;fj;jpd; fPo; mZntz;Zk; jug;gLk;. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk;
FwpaPLk; mNj jftpidj; jUtjhy; mZntz; Fwpf;fg;glhJk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
10
jpzpntz;
mZf;FwpaPL
mZntz;
cU 1.15 fhgdpd; mZf; FwpaPL
cjhuzk; 1.1: Au ,Ys;s GNuhj;jpud;> epa+j;jpud;> ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if

197
ahJ?
tpil: NkNy Fwpf;fg;gLtJ jpzpTntz; (GNuhj;jpud; + epa+j;jpud;fs;)

Mtu;j;jd ml;lizapypUe;J nghd;dpd; mZntz; 79 MFk;.
MfNt 197Au mZthdJ 79 GNuhj;jpud;fs; kw;Wk; 79 ,yj;jpud;fs;
cilajhifahy; 197 - 79 = 118 epa+j;jpud;fSk; cilaJ.
xNu mZntz;Zk; NtWgl;l jpzpntz;Zk; cila (mjhtJ xNu mZntz;

Mdhy; NtWgl;l jpzpT vz;) mZf;fs; xd;W kw;iwajpd; rkjhdp (Isotope)
vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzkhfg; ngUksT fhgd; mZf;fs; MW epa+j;jpud;fSk; rpy mjdpYk; $lTk;

cilad. MW GNuhj;jpud;fSk; MW epa+j;jpud;fSk; cila jpzpT vz; 12 cilad
12
C MfTk; MW GNuhj;jpud;fSk; VO epa+j;jpud;fSld; jpzpTvz; 13 ck; cilad
13
C vdTk; MW ,yj;jpud;fs;> vl;L epa+j;jpud;fSld; jpzpT vz; 14 ck; cilad
14
C vdTk; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. xU %yfj;jpd; > ,aw;ifapYs;s rkjhdpfspy; cWjpahdit>
cWjpahd rkjhdpfs; vdg;gLtJld; cWjpaw;wd fjpupaf;fr; rkjhdpfs; vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.
1.1.6 mZj;jpzptyF
rlj;jpd; kpfr; rpwpa Jz;Lfs; mZf;fs; Mjyhy; mit jpzpTilad. vt;thwpUg;gpDk;

,tw;wpd; jpzpTfs; MfTk; rpwpadthjyhy; trjpf;fhf xd;wpize;j mZj;jpzpT
myF gad;gLk;. ,q;F>
12g 1
1u my; yJ 1Da (Kd; G amu) =   1.66054 10 24 g
6.02214 12
1 u = 1.66054  10-24g ck; 1g = 6.02214  1023 u my;yJ Da

ck; MFk;.
11
,urhad uPjpahfr; Nru;e;jikahj fhgdpd; 12

C jpzptpd; jpUj;jkhf 12 1 gq;fhdJ
xd;wpize;j mZj;jpzptyF vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. ,t;tyFfspy; 1H mZTila

jpzpT 1.0078 u my;yJ Da ck; 16O mZtpd; jpzpT 15.9949 u my;yJ Da ck; MFk;.
1.1.7 xU %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj; jpzpT kw;Wk; njhlu;gZj;jpzpTfs;
,aw;ifapYs;s gy %yfq;fs; rkjhdpfspd; fyitahFk;. xU %yfj;jpd; ruhrup

mZj;jpzpT> toikahd mk;%yfj;jpd; mZj;jpzpT vd miof;fg;gLtJ> rkjhdpfspy;
rhu;tsd; ngWkhdj;jpdhy; (rkjhdpfs; tsj;jpd; gpd;dj;jpdhy; fractional abundance)
mtw;wpd; jpzpTfisg; ngUf;fpg; ngwg;gLk; $l;Lj;njhifahFk;.
mZj;jpzpT = (rkjhdpapd; jpzpT  rkjhdpfspd; tsg;gpd;dk;)
cjhuzk; 1.2: ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; fhgd; MdJ 98.93% 12C, 1.07% 13C.
; j;jf;fsT 14C MYk; mikAk;. ,r;rkjhdpfspd;
mj;Jld; Gwf;fzpff
njhlu;gZj;jpzpTfs; KiwNa 12u, (jpUj;jkhf) 13.00335u, MFk;.
vdpd; fhgdpd; ruhrup njhlu;gZj;jpzpitj; Jzpf.
tpil: fhgdpd; mZj;jpzpT = (0.9893  12u) + (0.0107  13.0033u)

= 12.01 u or Da (amu)
njhlu;gZj;jpzpT = 12.01
mZj;jpzpthdJ xU %y; mZf;fspd; jpzpthfj; jug;gLk;NghJ (g mol-1 myfpy); mJ

xU %yfj;jpd; my;yJ mZtpd; %yu;jj
; pzpT vdg;gLk;.
1g = 6.02214 1 023amu my;yJ 1mol mZf;fs; = 6.02214 1023 mZf;fs;
; pzpT 12.01 g mol-1 MFk;.

MfNt> fhgdpd; %yu;jj
njhlu;gZj;jpzpT (Ar) vd;gJ xU myFfs; mw;w ngsjpff; fzpak;. mj;Jld; xU

%yfj;jpd; mZf;fspy; ruhrupj; jpzptpidf; fhgd; -12 Mapd; jpzptpd; 1/12 ,d; (xU
mZj;jpzptyF) tpfpjkhff; Fwpgg ; pLtJ MFk;. MfNt fhgdpd; njhlu;gZj;jpzpT
12.01 MFk;.
Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; xU %yfj;jpd; njhlu;gZj;jpzpthdJ mk;%yfj;jpd;

FwpaPl;bd; fPo; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
FNshupd;
35.45
12
1.1.8 mad;fs;
,urhadr; nraw;ghLfspd;NghJ xU mZtpd; fUtpy; khw;wk; mikahJ. Mdhy; rpy

mZf;fs; ,yj;jpud;fisg; ngw my;yJ ,of;f KbAk;. xU mZTld; ,yj;jpud;fs;
Nru;f;fg;gl my;yJ mjpypUe;J mfw;wg;gl cUthf;fg;gLk; Vw;wKs;s Jzpf;if mad;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. Neu;Vw;wKs;s xU mad; fw;wad; vdTk; kiwVw;wKs;s mad;
mdad; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;: 11 GNuhj;jd;fSk; 11 ,yj;jpud;fSk; cilajhd Nrhbak; mZ ,yFthf
Xu; ,yj;jpuid ,of;fpwJ. tpisTf; fw;wadpy; 11 GNuhj;jd;fSk;
10 ,yj;jpud;fSk; miktjd; tpisthf mJ Njwpa Vw;wk; +1 cilaJ.
Neu;Vw;wKs;s mad; fw;waDk; (cation) kiwVw;wKs;s mad; mdaDk;
MFk;.
xU ,yj;jpuid
,oj;jy;
Na mZ Na+ mZ
cU 1.16 Nrhbak; mZtpd; madhf;fk;
cjhuzk;: 17 GNuhj;jpud;fSk; 17 ,yj;jpud;fSk; mikfpd;w xU FNshupd;

jhf;fq;fspy; Xu; ,yj;jpuidg; ngw;W Cl- maid cUthf;f KbAk;.
xU ,yj;jpuid
Vw;wy;
Cl mZ Cl- mZ
cU 1.17 FNshupd; mZtpd; madhf;fk;
xU madpd; Njwpa Vw;wkhdJ mZf;Fwpal

P b
; y; tyJgf;f Nky;%iyapy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
MfNt cjhuzkhf xU ngupf; madpd; FwpaPL (3 ,yj;jpuid ,of;fpd;w ,Uk;gpd;
mZ) Mf miktJ>
,jw;F Nkyhf Na+, Cl-, Nghd;wd vspa mad;fshFk;. xU %yf;$wpy; mZf;fshf

,ize;jpUg;gpDk; NH4+ (mNkhdpak; mad;) SO42- (ry;Ngw;W mad;) Nghd;w gy;yZ
mad;fs; Njwpa Neu; my;yJ kiw Vw;wKilad.
13
1.2 rlj;jpd; kpd; fhe;jf; fjpu;tr

P Yk; miyfs; Nghd;w rlg;nghUs;
,ay;GfSk;
jw;NghJ ehq;fs; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;fpd;w xU mZtpd; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;ghdJ

gjhu;j;jq;fs; ntsptPRfpd;w my;yJ cwpQ;Rfpd;w xspapy; gFg;gpdhy; mwpag;gl;ld
MFk;.
kpd;fhe;jf; fjpu;tPry; (EMR) kpd;f he;j miyTfisf; nfhz;lJ. ,it kpd;>

fhe;jg;Gyq;fspd; xUq;fpize;j miyTfshy; xspapd; fjpAld; ntw;wplj;jpy;
tpUj;jpahf;fYf;Fl;gLtdthFk;. xd;wpw;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd ,U Gyq;fspd; ,t;
tiyTfs; tpUj;jpahf;fg;gLk; miyTfspdJ jpirf;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhdjhFk;.
cU 1.18 kpd;fhe;jf; fjpu;tPry;
vkJ fz;zhy; ghu;ff ; g;gLk; xsp> fl;Gyd; xsp xU kpdf

; he;jf; fjput; r
P yhFk;. vy;yhtif
8 -1
kpd;fhe;jf; fjpu;tPry;fSk; ntw;wplj;jpy; 2.998  10 ms fjpAilad. xspapd; fjp (c),
miyapay;Gilad. miyfs; Mtu;j;jdj;jpw;Fupad. ,jd; fUj;jhdJ ,tw;wpd;
cr;rpfSk; jhopfSk; xU xOq;fhd ,ilNtisfspy; kPsf;$bad. mLj;Js;s ,U
cr;rpfspd; ,ilj;J}uk; (my;yJ mLj;Js;s ,U jhopfspd; ,ilj;J}uk;) mjd; miyePsk;
 vdg;gLk;. xU Gs;spia xt;nthU nrf;fDf;Fk; fle;J nry;fpdw ; g+uz miyePsq;fs;
my;yJ rf;fuq;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahdJ mt;tiyapd; mjpu;ntz; (v) (kPbwd;) MFk;.
xU nrf;fdpy; Vw;gLk; rf;fuq;fs; vdgjdhy; mjpu;ntz; myfhdJ s-1 (persecond)
my;yJ s-1 vd;gjhf my;yJ hertz (Hz) myfhf ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
MfNt c =
miyePsk;
cU 1.19 xU kpd;fhe;j miy
14
cjhuzk; 1.3: nghJ ,lq;fspy; ntsprr; %l;lg; gad;gLk; Nrhbak; Mtp tpsf;fpdhy;
toq;fg;gLk; kQ;rs; miyePsk; 589nm. ,f;fjpug
; g
; pd; mjpun
; tz;izf;
fzpfF; f.
c  3.00 108 m / s  1nm 

tpil:     9   5.09 1014 s 1
  589nm  10 m 
kpd;fhe;jf; fjpu;tr
P ypd; ntt;NtW tiffs; mtw;wpdJ ntt;NtW miyePsq;fspypUe;J
ntt;NtWtif ,ay;Gfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. kpd;fhe;j miyfis mtw;wpd; miyePs
VWtupirapy; xOq;fikj;Jg; ngwg;gLtJ kpd;fhe;j epwkhiy MFk;.
miyePsk; (m)
--------
fhkhf; fPo;
X - fjpu;fs; Cjh Ez;fy thndhyp kPbwd;
fjpu;fs; fle;j nrd;w
kPbwd; (s-1)
fl;Gyg; gFjp
cU 1.20 kpd;fhe;j epwkhiy
1.2.1 rf;jpr; nrhl;lhf;fk;
1900 ,y; kf;]; gpshq; (1858 - 1947) vd;w xU N[u;khdpa ngsjpftpayhsu;> rf;jpahdJ
nrhl;lhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjhtJ mZf;fshy; rf;jpahdJ ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJk;
cwpQ;rg;gLk; NghJk; njhlu;r;rpaw;w rpwpa msTfshf ntsptplg;gLk; vdg; gpNuupj;jhu;.
kpd;fhe;j miyahy; cwpQ;rg;gLk; my;yJ fhyg;gLk; kpfr; rpwpa rf;jpapd; msthdJ
rf;jpr; nrhl;L (“jpl;lkhd msT” vdg; nghUs;gLk;) vdg; gpshq; ngaupl;lhu;. xU
jdpr; nrhl;bd; rf;jp> E MdJ fjpu;tPrypd; mjpu;ntz;zpd; xU khwpypapd; klq;fhf
mikAk; vdg; gpNuupj;jhu;.
E = h
khwpyp h MdJ gpshq;fpd; khwpyp (Plank’s constant ) vd miof;fg;gLtJld; mjd;

ngWkhdk; 6.626  10-34 J s MfTk; mikAk;.
15
cU 1.21 my;Ngl; Id;]uPd; kf;]; gpshq;

(Albert Einstein) (Max Plank)
1905 ,y; my;Ngl; Id;];uPd; (1879 - 1955) gpshq;fpd; rf;jpr; nrhl;Lf; nfhs;ifia
tpupthf;fpaNghJ> cNyhf Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J ntspg;gLk; fjpu;g;Gfs; kpfr;rpwpa rf;jpg;
nghjpfs; fw;iwfs; MFnkd ca;jj ; wpe;jhu;. xt;nthU nghjpAk; rf;jpapd; Jzpf;iffs;
Nghy; (particle of energy) miktjhy; mit Nghl;Nlhd;fs; vd miof;fg;gl;ld. mj;Jld;
xt;nthU Nghl;NlhDk; (Photon) xspapd; mjpun
; tz;zpd; gpshq;fpd; khwpypapd; ngWkhd
klq;Ffshf mikAk;.
Nghl;Nlhdpd; rf;jp = E = h
cjhuzk; 1.4: 589nm miyePsKs;s xU kQ;rs; xspapd; xU Nghl;Nlhdpd;

rf;jpiaf; fzpf;Ff.
c
tpil: v  5.09  1014 s 1

E   6.626  10 34 Js  5.09 10 4 s 1   3.37  1019 J
xU Nghl;Nlhd; toq;Fk; fjpu;g;Gr;rf;jp 3.37 x 10-19J,

MfNt ehq;fs; xU %y; Nghl;Nlhdpd; rf;jpiaf; fzpg;gpd;
(6.02 x1023 photons/mol) (3.37 x10-19 J/photon)
= 2.03 x105 J/mol rf;jp
Ijurd; mZtpw;fhd Nghupd; khjpupapd; Nkk;gLj;jiyj; njhlu;e;J te;j tUlq;fspy;>

gupNrhjidr; #o;epiyfspy; Njhw;Wfpd;w fjpu;g;ghdJ miy xj;j my;yJ Jzpf;if
xj;j Nghl;Nlhd; ,ay;GilaJ vd epWtg;gl;lJ.
Y}ap]; b GNuhf;yp (1892-1987) vd;ghu; jkJ fUj;ij tpUj;jpahf;Fk;NghJ fjpu;g;Gr;

rf;jpahdJ nghUj;jkhd epge;jidfspd; fPo; Jzpf;iffspd; fw;iwfshf elg;gpDk;
rlkhdJ nghUj;jkhd epge;jidfspd; fPo; miyapd; ,ay;igf; fhl;lf;$baJ.
b GNuhf;ypapd; gupe;Jiug;gpd;gb xU mZtpd; fUitr; Rw;wp mirAk; ,yj;jpud;
miyapd; elj;ijia xj;jpUg;gJld; xU miyePsj;ijAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mtuJ
16
gpNuupg;gpd;gb xU ,yj;jpud; my;yJ VjhtJ xU Jzpf;ifapd; miyePskhdJ mjd;

jpzpT m, kw;Wk; mjd; Ntfk; V vd;gtw;wpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
h

mV
,q;F h gpshq;fpd; khwpyp. ve;jnthU nghUspd; mv vDk; fzpakhdJ mjd; ce;jk;

(p) vdg;gLk;.
b GNuhf;ypapd; fUJNfhs;fs; vy;yhr; rlj;Jf;Fk; nghUj;jkhf miktjhy;> jpzpT

m ck;> Ntfk; V ck; cila ve;jnthU nghUSk; rlj;jpw;F miyr; rpwg;gpay;igf;
nfhLf;fpd;wJ. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; rhjhuz msTila xU nghUs;> Nfhy;g; ge;ijg;
Nghd;w xd;wpw;F mjDld; ,ize;j miyePskhdJ kpfTk; rpwpjhifahy; Kw;whf
mtjhdpf;fg;gl KbahjJk; MFk;. ,J xU ,yj;jpudpw;Fg; nghUe;jhJ Vnddpy;
mjd; jpzpT kpfr; rpwpaJ.
1.3 mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpud; rf;jp kl;lq;fs;
jiuepiyapYs;s jdpahf;fg;gl;l thAepiy mZ my;yJ madpypUe;J Xu; ,yj;jpuid

mfw;wj; Njitahd Mff;Fiwe;j rf;jpahdJ mt;tZ my;yJ madpd; madhf;f
rf;jp vdg;gLk;. madhf;f rf;jpapd; mstpypUe;J vkf;Ff; $wg;gLtJ ahnjdpy; xU
,yj;jpuid mfw;w vt;tsT rf;jp Njitg;gLfpwJ@ madhf;f rf;jp $baJ vdpd; xU
,yj;jpuid mfw;wy; kpff; fbdk; vd;gjhFk;.
jug;gl;l %yfj;jpy; mLj;jLj;j ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;gLk;NghJ madhf;f rf;jpfs;

mjpfupff; pd;wd. ,g;Nghf;F Vnddpy; xt;nthU mLj;jLj;j mfw;wypd;NghJk; mjpfupj;Jr;
nry;Yk; Neuadpd; Vw;wj;Jld;> xU ,yj;jpuid ntspafw;Wk;NghJ mjpfupjJ; r; nry;fpdw
; >
$ba rf;jp Njitg;gLfpd;wik MFk;.
xU mf-Xl;L ,yj;jpud; mfw;wg;gLk; NghJ madhf;f rf;jpapy; Vw;gLfpdw

; xU njspthd
mjpfupg;ghdJ ,yj;jpud;fs; njhlu;r;rpaw;w rf;jp kl;lq;fspy; miktjw;Fr; rhd;whFk;.
fUtpw;F mUNf nry;Yk;NghJ (mf Xgpw;wy;fs;) xU ,yj;jpuid mfw;Wtjw;Fj;
Njitahd rf;jp cau;thFk;.
17
ml;ltiz 1.1 Nrhbaj;jpypUe;J Mfd; tiuapyhd mLj;jLj;j madhf;f rf;jpg;

ngWkhdq;fs;. (kJ mol-1)
............ I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
(cs;Nshl;L ,yj;jpud;fs;)
1.3.1 Ijurd; epwkhiy
ntspr;rf; Fkpo;fs;> el;rj;jpuq;fs; cs;slq;fyhd ngUksT nghJthd fjpu;tPry;

%yfq;fs;> cUthf;Fk; fjpu;g;Gfs; gy ntt;NtW miyePsq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Nkw; gb Kjy;f spypUe; jhd fjpu; tP r y; $Wfspd; miyeP sq; f s; mbg; g ilapy;
gpupf; f g; g l; l NghJ xU jpUrpak; (epwkhiy) cUthf; f g; g Lfpd; w J. vy; y hf;
miyePsq;fspYk; xspiaf; nfhz;l ,e;epwq;fspd; tPrr ; hdJ njhlu; epwkhiy vdg;gLk;.
vy;yhf; fjput ; r
P y; Kjy;fSk; njhlu; epwkhiyiaf; nfhLg;gjpyi
; y. jho; mKf;fj;jpy;
ntt;NtW thAf;fisf; nfhz;l Foha;fspD}L cau; mOj;jk; gpuNahfpf;fg;gl;lNghJ>
thAf;fs; ntt;NtW epwq;fisf; fhyy; nra;fpd;wd. cjhuzj;jpwF ; epNahd; thAthy;
xsp fhyg;gLk;NghJ gupr;rakhd rptg;G - nrk;kQ;rs; xspu;itj; jUk; “epNahd;” xsp
ngwg;gLfpd;wJ. Nkw;gb Foha;fs; ntspg;gLj;Jk; xsp xU mupaj;jpD}L nrYj;jg;gLk;
NghJ> tpisthfg; ngwg;gLk; epwkhiyapy; rpy miyePsq;fs; kl;Lk; mikfpd;wd.
Fwpjj; miyePsq;fis kl;Lk; nfhz;l xU epwkhiyahdJ Nfhl;L epwkhiy vdg;gLk;.
cU 1.22 Ijurd; Nfhl;L epwkhiy
18
1800 fspd; eLg;gFjpfspy; tpQ;Qhdpfs; Ijurd; Nfhl;L epwkhiy gw;wpa njspthd

fw;wy;fis mwpe;jdu;. ,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy; ehd;F NfhLfs; 410nm (Cjh)> 434nm
(ePyk;)> 486nm (ePy-gr;ir) mj;Jld; 656nm rptg;G kl;Lk; epwkhiyapy; mtjhdpff
; g;gl;lJ.
Ijurdpd; Nfhl;L epwkhiyia tpsf;fr; rf;jpr; nrhl;lhf;fy; gw;wpa gpshq;fpd; fUj;JfSk;

Nghupd; mZkhjpupAUTk; ,ize;J nghUj;jg;ghlhf mike;jd.
gd;l; njhlu;
gpuhf;fw; njhlu;
ghrd; njhlu;
ghku; njhlu;
iykd; njhlu;
cU 1.23 Ijurdpd; rhj;jpakhd ,yj;jpud; ntspg;ghLfs;
mZitr; Rw;wp mDkjpf;fg;gl;l xt;nthU xOf;Fk; n ,d; ntt;NtW ngWkhdq;fSld;

njhlu;GilaJ. (rkd;ghl;bYs;s KOntz;) NkYk; KjyhtJ mDkjpff ; g;gl;l xOf;fpd;
(fUTf;F kpf mz;ikapYs;s xd;W) n = 1, ,uz;lhtjhd n = 2 ck; ,t;thNw
NkYk; mikAk; ntspgg ; Lj;jypd; tpisT Nfhl;L epwkhiy> MfNt ,j;jhz;ly;fSf;F
ENghl;Nlhd; = h = hc/ = -E= - (Ef-Ei)
nf MdJ ni ,Yk; FiwT> ,yj;jpud; $ba rf;jp xOf;fpypUe;J Fiwe;j rf;jp

xOf;fpw;F tpOtjdhy;  MdJ kiwahdjhFk;. rhj;jpakhd ntspg;ghLfspd;
tpisit Ijurd; Nfhl;L epwkhiyapy; mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
19
kPbwd; (Hz)/1015
ghrd; njhlu; ghku; njhlu; iykd; njhlu;

(fPo;r; nrd;dpwk;) (fl;Gyd;) (Cjh - fle;j)
cU 1.24(a) Ijurd; Nfhl;L epwkhiy
iykd; ghku; njhlu; ghrd; njhlu;

njhlu; n1=2 n1=3
n1=1
cU 1.24(b) Ijurd; fhyy; epwkhiy
iykd; njhlupy; rf;jp ,ilntspfspd; xg;gl P ;L mstpy; ngupjhtjhy; NfhLfspd;

miyePsq;fs; xd;iwnahd;W neUq;fpr; nry;Yk;. ghku; njhlupy; rhu;gstpy; Fiwe;j
rf;jpf;Fupadthjyhy; NfhLfs; J}u tpyfpr; nry;Yk;.
mZitr; #oTs;s ntspapy; ,yj;jpud;fspd; rhj;jpakhd epiyahdJ (Xgpw;wypd;

tbtq;fs;) vt;thW fUitr; #o ,yj;jpud; mlHj;jp guk;gpAs;sJ vd vkf;Ff;
fhl;LfpwJ. XH s- Xgpw;wYf;Fupa ,yj;jpud; mlHj;jpahdJ xOq;fhd Nfhs tbtpy;
fUit ikag;gLj;jpajhf my;yJ NtW nrhw;fspy; $Wtjhapd; s Xgpw;wy;fs; Nfhs
tbtkhdit vdyhk;.
cU 1.25 s Xgpw;wy; tbtq;fs;
20
xt;nthU p cgrf;jpkl;lKk; %d;W Xgpw;wy;fs;> ml: -1, 0, 1 vd;w %d;W mDkjpf;fg;gl;l

ngWkhdq;fSld; njhlHGiladthFk;. ,yj;jpudlHj;jp s Xgpw;wypd; Nfhstbt guk;gy;
Nghd;W mikahJ. gjpyhf> fUtpd; ,UGwKk; ,UgpuNjrq;fspy; nrwpthf;fg;gl;L>
fUtpwF; mz;ikapYs;s xU fZtpdhy; Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. ,t; ~~lk;ngy;|| tbt (dumbbell
tbtk;-,UKidTUf;fUtp Nghd;wJ) Xgpw;wyhdJ ,UNfhsg;gFjpfisf; (two lobes)
nfhz;ljhFk;.
xt;nthU n ,d; ngWkhdj;jpw;Fk;> %d;W p Xgpw;wy;fSk; xNu gUkd;> tbtk;

cilad MapDk; xd;W kw;wjpypUe;J Ntwhd ntsprhHe;j epiyf;;FupadthFk;
(spatial orientation). ,tw;iw trjpf;fhf px, py, pz Xgpw;wy; vdg; ngauplg;gLfpwJ. ,q;F
fPof
; F
; wpfs; (subscripts) Xgpw;wy;fs;. njf;fhl;bd; mr;Rfs; (Cartesian axis) topNa jpirg;
gLj;jg;gl;L miktjidf; Fwpf;Fk;.
cU 1.26 p Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtq;fs;
xU jug;gl;l Xl;bYs;s ntt;NtW d-Xgpw;wy;fs; NtWgl;l tbtq;fSk; ntspapy;

jpirg;gLj;jYk; nfhz;ld. f-Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtq;fs; d-Xgpw;wy;fis tpl NkYk;
rpf;fyhditahFk;.
1.3.3 Xgpw;wy;fSk; (kz;byk;) rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fSk;
Nghupd; khjpupahdJ xU xOf;fpid tpgupg;gNjhL xU jdpahd rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;>

n ,id mwpKfg;gLj;jpaJ. nrhl;L nghwpKiw khjpup> %d;W nrhl;nlz;fs; n,  ,
meI gad;gLj;JfpwJ. ,it xU mZtpy; mike;Js;s ,yj;jpud;fspd; xU Xgpw;wiy
tpgupg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l fzpj KbthFk;. mj;Jld; ms MdJ ,yj;jpudpd;
fwq;fiy tpgupg;gjhFk;.
1. Kjd;ikr; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;> n, 1, 2, 3----- Nghd;w Neu;KOntz; ngWkhdq;fisf;
nfhz;bUf;f KbAk;. mZtpy; ,yj;jpud; mikAk; gpujhd rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;
(,yj;jpud; XL) vd ,r;rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fis tiuaWf;fyhk;. n mjpfupff ; pdw
; NghJ
Xgpw;wy; ngupjhf tUtJld; NkYk; fUtpypUe;J ,yj;jpud; $ba Neuj;ijf;
fopg;gjhfTk; mikAk;.
21
2. Nfhzce;j (my;yJ jpirtpw;) rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz;> 1> vd;gJ xt;nthU n ,d;

ngWkhdj;jpw;Fk; 0 Kjy; (n - 1) tiu KOntz; ngWkhdq;fisf; nfhz;lika
KbAk;. ,r; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;zhdJ Xgpw;wypd; tbtj;ij tiuaWf;Fk;. xU
Fwpj;j xgpw;wYf;Fupa l ,d; ngWkhdq;fs; s, p, d kw;Wk; f Mfpa vOj;Jf;fs;
nghJthf l ,d; ngWkhdq;fs; KiwNa 0, 1, 2 kw;Wk; 3 Mfpatw;wpw;Ff; Fwpj;
njhJf;fg;gLk; (epakpf;fg;gLk;).
xNu n kw;Wk; l ,d; ngWkhdq;fl;F cupa Xgpw;wy; njhilahdJ cgXL vd

miof;fg;gLk;. xt;nthU cgXLk; xU vz;zpdhYk; (n ,d; ngWkhdk;) kw;Wk;
xU vOj;jpdhYk; (s, p, d my;yJ f vd;w l ,d; ngWkhdj;Jld; njhlHGgl;ljhf)
Fwpj;njhJf;fg;gl;ljhf mikAk;. cjhuzkhf n = 3 ck; l = 2 cila Xgpw;wy;fs;
(epakpf;fg;gl;ljhf) 3d cgXl;bYs;s 3d Xgpw;wy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
3. fhe;jr; rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz;> ml, g+r;rpaj;ij cs;slf;fpa -l Kjy; +l tiuapyhd

KOntz; ngWkhdq;fisf; nfhz;lika KbAk;. ,r;rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; MdJ
ntspapy; (space) xU Xgpw;wypd; rhH epiyia (orientation) tpgupg;gJld; xU
cgXl;bYs;s lf;F rhj;jpakhd Xgpw;wy;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaAk; Fwpf;Fk;.
cjhuzkhf l = 2, ,w;Fr; rhj;jpakhd d cgXlhdJ 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 Mfpatw;why;
Fwpf;fg;gLk; Ie;J Xgpw;wy;fis cilaJ.
4. fwq;fw; fhe;jr; rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz;> ms. msf;F + ½ , - ½ Mfpa ,U rhj;jpakhd

ngWkhdq;fs; xJf;fg;gLk;. ,it ,U> vjpu;jj ; pirfspy; ,yj;jpud; fwq;fKbAk;
vd fhl;Lk;. xU fwq;Fk; Vw;wkhdJ fhe;jg;Gynkhd;wpid cUthf;Fk;. ,U
vjpu;j;jpirfspyhd fwq;fyhjyhy; vjpu;j;jpirfspy; ,U fhe;jg;Gyq;fis
cUthf;Fk;.
22
ml;ltiz 1.2: n, , m ,ilNaahd njhlu;G
n l ,w;Fg; cgXl;bd; m, l ,w;Fg; cgXl;by; cs;s Xl;by; cs;s

nghUj;jkhd FwpaPL nghUj;jkhd Xgpw;wy;fspd; Xgpw;wy;fspd;
ngWkhdq;fs; ngWkhdq;fs; vz;zpf;if vz;zpf;if
rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz;fSf;Fr; rhj;jpakhd fl;Lg;ghLfs; gpdt

; Uk; Kf;fpa mtjhdq;fspid
vOg;Gfpd;wd.
1. gpujhd rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz; n ,w;Fupa XlhdJ jpUj;jkhf n cgXLfis cilaJ.

xt;nthU cgXLk; l ,w;F mDkjpf;fg;gl;l 0 Kjy; (n - 1) tiuapyhd NtWgl;l
ngWkhdq;fSf;Fj; njhlu;Ggl;ldthFk;. MfNt KjyhtJ XL (n = 1) xNunahU
cgXl;bid 1s (l = 0) cilaJ. ,uz;lhk; XL (n = 2) ,U cgXLfs; 2s (l = 0) ck;
2p (l = 1) ck; cilaJ; %d;whk; XlhdJ %d;W cgXLfs; 3s, 3p kw;Wk; 3d I
nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,t;thW mikAk;.
2. xt;nthU cgXLk; Fwpgg
; pll
; vz;zpfi
; fapyhd Xgpww
; y;fis cilad. xt;nthU
Xgpw;wYk; mDkjpff ; g;gl;l ml ,d; ntt;NtW ngWkhdq;fSld; njhlHGgl;ljhFk;.
xU jug;gl;l l f;F> ml ,d; mDkjpf;fg;gl;l (2l + 1) ngWkhdq;fs; -l Kjy; +l
tiuapyhf mikAk;. MfNt xt;nthU s (l = 0) cgXLk; xU Xgpw;wiyf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. xt;nthU p (l = 1) cgXLk; %d;W Xgpw;wiyf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
xt;nthU d (l = 2) cgXLk; Ie;J Xgpw;wy;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. kw;Wk; ,t;thNw
4k; XLk; mikAk;.
3. xU Xl;bYs;s nkhj;j Xgpw;wy;fs; n2, ,q;F n MdJ mt; Xl;bd; gpujhd
rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz;zhFk;. XLfl;Fupa tpisthd Xgpw;wy;fspd; vz;zpf;iffs;
1> 4> 9> 16 vd;gjhFk;. Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizAld; njhlu;GilajhFk;@ ,t;
ntz;fspy; ,Uklq;Ffshf xU Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; ,iltupirapYs;s
%yfq;fspd; vz;zpf;if mikAk;.
23
1.4 ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;G
mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpud; fl;likg;gf;fisf; fUJk;NghJ: xU gy;,yj;jpud; mZtpy;>

xU Fwpj;j n ,d; ngWkhdj;jpw;F l ,d; ngWkhd mjpfupg;Gld; xU Xgpw;wypy;
rf;jpAk; mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;. cjhuzkhf> n=3 ,w;F Xgpw;wy;fspd; rf;jp mjpfupg;G
tupirahdJ 3s<3p<3d vd;gJld; xU cg Xl;bd; vy;yh Xgpw;wy;fSk; (Ie;J 3d
Xgpw;wy;fisg;Nghy) rk rf;jpAilajhf> Ijurd; mZtpy; mit nraw;gLtJNghy;
mikAk;. rkrf;jpAila Xgpw;wy;fs; (degenerate orbitals) vdg;gLk;.
1.4.1 fl;bnaOg;gw; Nfhl;ghL (The Aufbau principle)
xU mZtpy; ,yj;jpud;fs; epuk;Gk;NghJ Fiwe;j rf;jpAila cgkl;lj;jpy; Muk;gpj;J

~~fl;bnaOg;gw; Nfhl;ghl;bw;F|| mikaj; njhlHe;J Nkw;nry;Yk;. (N[Hkdpa thHj;ijahd
Aubau vd;gJ fl;bnaOg;gy; vdg; nghUs;gLk;).
,q;Nf Muk;gpj;J xd;wd;gpd; xd;whf

mk;Gf;Fwp topNa nry;Yf.
cU 1.27 gy;,yj;jpud; mZf;fspd; Xgpw;wy;fspd; nghJthd rf;jp tupir
24
NkYk; rf;jp kl;lq;fspy; (Xgpw;wy;fspy;) nghJthd rf;jp xOq;fhdJ
mOj;jr; rf;jp
cU 1.28 xU mZtpd; rf;jp kl;l xOq;F
1.4.2 ngsypapd; jtpHf;iff; Nfhl;ghL (The Pauli Exclusion Principle)
ngsypapd; jtpHf;iff; Nfhl;ghL vd;gJ 1925 ,y; Wolfgang Pauli vd;gtuhy;

Kd;itf;fg;gl;lJ. ,J xU mZtpy; ,U ,yj;jpud;fs; rkkhd rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;
n, l, ml ck; ms ck; nfhz;l njhilapidf; nfhz;lika KbahJ vdf; $WfpwJ.
xU jug;gl;l Xgpw;wypw;F n, l kw;Wk; ml ,d; ngWkhdq;fs; epiyj;jit. vdNt ehk;

xU Xgpw;wiy xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l ,yj;jpuid ,Lk;NghJ> ngsypapd; jtpHf;iff;
Nfhl;ghl;bidj; jpUg;jp nra;aNtz;bd;> ,yj;jpudpd; ms f;F NtWgl;l ngWkhdq;fis
xJf;F tNj xNunahU njupthf mikAk;. xU Xgpw;wyhdJ Mff;$ba ,U
,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;lika KbAk; vd;gJld; mit fl;lhak; vjpnujpH fwq;fiyAk;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; vd ,J $WfpwJ. xU mZtpd; ,yj;jpud;fis milahsg;gLj;j
mtw;wpd; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;fisg; gad;gLj;j ,t;tiuaiwfs; vq;fis mDkjpff
; pdw
; d.
NkYk;> xU Xgpw;wiy cila xt;nthU s cgXLk; Mff;$baJ ,U ,yj;jpud;fisf;

nfhz;bUf;fKbAk;@ %d;W Xgpw;wy;fis cila xt;nthU p cgXLk; Mff;$baJ
MW ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fKbAk;; Ie;J Xgpw;wy;fis cila xt;nthU
d cgXLk; Mff;$baJ ,U ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fKbAk;;.
,t;thW mikAk; ,yj;jpud;fshdit xU mZtpd; ntt;NtW Xgpw;wy;fSf;fpilNa>

Xgpw;wy;fspd; rhu; rf;jp kw;Wk; ngsypapd; jtpHf;iff; Nfhl;ghl;bw;fikag; gq;fp;lg;gl;
Ls;sd. ,g; gq;fPlhdJ mt; mZtpd; ,yj;jpud; fl;likg;G vd miof;fg;gLk;.
jiuepiy vdg;gLk; mjpepiyahd ,yj;jpud; fl;likg;ghtJ ,yj;jpud;fs; mtw;wpd;
MfTk; jho;e;j rf;jp epiyfspy; cs;sikahFk;.
25
vdpDk;> ngsypapd; jtpHf;iff; Nfhl;ghl;bw;F mika ve;j xU Xgpww

; ypYk; Mff;$baJ
,U ,yj;jpud;fNs fhzg;glyhk;. Mjyhy;> Xgpw;wy;fshtd> Xgpw;wnyhd;wpw;F
,yj;jpud;fspw;F Nkw;glhjtifapy; mjpfupf;Fk; rf;jpabg;gilapy; epug;gg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzj;jpw;F> %d;W ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;l ypjpak; mZtpy; 1s Xgpw;wyhdJ

mtw;wpy; ,U ,yj;jpud;fshy; epug;gg;gLk;. %d;whtJ ,yj;jpud; mLj;j kpfj;jho;e;j
Xgpw;wy; 2s ,w;Fs; nry;Yk;. ve;j Xu; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;Gk; epug;gg;gl;l cg Xl;bd;
FwpaPl;Lld; mt; cgXl;bYs;s ,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;ifiaf; Fwpf;Fk; Nkw;;Fwpiar;
Nru;g;gjd; %yk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;glyhk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F> ,ypjpaj;jpw;F 1s22s1
vdTk; Nrhbaj;jpw;F 1s22s22p63s1 vdTk; vOJNthk;.
Xgpw;wy; tiuglk; vdg;gLk; gpwpNjhH gpujpepjpj;Jtj;jpy; xt;nthU Xgpw;wYk; xU

ngl;b my;yJ tl;lj;jpdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLtJld; xt;nthU ,yj;jpuDk; XH miu
mk;Gf;Fwpapdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. Nky;Nehf;fpa miu mk;Gf;Fwp Neuhd fwq;fw; rf;jpr;
nrhl;nlz; (ms= +1/2) cila ,yj;jpuidAk;> fPo;Nehf;fpa miu mk;Gf;Fwp kiwahd
fwq;fw; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; (ms= -1/2) cila ,yj;jpuidAk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;JfpwJ.
; ypy; cs;sNghJ mit Nrhbahf;fg;gl;lit

vjpu; fwq;fy; nfhz;l ,yj;jpud;fs; xNu Xgpww
vdf; $wg;gLk;. Nrhbahf;fg;glhj ,yj;jpud; vd;gJ vjpu; fwq;fYila gq;Fjhup
,yj;jpuDld; ,ize;jpuhj xd;whFk;.
,ypjpak; mZtpy; 1s Xgpw;wypYs;s ,U ,yj;jpud;fs; Nrhbahf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld; 2s

Xgpw;wypYs;s ,yj;jpud; Nrhbahf;fg;gltpy;iy.
1.4.3 Fz;bd; tpjp
Fz;bd; tpjp $WtjhtJ> Fiye;j Xgpw;wy;fspy; $ba ,yj;jpud;fs; xNu fwq;fiyf;

nfhz;liktjhy; Fiwe;j rf;jpiaf; nfhz;likAk;.,jd; fUj;J ahnjdpy; Xgpww ; y;fspy;
,yj;jpud;fs; jdpj;jdpahf Mff;$ba msT mikAk;. mj;Jld; xU jug;gl;l
cgXl;bYs;s ,j; jdp ,yj;jpud;fs; ahTk; xNu fwq;fy; fhe;jrf;jpr; nrhl;nlz;izAk;
cilad. ,t;tifapy; ,yj;jpud; epuk;Gtijr; rkhe;jpu fwq;fy; cilad vd;gH.
c-k;:- fhgd; mZ:- ,U 2p ,yj;jpud;fSk; %d;W 2p Xgpww
; y;fspy>; ,uz;by; jdpjj ; dpahf
epuk;Gk;.
26
ml;ltiz 1.3 N
%yfk; nkhj;j ,yj;jpud;fs; Xgpw;wypd; tiuglk; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;G
1.4.4 RUf;fg;gl;l ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;G
mZntz; 11 cila Nrhbak; mZtpd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G (,yj;jpud; guk;gy;

vdTk; mwpag;gLk;)MdJ 1s22s22p63s1 vd vOjg;gLk;. vt;thwpUg;gpDk; 2p cgXlhdJ
epNahdpy; G+uzkhf epug;gg;gl;L xU cWjpahd> vl;L ,yj;jpud;fis cila (Xu;
ml;lkk;) Mf ntspNaAs;sjhf Mfpd;wJ. ,jid mLj;j %yfkhd Nrhbak;> xU
Gjpa ,iltupiria MtHj;jd ml;ltizapy; xU Gjpa ,iltupir Muk;gpg;gjidf;
fhl;LfpdwJ. NrhbakhdJ epNahdpd; cWjpahd mikg;Gf;F ntspNa xU jdp
,yj;jpuid 3s ,y; cilaJ. MfNt> Nrhbaj;jpd;,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ig [Ne]3s1
vdf; fhl;lKbAk;.
milg;Gf;Fwpf;Fs; cs;s tpOkpa thA mZtpd; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;ig mZtpd;

cs;sf msT gpujpepjpjJ
; tg;gLj;Jk;. toikahfg; ngUk;ghYk;> mf-Xl;L ,yj;jpud;fis
cs;sf ,yj;jpud;fs; vd;gu;.
tpOkpa - thA cs;sfj;jpidj; njhlHe;J mikAk; ,yj;jpud;fs; ntspNahl;L

,yj;jpud;fs; my;yJ tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ntspNahl;L
,yj;jpud;fs; ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfspy; cs;slf;fg;gLk;. ,it tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs;
vdg;gLk;.
27
,NjNghd;W nghRgurpd; 15 ,yj;jpud;fSk; 1s22s22p63s23p3 my;yJ [Ne]3s23p3

vd gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gl KbAk;. fy;rpak; nfhz;likAk; 20 ,yj;jpud;fSk;
2 2 6 2 6 2 2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s my;yJ [Ar]4s vd vOjg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; 1.5: (a) jiuepiyapy; 14 ,yj;jpud;fis cila rpypf;fdpd;

,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;ig vOJf.
(b) rpypf;fd; mZthdJ jiuepiyapy; vj;jid Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;likAk;.
tpil: (a) 1s22s22p63s23p2 my;yJ [Ne]3s23p2
(b)
mghT jj;Jtg;gb> tpOkpa thA %yfk; Mfdpd; (1s22s22p63s23p6)mikg;Gf;F ntspNa

mLj;j ,yj;jpudhdJ 3d ,w;fy;yhJ 4s ,w;F nry;Yk;. MfNt Mfidj; njhlu;e;
jikAk; %yfkhd nghl;lhrpak; (K) MdJ 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 my;yJ [Ar]4s1 ,idf;
nfhz;likAk;. 4s Xgpw;wy; Kw;whf epuk;gpajid (,J fy;rpak; mZtpy; epfOk;)
njhlu;e;J mLj;j njhil Xgpw;wy;fspy; epuk;GtJ 3d Xgpw;wyhFk;.
3d Xgpw;wy;fs; xt;nthd;wpYk; ,U ,yj;jpud;fshf epug;gg;gl;lgpd; 4p Xgpw;wy;fs;>

gpwpnjhU tpOkpathA fpupg;ldpy; (Kr) mZntz; 36 ,yj;jpud; mikg;ig ntspNahl;by;
cila ml;lkj;ij (4s24p6) milAk;tiu epug;gg;gLk;. Fiwe;j Vw;wq;fspy; fhzg;gLk;
KOikahf epuk;gpa my;yJ miu-epuk;gpa ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;Gfs; Vida
%yfq;fspd; ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;GfSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ cWjpahditahFk;.
,NjNghd;W s2, p6 kw;Wk; d10 mikg;Gila ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;Gfs; xg;gl
P ;L mstpy;
kpf cWjpahd %yf mZf;fshFk;.
c-k;:- Zn; [Ar]3d104s2, Mg: [Ne]3s2 kw;Wk; Ar; [Ne]3s23p6 xg;gl

P ;L mstpy; cWjpahd
mZf;fs; MFk;.
28
fye;Jiuahlg;gl;l ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;G tpjpfspypUe;J tpyfp mikAk; rpy Fwpj;j

%yfq;fSk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzj;jpw;F> FNuhkpaj;jpy; (mZntz; 24) ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ghdJ ehk;

vjpu;ghu;f;Fk; [Ar]3d44s2 3d44s2 f;F gjpyhf [Ar]3d54s1 Mf mikAk;. ,NjNghd;W
nrk;gpy; (mZntz; 29) ,yj;jpud; mikg;ghdJ [Ar]3d94s2 ,w;F gjpyhf [Ar]3d104s1
MFk;. ,j;jifa mrhjhuz elj;ijf;F 3d kw;Wk; 4s Xgpw;wy;fspd; rf;jpfs; neUq;fpa
jhf miktNj fhuzkhFk;. Jy;ypakhf miuepuk;gy; (FNuhkpaj;jpw;F mikjy;Nghy)
my;yJ KOepuk;gy; (nrk;gpy; mikjy;Nghy) nfhz;l d cgXl;by; miktjw;Fg;
NghJkhd ,yj;jpud;fs; fhzg;gLnkdpy; ,j;jifa xg;gl P ;lstpy; cWjpahd ,yj;jpu
dpiyaikg;G mbf;fb Vw;glKbAk;.
(vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; 4s epuk;gpa gpdN

; g 3d Xgpww
; y;fs; epug;gg;gl;lhYk; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
vOjg;gLk; NghJ nghJthf 3d Kjypy; vOjg;gl;l gpd;Ng 4s vOjg;gLk; vd;gjidf;
ftdj;jpw; nfhs;f).
1.5 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;Gjy;

gz;ila fhyj;jpypUe;Nj ,urhad %yfq;fs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. nghd;
(Au) Nghd;w Fwpj;j %yfq;fs; ,aw;ifapNy %yf epiyapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd
Mapuf;fzf;fhd tUlq;fs; Kd;Ng fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwJ. ,jw;F khwhf technetium
(Tc) Nghd;w rpy %yfq;fs; fjput
; r
P y; jd;ikAk; cs;shu;ej
; cWjpjj
; d;ikaw;wJkhdit
vd;gJld; mit 20k; E}w;whz;by; njhopy;El;gk; tpUj;jpailaj; njhlq;fpagpd;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;ld.
mwpag;gl;l %yfq;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupj;jNghJ tpQ;Qhdpfs; mtw;iwg; ghFgLj;j

; du;. 1869 ,y; Jkpj;jpup tpthDr; nkd;lypt; (Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev) vd;gtH
Muk;gpjj
U\;ahtpYk; (1869 ,y;) kw;Wk; nthju; Nk[u; (Lothar Meyer) N[u;kdpapYk; Vwf;Fiwa
xj;j ghFghl;Lj; jpl;lq;fis ntspapl;ldu;. mZj;jpzpT VWtupirapy; %yfq;fis
xOq;FgLj;Jk;NghJ xj;j ,urhad kw;Wk; ngsjPf ,ay;Gfspy; Mtu;j;jdj; jd;ik
miktjid ,UtUk; mtjhdpj;jdu;. mf;fhyfl;lj;jpy; tpQ;QhdpfSf;F mZvz;
gw;wpa mwpT ,d;ikahf ,Ug;gpDk; mZntz; vd;w vz;zf;fU mwpKfj;jpd;gpd;
Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizf; fl;likg;Gf; fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;lJ.
cU 1.29 Jkpj;jpup tpthDr; nkd;lypt; nthju; Nk[u;
29
rpytif jd;dpri ; rahd topKiwfspy; epuy;fs; ($l;lq;fs;) ngauplg;gLfpdw; d. nghJthf

%d;W ngauplg;gLk; jpl;lq;fs; gad;ghl;by; cz;L. ,tw;wpy; ,uz;L NkNy cs;s
; d. NkNy cs;s gpupT A kw;Wk; B vdf; Fwpff
glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gLfpdw ; g;gl;ld> ngUkstpy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. muhgpa Kiwapy; Fwpf;fg;gLtdtw;wpYk; ghu;ff ; cNuhkd;
,yf;fq;fs; ,j;jpl;lj;jpy; mbf;fb <LgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. $l;lk; 7A> cjhuzkhf> VIIA
vd mbf;fb ngauplg;gLk;.
,ijnahj;j tof;fj;jpy; epuy;fs; 1A ,ypUe;J 8A tiu kw;Wk; 1B Kjy; 8B tiu

,yf;fkplg;gLk;. MfNt jug;gl;l ngau; 7B (my;yJ VIIB) vd;gJ GNshupid (F)
Kjd;ikahf 7A f;Fg; gjpyhff; nfhz;l 7B (my;yJ VIIB) ,w;Fj; jug;gLk;.
30
%yfq;fspd; Mtu;jj
; d ml;ltiz
31
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 1
1.30 %yfq;fspd; Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiz

mZf;fl;likg;G
,f;Fog;gj;ij ePf;Ftjw;fhf J}a> gpuNahfq;fSf;Fupa ru;tNjr ,urhad rq;fkhdJ

(IUPAC) A, B vd;w FwpaPLfs; mw;wJk; 1 Kjy; 18 tiu vz;fshy; $l;lq;fs;
Fwpf;fg;gLtJkhd tof;fj;ijg; gpNuupj;jJ.
%yfq;fspy; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ghdJ Mtu;jj; d ml;ltizapy; mtw;wpd; epiyAld;

njhlu;GilajhFk;. ml;ltizapy; tupirfs; Mtu;jj
; dq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLtJld;
xNu tupirapy; mikAk; %yfq;fs; rpy ,ay;Gfspy; Fwpg;gpl;l Nghf;Ffisf;
fhl;Lfpd;wd.
ml;ltizapy; xNu epuy;fspy; mikAk; xU $l;lq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk; %yfq;fs;

ntspNahl;L (tYtsT) ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gld; njhlu;Ggl;ld> cjhuzkhf> $l;lk;
2 vy;yh %yfq;fSk; ns2 vDk; xU ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;igAk; vy;yh
$l;lk; 3 %yfq;fSk; ns2np1, ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;igAk; xt;nthU
epuypYk; fPo;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ n ,d; ngWkhdk; mjpfupg;Gk; mikAk;.
ml;ltiz 1.4: $l;lk; 2 ,Yk; 13 ,Yk; mikAk; %yfq;fs;
$l;lk; 2 $l;lk; 13
Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; xU $l;lj;jpy; cs;s %yfq;fs; xj;j ngsjPf kw;Wk;

,urhad ,ay;Gfis mbf;fb ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
ml;ltiz 1.5: Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapYs;s rpy $l;lq;fspd; ngau;fs;
$l;lk; ngau; %yfq;fs;
fhu cNyhfq;fs;
fhukz; cNyhfq;fs;
fy;Nfhnfidl;Lfs;
myrd;fs;
tpOkpa thAf;fs;
(mU thAf;fs;)
32
xt;nthU Xl;bYKs;s nkhj;j Xgpw;wy;fspd; vz;zpf;if KiwNa n2: 1, 4, 9 my;yJ

16 f;F rkkhf miktjdhYk; xt;nthU Xgpw;wypYk; ,U ,yj;jpud;fs; itf;fg;gLkhj
yhYk; xt;nthU Xl;bYk; 2n2 tiu: 2, 8, 18 my;yJ 32 ,yj;jpud;fSf;F ,lkspf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapd; xl;Lnkhj;jf; fl;likg;Gk; $l mt; ,yj;jpud;
vz;zpf;ifiag; gpujpgypf;fpd;wJ:
ml;;ltizapd; xt;nthU epiuAk; 2> 8> 18 my;yJ 32 %yfq;fis mjDs;

nfhz;Ls;sJ.
Xgpw;wypy; ,yj;jpud;fs; epuk;Gk; xOq;fpy; Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizahdJ ehd;F

njhFjpfshf NkYk; gpupf;fg;gLfpwJ.
s- njhFg;G f- njhFg;G d- njhFg;G p- njhFg;G
cU 1.31 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapd; gFjpfs;
fhu cNyhfq;fs; ($l;lk; 1 my;yJ 1A) kw;Wk; fhukz; cNyhfq;fs; ($l;lk; 2 my;yJ
2A) vd mwpag;gLk; ,lJgf;fj;jpYs;s ,U epuy;fspYKs;s %yfq;fs; tYtsT
s Xgpw;wy;fs; epug;gg;gl;Lg; ngwg;gLk; %yfq;fshFk;. ,t;tpU epuy;fSk; Mtu;jj
; d
ml;ltizapd; s njhFg;ig Mf;Ffpd;wd.
kpf tyJ Gwj;jpy; MW epuy;fSld; mikAk; njhFg;G ($l;lk; 13 my;yJ 3A to

$l;lk; 18 my;yJ 8A) tYtsT p Xgpw;wy;fs; epug;gg;gl;Lg; ngwg;gLk; p njhFg;igf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. s njhFg;G kw;Wk; p njhFg;G %yfq;fs; xUq;Nf gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk;
%yfq;fs;> rpyrkaq;fspy; gpujhd $l;l %yfq;fs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
cUtpy; p- njhFg;Gf;F Kd;NdAs;s gj;J epuy;fisf; nfhz;l njhFg;G jhz;ly;

cNyhfq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,itNa tYtsT d Xgpw;wy;fs; epug;gg;gl;Lg;
ngwg;gLk; %yfq;fs; vd;gJld; mit d njhFg;ig Mf;Ffpd;wd.
d njhFg;gpw;F ,ilg;gl;l ,U tupirfspy; 14 epuy;fisf; nfhz;likAk; tYtsT

f Xgpw;wy;fs; epug;gg;gl;Lg; ngwg;gLk; %yfq;fs; f njhFg;ig Mf;Ffpd;wd. (vdpDk;
,yj;jpud;fs; epug;gg;gLfpdw; ikAk; vdNt mtw;wpd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gk; rpff
; yhdit
ahFk;). ,it nghJthf f - njhFg;G cNyhfq;fs; my;yJ cl;jhz;ly; %yfq;fs;
vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
33
xt;nthU tif cgXLfspYk; epug;gg;glKbAkhd Mff;$ba ,yj;jpud; vz;zpfi ; fAld;

njhlu;Gilajhf xt;nthU njhFg;gpYKs;s epuy;fspd; vz;zpfi ; fAk; mikfpwjhfpwJ.
2, 6, 10 kw;Wk; 14 ,yj;jpud;fs; s, p, d kw;Wk; f cgXLfspy; epug;gg;glKbAkhjyhy;
KiwNa s njhFg;G 2 epuy;fs;, p njhFg;G 6, d njhFg;G 10 kw;Wk; f njhFg;G
14 epuy;fSk; nfhz;Ls;sd.
1.6 s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fs; fhl;Lk; MtHj;jdg; Nghf;Ffs;

mZf;fspd; ngUksT ,ay;Gfs; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;gpYk; mt;tZtpd; ntspNahl;L
,yj;jpud;fs; vt;tsT typikahff; fUtpdhy; ftug;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gjpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ.
$Nyhkpd; tpjp $WtjpypUe;J. ,U kpd;Ndw;wq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
Vw;wq;fspd; gUkdpYk; mtw;wpd; ,ilj;J}uj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. MfNt> fUtpw;Fk;
,yj;jpudpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd ftu;r;rptpir fUNtw;wj;jpd; gUkdpYk; ,yj;jpudpw;Fk;
fUtpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd ruhrupj; J}uj;jpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ.
,t;tpirahdJ fUNtw;w mjpfupg;Gld; mjpfupg;gJld; fUtpypUe;J ,yj;jpud; tpyfp

,aq;Fk;NghJ FiwtilfpwJ.
gy;-,yj;jpud; mZf;fspidg; nghWj;jtiu xt;nthU ,yj;jpudpwF; k; fUtpd; ftu;rr

; pf;F
Nkyjpfkhf xt;nthU ,yj;jpuDk; kw;iwa ,yj;jpud;fspdhyhd js;SifiaAk;
mDgtpf;fpd;wd. fUtpdhy; ,yj;jpud; kPjhd rpy ftu;r;rpfis ,yj;jpud; - ,yj;jpud;
js;Siffs; Fiwg;gjdhy; NtW ,yj;jpud;fs; ,y;yhjepiyapy; XH ,yj;jpud;
mDgtpg;gjpYk; ghu;ff
; f; Fiwthd ftu;r;rpfis mDgtpf;fpd;wd. gy;-,yj;jpuDila
mZtpy; xt;nthU ,yj;jpuDk; mf ,yj;jpud;fshy; fUtpypUe;J jpiuaplg;gLtjhy;
my;yJ %b kiwf;fg;gLtjhy; ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ jpiuaply;tpisT my;yJ %b
kiwf;fg;gLk; ,ay;G vdf; $wg;gLk;.
MfNt> NtW ,yj;jpud;fs; ,y;yhj epiyia tplf; Fiwe;j Njwpa ftu;r;rpiaNa

mt; ,yj;jpud; mDgtpf;Fk;. ,g; gFjpahfj; jpiuaplg;gl;l fUNtw;wkhdJ gad;gL
fUNtw;wk;> Zeff vDk; gjj;jhy; jug;gLk;. gad;gL fUNtw;wkhdJ vg;NghJk; cz;ikahd
fUNtw;wj;jpYk; FiwthFk; (Zeff<Z).
xU tYtsT ,yj;jpudpw;F jpiuaplypd; ngUk;gFjp fUtpw;F kpf mz;ikapYs;s

cs;sf ,yj;jpud;fshNyNa MFk;. mjd; tpisthf cs;sf ,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;if
kw;Wk; cs;NshLfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupg;Gld; jpiuaply; tpisT mjpfupf;Fk;.
Mtu;jj; d ml;ltizapd; ve;jnthU Mtu;jj ; dj;jpd; topNaAk; gad;gL fUNtw;wkhdJ

,lkpUe;J tykhf mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;. xNu Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;fhf mf ,yj;jpud;
vz;zpf;ifahdJ khwhjpUf;fg; GNuhj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;.
mjpfupf;Fk; fUNtw;wj;ijr; rkg;gLj;jr; Nru;f;fg;gLk; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; xd;iw
nahd;W gadw;w tifapy; jpiuapLk;. ,jdhy;> Zeff MdJ Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; topNa
cWjpahf mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpwJ.
34
1.6.1 mZf;fs; kw;Wk; mad;fspd; gUkd;fs;
vk;kpy; gyu; fUJtJNghy mZf;fs; fbdkhfTk; Nfhsg; nghUl;fshfTk; ,Ug;gjpyi

; y.
rf;jpr;nrhl;L epiy ,af;ftpay; khjpupapd;gb mZf;fs; jpl;lkhd tiuaWf;fg;gl;l
vy;iyfisf; nfhz;bUg;gjpy;iy.
ntt;NtW #o;epiyfspy>; mZf;fspwf

; pilg;gl;l J}uq;fspypUe;J mZf;fspd; gUkd;fis
ehk; ntt;NtW topKiwfspy; tiuaWg;Nghk;.
te;jH thYR Miufs;
jk;Kld; jhf;fkw;w thA %yf;$Wfs;/mZf;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W NkhJk;NghJ mtw;wpy;

,U fUf;fspw;F ,ilg;gl;l Mff;Fiwe;j J}ukhdJ mZthiuapd; ,Uklq;fhf
mikAk;. ,J gpizg;gw;w mZthiu my;yJ te;ju; thYR Miu vdg;gLk;.
te;ju; thYR J}uk; gq;fPl;Lj; J}uk;
te;ju; thYR Miu gq;fPl;L Miu
cU 1.32 gq;fPL kw;Wk; te;ju;thYR Miufs;
gq;fPl;L Miufs;
,it xU %yf;$wpy; mLj;Js;s VjhtJ ,U mZf;fspd; ,ilj;jhf;fq;fshy;

cUthFk; xU ,urhadg; gpizg;ghFk;. gpizg;Gfsw;w Nkhjy;fspy; miktjid
tplg; gpizg;G mZf;fs; kpf neUf;fkhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. xU %yf;$wpYs;s vt;nthU
mZtpdJk; gpizg;G mZthiuahdJ gpizg;G ,ilj;J}uj;jpd; miug;gq;fpw;Fr;
rkkhFk;. (,U gpizg;G mZf;fspd; ,ilj;J}ukhFk;). gpizg;G mZthiuahdJ
(gq;flP ;L Miu vdTk; mwpag;gLk;) gpizg;gw;w mZthiuapYk; FiwthdjhFk;.
35
cNyhf Miufs;
cNyhff; fl;likg;gpYs;s cNyhf mZf;fs; cNyhfg; gpizg;Gfs; Clhfg; gpizf;fg;

gl;bUf;fpd;wd. cNyhff; fl;likg;gpy; mLj;Js;s ,U mZf;fspd; ,ilj;J}ukhdJ
(,U fUf;fspw;F ,ilapyhd; ,ilj;J}ukhFk;) cNyhf Miu vdg;gLk;.
cNyhf Miu
cNyhf ,ilj;J}uk;
cU 1.33 cNyhf Miu
mZthiuapd; Mtu;j;jdg;Nghf;F
Mtu;jj; d ml;ltizapYs;s mZf;fspd; gUkd;fs; ,U Fwpg;gplj;jf;f Nghf;Ffisf;

fhl;Lfpd;wd.
xt;nthU $l;lj;jpYk;> mZthiuahdJ NkypUe;J fPo;tiu mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpwJ.

ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpud;fspd; Kjd;ikr; rf;jpr; nrhl;nlz; (n) ,d; mjpfupg;gpd; tpisNt
,g;Nghf;fpw;fhd gpujhd fhuzkhFk;. epuypy; fPo;Nehf;fp ehk; nry;Nthnkdpd;> ntsp
Nahl;L ,yj;jpud;fspd; fUtpypUe;J tpyfpr; nry;tjw;fhd epfo;jftpd; mjpfupg;G>
mZthiu mjpfupg;gpw;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
xt;nthU Mtu;jj ; dj;jpYk;> ,lkpUe;J tykhf mZthiu FiwAk; Nghf;Nf nghJthff;

fhzg;gLfpwJ. Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; topNa gad;gL fUNtw;wj;jpd; mjpfupg;Ng ,g;Nghf;fpy;
$ba nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; fhuzpahFk;. cWjpahf mjpfupf;Fk; gad;gL fU
Ntw;wj;jpdhy; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; fUtpw;F neUf;fkhf ,Of;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,J
mZthiu Fiwtjw;F VJthfpd;wJ.
36
mZthiu mjpfupg;G
mZthiu mjpfupg;G
d - njhFg;G
cU 1.34 A Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; mZthiuapd; Nghf;F

mZthiu / pm
mZntz;
cU 1.34 B Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; mZthiuapd; Nghf;F
37
mad;fspd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
xU mZtpypUe;J ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;gl;L xU fw;wad; cUthFk;NghJ Mff;$ba

; rhl;nlz;> n cila Xgpww
gpujhd rf;jprn ; y;fspy; epug;gg;gl;litNa Kjypy; mfw;wg;gLk;.
cjhuzj;jpw;F> Nrhbak; mZtpypUe;J (1s22s22p63s1) Xu; ,yj;jpud; mfw;wg;gLk;NghJ,

mjd; 3s1 ,yj;jpudhdJ mfw;wg;gLfpwJ.
Na(1s22s22p63s1 my;yJ [Ne]3s1)  Na+(1s22s22p6 my;yJ [Ne]) +e-
jug;gl;l xU n ,d; ngWkhdj;jpw;F xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l epug;gg;gl;l Xgpww

; y;fs; ,Ug;gpd>;
Mff;$ba l ,d; ngWkhdKila Xgpww ; ypypUe;J Kjypy; mfw;wg;gLk;. cjhuzj;jpwF ; >
xU Nghud; mZthdJ 2s ,ypUe;J ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;glKd; 2p ,ypUe;J
,yj;jpud;fis ,of;Fk;.
B(1s22s22p1)  B+(1s22s2) +e-

B+(1s22s2)  B3+(1s2) + 2e-
Fe ([Ar]3d64s2) ,ypUe;J ,U ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;gLk;NghJ 3d f;F Kd;Ng 4s Xgpw;wy;
epyg;gg;gl;lhYk; 4s2 ,yj;jpud;fNs mfw;wg;gLk;.
Fe([Ar]3d64s2)  Fe2+([Ar]3d6) +2e-
Nkyjpfkhf xU ,yj;jpud; mfw;wg;gl;L Fe3+ cUthFk;NghJ n = 4 f;Fupa Xgpw;wy;

ntw;wplkhf mike;jpUg;gjdhy; 3d Xgpw;wypypUe;Nj ,yj;jpud; mfw;wg;gLk;.
Fe2+([Ar]3d6)  Fe3+([Ar]3d5) +e-
,yj;jpud;fs; xU mZtpw;Fr; Nru;ff

; g;gl;L xU mdad; cUthf;fg;gLk;NghJ> tYtsT
Xl;bYs;s> Mff;Fiwe;j ngWkhdk; cila n ,idf; nfhz;l ntw;wpl my;yJ
gFjpepuk;gpa Xgpw;wy;fspNyNa mit Nru;f;fg;gLk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F> xU GNshupd;
mZtpw;F XH myj;jpud; Nru;f;fg;gl;L F- mad; cUthFk;NghJ> mJ 2p cgXl;by;
kpFjpahfTs;s ntw;wplj;jpw;F epug;gg;gLk;.
F(1s22s22p5) +e-F-(1s22s22p6)
madhiufspd; Mtu;j;jdg; Nghf;F
mZtpd; gUkid xj;jjhfNt> ,adpd; gUkDk; mjd; fUNtw;wk;> mit nfhz;Ls;s

,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;if kw;Wk; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;l Xgpw;wy;fspYk;
jq;fpAs;sJ. xU eLepiy mZtpypUe;J xU fw;wad; cUthFk;NghJ, fUtpypUe;J
kpfTk; tpyfpAs;s mZ Xgpw;wy;fspy; epuk;gpAs;s ,yj;jpud;fNs mfw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
NkYk;, xU fw;wad; cUthf;fg;gLk;NghJ ,yj;jpud; - ,yj;jpud; js;Sif Fiwf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. MfNt fw;wad;fs;> mtw;wpd; jha;; mZf;fistplr; (Parent atom) rpwpad
thFk;.
38
cU 1.35 ngw;Nwhu; mZf;fSld; xg;gplg;gl;l fw;wad; kw;Wk; mdad;fspd; Miufs;
,jd; vjpu;khwhdJ mdad;fSf;F cz;ikahdJ. xU mZtpw;F ,yj;jpud;fisr;

Nru;jJ
; xU mdaid cUthf;Fk;NghJ ,yj;jpud; - ,yj;jpud; js;Sif mjpfupgg
; JNt
,yj;jpud;fs; mjpf ntspapy; guk;gpapUg;gjw;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ. ,jdhy;> mdad;fs;>
mtw;wpd; jha; mZf;fis tplg; (Parent atom) ngupadthFk;.
rkkhd Vw;wj;ijf; fhTk; mad;fSf;F (Neu; kw;Wk; kiw mad;fs; ,uz;bw;Fk;)

Mtu;jj
; d ml;ltiz epuypy; ehk; fPoN ; ehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ madhiu mjpfupff
; pd;wJ.
NtW nrhw;fspy; $wpdhy;> Xu; madpd; MfTk; ntspNa epug;gg;gl;Ls;s Xgpw;wypd;
Kjd;ikr; rf;jpr;nrhl;nlz; mjpfupg;Gld; madpd; Miu mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
xU rk,yj;jpud; njhlu; (isoelectronic series) vd;gJ ahTk; rk vz;zpfi

; fahd ,yj;jpud;
fSila mad;fspd; $l;lkhFk;. cjhuzkhf> rk,yj;jpuDila O2-, F-, Ne, Na+ kw;Wk;
Mg2+ njhlupYs;s xt;nthU maDk; 10 ,yj;jpud;fs; cilad. ve;j xU rk,yj;jpud;
njhlupYk; fUNtw;wkhdJ mZntz; mjpfupg;Gld; mjpfupf;Fk;. ,yj;jpud;fspd;
vz;zpf;if khwhjpUf;fpd;wikahy;> fUTld; ,yj;jpud; typikahff; ftug;gLk;
jfthdJ fUNtw;w mjpfupg;Gld; mjpfupg;gjhy; madhiu FiwfpwJ.
eLepiy mZtpd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G:
rktpyj;jpud; njhlu;:
vy;yh ,dq;fSk; gj;J ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd:
1s22s22p6
cU 1.36 rk,yj;jpud; njhlupd; Miu
39
1.6.2 madhf;f rf;jp
gFjp 1.3 ,d; Muk;gj;jpy; tpsf;fpagb> jdpahf;fg;gl;l thAepiy mZ my;yJ

madpd; jiuepiyapypUe;J xU ,yj;jpuid mfw;wj; Njitahd Mff; Fiwe;j
rf;jpahdJ xU mZ my;yJ madpd; madhf;fr; rf;jp MFk;.
nghJthf> Kjyhk; madhf;fr;rf;jp (I1) vd;gJ thAepiyapYs;s eLepiy mZtpypUe;J

kpfj; jsu;thfg; gpizf;f g;gl;l ,yj;jpuid mfw;wj; Njitahd rf;jpahFk;.
cjhuzj;jpwF ; > ,ypjpaj;jpd; Kjyhk; madhf;frf;jp gpdt
; Uk; nraw;ghl;Lf;Fj; Njitahd
rf;jpahFk;;.
Li(g)  Li+(g) +e-
,uz;lhk; madhf;f rf;jp (I2) vd;gJ thAepiyapYs;s Xu; tYtsT fw;wadpypUe;J

kpfj; jsu;thfg; gpizf;fg;gl;l ,uz;lhk; ,yj;jpuid mfw;wp thAepiy <u; tYtsT
fw;waid cUthf;Fk;NghJ Njitahd rf;jpahFk;. mj;Jld; mNjNghy NkYk;
,yj;jpud;fis mLj;jLj;J mfw;wyhFk;. MfNt> gpdt ; Uk; nraw;ghl;Lld; ,ize;jJNt
,ypjpak; mZtpd; I2 MFk;.
Li+(g) Li2+(g) +e-
jug;gl;l xU %yfj;jpd; mLj;jLj;j ,yj;jpud;fis mfw;Wk;Nghjhd madhf;f rf;jpfs;

VWtupirapy; mikAk;. I1< I2< I3 vd ,NjNghd;W njhlUk;. xt;nthU njhlH
mfw;wypd;NghJk; ,g;Nghf;F mikAk;. Vndd;why; $ba NeuadpypUe;J ,yj;jpud;
mfw;wg;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUg;gjhyhFk;. NkYk; Njitg;gLk; rf;jpahdJ VWtupirapy;
mikfpwJ. ,jw;F Nkyhf ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpuid mfw;Wtjid tplTk; xg;gl P l
; stpy;
mfXl;L ,yj;jpuid mfw;wypd;NghJ madhf;f rf;jp mjpfupg;gjhdJ jpl;lkhdjhFk;.
Vndd;why; mfXl;L ,yj;jpud;fs; fUTf;F neUf;fkhf ,Ug;gjdhy; typikahff;
ftug;gLfpd;wikahFk;.
Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpapd; Mtu;j;jdg;Nghf;F
Mtu;jj
; dj;jpd; topahf Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpahdJ nghJthf mjpfupjJ; r; nry;fpdw
; J.
xt;nthU Mtu;jj ; dj;jpYk; fhucNyhfq;fs; Mff;Fiwe;j madhf;frf;jpiaAk; tpOkpa
thAf;fs; kpfcau; madhf;frf;jpiaAk; fhl;Lk;.
Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; xU epuypy; fPo;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ nghJthf madhf;f

rf;jp Fiwe;J nry;Yk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F $l;lk; 1 ,d; %yfq;fspy; (fhu cNyhfq;fs;)
madhf;f rf;jp gpd;tUk; tupiriaf; nfhz;likAk;. H > Li >Na > K > Rb > Cs > Fr.
jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fspy; fhzg;gLtjidtpl s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspy; I1 MdJ $ba

tPr;irf; nfhz;likAk;. nghJthf> MtHj;jdj;jpd; topNa jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fspd;
Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpahdJ ,lkpUe;J tykhf nkJthf mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;.
40
mZg;gUkd; kPJ nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; mNj fhuzpfNs madhf;f rf;jpkJ P k; nry;thf;F

nrYj;Jfpdw; d. ntspNaAs;s Xl;by; epuk;gpAs;s ,yj;jpuid mfw;Wtjw;Fj; Njitahd
rf;jpahdJ gad;gL fUNtw;wk;> fUtpypUe;J ,yj;jpudpw;fhd ruhrup ,ilj;J}uk;
Mfpa ,uz;bYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. gad;gL fUNtw;wj;jpd; mjpfupgG; my;yJ fUtpypUe;jhd
ruhrupj; J}uk; Fiwe;J nry;Yjy; my;yJ ,uz;bYk; fUtpw;Fk; ,yj;jpudpw;Fk;
,ilapyhd ,ilf;ftu;r;rp jq;fpAs;sJ. ,t; ,ilf;ftu;r;rp mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ xU
,yj;jpuid mfw;wy; NkYk; fbdkhfpr; nry;tjdhy; madhf;f rf;jp mjpfupj;Jr;
nry;Yk;.
madhf;fw;rf;jp mjpfupj;jy;
madhf;fw;rf;jp mjpfupj;jy;
cU 1.37 MtHj;jd ml;ltizapy; Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpapd; Nghf;F

madhf;fw;rf;jp (KJ/ mol)
cU 1.38 %yfq;fspd; mZntz;Zld; Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpfspd; khWghL
41
xU jug;gl;l Mtu;j;jdj;jpy; Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpapd; Nghf;fpy; rpwpa xOq;fPdq;fs;

mike;jhYk; mJ tpsq;fg;gLj;jf;$bajhFk;. nghJthf cWjpahd mikg;Gfshd
g+uzkhf epuk;gpa cgXLfs; (c-k;:- $l;lk; 2> $l;lk; 12 kw;Wk; $l;lk; 18) my;yJ
gFjp epuk;gpa cgXLfs; (c-k;:- $l;lk; 7 kw;Wk; $l;lk; 15) vd;gd nghJthd
Nghf;fpy; vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLtjpYk; ghu;ff
; $ba madhf;f rf;jpiaf; nfhz;likAk;.
cjhuzkhf> ,uz; l hk; Mtu; j ; j dj; j py; g+uzepuk; g y; cila Xl; b idf;
nfhz;liktjhy; epNahd; MdJ kpff;$ba Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpAilaJ. ngupypa
khdJ epuk;gpa cgXl;bidf; nfhz;liktjhy; vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLtjpYk; ghu;ff ; f;$ba
Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpiaf; nfhz;liktJld; NghuidtplTk; I1 MdJ $bajhfTk;
mikAk;. ,NjNghd;W iejurdhdJ jpl;lkhf miuepuk;gyile;j p cgrf;jpkl;lj;ijf;
nfhz;liktjhy; $ba I1 If; fhl;LtJld; nghJthff; Fwpg;gpLtjpYk; $bajhFk;.
madhf;fw;rf;jp (KJ mol-1)
fUNtw;wk;
cU 1.39 Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; Mthu;j;jdq;fspd; topNa

Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpfspd; khWghL.
thAepiy mZnthd;wpw;F ,yj;jpuidr; Nru;f;Fk;NghJ eilngWfpd;w rf;jp khw;wk;

,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jp vdg;gLk;. ngUk;ghyhd mZf;fspy; Xu; ,yj;jpuidr; Nru;fF
; k;NghJ
rf;jp ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzkhf> FNshupd; mZtpd; ,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jp fPof

; f
; hl;lg;gl;l nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ
xU %y; Cl ,w;F -349 kJ MFk;. ,r; nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ rf;jp tpLtpf;fg;gLtjid
kiwf;FwpaPL Rl;bf;fhl;LfpwJ.
Cl(g)+ e-  Cl-(g) (EEG = -349 kJ mol-1)
(EEG = ,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jp)
42
vt;thwhapDk;> rpy mZf;fs; Neu; ,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jpAilad. cjhuzk;:- Be, N.

P ;lstpy; cWjpahd ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G Be (2s2) kw;Wk;
Vnddpy; ,J mtw;wpd; xg;gl
N (2p3) fhuzj;jhy; MFk;. mj;Jld; xU ,yj;jpuidr; Nru;g;gjd; tpisthf
,yj;jpud; - ,yj;jpud; ,ilj;js;Sif Vw;gLtjdhy; mJNt ,q;F Kjd;ikngWk;
fhuzpahFk;.
N(g)+ e  N-(g) (EEG = +134 kJ mol-1)
Be(g)+ e-  Be-(g) (EEG = +231 kJ mol-1)
ru;tNjr uPjpahf Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ ahnjdpy;> EEG MdJ xU mZtpd; ,yj;jpud;

ftUk; miyepuYf;Fupa ngsjpf fhuzpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. mj;Jld; ,jd; ,yj;jpud;
Vw;wr; rf;jp gpd;tUkhW njhlu;GgLk;.
,yj;jpud; Vw;wr; rf;jp EEG ) = - ,yj;jpud; ehl;lk; (EA )
NkYk;> ,q;F mZtpd; ,yj;jpudhl;lkhdJ EEG cld; neUq;fpa njhlu;GilaJ.

mj;Jld; xU %yu; mdad; thA epiyapy; Xu; ,yj;jpuid ,of;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk;
rf;jp khw;wk; vdTk; $wg;gLk;.
A-(g) + A(g) + e EA . ,jd; gUkd; EEG ,d; vjpuhd FwpaPLilaJ. Mtu;j;jdj;jpd;
topNa mjpfupf;Fk; Neu;g; ngWkhdkhfTk; $l;lk; topNa fPo;Nehf;fp FiwAk; Neu;g;
ngWkhdkhfTk; mikAk;.
1.6.4 kpdn
; djpu;j;jd;ik
xU %yfj;jpYs;s XH mZthdJ ,yj;jpuid> mjid Nehf;fpf; ftUk; jpwdhdJ

mjd; kpd;ndjpu;jj
; d;ik vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. ,yj;jpuidf; ftUk;jpwd; mjpfupg;gpd;
mt; mZtpd; ,yj;jpud; ftUk; jpwd;; $baJ vdg;gLk;.
xU mnkupf;f ,urhapdpahd yPd]; ngsypq; Linus Pauling (1901–1994) vd;gtuhy;

KjypYk; ngUksT tpupthd KiwapYk; kpdn ; djpuj ; j
; d;ik myfpid mgptpUj;jpailar;
nra;ag;gl;lJld; mk;Kiw ngsypq;fpd; myF vdTk; mwpag;gl;lJ. Mtu;j;jd
ml;ltizapy; nghJthf> Mtu;jj ; dj;jpd; topNa ,lkpUe;J tykhf kpdn ; djpu;jj; d;ik
mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wJ. rpy tpjptpyf;FfSld; (tpNrlkhfj; jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fspy;)>
$l;lk; topNa mZntz; mjpfupgG ; ld; kpdn; djpuj
; j
; d;ik Fiwe;J nry;Yk;. ngsypqf ; pd;
myfpypUe;J tpOkpa thAf;fSk; kpfTk; Fiwthd Mdhy; g+rr ; pakw;w kpdn; djpuj
; j; d;ik
Ailad ,U mZf;fs; xU gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk;NghJ mJ mad; my;yJ gq;fl P ;L
,ay;gh vdj; jPuk
; hdpgg
; jw;F> ,tw;wpwF
; ,ilg;gl;l kpdn ; djpuj
; j
; d;ik NtWghL gad;gLk;.
43
$Ljy;
pu; ,ay;G
kpd;ndj
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G mjpfupj;jy;
cU 1.40 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpudhl;lj;jpd; khWghL
ml;ltiz 1.6 A rkd;ghLfs;
44
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 2 fl;likg;Gk; gpizg;Gk;
2. fl;likg;Gk; gpizg;Gk;
cs;slf;fk;

2.1.1 Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fs; kw;Wk; 2.3.4 %yf;$Wfspd; KidTj; jd;ikapy;
kpd;ndjpu; jd;ikapdJk; Nfj;jpu fzpj
Y}apapd; Gs;spfN
; fhl;Lf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
xOq;fikg;gpdJk; jhf;fk;
2.2 <jw; gq;fPl;L tYg; gpizg;Gfs; 2.3.5 ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd;
2.3.6 kpdn; djpu;j; jd;ikapd; gUkdpy; jhf;fj;ij

2.3 tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhbj; js;Siff;
Vw;gLj;Jk; fhuzpfs;
nfhs;if (VSEPR - nfhs;if)
• Neu;Nfhl;L - ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpu 2.4 mad; gpizg;G / mad; ,ilj;jhf;fk;
fzpj xOq;F
• js Kf;Nfhzk; - ,yj;jpud; Nrhb Nfj;jpu 2.5 cNyhfg; gpizg;Gf;fs;
fzpj xOq;F
• ehd;Kfp - ,yj;jpud; Nrhb Nfj;jpu fzpj 2.6 Jiz / top / ,uz;lhk; epiy ,ilj; jhf;fq;fs;/
xOq;F ftu;r;rpfs;
• Kf;Nfhz ,Ugf;f $k;gfk; - ,yj;jpud; • mad; - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
Nrhb Nfj;jpu fzpj xOq;F • ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
• vz;Kfp - ,yj;jpud; Nrhb Nfj;jpu fzpj Ijurd; gpizg;G
xOq;F • mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
• ,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;
2.3.1 mZ Xgpw;wy;fspd; fyg;ghf;fk; jhf;fq;fs;
• yz;ld; ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; (tpirfs;) / fiyT
2.3.2 ,ul;il kw;Wk; Kk;ikg; gpizg;G ,iltpirfs; (fzepiy J}z;lg;gl;l -
cUthjy;. Nrhz;lg;gl;l KidT)
2.3.3 gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;

• guptpd; gz;Gfs;
• Kiwikahd Vw;wk;
• gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fspy; rhu;G
cWjpiaj; Jzptjw;fhd epajpfs;
45
mwpKfk;
epiyaw;w / cWjpaw;w ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;ig cila %yfq;fs; tYtsT Xl;ilg;
g+u;j;jp nra;tjd; %yk; cWjpj; jd;ikiag; ngWtjw;fhf ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfis
cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
gpd;tUk; tiuglk; (tuptbtk;) vt;thW tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; ntt;NtW tifahd

,urhadg; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Fk;nghOJ gq;F nfhs;fpd;wd vdg; gy Vw;Wf;
nfhs;sg;gl;l khjpupAUf;fspd; Clhfr; RUf;fkhfj; jUfpd;wJ.
,urhadg; gpizg;Gfs;
  
,UmZf;fSf;F ,ilapy; cNyhfg; gpizg;Gfs; fw;wad;fis cUthf;F
xU Nrhb ,yj; j pud; f s; ngUk; vz;zpf;ifahd tjw;F Kw;whf ,yj;jpud;fs;
gq;fplg;gLjy;. cNyhf fw;wad;fs; mfw;wg;gLfpdw
; J. mdad;fis
,yj;jpud;fspd; flypdhy; cUthf;Ftjw;F ,yj;jpud;fs;
cWjpahf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. thq;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
  
gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;G <jw; gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;G mad; gpizg;G
,UmZf;fSf;F ,ilapy; ,U mZf;fSf;fpilapy; xU fw; w ad; f Sf; F k; mdad;
xU ,yj;jpud; Nrhb gq;fplg; Nrhb ,yj;jpud; gq;fplg;gLk; fSf;Fkpilapy; cUthFk;
gLk;NghJ xt;nthU mZTk; NghJ mt;tpU ,yj;jpud;fSk; epiy kpd; d pay; ftu; r ; r p
gq;fPl;bw;fhf xt;nthU x U m Z t p d hy ; k l ; L k ; tpirfshy; cUthfpdw ; J.
,yj;jpuid toq;Fk;. toq;fg;gLk;.
cU 2.1 ,urhadg; gpizg;G tiffs;

gq;fl
P L
; g;gpizg;Gfs; xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; xNu %yfj;jpd; ,U mZf;fshy; my;yJ
NtWgl;l %yfq;fspd; ,U mZf;fshy; gq;fplg;gLk;nghOJ cUthfpd;wJ. xt;nthU
mZTk; xt;nthU ,yj;jpuid toq;Ftjd; %yk; xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud; cUthf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf ,U mZf;fspdJk; tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud;fspdJ
nkhj;j vz;zpf;ifiaf; fUJk;NghJ cWjpahd ,yj;jpud; mikg;igg; ngWfpd;wd.
f];nty;Yk; Y}apAk; (Caswell and Lewis) tYtsT Xl;bd; cr;rg; ngWkhdkhf vl;L
(8) ,yj;jpud;fshy; epug;gg;gLk;NghJ cWjpahd ,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;igg; ngWfpd;wd
vdf; fUjpdu;. vdNt mJ ml;lk tpjp (Octet rule) vdg;gLk;.
,yj;jpud; epiyaikg;Gg; gw;wpa mwptpd;gb ,uz;lhk; Mtu;j;jd %yfq;fspd; 2s, 2p

Xgpww ; y;fspd; cr;r tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpfi
; f 8. MfNt> ,uz;lhk; Mtu;jj
; d
(n = 2) %yfq;fs; ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Fk;nghOJ ml;lk epiyiag;
g+u;j;jp nra;J cau; cWjpj; jd;ikia milfpd;wd. C, N, O, F Mfpa %yfq;fs;
,urhadg; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;fp ml;lk mikg;igg; g+u;j;jpahf;FtJ $Ljyhfg;
nghUj;jkhdjhFk;.
46
%d;whk; Mtu;j;jdKk; (n=3) mjw;Ff; fPNo cs;s Mtu;j;jdq;fspd; tYtsT XL

s, p cgrf;jp kl;lj;Jld; d cgrf;jp kl;lj;ijAk;; nfhz;Ls;sd. MfNt ,urhadg;
gpizg;Gfs; cUthFk; nghOJ vl;Lf;F Nkw;gl;l ,yj;jpud;fis tYtsT Xl;by;
rpy re;ju;gg
; q;fspy; ,k;%yfq;fs; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. cjhuzkhf SO2, SO3 Mfpatw;wpy;
fe;jfj;jpd; tYtsT Xl;by; ,Uf;Fk; ,yj;jpud;fs; vl;il tpl mjpfk;. fe;jfj;jpd;
tYtsT Xl;by; d Xgpw;wy;fs; ,Ug;gjhy; 18 ,yj;jpud;fisf; fe;jf mZ
mDkjpf;fpd;wJ. (permits) tYtsT Xl;by; cs;s d Xgpw;wy;fSk; gpizg;Gfspy;; gq;F
nfhs;tjpdhy; fe;jf mZf;fspy; cs;s tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; vl;bYk; ghu;ff ;
mjpfupf;fyhk;. vt;thwhapDk; d Xgpw;wy;fs; gpizg;gpy; gq;Fgw;WtJ fl;lhakhd
njhd;wy;y. cjhuzkhf H2S %yf;$wpy; fe;jf mZtpy; d Xgpw;wy;fs; gpizg;gpy;
<LglhJ ml;lf mikg;ig milfpd;wJ.
,Ug;gpDk;> ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Fk;NghJ ml;lf epiyia vy;yh

%yfq;fSk; fl;lhakhf milahj re;ju;g;gq;fs; cs;sd. rpy ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;
FiwAila Nru;itfs; cjhuzkhf BeCl2, BH3, AlCl3 (,yj;jpud; gw;whf;Fiwr;
Nru;itfs;) Nghd;wit Be, B, Al Mfpa %yfq;fspy; g+u;j;jp nra;ag;glhj tYtsT
Xl;Lld; Nru;itfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Ijurd; mZtpy; 1s Xgpw;wy; kl;Lk; cz;L.
tYtsT XL ,U ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ cWjp; epiy ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l vy;yh cjhuzq;fspYk; ,urhadg; gpizg;gfs; cUthd gpd;G>
tYtsT Xl;by; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if ,ul;il vz;zhf cs;sJ.
Mdhy; ,J vg;nghOJk; cz;ikahdjd;W. NO, NO2 Nghd;w Nru;itfs;; ml;lf
mikg;Gg; g+u;jj
; p nra;ag;glhJ xw;iw vz;zpf;ifahd ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd.
%yf;$WfspYk; mad;fspYk; ,yj;jpud; guk;giy tpsf;Ftjw;fhf xU khjpupAU

Gilber Lewis ,dhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mJ Y}apapd; Gs;spf; fl;likg;G (Lewi’s
dot structure) vd mwpag;gl;lJ.
2.1.1 Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fs; kw;Wk; Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtk; jug;gl;l xU ,urhad #j;jpuj;jpYs;s gpizg;G tifiag;

glq;fshy; tpsf;Ftjw;Fk; xt;nthU mZtpYk; tYtsT Xl;by; ,yj;jpud; gq;fpLjiyf;
fhl;Ltjw;Fk; gad;gLk;. Y}apapd; fl;likg;gpy; gpizg;gpy; <LgLk; ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfs;
,U %yf mZf;fspilapy; tiuag;gLk; xU FWfpa Nfhl;bdhy; fhl;lg;gLk;.
,urhadr;#j;jpuk;  Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtk;  Y}apapd; fl;likg;G
Cl2
47
Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fis tiuAk;nghOJ gpd;tUk; fhuzpfisAila gl;baiyf;

fUj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.
 %yfq;fs; H ck; F ck; nghJthf ika mZthff; fUjg;gLtjpy;iy Vnddpy;
,t;tZf;fs; xw;iwg; gpizg;ig khj;jpuk; cUthf;FtjhyhFk;.; gy gpizg;Gfis
cUthf;ff;$ba mZf;fs; ika mZf;fshf ,lg;gLk;.
 jho; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik cila %yfq;fs; nghJthf ikamZf;fshf ,Uf;Fk;.
vdpDk; ,J vg;nghOJk; cz;ikahdjd;W. H2O %yf;$wpidf; fUJk;nghOJ
cau;e;j kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik cila xl;rprd; mZ ika mZthf ,lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xU ika mZitAila %yf;$WfSf;Fg; gpd;tUk; cz;ikfisf; fUJtJ

Kf;fpakhdJ.
1. ika mZitAk; mijr; #ocs;s mZf;fisAk; ,dk; fhzNtz;Lk;.
2. jug;gl;l ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;jpYs;s xt;nthU mZtpYk; cs;s tYtsT
,yj;jpud;fisf; fUj;jpw; nfhz;L mr;#j;jpuj;jpYs;s nkhj;j ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpfi

; f
iaf;; fzpf;f.
cjhuzk;;:- ePupy; xl;rprd; mZ tYtsT Xl;by; ,Ue;J 6 ,yj;jpud;fisAk; xt;nthU
Ijurd; mZTk; xt;Nthu; ,yj;jpuidAk; (,U Ijurd; mZf;fspypUe;J
2 ,yj;jpud;fs;) toq;Ftjhy; tYtsT Xl;by; nkhj;jkhf 8(6e + 2e =8e)
tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; cz;L. mJ Xu; vjpNuw;wKila madhf ,Ug;gpd;
vjpNuw;wq;fSk; vz;zg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;:- OH- ,y; xl;rprd; mZ 6 ,yj;jpud;isAk;> Ijurd; mZ xU ,yj;jpuid

Ak; toq;FtJld; vjpu; Vw;wj;jpdhy; toq;fg;gLk; xU ,yj;jpuDld;
nkhj;jkhf ika mZtpy; 8 ,yj;jpud;fs; tYtsT Xl;by; cz;L. Xu;
mad; Neu;Vw;wKilajhf ,Ug;gpd;> mt;Vw;wj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd vz; nkhj;j
tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapypUe;J fopf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;:- NH4+ ,y; N mZ 5 tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Ffpd;wJ. mj;Jld;

4 Ijurd; mZf;fs; 4 ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Ffpd;wd. vdpDk; mJ xU
Vw;wKs;s fw;wadhf ,Ug;gjhy; xU ,yj;jpuid (Neu;Vw;wq;fspw;F
rkkhd vz;zpf;if) fopg;gjdhy; iejurd; mZtpd; tYtsT Xl;by;
(5e+4e-1e=8e) 8 ,yj;jpud;fs; cz;L.
3. xU gpizg;ghdJ xU Nrhb Gs;spfspdhy; ika mZtpw;Fk; mijr;#o;e;Js;s

mZTf;Fk; ,ilapy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. ika mZTld; mijr;#o cs;s vy;yh
mZTk; Mff; Fiwe;jJ xU gpizg;gpdhy; ,izf;fg;gLk;.
48
4. gpizg;gpy; <LgLk; Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fis Kjypy; Fwpj;jy; (,U mZf;fSf;Fkpil

apy; FWfpa Nfhnlhd;wpdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;) Nrhb Gs;spfspdhy; xt;nthU Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fisAk; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba %yfj;jpw;F gfpu;e;J ,lg;gLk;. ika
mZ kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba %yfkhf ,y;yhtpbd; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs;
#o cs;s %yfq;fspy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. CCl4 ,jw;F cjhuzkhf mikAk;.
jdpr;Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fisf;
Fwpj;jy;
cU 2.2 CCl4 Y}ap Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf; fl;likg;G
NH3 ,y; #o;eJ

; s;s mZf;fs; Ijurdhf ,Ug;gjhy; kpFjpahf cs;s Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs;
iejurd; mZtpy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
my;yJ
cU 2.3 NH3 ,d; Y}apapd; Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf; fl;likg;G
Y}apapd; fl;likg;gpy; ,uz;L mZf;fSf;F ,ilapy; gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fs; fPo;

cs;sthW fhl;lg;gLk;.
xw;iwg; gpizg;G my;yJ
,ul;ilg; gpizg;G
Kk;ikg; gpizg;G
<jy; gpizg;G L ,y; ,Ue;J M ,w;F
49
5. #o cs;s mZf;fspy; ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfisg; gfpu;e;jgpd; kpFjpahf cs;s

Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; ika mZtpy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
cU 2.4 PCl3 ,d; Y}apapd; Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf; fl;likg;G
6. Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; nfhLg;gjw;Fk; (formal charge) ml;lfepiy g+u;jj

; p nra;ag;
gl;Ls;sjh vdr; rupghu;g;gjw;Fk; vy;yh ,yj;jpud;NrhbfSk; gfpu;e;jspf;fg;gl;l
gpd; xt;nthU mZtpYk; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fSk; gpizg;gpy; <Lglhj epiyapy;
cs;s ,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;ifAld; xg;gplg;gly;Ntz;Lk;. xt;nthU gpizg;gpYk;
xU ,yj;jpud; xt;nthU mZtpw;Fk; vz;zg;gLk;. mj;Jld; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;
,Ug;gpd; ,U ,yj;jpud;fSk; mt;mZtpw;F vz;zg;gLk;. ml;lkepiy g+u;j;jpf;F
Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gLk;.
NH2- maidf; fUJf.
my;yJ
,q;F iejuridr; #o cs;s ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if 8> MapDk; Y}apapd;

Gs;sp tbtj;jpy; iejurd; mZ 5 ,yj;jpud;fis kl;Lk; toq;fpapUg;gpDk; iejurd;
6 ,yj;jpud;fis toq;fpapUg;gJNghd;W Njhd;WfpwJ. MfNt ,jidr; rup nra;tjw;F
(rectify) (-1) Vw;wk; iejurd; mZtpy; Kiwikahd Vw;wkhf (formal charge) toq;fg;
gLfpd;wJ.
mZf;fspy; cs;s Vw;wj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;fhfTk; ml;lf epiyiag; g+u;j;jp nra;tjw;

fhfTk; ,yj;jpud; gfpu;it kPs xOq;FgLj;Jtjw;Fj; jdprN
; rhb ,yj;jpud;fs; gpizg;G
Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fshf khw;wg;gLk;.
SO32- I cjhuzkhf vLj;jhy;; fe;jf mZ 6 ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Fk;> xt;nthU

xl;rprd; mZTk; 6 ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Fk;. vdNt %d;W xl;rprd; mZf;fspypUe;Jk;
18 ,yj;jpud;fs; mj;Jld; NkYk; ,uz;L ,yj;jpud;fs; (-2) Vw;wj;jpypUe;J nkhj;jkhf
26 ,yj;jpud;fs; (6e+3(6e)+2e) = 26e) Y}apapd; fl;likg;gpw;F cs;sJ.
50
(a) (b) (c) (d)

gpizg;G jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisf; Kiwikahd
,yj;jpud;fisf; Fwpj;jy; Vw;wj;ijf; (Formal
Fwpj;jy; charge) Fwpj;jy;
ml;lf mikg;ig g+u;jj; p nra;Ak; nghUl;Lk; Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;fhfTk;

,yj;jpud;fs; kPs gfpu;e;jspf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
my;yJ
(d) (e) (f)
,Wjpahf SO32- ,d; Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gf; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
cU 2.5 SO32- ,d; Y}apapd; Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf; fl;likg;G
,q;F vy;yh xl;rprd; mZf;fSk; ml;lf mikg;igg; g+u;jj

; p nra;Js;sd. nkhj;jkhf
10 ,yj;jpud;fs; fe;jf mZtpd; tYtsT Xl;by; cs;sJ. ,J ml;lf epiyia kPwp
cs;sJ. vg;gbahapDk; fe;jf mZtpd; tYtsT Xl;by; ntw;W d-Xgpw;wy; ,Ug;gjhy;
,e;epiy mDkjpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
xU jug;gl;l ,urhad #j;jpuj;jpw;Fg; gy / xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l ikamZf;fs; ,Uf;Fk;

nghOJ mjd; mZf;fspd; tup tbtk; (skeleton of atoms) njupe;jpUj;jy; Kf;fpak;.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 2.1 ,y; Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtKk; Gs;spf; fl;likg;Gk; rpy
%yf;$WfSf;Fk; mad;fSf;Fk; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
51
ml;ltiz 2.1 rpy %yf;$WfspdJk; mad;fspdJk; Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtKk;

Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gk;
CO2
POCl3
HCN
NO-2
NO-3
NO+2
52
cjhuzk; 2.1:
2.1 ,d; vz;zf;fUitr; rupghu;jj
; y;.
CO tpw;F Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fisAk; Y}apapd; fl;likg;igAk; tiuf.
tpil:
C mZtpd; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; = 4e
O mZtpd; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; = 6e
nkhj;j tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; = 4e + 6e = 10e
gpizg;G ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfisf; Fwpj;jgpd; kpFjpahf 8 ,yj;jpud;fs; cz;L.
kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba xl;rprd; mZtpd; kPJ ,yj;jpud;fisg; gfpu;e;J ml;lf
epiyiag; g+u;j;jp nra;jgpd; NkYk; xU NrhbAs;sJ. ,j;jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;
fhgd; mZtpd;kPJ Fwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Muk;g ,yj;jpud; gfpu;T fPNo (A) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. vt;thwhapDk; fhgd;

mZtpw;F ml;lfepiy g+u;j;jpahf;fg;gltpy;iy. MfNt ,yj;jpud;fspd; kPsg ; fpu;T
tise;j mk;Gf;Fwpfshy; (A) apYk; (B) apYk;> fhgd; mZtpd; ml;lf epiyiag;
g+uj
; j
; p nra;tjw;Fk; Kiwikahd Vw;wk; (formal charge)I Fiwg;gjw;Fkhd Kaw;rpahff;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,k;Kaw;rpapd; tpisthff; fl;likg;G (C) cUthfpd;wJ. MfNt
fl;likg;G (C) Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtkhfTk;> (D) CO ,d; Y}apapd; fl;likg;ghfTk;
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba xl;rprd; mZtpdk ; J
P Neu;Vw;wk; Fwpf;fg;gl;
Ls;sijf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;f. Neu;Vw;wk; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba xl;rprd; mZtpy;
,Ug;gJ Vw;wjhf ,y;yhtpbDk; ml;lf epiyiag; g+u;j;jp nra;tjw;Fr; rhj;jpakhd
epiyapy; ml;lfepiyf;F KjYupik nfhLf;fg;gLtjhy;> ,r;re;ju;gg ; j;jpy; ,t;tikg;G
Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J mbg;gil ml;lk tpjp.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fisf; (kpdndjpu; ,ay;G mZf;fis (kw;iwa ,yj;jpud;fis (KOikahd Vw;wj;ijf;
Fwpj;jy;) ml;lkhf epug;Gjy;) epug;Gjy;) Fwpj;jy;)
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(kw;iwa mZf;fis ml;lk tpjpf;fhf epug;Gjy;) (Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtk;) (Y}apapd; fl;likg;G)
53
cjhuzk; 2.2:
ClO2 tpw;F Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtq;fisAk; Y}apapd; fl;likg;igAk; tiuf.
tpil:
jdp ,yj;jpuidf; nfhz;l khjpupf;F ,J Xu; cjhuzk; ClO2 f;F nkhj;j tYtsT
,yj;jpud; vz;zpf;if (7e+2(6e)=19e) gpd;tUtd Muk;g ,yj;jpud; gfpu;itAk;
,Wjpahd Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtj;ijAk; Y}apapd; fl;likg;igAk; ClO2 w;F jUfpdw
; J.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

cau; kpd;Ndw;wg; guk;gy; Y}apapd; Gs;sp tbtk; Y}apapd; Gs;spf; Nfhl;Lf;
(cWjpaw;wJ) fl;likg;G
2.2 <jw; gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfs;
Xu; mZtpd; ntw;W Xgpww ; y; xd;W jdprN ; rhb ,yj;jpuidf; nfhz;l mZtpd; Xgpww ; Yld;
,ilj;jhf;fkiltjhy; <jw; gpizg;G %yf;$Wfspy; / mad;fspy; cUthfpd;wd. rpy
epiyfspy; re;ju;gg ; q;fspy; RahjPd %yfk; ehd;Ff;F Fiwe;j tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fisf;
(Be, B) n f h z ; b U f ; F k ; n g h O J m t ; m Z f ; f i s e h d ; f p w ; F f ; F i w e ; j
gq;fPlL
; g;gpizg;GfisNa Vw;gLj;jKbAk;. ,jd; tpisthf Kw;Wg;ngwhj ml;lf epiy
cUthtjhy; cWjpj; j d; i k Fiwe;j epiy cUthFk; . ,jdhy; ,yj; j pud;
gw;whf;FiwTila ika mZ jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpuid toq;ff;$ba %yfq;fSld;
jhf;fkile;J ml;lf mikg;ig mila vj;jdpfF ; k;. BH3, CO cldhd jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ
Nghud;fhgidy; (Boron carbonyl) cUthfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; CN- cldhd jhf;fk;
raNdhNghuid cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ,it <jw;gpizg;igAila Nru;itfSf;F
cjhuzkhf mikAk;. NkYk; NH3, BF3 cldhd jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ B - N f;Fkpilapy;
<jw;gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;G cUthfpd;wikAk; cjhuzkhFk;. B apd; ntw;W Xgpw;wy;
iejurd; mZtpd; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpuidf; nfhz;l Xgpw;wypd; Nkw; gbtjhy;
<jw;gq;flP L
; g; gpizg;G cUthfpdw ; J. vt;thwhapDk; mk;khjpupapy; vJ ikamZntd;W
$wKbahJ. iejurd; mZ jdJ jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpuidg; gpizg;gpw;fhf B ,w;F
toq;Ffpd;wJ. ,g;gpizg;ig Xu; mk;Gf;Fwpahy; Fwpf;fyhk;. mk;Gf;Fwpapd; jiy
,yj;jpud; gw;whf;FiwAila mZit Nehf;fpAs;sJ. ,jidf; fPNo fhl;bathW
Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijg; (Formal charge) gad;gLj;jp vLj;Jf; $wyhk;.
54
<jy; gq;fPl;L tYg; gpizg;G

cU 2.6 <jw;gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;G (H3N - BF3)
cNyhf mZ / cNyhf mad;fs; H2O, NH3, CO CN- mad;fSld; jhf;fkile;J

rpf;fy;fis cUthf;Fk;NghJ <jw;gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;G cUthfpd;wJ. fPNo Cu++ mad;
ehd;F NH3 %yf;$WfSld; jhf;fkile;J <jw; gq;fl P ;Lg; gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;fpr;
rpf;fy; mad; cUthtijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
my;yJ
cU 2.7 Cu2+ - mNkhdpah rpf;fypy; <jw;gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;G [Cu(NH3)4]2+ rpf;fy;
2.3 tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhbj; js;Siff; nfhs;if

(VSEPR - nfhs;if)
Ronald Gillespie Ak; Ronald Sydney Nyholm ck; (suggested) xU %yf;$W my;yJ
madpd; ikamZitr; #o;eJ ; cs;s ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfs; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W mjp$ba
J}uj;jpy; xOq;fhf;fg;gLk; vd;W Fwpg;ghfr; nrhd;dhu;fs;. Gillespie gpujhd $l;l
(main group) %yfq;fis ika mZthff; nfhz;l %yf;$Wfspd; tbtq;fis
tpsf;fpdhu;. mNjrkak; Nyholm jhz;ly; %yfq;fis ika mZthff; nfhz;l
%yf;$Wfspd; tbtq;fs; gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahbdu;. 1963k; Mz;by; Gillespie %yf;$W
fspdJk; mad;fspdJk; tbtj;ijf; fhZtjw;F VSEPR nfhs;ifia mwpKfg;
gLj;jpdhu;.
gpujhdkhf ,Utifahd ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfs; ika mZitr; #o;eJ ; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

KjyhtJ tif gq;fl P L
; r;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; ,U fUf;fSf;fpilapy; ftu;rr
; p tpirapdhy;
gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,uz;lhtJ tif gpizg;gpy; <Lglhj Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; jdprN ; rhb
,yj;jpud;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fis xU fUtpd; nry;thf;fpd;
fPo; (influence) ,Ug;gjdhy; ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; ngupa ,lj;ij milf;Fk;. gpizg;Gr;Nrhb>
jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ mit js;Sif myFfshfj; njhopw;gl;L
xd;wpypUe;J xd;W js;spr; nry;Yk;. gd;ikg; gpizg;Gfs; (,ul;il> Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gfs;)
mZf;fSf;fpilapy; fhzg;gLk;nghOJ xt;nthU gd;ikg; gpizg;Gk; xU js;Sif
myfhfNt fUjg;gLk;.
55
ika mZtpw;Fk; mijr;#o;eJ ; s;s mZf;fSf;Fkpilapyhd gq;flP ;Lg; gpizg;Gfspd;

vz;zpf;ifiaf; fUJk;nghOJ %d;W tifahd gpizg;Gf;fshff; fUjg;gLk;. mit
xw;iwg; gpizg;G> ,ul;ilg;gpizg;G> Kk;ikg;gpizg;G vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;Gk; Kk;ikg;gpizg;Gk; gd;ikg; gpizg;Gfshff; fUjg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf CO2
%yf;$wpy; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fs; ikamZtpw;Fk; mijr;#o cs;s xl;rprd;
mZf;fSf;Fkpilapy; cs;sJ. HCN %yf;$wpy; C mZtpw;Fk; N mZtpw;Fkpilapy;
Kk;ikg;gpizg;G fPNo fhl;bathW fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. xt;nthU xw;iw> ,ul;il>
Kk;ikg;gpizg;Gk; xU js;Sif myfhfNt fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. my;yJ xU VSEPR
myfhff; fUjg;gLk;.
HCN %yf;$wpy; Kk;ikg;gpizg;gpYs;s %d;W Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSk; xU jdpj;

js;Sif myfhff; fUjg;gLk;. ,J Vnddpy; %d;W Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSk; C ,dJk;
N ,dJk; fUtpwf
; pilapy; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W tpyfKbahky; epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;L ,Ug;gjhy;
mit xU myfhff; fUjg;gLk;.
ika mZitr; #o;e;J fhzg;gLk; js;Sif myFfspd; vz;zpf;ifia Y}apapd;

fl;likg;igg; gad;gLj;jp ,dk; fhzKbAk;. fPo;fhZk; ml;ltiz 2.2 vt;thW
ikamZitr; #o;e;Js;s ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfspd; vz;zpf;ifiaAk; ikamZitr;
#o;e;Js;s VSEPR myFfisAk; ,dk; fhzyhk; vd;gjw;fhd cjhuzq;fisj;
jUfpd;wJ.
56
ml;ltiz 2.2 Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l %yf;$Wfspd; / mad;fspd; Y}apapd; Gs;spf;

NfhL fl;likg;Gk;> ikamZitr; #ocs;s ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfis
Ak;;> VSEPR myFfisAk; jUfpd;wJ.
5 3
5 4
6 3
4 2
4 2
VSEPR nfhs;iff;F Vw;gj; js;Sif myFfSf;fpilapy; mjp$ba J}uj;ijg;

NgZtjhy; %yf;$Wfs; / mad;fs; cWjpj;jd;ikiag; ngWfpd;wd. xU jdpr;Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fs; gq;fPl;Lr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspYk; ghu;ff
; xg;gl
P ;lstpy; ngupa ,lj;ij
milf;fpd;wd. mj;Jld; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd js;Sif (jdpr;Nrhb
 jdpr;Nrhb) ,U gpizg;Gr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd (gpizg;Gr;Nrhb 
gpizg;Gr;Nrhb) js;SifapYk; ghu;ff ; cau;thdJ. ,jd; tpisthfj; jdpr;Nrhb -
gpizg;Gr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud; ,ilj;jhf;fj; js;Sif tpir ,ilg;gl;ljhf mikfpd;wJ.
cU 2.8 gpizg;Gr;Nrhb jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd

js;Sifia xg;gpLjy;.
57
gpizg;Gr;Nrhb jdpr;Nrhb vd;W NtW gpupf;fhJ ikamZitr; Rw;wp cs;s ntspapy;

js;Sif myFfs; gfpuT ; mikAk; (guk;gyilAk;) tpjk; ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. xU %yf;$W my;yJ madpd; Nfj;jpufzpj tbtj;ijf; $Wk;nghOJ
gpizg;Gf; Nfhzq;fisAk; vLj;Jiuj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. gpdt ; Uk; ml;ltiz 2.3 RUf;fkhf
,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; vt;thW 3D ntspapy; js;Sif myFfspd; gfpu;tpy;/
guk;gypy; jq;fpAs;sJ vd;gijj; jUfpd;wJ. xU %yf;$W / madpd; tbtj;ij
njuptpf;Fk; nghOJ gpizg;Gf; Nfhzk; $wj; Njitapy;iy. Mdhy; xU %yf;$W /
madpd; Nfj;jpufzpjk; njuptpf;fg;gLk; nghOJ gpizg;Gf; Nfhzk; $wg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
MfNt ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;> tbtk;> %yf;$wpd; Nfj;jpufzpjk; Mfpait
%d;W jdpahd (independent) topayFfshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. xU %yf;$wpd; Nfj;jpu
fzpjk; mjd; tbtj;ijAk; Nfhzj;ijAk; fhtpr; nry;fpd;wJ.
58
ml;ltiz 2.3 js;Sif myFfspd; Nfj;jpufzpjk;.
Neu;NfhL
js Kf;Nfhzk;
ehd;Kfp
Kf;Nfhz ,Ugf;ff; $k;gfk;

%d;W js;Sif myFfs;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W 1200 Nfhzj;Jld;
xNu jsj;jpy; cs;sd. kw;iwa
,U js;Sif myFfs;
,j;jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf 1800
Nfhzj;jpy; cs;sd.
vz;Kfp
ehd;F js;Sif myFfs; xNu
jsj;jpy; cs;sd. mtw;wpw;
fpilNaahd Nfhzk; 900 kw;iwa
,U myFfSk; ,j;jsj;jpw;Fr;
nrq;Fj;jhf cs;sd. mj;Jld;
; pilapyhd Nfhzk; 1800.
mtw;wpwf
59
Neu;Nfhl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;

ikamZitr; #o ,U js;Sif VSEPR myFfs; cz;L ,q;F ehk; ,U NtW
mZf;fSld; ikamZ gpizg;gpy; ,Uf;Fk; epiyiaf; fUJNthk;. mt;tifapd;
tbtk; Neu;NfhL. ml;ltiz 2.4 NkYk; gy Neu;Nfhl;L %yf;$WfSf;F cjhuzq;
fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
ml;ltiz 2.4 ,uz;L js;Sif myiff; nfhz;l %yf;$WfSk; mad;fSk;
CO2 Neu;NfhL
HCN Neu;NfhL
NO+2 Neu;NfhL
jsKf;Nfhz ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfspd; Nfj;jpufzpj tbtk;
gpujhdkhf ,Utif ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; gpizg;G> jdpr;Nrhb vd

gpupff
; g;gl;Ls;sJ.
%d;W js;Sif (VSEPR) myFfSk; gpizg;Gr;Nrhb
,uz;L js;Sif (VSEPR) myFfs; gpizg;Gr;Nrhb kw;iwaJ jdpr;Nrhb
(a) (b)
%d;W js;Sif myFfSk; ,uz;L js;Sif myFfs; gpizg;gpYs;sd.
gpizg;gpYs;sd. kw;iwaJ jdpr;Nrhb
cU 2.9 jsKf;Nfhz ,yj;jpud;Nrhb Nfj;jpufzpjk;
60
gpdt
; Uk; ml;ltiz 2.5 ,y; ikamZ BF3, SO3, H2CO ,d; ikamZtpy; jdpr;Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fs; ,y;iy. vdNt jsKf;Nfhz tbtk;. vdpDk; SO2 ,y; S ,y; jdpr;Nrhb
,yj;jpud; ,Ug;gjhy; Nfhztbtj;ijg; ngWfpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 2.5 %yf;$Wfs; / mad;fs; %d;W js;Sif myFfSld;
js Kf;Nfhzk;
js Kf;Nfhzk;
js Kf;Nfhzk;
Nfhz tbtk;
61
ehd;Kfp ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;

ehd;F js;SifayFfisg; gpizg;Gj; jdpr;Nrhb vd ntt;Ntwhfg; gpupj;Jg;
ghu;fF
; k;nghOJ %d;W tiffs; rhj;jpakhfpd;wJ. gpd;tUk; cUf;fs; 2.1 ,jidr;
RUf;fkhf vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
,uz;L jdpr;Nrhb
jdpr;Nrhb ,y;iy
Nfhztbtk;
ehd;Kfp tbtk;
xU jdpr;Nrhb
Kf;Nfhzf; $k;gfk;; my;yJ $k;gfk;
cU 2.10 ehd;Kfp ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfspd; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
62
gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 2.6 ehd;Kfp tbtf; Nfj;jpufzpjj;ij cila %yf;$Wfspw;F

Nkyjpf cjhuzq;fisj; jUfpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 2.6 ehd;Kfp tbthd %yf;$Wfs; / mad;fs;
SO42-
Kf;Nfhz ,U$k;gfj;jpd; ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
ikamZitr;#o;e;J 5 js;Sif (VSEPR) myFfs; cs;sd. mtw;iwg; gpizg;Gr;

NrhbahfTk; jdpr;NrhbahfTk; fUJk;nghOJ ehd;F ntt;NtW tiffshf xOq;F
gLj;jg;glyhk;
 ikamZitr; #oTs;s Ie;J js;Sif myFfSk; gpizg;Gr; Nrhbfs;
cjhuzk;: PCl5 tbtk; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
cU 2.11 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; PCl5
63
 ehd;F js;Sif myFfs; gpizg;Gr;Nrhb kw;iwa xU jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs;

cjhuzk;: SCl4
(a) (b)
nfhs;if uPjpahf ehd;F gpizg;Gr;NrhbiaAk; xU jdprN

; rhbiaAk; nfhz;l %yf;$wpd;
tbtk; cUf;Fiye;j mjhtJ xOq;fw;w epWj;jhLtis tbtk; see-saw. jdprN ; rhbf;fhd
fw;gid mr;Rk; kw;Wk; ,U S - Cl gpizg;Gk; xU jsj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. kpFjp S - Cl
gpizg;Gfs; ,j;jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf mikAk;.
cU 2.12 SCl4 ,w;fhd ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
vt;thwhapDk; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspd; tpisthy; xOq;fw;w epWj;jhLtis

cUthfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; jpupe;j ehd;KfpAU cUthFk;. vdNt SCl ,d; tbtk; jpupe;j
my;yJ cUf;Fiye;j ehd;Kfp / jpupe;j epWj;jhLtis / xOq;fw;w epWj;jhLtis
 %d;W js;Sif myFfs; gpizg;Gr; Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; kw;iwa ,U js;Sif

myFfs; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs;.
cjhuzk;: ICl3
VSEPR myFfSf;fpilapyhd mjpFiwe;j js;Sif tpirfisAila> cWjp $ba

mikg;Gf; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;tuptbtj;ij mr;irr; Rw;wpr; Row;Wk;NghJ I I
#o cs;s Cl mZf;fisf; fUJk;NghJ T tbtk; cz;lhfpd;wJ. vdNt %yf;$wpd;
tbtk; T. ,q;F ,uz;L jdpr;NrhbfSk; xU I - Cl gpizg;Gk; xNu jsj;jpy; cs;sJ.
kpFjp I-Cl gpizg;Gfs; ,uz;Lk; ,j;jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf cs;sJ.
64
cU 2.13 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; ICl3
 ,U js;Sif myFfs; gpizg;Gr; Nrhbfs; kpFjp %d;W myFfs; jdpr;Nrhb

,yj;jpud;fs;
cjhuzk;: XeF2
,t;tifapy; vy;yh mZf;fSk; xNu Nfhl;by; cs;sikahy; %yf;$W Neu;Nfhl;L

tbtj;ijg; ngWk;. gpd;tUk; Y}apapd; fl;likg;G XeF2 %yf;$wpd; Neu;Nfhl;L tbtj;ij
vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. %d;W jdpr;NrhbfSk; xNu jsj;jpy; cs;sd. ,it F - Xe -F
mr;rpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf cs;sd.
cU 2.14 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; XeF2
vz;Kfp ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
,q;F xt;nthU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W 900 ,y; cs;sd. gpd;tUk; cU

mt;tifahd %yf;$Wfspd; ,yj;jpud; Nrhbfspd; Nfj;jpufzpjj;ij jUfpd;wJ.
ehd;F js;Sif myFfs; xU jsj;jpYk; kw;iwa ,U myFfs; ,j;jsj;jpw;Fr;
nrq;Fj;jhfTk; cs;sJ
65
(a) (c)
(jdprN
; rhb ,yj;jpud;fs; ,y;iy.) (,uz;L jdpr; Nrhbfs;)
SF6 XeF4
vz;Kfp tbtk; / ehw;rJu jsr;rJuk;
,U $k;gfk;
my;yJ
(b)
(xU jdpr; Nrhb)
XeOF4
jsr;rJuf; $k;gfk; / jpupej
; ehw;rJu $k;gfk;
cU 2.15 vz;Kfp ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk;
Kjypy; vy;yhj; js;Sif myFfSk; gpizg;ghf cs;sijf; fUJf. (cjhuzk;

SF6) ika mZitr; #o cs;s mZf;fspd; ikaj;ijf; fw;gidg; Gs;spf;NfhLfshy;
,izf;f. vl;Lj; jsq;fSldhd vz;Kfp cUthFk;. vdNt mk;%yf;$W vz;Kfptbtk;
vdg;gLk;.
cU 2.16 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; SF6
66
gpd;du; Ie;J (xU,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gk; ehd;F xw;iwg; gpizg;GfSk;) gpizg;Gr;

NrhbfSld; xU jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;l %yf;$iwf; fUJf. ,yj;jpud;
Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; xOq;F4 ,w;F vz;Kfp. #o cs;s mZf;fisf; fw;gidg;
Gs;spf;NfhLfshy; ,izf;Fk;NghJ $k;gfk; rJu tbtmbAld; cUthFk;. MfNt
%yf;$wpd; tbtk; rJu$k;gf tbtk;. Xe-F gpizg;Gfspd; kPJ jdprN
; rhb ,yj;jpud;fshy;
Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; js;Sif tpirapdhy; %yf;$wpd; tbtk; xOq;fw;w vz;Kfp tbtj;ij
XeOF4 ngWfpd;wJ.
ehd;F F mZf;fs; mike;Js;s

,lk; fw;gidj; jskhFk;.
cU 2.17 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; XeOF4
%yf;$W ehd;F gpizg;Gr; Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisAk; ,U jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisAk;

nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ tbtk; jsrJuk; / rJuj;jsk;. ,J XeF4 %yf;$wpdhy; vLj;Jf;
fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
cU 2.18 ,yj;jpud; Nrhbf; Nfj;jpufzpjk; - XeF4
cjhuzk; 2.3:
(i) gpdt
; Uk; %yf;$Wfspd; Y}apapd; Gs;spfN
; fhl;Lf; fl;likg;ig tiue;J tbtj;ij
ca;j;jwpf.
(a) SO3 (b) CH2Cl2
tpil:
(a) SO3
S mZtpypUe;J tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; = 6e
3 O mZtpypUe;Jk; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; 3(6e)=18e
nkhj;j mZf;fspypUe;J ,yj;jpud;fs; 24e
ika mZitr; #o cs;s js;Sif myFfs; = 3
tbtk; - js Kf;Nfhzk;
Y}apapd; Gs;spf;Nfhl;L
fl;likg;G
67
(b) CH2Cl2
C mZtpypUe;J tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; = 4e
2 H mZtpypUe;Jk; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; 2(1e) = 2e
2 Cl mZf;fspypUe;J tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; 2(7e)= 14e
nkhj;j ,yj;jpud;fs; 20e
ika mZitr; #o cs;s js;Sif myFfs; = 4
Y}apapd; Gs;spf;Nfhl;L
tbtk; - ehd;Kfp fl;likg;G
2.3.1 mZ Xgpw;wy;fspd; fyg;ghf;fk;
fyg;ghf;f vz;zf;fUit> fhgd; mZit cgNahfpj;Jg; gz;gwpuPjpahf tpsf;fyhk;.

fhgd; mZtpd; tYtsT XL jiuepiyapy; xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisAk;> Nrhb
ahf;fg;glhj ,U ,yj;jpuidAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ (ns2 np2) or 2s2 2p2 vt;thwhapDk;
ehd;F gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Ftjw;Fr; Nrhbahf;fg;glhj ,yj;jpud;fisf;
nfhz;l ehd;F Xgpw;wy;fs; mtrpak;. MfNt jiuepiyapy; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fs;
mUl;lg;gl;L kPsx; Oq;fhff;fg;gl;L ehd;F Nrhbahf;fg;glhj ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;l
epiy cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
rf;jp rf;jp
2p2 2p3
rf;jp
2s2 2s1
jiuepiyapy; mUl;lg;gl;l epiyapy;
cU 2.19 fhgd; mZ xd;wpd; rf;jp kl;l tupg;glk;
,q;F fhgdpd; tYtsT Xl;by; cs;s 2s ,yj;jpud; xd;W rf;jpia cwpQ;rp ntw;W
2p Xgpw;wy; xd;wpDs; NkNy cs;s cUtpy; fhl;bathW nry;fpd;wJ. 2s, 2p Xgpw;wy;
fSf;fpilapyhd rf;jpNtWghL Fiwthf cs;sjhy; ,yj;jpud; ,lkhw;wk; / jhz;ly;
rhj;jpakhfpd;wJ. mUl;lg;gl;l epiyapy; cs;s mZ Nrhbahf;fg;glhj ,yj;jpud;fis
2s, 2p kl;lq;fspy; NkNy Fwpj;Jf; fhl;bathW nfhz;Ls;sJ. ehd;F Nrhbahf;fg;glhj
,yj;jpud;fs; cs;sNghJk; ,yj;jpud;fs; ,uz;L NtWgl;l rf;jp kl;lq;fspy; ,Uf;fpdw; d.
mj;Jld; ,U NtWgl;l tbtj;ijAila mZ Xgpw;wy;fspy; ,Uf;fpd;wd. (Nfhstbtk;
s Xgpw;wy;> lk;ngy; tbtk; p Xgpww
; y;) ,e;epiyapy; CH4 %yf;$wpy; fhzg;gLk; gpizg;G
C - H tif xd;W fhgdpd; s Xgpw;wYf;Fk;> Ijurdpd; s Xgpw;wYf;Fk; ,ilapy;
68
cz;lhFk; kw;iwait xt;nthd;Wk; C mZtpd; P Xgpw;wy; Ijurdpd; s Xgpw;wYld;

Nkw;nghUe;Jtjhy; cUthFk;. mg;nghOJ CH4 %yf;$W ,U NtW tifahd gpizg;G
fis ,Utif gpizg;Gf; Nfhzq;fSld;; nfhz;bUf;Fk; vd vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
vt;thwhapDk; CH4 ,y; cs;s ehd;F C - H gpizg;GfSk; vy;yh tifapYk; xj;jit.

MfNt cfe;j vLNfhs;> gpizg;G cz;lhtjw;F Kd;du; 2s, 2p Xgpww ; y;fs; fyg;gile;J
rkrf;jp> xNu tbtk; xNu gUkd; cs;s ehd;F mZ Xgpw;wy;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd
vd;gNj. ,t;vz;zf;fU Xgpw;wy;fspd; “fyg;ghf;fk;” vd miof;fg;gLk;. fyg;ghf;fk;
vd;w vz;zf;fU ,d;wp CH4 %yf;$wpw;F jFe;j fl;likg;igf; nfhLg;gJ rhj;jpakd;W.
C-H gpizg;G 2s Xgpw;wiyg; gad;gLj;jpAk; 2p Xgpw;wiyg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ cUthFk;
rhu; epiyfisf; fUjp CH4 fl;likg;ig tpsf;FtJ rhj;jpakw;wJ.
gpd;tUk; fhuzpfs; mZ Xgpw;wy;fspd; fyg;ghf;fj;jpw;F Kf;fpakhdit.
1. fyg;ghf;fk; vd;w vz;zf;fU jdp xU mZtpw;F khj;jpuk; gad;gLj;j KbahJ

Mdhy; xU %yf;$wpy; Fwpj;j Xu; mZtpdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; gpizg;ig
tpgupg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
2. Mff;Fiwe;jJ ,U NtWgl;l tbtKk; rf;jpiaAk; cila ,U mZXgpw;wy;fs;

fyg;Gf;Fl;gl;Lf; fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: s Xgpw;wy; xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l p Xgpw;wy;fSld;

fyg;gila KbAk;. ,f;fyg;Gfspy; <LgLk; Xgpww
; y;fs; xNu jd;ik
iaf; nfhz;bUf;fkhl;lhJ. vdNt mtw;wpd; tbtk; Muk;g s, p
Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtj;jpypUe;J NtWgLk;.
3. cUthFk; fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; vz;zpf;if fyg;gpy; <Lgl;l mZ Xgpw;wy;fspd;

vz;zpfi ; ff;Fr; rkdhFk;. NtWgl;l rf;jp kl;lq;fspy; cs;s Xgpww
; y;fs; fyg;gile;
jpUg;gpDk; tpisT fyg;Ggpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; vy;yhk; rkrf;jp nfhz;litahff;
fhzg;gLk;. ,f;fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; Kg;gupkhz ntspapy; mtw;wpd; jpirNfhspy;
(orientation) kl;Lk; NtWgLk;. rf;jp> tbtk;> gUkd; Mfpatw;wpy; xd;iwnahd;W
xj;jpUf;Fk;.
4. xU Fwpj;j mZtpYs;s fyg;G gpwg;G Xgpw;wy; NtW xU mZtpd; fyg;Ggpwg;G

Xgpw;wYld; my;yJ fyg;gilahj mZ Xgpww; Yld; Nkw;nghUe;jp  gpizg;Gfis
cUthf;fyhk;.
69
fyg;g
; hf;fk; cz;ikahd ngsjpf nrad;Kiwad;W. MapDk; ,f; fw;gid nrad;Kiw
xU vz;zf;fUthfj; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t; vz;zf;fUtpdg ; b %d;W tifahd fyg;ghf;fk;
fhgd; mZtpd; mUl;lg;gl;l epiyapy; rhj;jpakhdJ. mjd; RUf;fk; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
1. s Xgpw;wYk; %d;W p Xgpw;wy;fSk; fyg;gile;J ehd;F sp3 fyg;Ggpizg;G
Xgpw;wy;fis cUthf;fy; (ehd;Kfp Nfj;jpu fzpjk;)
2. s Xgpw;wy; ,U p Xgpw;wy;fSld; fyg;gile;J %d;W sp2 fyg;G gpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fis
cUthf;fy; (jsKf;Nfhz Nfj;jpufzpjk;)
3. s Xgpw;wy; xU p Xgpw;wYld; fyg;gile;J ,U sp fyg;G gpwg;G Xgpw;wiy
cUthf;Fjy; (Neu;Nfhl;L Nfj;jpufzpjk;)
sp fyg;ghf;fk;
fyg;gilahj
sp3 fyg;ghf;fk;
p Xgpw;wy;;fs;
sp2 fyg;ghf;fk;



fyg;gilahj p Xgpw;wy;;fs; 
(c) sp fyg;G
Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;R Xgpw;wy;fs;

(a) fyg;gile;j
Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;R
(b)
cU 2.20 sp3, sp2, sp fyg;G gpwg;ghf;fk;
70
gpd;tUk; tiuglk; sp3, sp2, sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtk; s my;yJ p ,d; rjtPj
,ay;G Mfpatw;iw xg;gpLfpd;wJ.
sp3 fyg;ghf;fk; sp2 fyg;ghf;fk; sp fyg;ghf;fk;

s ,ay;G 25% 33.3% 50%
p ,ay;G 75% 66.6% 50%
cU 2.21 sp3, sp2, sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fis xg;gply;
(a) Kg;gupkhz ntspapy; sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; jpirNfhs;/ xOq;fikg;G
(orientation)
xU ehd;KfpapDs; Xgpw;wy;fs; mikj;J mjd; cr;rpia Nehf;fpa tz;zk;
cs;sd. Xgpw;wy;fSf;fpilg;gl;l Nfhzk; 1090 28’ MFk;
(b) sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; jpirNfhs; (orientation)
%d;W fyg;G gpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; mr;Rfs; xNu jsj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ.
fyg;G gpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fSf;fpilg;gl;l Nfhzk; 1200. fyg;gpy; <Lglhj p Xgpw;wy;fs;
fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf mike;Js;sJ.
(c) sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; jpirNfhs; / xOq;fikg;G (orientation)
fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fSf;fpilapyhd Nfhzk; 1800> vdNt ,U mr;RfSk; Neu;Nfhl;by;
mikAk;. fyg;Gg; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpy; <Lglhj ,U p Xgpw;wy;fs; xd;wpw;nfhd;W
nrq;Fj;jhf mikAk;;.
2.3.2 ,ul;il kw;Wk; Kk;ikg; gpizg;G cUthjy;
,U mZf;fSf;fpilapy; ,U gpizg;Gfs; fhzg;gLk;nghOJ xd;W  gpizg;G

kw;iwaJ gpizg;G. vjPd; %yf;$wpy; ,U fhgd; mZf;fSf;Fkpilapy; (CH2CH2)
,ul;ilg; gpizg;G cUthjiyf; fUJf. ,U fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fSf;fpilapy; Nkw;
nghUe;Jif eilngWk;nghOJ  gpizg;G cUthfpd;wJ. Xgpw;wy;fspd; gf;fthl;L
Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; gpizg;G cUthfpd;wJ.
,U fyg;Ggpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; xNu mr;rpy; cs;sJ.



p Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;Rf;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhdJ

cU 2.22 sp2 fyg;Ggpwg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; mj;Jld; p Xgpw;wypd; jpirNfhs;
71
,U p Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;RfSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhf cs;sjhy;. ,t; dumpbell

tbtkhd Xgpww; y;fSf;fpilapy; gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif Vw;gLfpdw ; J. p Xgpww
; y;fspd;
mr;Rfs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhf ,y;yhjnghOJ Xgpww ; y;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;fhd
rhj;jpak; FiwT. NkNy cs;s tiuglj;jpy; ,U fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; Neu;Nfhl;by;
mike;Js;sd. vdNt ,tw;wpwf ; pilapyhd Nkw;nghUe;Jif Neu;Nfhl;Lg; Nkw;nghUe;Jif
ahff; fUjg;gLk;.
P Xgpw;wy;fs; - ,tw;wpd; mr;Rf;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhdit.
gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;F cl;gLfpd;wd.
(a) (b)
Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif
fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;Rfs; xNu Neu;Nfhl;by; cs;sjhy;

Neu;Nfhl;Lg; Nkw;nghUe;Jif
cU 2.23 Xgpw;wy;fspd; Neu;Nfhl;L> gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jiffs;
gpizg;G %yf;$w;W Xgpw;wy;fs;
gpizg;G %yf;$w;W Xgpw;wy;fs;


p Xgpww; y;fSf;fpilapyhd gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif
cU 2.24  gpizg;Gk;  gpizg;Gk;
vt;thW Kk;ikg; gpizg;G cUthfpd;wJ vd;gij fw;gjw;F vijdpy; (C2H2) ,U

fhgd; mZf;fSf;fpilapy; cs;s Kk;ikg;gpizg;igg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. Kk;ikg;gpizg;G
xU  gpizg;igAk; ,U  gpizg;Gf;fisAk; ,U fhgd;fSf;Fkpilapy; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
vijdpd; Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gf; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
H-C  C-H
72
vijapdpy; cs;s xt;nthU fhgd; mZTk; ,U  gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.

MfNt ,f;fhgd; mZf;fSk; sp fyg;Gilad. kpFjp ,U p Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; mr;Rf;fs;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhf cs;sd. mit gpd;tUk; cUf;fspy; njspthff; Fwpj;Jf;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,Ufhgd; mZf;fSf;Fkpilapy;
 gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Fk; p Xgpww
; y;fs;
 py Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;Rf;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhdit.

 pz Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;Rf;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rkhe;jukhdit.
 ,uz;L sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; x mr;rpy; xd;iwnahd;W Nehf;fpAs;sd. ,it
,uz;L fhgd; mZf;fspilNa gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk;.
cU 2.25 vijdpy; sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; p Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; Nkw;nghUe;Jif
xU Fwpj;j  gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk; p Xgpw;wy;fspd; mr;Rf;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W

rkhe;jukhfTs;sJ. kw;iwa  gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk; kpFjp p Xgpw;wy;fs; Kjy;
 gpizg;ig cUthf;fpa Xgpw;wy;fSf;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhdit. xU Kk;ikg; gpizg;gpy;
 gpizg;G ,yj;jpud; Kfpypd; fw;gid mr;Rfs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhf cs;sd.
2.2.3 gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;
jug;gl;l xU %yf;$W my;yJ maDf;F xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gf;fis

vOJtJ rhj;jpakhdJ. mt;Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gfs; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs; vdg;gLk;.
mjw;fhd fhuznkdpd; gd;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fs; (,ul;il my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fs;)
,Uf;Fk;nghOJ mZf;fspd; xOq;fikg;gpy;; (%yf;$wpd; td;$L) khw;wk; Vw;glhky;
 gpizg;G ,yj;jpud; Kfpy;fspd; epiy khw;wkilayhk;.
73
gpd;tUtd NO2- madpd; ,UgupT mikg;Gf;fs;.
(a) (b)
cU 2.26 NO2- madpd; gupT fl;likg;Gfs;
NO2- madpy; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpuddpdJk; (vjpu; Vw;wj;i jAk;)  gpizg;G

,yj;jpud;fspdJk; epiyia khw;wp (kiwVw;wj;jpd; epiyia khw;wp) ,U gupTf;
fl;likg;Gf;fs; A iaAk; B iaAk; tiuayhk;. ,U fl;likg;Gf;fs; A Ak; B Ak;
xj;jitahf ,Ug;gjhy; mtw;iw xd;wpypUe;J xd;iw NtW gpupj;jwpa KbahJ.
gpd;tUk; cUf;fs; njspthf tise;j mk;Gf;Fwpapdhy; vt;thW xU mikg;G kw;w
mikg;ghf khWfpd;wJ vd;gij tpsf;Ffpd;wd. nghJthfj; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspd;
my; y J  ,yj; j pud; f spd; miritf; fhl; L tjw; F tise; j mk; G f; F wp
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mk;Gf;Fwpapd; jiyg;gFjp ,yj;jpud;fs; mirAk; ,lj;ijf;
Fwpf;Fk;.
(a) (b)
cU 2.27 NO2- madpdJ gupT mikg;G xd;W kw;iwajhf khWtijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
guptpd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
(1) gq;F nfhs;Sk; fl;likg;Gfs; cz;ikahf ,Ug;gjpy;iy.trjpff

; hf tiuag;gl;l
fw;gidf; fl;likg;Gfs; MFk;. gupTf; fyg;G kl;LNk cz;ikahd %yf;$W
my;yJ madhFk;.
(2) rkkhd gupTf; fl;likg;Gfspd; guptpd; tpistpdhy; gupT myFfspd; gpizg;G
ePsq;fs; rkkhfpd;wJ. (cjhuzk; O3. ,q;Nf O - O gpizg;Gfs; rkkhdit)
mj;Jld; vy;yh mZf;fSk; gupTf;F cl;gLk; myFfspw;F cupait.
(3) gupTf;fyg;G jho;rf;jpAilaJ. mjdhy; guptpy; gq;Fnfhs;Sk; fl;likg;Gfs;
ahtw;wpYk; cWjp $baJ.
(4) rkkhd gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;> gupTf; fyg;gpw;Fr; rkkhfg; gq;fspf;Fk;.
(5) rkkw;w gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; rkkw;wjhfTk; mj;Jld; cWjp$ba fl;likg;Gf;
$LjyhfTk; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;.
74
Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fs; (Formal charges)
xU %yf;$wpYs;s my;yJ gy; mZ madpYs;s mZtpd; fUJNfhs; uPjpahd

Vw;wk; Kiwikahd Vw;wkhFk;. xU %yf;$W my;yJ madpd; Y}apapd; fl;likg;gpy;
cs;s xt;nthU mZtpdJ Kiwikahd Vw;wk; g+r;rpakhf my;yJ g+r;rpaj;ij
mz;kpj;jpUf;Fk; NghJ mf;fl;likg;Gr; rf;jpuPjpahf cfe;j fl;likg;ghf mikAk;.
gpd;tUk; gbfs; Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; (FC) fzpg;gpLtjw;F cjTk;.
1. FC = ($l;lvz;) - (gpizg;Gf;fspd; + [(gpizgpy; <Lglhj ,yj;jpud;fspd;

vz;zpf;if vz;zpf;if e-)]
mad;fspd; cz;ikahd Vw;wj;jpypUe;J mtw;iwg; gpupj;jwptjw;F Kiwikahd
Vw;wq;fs; + my;yJ - ,dhy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
2. Y}apapd; #j;jpuj;jpy>; Xu; mZ Mtu;jj
; df; $l;nlz;Zf;Fr; rkkhd gpizg;Gfisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;nghOJ Kiwikahd Vw;wk; g+r;rpakhf ,Uf;Fk;.
3. I. xU %yf;$wpy; Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif g+r;rpak;.
II. gy;mZ madpy; Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif madpd;
Vw;wj;jpw;Fr; rkk;.
cjhuzk;:
NH3 ,y; N mZ 3 gpizg;Gfis cilaJ. mj;Jld; 2 gpizg;gpy; <Lglhj ,yj;jpud;

fisAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
NH3 ,y; cs;s N f;F>
FC = ($l;lvz;) - (gpizg;Gf;fspd; + [(gpizg;gpy; <Lglhj ,yj;jpud;fspd;
vz;zpf;if vz;zpf;if)]
= 5 - (3 + 2) = 0
mNkhdpahtpYs;s N ,d; kPJ Kiwikahd Vw;wk; 0.
NH3 ,y; cs;s H f;F>

= 1 - (1 + 0) = 0
mNkhdpahtpYs;s H mZtpd; Kiwikahd Vw;wk; 0.
N ,dJk; H ,dJk; Kiwikahd Vw;wk; mNkhdpahtpy; g+r;rpak;.
vdNt Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fspd; $l;lj;njhif g+r;rpak;.
75
mNkhdpak; madpy; N mZtpd; Kiwikahd Vw;wk; (NH4)+

(NH4)+ madpy; N mZ 4 gpizg;GilaJ. gpizg;gpy; <Lglhj ,yj;jpud;fs;
,y;iy.
(NH4)+ madpy; N mZtpd; Kiwikahd Vw;wk;.
= 5 - (4 + 0) = +1
Kd;du; fhl;bathW H mZtpd; Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; fzpf;Fk;NghJ g+r;rpakhf

mikAk;. vdNt Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif (NH4)+ maDf;F 1.
(1) xU %yf;$wpw;F my;yJ madpw;F kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd #j;jpouj;jpy; xt;nthU

mZtpYk; cs;s Kiwikahd Vw;wk; g+rr
; pakhf my;yJ g+r;rpaj;ij mz;kpjj
; jhf
tpUf;Fk;.
(2) Kiwikahd kiwNaw;wk; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba mZf;fspy; fhzg;gLtJ
kpfTk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sj;jf;fJ.
(3) Y}apapd; fl;likg;gpy; cs;s mLj;jLj;Js;s mZf;fs; xNu FwpaPLs;s Kiwik
ahd Vw;wk; ,Uf;Fkhapd; mJ jpUj;jkhd gpujpepjpj;Jtk; md;W. (mUfUNf
Vw;w tpjp)
,g;NghJ ehk; Y}apapd; fl;likg;Gfis vOJNthk;. iej;jpNuhiry;FNshiul;by;

(NOCl) cs;s mZf;fSf;F Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; Fwpf;fTk;. (NOCl - Nrjdj;
njhFg;Gfspy; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gjhu;j;jk;) ,q;F FNshupd; mZTk; xl;rprd;
mZTk; N mZTld; gpize;Js;sJ. ,J Y}apapd; fl;likg;G ml;lktpjpiag; g+u;j;jp
nra;fpwJ.
(a) (b)
Cl f;F FC = 7 – (2 + 4) = +1 Cl f;F FC = 7 – (1 + 6) = 0
N f;F FC = 5 – (3 + 2) = 0 N f;F FC = 5 – (3 + 2) = 0
O f;F FC = 6 – (1 + 6) = -1 O f;F FC = 6 – (2 + 4) = 0
Y}apapd; #j;jpuk; (b) tpUk;gj;jf;fJ.
76
gupTfl;likg;Gfspd; cWjpj;jd;ikia kjpg;gpLtjw;fhd tpjp
(1) mjp$ba cWjpj;jd;ikAila gupTf; fl;likg;G kpff; Fiwe;j Kiwikahd

Vw;wj;ijAk; $ba vz;zpf;ifahd gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;igAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
gupTf;fyg;G fl;likg;Gf;F mJ $ba gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;. gpizg;Gfspd; cr;r
vz;zpf;ifAk; ml;lk tpjpiag; g+u;j;jp nra;jYk; xd;Wld; xd;W neUq;fpr;
nry;Yk;.
(2) mLj;jLj;j mZf;fspd; xNu Kiwikahd Vw;wj;ijf; nfhz;l fl;likg;G
cWjpaw;wJ.
(3) vjpu;jd;ikahd Kiwikahd Vw;wk; mZf;fspy; ,lg;gLk;nghOJ Neu; Vw;wk;
kpd;Neu;j;jd;ikAila %yfj;jpYk; vjpu; Vw;wk; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;i kAila
%yfj;jpYk; ,lg;gLk;.
(4) kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G $ba mZf;fshd F kw;Wk; O ,y; Neu;Vw;wk; ,lg;gbd;
mf;fl;likg;G cWjpaw;wJ.
cU 2.28 ,y; iej;jpNuw;W madpd; (NO32) gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fspd; cUthf;fk;

fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
(a) (b) (c)
cU: 2.28 NO3- madpd; gupT mikg;Gfs; xd;wpypUe;J kw;iwajhf khw;wkiljy;
vy;yhg; gupTf; fl;likg;GfSk; rkkhdit. mjdhy; mtw;wpd; cWjpj; jd;ik rkkhdit.

,it gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;gpw;F rkkhd gq;fspg;ig toq;Fk;.
N2O ,d; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; gpd;tUkhW jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ,g;gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;

ml;lk tpjpiaj; jpUg;jpg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
(a) (b) (c)

cU 2.29 N2O d; gupT fl;likg;Gfs;
77
vt;thwhapDk; Kiwikahd Vw;wq;fspd; mbg;gilapy;> ,g;gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fspd;

cWjp rkkhdit md;W. tpjp (3) ,d;gb fl;likg;G (b) gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;gpw;F
Fiwthd gq;fspg;ig toq;Ffpd;wJ. (a) kw;Wk; (c) fl;likg;Gf;fs;> fl;likg;G (b)
cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ cWjpahdit. Mjyhy; (a) kw;Wk; (b) fl;likg;Gf;fs; gupTf;
fyg;Gf; fl;likg;gpw;F gpujhd gq;fspg;ig toq;Ffpd;wd.
fhgNdw;W mad; ,d; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; (CO32-) cU 2.30 ,y; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
cU 2.30 CO32- d; xU gupTf; fl;likg;G kw;wjhf khw;wKWjy;
fhgNdw;W maDf;fhd Nenuhj;j gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; gpd;tUkhW:
cU 2.31 CO32- madpd; gupT fl;likg;G
gupT fyg;G mikg;ig tpsf;Ftjw;F fhgNdw;W madpd; gupT mikg;Gfisg;

gad;gLj;jyhk;. fhgNdw;W mad;fspd; gupT mikg;Gf;fisf; fUJk;nghOJ xt;nthU
xl;rprd; mZitAk; #o;e;J Mff;Fiwe;jJ ,U jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; cz;L.
gupT mikg;Gf;fs; cUthFk; nghOJ  gpizg;gpd; epiy khWk;nghOJ %d;whtJ
jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud; xl;rprd; mZf;fspy; ,Uf;fyhk; my;yJ ,y;yhJ ,Uf;fyhk;.
 ,yj;jpud; Kfpypd; epiy khw;wkiltjhy; C - O gpizg;gpd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; %d;W
C - O gpizg;GfSf;Fk; Xuplg;glhJs;sJ. CO32- ,d; gupTf;fyg;Gf; fl;likg;Gf; fPNo
jug;gl;Ls;sJ. Xuplg;glhj ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; C - O gpizg;gpy; Gs;sp - xw;iwg;gpizg;ghy;
Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
78
%d;W gupTf;fl;likg;Gf;fspd; tpisit ,t;tiuglk; %yk; vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.

gpizg;G tupir CO32- ,y; 1½ (2/3).
(a) (b)
cU 2.32 (a) CO32- madpd; gupT fyg;Gf;fl;likg;G Vw;wq;fs; cld;

(b) CO32- ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G KbT mZf;fspy;
fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G tiutjw;F rkkhd gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs; gad;gLj;jp ,Uf;Fk;NghJ

kl;Lk; NkYs;s gupTf; fl;likg;Gfspy; jdpj;jdp mZf;fspy; cs;s Vw;wq;fs;
Vw;Gilajhff; fhzg;gLk;. (cjhuzk;:- O3> NO3- > CO32- > NO2-) vt;thwhapDk; rkr;ruP w;w
%yf;$Wfs; / mad;fSf;F (cjhuzk;:- N2O> S2O32-) ,J Vw;GilaJ my;y.
XNrhd; %yf;$wpd; ,U gupT mikg;GfisAk; fPNo fhl;bathW vLj;Jf; $wyhk;.
cU 2.33 XNrhdpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;
XNrhdpYs;s ,U gpizg;G ePsq;fSk; rkk;. vdNt XNrhdpd; fl;likg;G ,UgupT

mikg;GfspdJk; ,izf;fg;gl;l mikg;G vdf; fUjyhk;. mt;tikg;Gf; fPNo vLj;Jf;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
(a) (b)
cU 2.34 (a) O3 ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Vw;wj;Jld;
(b) O3 ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Kbtpl / ika mZf;fspy; Vw;wk;
,y;yhjthW
79
kw;Wk; vd;gdtw;wpd; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;GfSk; NkYs;stw;iw xj;jit. ,it

fPNo cU 2.35 kw;Wk; 2.36 ,y; Kiwg;gb jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
(a) (b)
cU 2.35 (a) NO3- ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Vw;wj;Jld;
(b) NO3- ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Kbtpl / ika mZf;fspy; Vw;wk;
,y;yhjthW
(a) (b)
cU 2.36 (a) NO2- ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Vw;wj;Jld;
(b) NO2- ,d; gupTf; fyg;Gf; fl;likg;G Kbtpl / ika mZf;fspy; Vw;wk;
,y;yhjthW
2.3.4 %yf;$Wfspd; KidTj; jd;ikapy; kpdn

; djpuj
; ; jd;ikapdJk; Nfj;jpu
fzpj xOq;fikg;gpdJk; jhf;fk;.
,urhadg; gq;fl
P L
; g; gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk; mZf;fSf;fpilapyhd kpd;ndjpu;jj ; d;ik
NtWghL cau;thf ,Ug;gpd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; Kidthf;fk; milAk; vdf; fUjg;
gLfpd;wJ. Kidthf;fk; mile;j gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fs; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik
$ba %yfj; jpw; F mz;i kapy; fhzg;g Ltjw; f hd epfo;; jfT cau; T MFk; .
kpd;n djpu;j;jd;i k NtWghL gpizg;gpd; KidTj; jd;i kiaj; jPu;khdpg;gjpy;
,d;wpaikahj gq;F tfpf;fpdw ; J. MfNt cau;ej
; kpd;ndjpuj
; j
; d;ik NtWghL cau;ej
;
KidTj;jd;ik. vt;thwhapDk; xU KO %yf;$wpd; KidTj;jd;ikiaf; fUJk;nghOJ
%yf;$wpd; tbtKk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf C = O gpizg;G
KidthdJ> vdpDk; CO2 %yf;$W Kidtw;wJ. CO2 %yf;$wpd; Neu;Nfhl;L
tbtNk ,jw; F f; fhuzkhf mikfpd; w J. mNjNghd; W C - Cl gpizg; G
KidTj;jd;ikAilaJ. Mdhy; CCl4 %yf;$W Kidtw;wJ> Vnddpy; rkr;rPuhd
ehd;Kfp tbtj;ij %yf;$W nfhz;bUg;gjhy; MFk;. xU %yf;$wpy; gpizg;Gf;fs;
KidTw;W ,Ug;gpDk; > %yf;$W rkr;rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ > mjd; ,U KidTj;
jpUg;Gj;jpwd; g+r;rpak; MFk;.
80
Kidtw;w %yf;$WfSf;F xU %yfj;jpd; <uZ %yf;$Wfs; (Cl2, O2, N2, F2, etc)
cjhuzkhFk;. ,k;%yf;$Wfspd; gpizg;Gf;fs; Kidtw;w gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;GfSf;F
cjhuzq;fshf mikAk;.
cU 2.37 CCl4, CO2 ,d; %yf;$Wfs;
2.3.5 ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd;
xw;iwg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;s HCl %yf;$iwf; fUJk;nghOJ ,t;vz;zf;fU

njspthfpd;wJ.KidTj;jd;ikAila %yf;$wpy; > %yf;$wpd; xU Kidtpy; kiw
KidT cUthfpdw ; J. Neu;KidT %yf;$wpd; kw;w Kidtpy; cUthfpd;wJ. mjd;gb
HCl %yf;$wpd; vjpu;KidT Cl mZtpYk;> Neu;KidT H mZtpYk; cs;sJ.
KidT gpizg;Gfisf; Fwpg;gjw;fhd Kiw fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
+
H Cl-
,UKidthdJ ~ | ,t;thW Fwpf;fg;gLk;. mk;Gf;Fwpapd; jiy %yf;$wpd; vjpu;

Kidit Nehf;fpAs;sJ.
+
H Cl-
cjhuzk;:
xU %yf;$wpy; epiyahd ,UKidT ,Ug;gpd; xt;nthU KidtpYk; fhzg;gLk;

Kidthf;fj;jpd;; gUkd; rkdhf ,Ug;gjhy; kpd;rhu;ghf eLepiyahd %yf;$W
cUthfpd;wJ. ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd; Kidtpd; Vw;wj;jpd; gUkid (Vw;wg;
gpupg;ig ) ,UmZf;fSf;fpilapyhd J}uj;jhw; ngUf;Ftjd; %yk; fzpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
HCl %yf;$iwf; fUJk;nghOJ rkr;rPuw;w ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; fhzg;gLtjhy; xU
KidT H mZtpYk; kw;w KidT Cl mZtpYk; mike;Js;sJ. HCl mZtpd; ,U
KidTj; jpUg;Gjpwidg; gpd;tUkhW fzpg;gplyhk;.
,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd; (  ) = Kidtpd; Vw;wk; ( )  gpizg;G ePsk; ( r )
81
NkYs;s rkd;ghl;by;  fs; myF $Nyhk; (C) kw;Wk; r ,d; myF kPw;wu; (m).
MfNt ,UKidTj; jpUg;gj;jpd; myF Cm MFk;.
%yf;$Wfspd; ,UKidTj;jpwd; / ,UKidTj; jpUg;gk; (,J xU fhtpf; fzpakhFk;.

,J gUkd;> jpir ,uz;ilAk; nfhz;lit.) toikahf nlig (debye) (D) vDk;
myfpy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. 1 D MdJ 3.34  10-30 Cm ,w;Fr; rkdhdJ.
1 D = 3.34  10-30 Cm
2.3.6 kpd;ndjpu;j; jd;ikapd; gUkdpy; jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; fhuzpfs;

%yfnkhd;wpd; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G> %yfk; cs;s #oypdhy; rpwpjsT khw;wkilaf;
$bathW jq;fpAs;sJ. ,Ug;gpDk; toik Nghd;W ,k;khw;wk; xU khwpypahf vLj;Jf;
nfhs;sg;gLk;. kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;gpd; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;Jk; ehd;F Kf;fpa fhuzpfs; fPNo
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
 fyg;G:
- s gz;G $Lk;NghJ kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G $Lk;.
- C ,d; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G: C(sp3) < C(sp2) < C(sp) < C
- vdNt CH4, C2H4 kw;Wk; C2H2 ,y; C mZf;fspd; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G mjpfupf;Fk;
xOq;F CH4 < C2H4 < C2H2 MFk;.
 Vw;wk;:
cjhuzk;:- N ,d; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G: NH2- < NH3 < NH4+
,q;F vy;yh N mZf;fSk; sp3 fyg;Gilad. kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G N- < N < CN+@
cau; Neu; Vw;wj;ijf; nfhz;l mZ> eLepiy mZitf; fhl;bYk; $ba
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;igf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. eLepiy mZthdJ> kiw Vw;wk; nfhz;l
mirit kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;igf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
 xl;rpNaw;w vz;:
H2S, SO32- kw;Wk; SO42- ,y; S mZf;fs; ahtw;wpdJk; fyg;G sp3 kw;Wk; S mZf;fspy;
cs;s kpd;Ndw;wk; g+r;rpakhFk;. S ,d; fyg;G kw;Wk; Vw;wk; vd;gd Nkw;$wg;gl;l
vy;yh ,dq;fspYk; rkkhdit. vdNt S ,d; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G NkYs;s ,dq;
fspy; xl;rpNaw;w vz;zpdhy; jPuk ; hdpf;fg;gLk;. H2S, SO32- kw;Wk; SO42- ,y; S ,d;
xl;rpNaw;w vz;fs; KiwNa -2, +4 kw;Wk; +6 MFk;. eLepiy mirTld; xg;gpLk;
NghJ cau; Neu; Vw;wk; nfhz;l mZ $ba kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;igf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
vdNt S ,d; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G H2S < SO32- < SO42- Mff; fhzg;gLk;.
82
 %yf;$wpy; fUjg;gLk; mZTld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s Vida mZf;fspd;

,ay;Gfs;
cjhuzk;:- C ,d; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G CF4 ,y; cau;thff; fhzg;gLk;. CCl4

cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ cau; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;Gs;s GNshupd; mZ
ehd;F GNshupd; mZf;fs;> ehd;F FNshupd; mZf;fs; ,ize;
Js;s fhgd; mZitf; fhl;bYk; $basT Neu; Vw;wk; nfhz;ljhf
khw;Wk;. ,jdhy; GNshupd; mZf;fs; ,ize;Js;s fhgd; mZtpd;
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G cau;j;jg;gLk;.
xj;j %yfj;jpd; xU mZ> NtWgl;l %yf;$wpy; fhzg;gLk;NghJ> mt;tZtpw;F

Nkw;gb tpjpKiwfisg; gpuNahfpf;Fk;NghJ mZtpd; Vw;wj;ijf; fhl;bYk;> mjd;
fyg;gpw;F Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. mZf;fspd; fyg;G tif rkkhdit
vdpy; Vw;wj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf NH3,
NH4+ vd;gdtw;wpy; iejurd; mZtpd; fyg;G xj;jit. vdNt iejurd; mZtpd;
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G Vw;wj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; jPuk
; hdpf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.; NH3 ,y; iejurd;
+
mZ eLepiy (Vw;wk;)ahdJ. NH4 fs; iejurd; mZ Neu; Vw;wk; nfhz;lJ.
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G nfhz;ljhff; fhzg;gLk;.
,jidg; Nghd;W xU mZtpd; fyg;G kw;Wk; Vw;wk; vd;gd rkkhdit vdpd;> mLj;j
xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; fUj KbAk;. cjhuzkhf CH3F kw;Wk; CH4 vd;gdtw;wpy; fyg;G
kpd;Ndw;wq;fs; vd;gd rkkhdit. CH3F, CH4 ,y; fhgdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fs;
KiwNa -2 ck; -4 ck; MFk;. vdNt C mZtpd; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G xl;rpNaw;w
vz;iz mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L xg;gpl KbAk;. vdNt CH3F ,y; cs;s fhgd;
mZtpd; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G ($ba xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; nfhz;lJ). CH4 ,y; cs;s
fhgd; mztpd; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;gpYk; (Fiwe;j xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; nfhz;lJ)
cau;thff; fhzg;gLk;.
fyg;G Vw;wk; kw;Wk; xl;rpNaw;w vz; rkkhfTs;sNghJ kw;iwa mZf;fspd; tpisitf;

fUj KbAk;. cjhuzkhf CHCl3, CHF3 vd;gdtw;wpy; fhgd; mZtpd; kpd;ndjpu;
,ay;ig mtw;Wld; ,ize;Js;s kw;iwa mZf;fs; rhu;ghfj; jPuk ; hdpf;f KbAk;.
(fyg;G Vw;wk;> xl;rpNaw;w vz; ,t;tpU fhgd; mZf;fSf;Fk; rkkhdit.) vdNt
,q;F CHF3 ,y; cs;s fhgd; mZ CHCl3 ,y; cs;s fhgd; mZtpYk; $ba
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G nfhz;lJ.
2.4 mad; gpizg;G / mad; ,ilj;jhf;fk;
Neu; mad;fSf;Fk; kiw mad;fSf;Fkpilapy; Vw;gLk;; epiykpd;dpaw; ftu;r;rpapdhy;

mad; gpizg;G cUthfpd;wJ. ,q;F Neu; mad;fSk; vjpu; mad;fSk; epiyahd
Fwpj;j xOq;fikg;gpy; mLf;fg;gl;L jpz;k epiyapy; ‘rhyf fl;likg;G’ vd;W
miof;fg;gLk; mikg;ig cUthf;Fk;. ,q;F xt;nthU NeuaDk; Fwpjj; vz;zpfi ; fahd
83
vjpu; Vw;wk; nfhz;l mad;fshy; #og;gl;bUf;Fk;. mj;Jld; kWjiyahfTk; fhzg;gLk;.

NaCl rhyfj;jpy; xt;nthU Na+ maDk; 6Cl- mad;fshYk; xt;nthU Cl- maDk;
6 Na+ mad;fshYk; #og;gl;bUf;Fk;.
cU 2.38 NaCl rhyf fl;likg;G
mad; rhyfj;jpy; fw;wad;fs; jhd; rpwpaitahf ,Ug;gjhy; mtw;wpd; ,yj;jpud;

Kfpy; fUNthL td;ikahf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mad; rhyfj;jpy; mdad;fs; ngupjhf
,Ug;gjhy; mtw;wpd; ntspNahl;L ,yj;jpud;fs; fw;waDld; xg;gpLk;NghJ jsu;thfg;
gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ntsp kpd;Gyq;fshy; md;dad;fspd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpypd; tbtk;
,yFthf khw;wg;glf;$baJ. Neu; kpd;Gyk; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk;NghJ ngupa
md;dad;fspd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpypd; tbtk; ,yFthfg; ghjpf;fg;gLk;. xU fw;wad;
kpd;Gyj;jpd; typikapdhy; md;dad; xd;wpd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpiyj; jd;id Nehf;fp
,Of;Fk; Mw;wy; cilaJ. ,t; Mw;wy; Kidthf;Fk; tY vd miof;fg;gLk;. xU
md;daid Nehf;fp fw;wad; nry;Yk;NghJ mjd; Neu; kpd;Gyj;jpdhy; Nfhstbtkhd
md;dadpd; ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; Kl;il tbtkhf khw;wkilAk; jpwd; KidthFk;
jpwd; vdg;gLk;.
Kidthf;fk; mw;w epiy Kidthf;fg;gl;l epiy

,yl;rpa epiy
fw;wadpd; Kidthf;Fk; tY> md;daid Kidthf;fg; NghJkhdjd;W fw;wad;
rpwpjhfTk; cau; Vw;wKk; cs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ Kidthf;Fk; tY cau;T.
Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+
fw;wadpd; gUkd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.

Kidthf;Fk; tY FiwtilfpwJ.
84
+1 +2 +3
fw;wadpd; Vw;wk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.

fw;wadpd; gUkd; Fiwfpd;wJ.
Vw;w mlu;j;jp mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
Kidthf;Fk; tY mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
F- Cl- Br- I-
md;dadpd; gUkd;; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.

Kidthf;Fk; jpwd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
-1 -2 -3
md;dadpd; Vw;wk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.

md;dadpd; gUkd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
KidthFk; tY mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
85
mad; ,ay;gsT> gq;fPl;L ,ay;gsT Mfpad Kidthf;fj;jpy; jq;f pAs;sJ.

(Kidthf;Fk; jpwdpYk; KidthFk; jpwdpYk;)
Kidthf;fk; gpd;tUtdtw;why; mjpfupf;Fk;.

1. fw;wadpd; cau; Vw;wKk; rpwpa gUkDk;
2. md;dadpd; cau; Vw;wKk; ngupa gUkDk;
Kidthf;fk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
mad; ,ay;G FiwfpwJ.
gq;fPl;L ,ay;G mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
2.5 cNyhfg; gpizg;Gf;fs;
nghJthf vspa gq;fl P L

; g; gpizg;igf; nfhz;l rpwpa %yf;$Wfs; mad; Nru;itfSld;
xg;gpLk;nghOJ jho; nfhjpepiyAilait. mad; jpz;kq;fs; kpd;idj; jpz;k epiyapy;
kpd;flj;Jk; jpwd; mw;wit. Mdhy; jputepiyapy; kpd;idf; flj;Jgit. ntt;NtW
cNyhfq;fspd; cUFepiy tp];jhukhfg; gutpAs;sd. cNyhfq;fs; jpz;kk;> jputk;
vd;w epiyAld; rk;ge;jg;glhj ed;kpdf; lj;jpfs;. cjhuzkhf ,urj;jpd; (Hg) cUFepiy
jho;thdJ. (-39 C). jq;Fjdpd; cUFepiy 34100C. vy;yhf; fUj;jhf;fq;fspYk;
0
jputNrhbak; mjd; cau; ntg;gf; flj;Jk; nfhs;ssT fhuzkhff; Fsp&l;bahfg;

gad;gLfpwJ. cNyhfq;fSf;fpilapy; fhzg;gLk; ,t;NtWghl;ilg; gq;fPl;L> mad;
gpizg;Gfspd; khjpupAUf;fisf; nfhz;L tpsf;fKbahJ.
cNyhfg;gpizg;gpd; khjpupAU Paul Kart Ludwig Drude dhYk; Hendrik Lorentz dhYk;
thAf;fspd; elj;ijapd; ,af;f khjpupAUit mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L gpNuupf;fg;gl;lJ.
,k;khjpupAUtpd;gb cNyhf mZf;fs; tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud;fis cNyhfg;
gpizg;ig cUthf;Ftjw;F ,og;gjhy; Neu; Vw;wKs;s mad;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
MfNt ngUk; vz; zpf; i fahd mZf; f shy; tpLtpf; f g;g Lk; tYtsT Xl;L
,yj;jpud;fshy; khngUk; ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; cUthf;fg;gLfpdw
; J. ,t;tpyj;jpud; KfpyN
; eu;
mad;fSf;fpilapy; cUthFk; js;Sif tpiriar; rkhspj;J cNyhf mad;fisr;
rhyf mikg;gpy; itj;jpUf;fpdw
; J. Neu; mad;fshy; Md rhyfj;ij epiyahf;Ftjw;fhf
,yj;jpud;fs; njhlu;eJ
; rhyf fl;likg;gpy; mire;j tz;zk; ,Uf;Fk;. Neu;mad;fSf;Fk;
86
,yj;jpud; KfpypwF
; k; ,ilapyhd epiykpd; ftu;rr
; p tpir cNyhfg; gpizg;G vdg;gLk;.
cNyhfg; gpizg;gpd; gyk; Kjd;ikahf %d;W Kf;fpa fhuzpfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
 cNyhfg; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtjw;F mZf;fshy; toq;fg;gLk; ,yj;jpud;fspd;

vz;zpf;if.
cjhuzkhfr; Nrhbak; mZ tYtsT Xl;b y; xU ,yj; jpuid kl;Lk;
nfhz;bUg;gjhy; xU ,yj;jpuid kl;Lk; cNyhfg; gpizg;gpw;F toq;ff;$bajhf
cs;sJ. Mdhy;; kfdPrpak; ,U ,yj;jpud;fis cNyhfg;gpizg;gpwF
; toq;Ffpdw
; J.
mZtpdhy; cNyhfg; gpizg;gpw;F toq;;fg;gLk; ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if
mjpfupf;f cNyhfg; gpizg;gpd; td;ik mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
 mad;Miu
fw;wad; Miu mjpfupf;f ,yj;jpud; Kfpypd; ,yj;jpud; mlu;jj
; p Fiwfpdw
; ikahy;
cNyhfg; gpizg;G eyptilfpd;wJ
 mad; jd;ik
,J ve;jstpwF
; tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpuid xU cNyhfg; gpizg;gpwF; ,yj;jpuid
toq;Ffpd;wJ vd;gijf; fUJfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhfr; Nrhbak; tYtsT
Xl;by; cs;s ,yj;jpuid Kw;whf cNyhfg; gpizg;gpw;F toq;Ffpd;wJ.
vt;thwhapDk; madhf;fw; rf;jp mjpfupf;f cNyhfg; gpizg;ig cUthf;f
,yj;jpuid tpLtpf;Fk;; epfo;jfT Fiwfpd;wJ. ,f;fhuzp fhu cNyhfq;fs;>
fhukz; cNyhfq;fisg; ghjpg;gjpy;iy. Mdhy; jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fisf;
fUJk;NghJ ,J Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tfpf;fpd;wJ.
2.6 Jiz ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; / Jiz ,ilf; ftu;r;rpfs;
xU %yf;$wpy; cs;s mZf;fs; xU FiyNghd;W td;ikahd gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;ghy;

gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Mdhy; rpy rkaq;fspy; %yf;$Wfs; eype;j Jiz ,ilj;
jhf;fj;jhy; xd;whfg; gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mitfs; nghJthf %yf;$w;wpilf; ftu;rr
; p
tpir my;yJ %yf;$w;wpilg; gpizg;ghff; fhzg;gLk;.
• mad; ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
• ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fSk;; > Ijurd; gpizg;Gk;
• mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
• ,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;.
• fyit ,ilf; ftu;r;rp (,yz;ld; tpirfs;)
87
tz;lu; thypRtpd; ftu;rr

; p tpirfs; %yf;$w;Wj; Jzpfi
; ffs; my;yJ xNu %yf;$w;Wj;
Jzpf;i ffisf; nfhz;l $l; lq;f Sf;f pilapyhd ftu;r ;r p my; y J js;S if
tpirfshFk;. ,J ,UKidT-,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk; ,UKidT-J}z;lg;gl;l
,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;> yz;ld; (jw;fhypf J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT-J}z;lg;gl;l
,UKidT) ,ilj;jhf;f tpirfis cs;slf;Fk;.
mad; ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
NaCl Nghd;w mad; Nru;itfs; ePupy; Na+ mad;fSf;Fk; Cl- mad;fSf;Fk; ePu;
%yf;$WfSf;Fk; ,ilapy; Vw;gLk; Jiz ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpdhy; fiufpd;wJ. xU
mad; Nru;itapy; cs;s fw;wad; (cjhuzk;: NaCl ,y; Na+) ePupd; gFjp vjpu;
Kidthf;fKila mZTld; (ePupy; cs;s O) ,ilj;jhf;fkilfpd;wJ. mj;Jld;
kWjiyahf md;daDk; mad; ,UKidTj;jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;. MfNt NaCl
ePuf ; iurypy; cs;s fw;wad; Na+ ck; (Cl-) mdaDk; ePu; %yf;$Wfshy; #og;gLtjhy;
; f
Vw;gLk; mad; - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpdhy; fiuf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
cU 2.39 mad; ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk; ePUf;Fk; NaCl ,d; mad;fSf;Fk;
,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;

epiyahd ,UKidTila %yf;$WfSf;fpilNaahd ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; ,UKidT-
,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,J njspthfg; gpd;tUk; cUtpy;
vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;tiff; ftu;r;rp tpirapd; gUkd; 0.5 - 15kJ/mol NkYk;
,t;tpirapd; gUkd; Ijurd; gpizg;gpd; td;ikia tplj; jho;thdJ.
cU 2.40 ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
+ Vw;wKs;s KidtpwF
; k; - Vw;wKs;s KidtpwF
; kpilNaAs;s ftu;rr
; p tpir Fwpgg
; hf
,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk; vdg;gLk;. ,U nkjdy; (Nghky;bifl;L)
%yf;$WfSf;fpilNaahd ,ilj;jhf;fk; ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fkhff;
fUjyhk;.
cU 2.41 nkjdypy; ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
88
Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs;
,J xU tifahd ,UKidT - ,UKidTf; ftu;r;rp ,ilj;jhf;fk;> mj;Jld; kw;w

tifahd ,UKidT ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fspYk; td;ikahdJ. nghJthf
Ijurd; gpizg;gpd; gUkd; 4 - 40 kJ/mol tPr;rpy; fhzg;gLk;.
Ijurd; mZ xd;W N, O my;yJ F mZTld; gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;bUf;Fk; nghOJ

Ijurd; mZtpd; gFjp Vw;wk;  NtnwhU %yfj;Jld; gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;bUf;Fk;
nghOJ ngWk; gFjp Vw;wj;Jld; xg;gpLk; nghOJ kpfTk; cau;thdjhftpUf;Fk;.
,q;F H cau; gFjpNaw;wj;jij miltjw;fhd fhuzk; IjurDf;Fk; kpdn ; djpuj
; j
; d;ik
$ba (N, O, F) Mfpa mZf;fSf;fpilapyhd kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik NtWghL cau;thf
,Uj;jy; mj;Jld; Ijurd; mZ kpfr; rpwpa mZthf ,Ug;gjhy; td;ikahd
epiykpd;Gyk; cUthf;fg;gLk;.  gFjp Neu;Vw;wj;ijAila Ijurd; mZtpw;Fk;
gFjp  Vw;wj;ijAila kpdn
; djpuj
; j
; d;ik cau;thd (N, O, F) mZf;fspd; jdprN; rhb
,yj;jpud;fSf;Fkpilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;fk; Ijurd; gpizg;G vdg;gLk;.  gFjp
Vw;wKila kpd;ndjpuhd mZ Ijurd; mZTld; gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;bUf;fNtz;Lk;
vd;gJ fl;lhakhdjd;W ve;j xU %yfj;JlDk; gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;bUf;fyhk;.
cU 2.42 ePupy; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs;
NkNy cs;s cUtpy; Xu; ePu; %yf;$W ehd;F NtW ePu; %yf;$WfSld; Ijurd;
gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;Ls;sJ. xNutifahd %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;F
cjhuzk; H2O, NH3 , HF.
KidTj;jd;i kAila khjpupAU %yf;$w;Wg; gjhu;j;jq;f spd; ,ay;GfSlDk;

elj;ijAlDk; nghUe;JfpwJ. cjhuzk; ePu.; gdpff ; l;b ePupYk; 9% mlu;jj
; p Fiwe;jjhf
,Ug;gjhy; ePupy; kpjf;fpwJ. ePiuf; Fsp&l;Ltjd; %yk; ntg;grf;jpia mfw;Wk; nghOJ
%yf;$Wfspd; ,af;frf;jp Fiwtiltjd; fhuzkhf ePu; 00C apy; ciwfpd;wJ. ePu;
%yf;$Wfspd; ,af;frf;jp Fiwtiljy; xt;nthU ePu; %yf;$wpidAk; #o;eJ ; Ijurd;
0
gpizg;G cz;lhtjw;fhd kPsj ; ftpid mjpfupff
; pdw; J. 0 C f;F Fsp&l;b ntg;grf;jpia
mfw;Wk;NghJ ePu; %yf;$Wfs; neUf;fkhf tUtjhy; Ijurd; gpizg;G td;ikailfpwJ.
Xu; ePu; %yf;$iwr; #o cs;s Ijurd; gpizg;Gfs; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
89
cU 2.43 gdpf;fl;bapy; ePu;%yf;$Wfspd; xOq;fhf;fk;
xt;nthU ePu; %yf;$Wk; ,U Ijurd; mZf;fis cgNahfpj;J ,U Ijurd; gpizg;ig

cUthf;FtJld; xl;rprd; mZtpy; cs;s ,U jdprN ; rhb ,yj;jpud;fshy; mUNfAs;s
,U ePu; %yf;$Wfspd; ,U Ijurd; mZf;fisf; ftu;e;J NkYk; ,U Ijurd;
gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk;. xt;nthU ePu; %yf;$iwAk; #o cs;s ehd;F Ijurd;
gpizg;Gk; ehd;Kfp tbtpy; neUf;fkilar; nra;fpwJ. Xu; xOq;F Kiwapy; ePu;
%yf;$Wfs; gdpff; l;bfs; xOq;FgLj;jg;gLk; NghJ jput ePupy; cs;s RahjPd ntspapYk;
$ba msT RahjPd ntspia (free space) milg;gjhy; gdpf;fl;b 9% ntspia
vLf;fpd;wJ. gy vz;zpf;ifahd gspq;FU mikg;Gfs; gdpf;fl;bf;F ,Ug;gJld;
gspq;FU fl;likg;gpd; jd;ik mjd; #o;epiyapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
vt;thwhapDk; NtWgl;l %yf;$WfSf;filapyhd ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpd; NghJk; Ijurd;

gpizg;G cUthfyhk;. mrw;Nwhd;> ePu; fyitapy; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf; fhzg;gLk;. ,J
fPNo Fwpj;Jf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ePu;
mrw;Nwhd; Ijurd; gpizg;G
cU 2.44 mrw;Nwhd;; / ePu; fyitapy; Ijurd; gpizg;G
fPNo Fwpj;Jf; fhl;baJ Nghd;W fhnghl;rpypf;fkpyj;jpy; fhnghl;rpypf; $l;lj;jpd; Ijurd;

mZtpw;Fk; NtnwhU fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj;jpy; cs;s fhigidy; $l;lj;jpy; (C=O)
cs;s xl;rprd; mZtpw;FkpilNa Ijurd; gpizg;G cUthjy; rhj;jpak;. 
Vw;wj;ijAila cau;kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ikAila %yf mZ H mZTld; gpizg;gpy;
90
<Lgl;bUj;jy; mtrpakd;W. Mdhy;  gFjp vjpu; Vw;wk; xl;rprd; mZ fhgd;

mZTld; gpizg;gpy; <Lgl;b Uf;F k;n ghOJk; ngwg;g Lk;. cjhuzk; : mjhtJ
mrw;wpf;fkpyk; Nghd;wtw;wpy; ngwg;gLk;.
Ijurd; gpizg;G
cU 2.45 mrw;wpf;fkpyj;jpy; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs;
J}a HF ,Yk; Ijurd; gpizg;G fhzg;gLk;. HF ,y; gFjp vjpu; Vw;wj;ijAila

mad; F f;Fk; gFjp Neu; Vw;wKila Ijurd; GNshiul;L %yf;$wpd; Neu; Vw;wj;jpw;F
kpilapy; H w;Fkpilapy; Ijurd; gpizg;G cUthFk;. Ijurd; gpizg;G J}a HF
,y; %d;W ngsjpf epiyfspYk; ngwg;gLk;. fPNo cs;s cU J}a HF ,y; %yf;$w;W
xOq;fikg;igf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
Ijurd; gpizg;G
Ijurd; gpizg;G
cU 2.46 (a) HF ,y; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs; (b) NaF, HF fyitapy;

Ijurd; gpizg;G
,U %yf;$WfSf;fpilapy; Ijurd; gpizg;G cUthFk;nghOJ mJ %yf;$w;wpil

Ijurd; gpizg;G vdg;gLk;. xU %yf;$wpy; cs;s IjurDf;Fk; mNj %yf;$wpy;
cs;s kpd; vjpuhd mZtpw;Fkpilapy; Ijurd; gpizg;G cUthFk;nghOJ mJ
%yf;$w;whf Ijurd; gpizg;G vdg;gLk;. XNjh-iej;jpNuh gPNdhjypYk; guh iej;jpNuh
gPNdhypYk; fhzg;gLk;; Ijurd; gpizg;G fPNo Fwpj;Jf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J
%yf;$w;wpil Ijurd; gpizg;gpw;Fk; %yf;$w;wf Ijurd; gpizg;gpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd
NtWghl;il vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
91
%yf;$w;wf Ijurd; gpizg;G

%yf;$w;wpil Ijurd; gpizg;G
cU 2.47 O iej;jpNuh gPNdhypYk; P - iej;jpNuh gPNdhypYk; H - gpizg;Gf;fs;
rpytw;wpy; kpd; vjpuhd %yfkhff; fhzg;gLk; nghOJ Ijurd; gpizg;gpd; td;ik

jho;thf cs;sJ. MfNt NtnwhU tpjpapy; Cl ck; cs;thq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mJ
FONCl tpjp vdg;gLk;. nghJthf td;ikahd Ijurd; gpizg;G Kidthf;fg;gl;l
Ijurd; mZ  f;Fk; Kidthf;fg;gl;l F, O my;yJ N mZtpwF
; kpilapy; mtjhdpff
; g;
gl;lJ.
mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs;
(I2) maBd; Kidtw;w %yf;$W ePupy; fiuakhl;lhJ. vt;thwhapDk; I2, KI fiurypy;

fiufpd;wJ. ,t;mtjhdj;ij mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpdhy;
khj;jpuk; tpsf;fKbAk;. ,k;khjpupapy; maill;L maDf;Fk; (I-) maBd; %yf;$Wld;
,ilj;jhf;fKw;W I2 %yf;$wpy; ,UKiditj; J}z;Lfpd;wJ. J}z;lg;gl;l ,U
KidTf;Fk; ,ilj;jhf;fk; cUthfpd;wJ. ,t;tpilj;jhf;fk; I- mad; I2 %yf;$Wld;
,ize;J I3- mad; cUthtjw;F cjTfpd;wJ.
mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
cU 2.48 mad; - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
MfNt mad; J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpdhy; maBd; KI ePuf

; f
; iurypdhy;
fiuf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
,J KidTs;s %yf;$W xd;W Xu; mZit my;yJ Kidtw;w %yf;$wpid

J}z;Ltjdhy; cUthFk; Kidtpw;Fkpilapyhd eype;j ftu;r;rp tpirahFk;. ,U
KiditAila %yf;$wpd; epiykpd; ,af;ftpirapd; gadhf mZ my;yJ Kidtw;w
92
%yf;$wpd; ntsp ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; kPs; xOq;fhf;fj;jpw;F cl;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf

epue;ju ,UKidTs;s %yf;$wpw;Fk; > J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidTila mZ my;yJ
%yf;$Wf;FkpilNa epiykpd; ftu;r;rp cz;lhfpd;wJ. ,t;tpilj;jhf;f tpir 1/ r6 f;F
tpfpj rkkhFk;. ,q;F r ,U%yf;$WfSf;Fkpilapyhd J}uj;ij (my;yJ Vw;w
ikaj;ijf;) Fwpf;Fk;. ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj; jpwdpd; ngWkhdk; Kidtw;w %yf;$wpd;
my;yJ mZtpd; KidthFk; jd;ikapYk; KidT %yf;$wpd; ,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;
jpwdpd; gUkdpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. HCl %yf;$wpw;Fk; Ar mZtpw;Fkpilapyhd ftu;rr ; p
tpir ,jw;F cjhuzkhf mikAk;.
cjhuzk;:
,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
cU 2.49 ,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;
yz;ld; ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; my;yJ fiyT ,iltpirfs;

(jw;fhypf (fzepiy) ,UKidT - J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;fk;)
Kidtw;w %yf;$Wfs;> %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd eypej ; ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpdhy; xd;whf

,ize;Js;sd. ,t;,ilj;jhf;fk; thAf;fspYk;> jpz;k epiyapy; cs;s rlj;Jt
%yfq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpdw ; J. ,t;tifahd eypej ; ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; yz;ld; tpirfs;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. %yf;$W Kidtw;wjhf ,Ug;gpDk; njhlu;r;rpahd ,yj;jpud;fspd;
mirtpdhy; xNu Neuj;jpy; cau; ,yj;jpud; mlu;jj
; pAs;sJk; jho; ,yj;jpud; mlu;jj
; pAs;s
gpuNjrq;fSk; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. vt;thwhapDk; ,U KidTfspd; gpuNjrKk;
(location) mLj;j fzNk khw;w;kilAk;. jw;fhypfkhf fz epiyapy; cUthFk;
Kidthf;fg;gl;l %yf;$wpd; xU Kidtpw;Fk;> J}z;lg;gl;l ,UKidTila xt;thj
Vw;wk; cila ,d;DNkhu; %yf;$wpd; ,UKidtpw;Fkpilapyhd ftu;r;rp yz;ld;
tpir vd miof;fg;gLk;.  yz;ld; ,ilj;jhf;fk;. ,J fiyT ,iltpirfs;
vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. mj;Jld; Kidtw;w %yf;$Wfs; xd;wpdhy; xd;W (gu];gu)
Kidthf;fkiltjhy; cUthFk; %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ftu;r;rp tpirahFk;.
yz;ld; tpirfs; Kidtw;w> KidTs;s vy;yh mZf;fs;> %yf;$WfSf;Fkpilapy;

fhzg;gLk;. ngUksT %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpT NtWghl;i lAila gjhu;j;jq;f is
xg;gpLk;nghOJ mtw;wpd; ngsjpf ,ay;Gfisj; jPuk
; hdpg;gjpy; fiyT tpirfNs
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd.
93
jpz;k epiyapy; maBd; %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd gpizg;G
maBd; Kidtw;w %yf;$W> jpz;k epiyapy; %yf;$w;Wg; gspq;fhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.

maBd; %yf;$Wfs; fdkhditAk; ngUk; gUkidAk; nfhz;lit. jpz;k epiyapy;
cs;s maBd; %yf;$Wfs; miwntg;gepiyapy; ngw;wpUf;Fk; rf;jp mit ,lk;ngaug;
NghJkhdjd;W. jpz;kepiyapy; mit xOq;fhd Kiwapy; xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;L yz;ld;
tpirfshy; ftug;gl;L ,izf;fg;gLfpd;wd. I2 %yf;$Wfspd; ngupa Nkw;gug;G> maypy;
cs;s %yf;$WfSld; gpize;J %yf;$w;Wr; rhyfj;ij cUthf;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd
yz;ld; tpiriaf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ. I2 %yf;$Wfs; Kidtw;witahf ,Ug;gjhy;
mtw;wpd; fiujpwd; KidT fiug;ghd;fspYk; ghu;ff; Kidtw;w fiug;ghdpy; mjpfk;.
cU 2.50 maBdpd; %yf;$w;Wr; rhyfk;
gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz rpy khjpup vspa %yf;$Wfspd; nfhjpepiy NtWghLfisf;

fhl;LfpwJ. ,f;nfhjpepiy NtWghl;bid ,UKidT - ,UKidT %yf;$w;wpilf;
ftu;r;rp tpirapid cgNahfpj;J tpsf;fyhk;.
ml;ltiz 2.7 ,UKidT jpUg;Gj;jpwDilaJ.
yz;ld;
,UKidT - ,UKidT
yz;ld;
,UKidT - ,UKidT
yz;ld;
,UKidT - ,UKidT
94
NO tpdJk; O2 ,dJk; %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTfs; xg;gplg;glf;$bad. MapDk; NO ,d;

nkhj;j jpzpT O it tpl cau;thdJ. vdNt NO %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd
,ilj;jhf;F tpirapd; td;ik O2 %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;f tpirapd;
td;i kapYk; cau; thdJ. ,t;m tjhdj; i j KidTj;j d;i k ,UjpUg;G j;j pwd;
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;fyhk;. kpd; vjpuj
; j
; d;ik NtWghL nfhz;l mZf;fis
Aila %yf;$W NO MFk;. NO ,d; gpizg;G KidTilajhf ,Ug;gjhy; 0.1553 D
,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. Mdhy; O2 Kidtw;w %yf;$W mjd;
,UKidTj; jpUg;Gj;jpwd; g+r;rpak;. NO tpy; fhzg;gLk; %yf;$w;wpilf; ftu;r;rp
tpirahfpa ,UKidT-,UKidT ftu;r;rp> O2 %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa fhzg;gLk;
yz;ld; tpirapYk; typikahdJ. ,jd; tpisthf NO ,d; nfhjpepiy O2 it tpl
cau;T. jput epiyapy; %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;ftpir cz;lhtjw;Fj;
Njitahd ntg;gk; O2 it tpl NO tpw;F cau;thf cs;sJ.
Br2 %yf;$Wk; (ICl) maBd;Xu;FNshiul;Lk; rk ,yj;jpuDf;Fupad. GNuhkpd; %yf;$W

Kidtw;wJ. 59 0C ,y; nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. ICl KidTs;s %yf;$W. 97 0C apy;
nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. 40 0C cau;thdJ. nfhjpepiy ICl %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ftu;r;rp
tpir Br2 %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ftu;r;rp tpiriatpl cau;thdJ vd vLj;Jf;
fhl;Lfpdw
; J. td;ikahd ,UKidT - ,UKidTf; ftu;rr ; ptpir nfhz;l vg;gjhu;jj
; Kk;
cUFtjw;Fk; nfhjpg;gjw;Fk; cau; rf;jpia cwpQ;rNtz;Lk;.
yz;ld; tpirfspd; td;ik %yf;$Wfspd; tbtj;jpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. mlu;thd rkr;ruP hd

%yf;$WfspypYk; ghu;ff ; ePskhd (jl;ilahd) %yf;$WfspYs;s ,yj;jpud;fs;
,yFthf KidTWk; my;yJ ,lk;ngaUk; (fiytilAk;). cjhuzkhf n-ngd;Njd;
36 0C (309 K) ,y; nfhjpf;fpdw
; J Mdhy; epNah ngd;Njd; 9 0C (282 K) ,y; nfhjpff
; pd;wJ.
vdNt n-ngd;NjdpYs;s yz;ld; tpir epNah-nge;Njdpy; cs;sjpYk; cau;thdJ.
Vnddpy; epNah-nge;Njd; tbtj;jpy; C - C gpizg;gpYs;s tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs;
#oypypUe;J jpiuaplg;gl;Ls;sJ. Mdhy; n-nge;Njdpd; tbtj;jpy; C - C gpizg;gpYs;s
tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; (more exposed) mj;Jld; Nkw;gug;gpwF ; mz;ikapYs;sd. vdNt
C - C gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fis (involves) yz;ld; tpirfs; epNah-nge;Njdpd; (neo-
pentane) $ba J}uj;jpD}lhf njhopw;gl Ntz;bAs;sJ. ,jd; tpisthf nkhj;jf;
ftu;rr; p tpir eype;jjhf cs;sJ. yz;ld; tpir vy;yh tifahd %yf;$Wfspw;fpil
apYk; ghFghbd;wp mjhtJ eLepiyahd my;yJ Vw;wKila my;yJ KidTs;s>
Kidtw;w %yf;$WfSf;fpilapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
(a) (b)
cU 2.51 (a) n-ngd;Njd; (b) nneo-ngd;Njd;
95
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 3 ,urhadf; fzpg;Gfs;
3. ,urhadf; fzpg;Gfs;
cs;slf;fk;
3.1 xl;rpNaw;w vz; 3.4 ,urhadr; #j;jpuq;fspd; tiffs;

3.1.1 %yf;$W xd;wpy; my;yJ gy;yZ 3.4.1 ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;jpypUe;J jpzpTr;
mad; xd;wpy; my;yJ Nru;it xd;wpy; rjtPjk;.
cs;s mZnthd;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w
vz;izj; Jzptjw;F gpuNahfpf;ff; 3.4.2 Nru;itfspd; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzp;jy;.
$ba mbg;gil trjpfs;. (%yf;$w;W / mDgt)
3.1.2 xU jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,yj;jpud; 3.4.3 mDgtr; #j;jpuj;jpzpT kw;Wk;

,lkhw;wg; ghijiaf; fhz;gjw;F> %yf;$w;Wj;jpzpT vd;gdtw;iwg;
mZf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisg; gad;gLj;jp %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijj;
gad;gLj;jy;. Jzpjy;.
3.2 mNrjdr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs; 3.5 fyitapy; $W xd;wpd; mikg;G
3.2.1 XuZ mad;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l 3.5.1 gpd;dj;jpy; jug;gLk; mikg;G

mad; Nru;itfspd; ngauPL. 3.5.2 xU fiurypy; rjtPj mikg;G
3.2.2 ntt;NtW Vw;wq;fSila ,uz;L (Vftpdf; fyit)
my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l fw;wad;fis 3.5.3 %yw;wpwd;
cUthf;Fk; %yfj;ij cila mad; 3.5.4 %yu;j;jpwd;
Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;.
3.2.3 vspa gq;fl
P ;Lr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;
3.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.
3.2.4 gy;yZ mad;fs;
3.6.1 nrt;itghu;j;jy; / rupghu;j;jy;
3.2.5 mNrjd mkpyq;fs; Kiwapy; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr;
rkg;gLj;jy;.
3.3 mZj;jpzpT> %y; kw;Wk; mtfhjNuh khwpyp 3.6.2 xU jho;j;Njw;W Kiwapd; jhf;fr;
3.3.1 mZj;jpzptyF> %y; kw;Wk; rkd;ghLfisr; rkg;gLj;Jjy; /
mtfhjNuhtpd; khwpyp vd;gdtw;Wf;F <Lnra;jy;.
,ilapyhd ,izg;G. 3.6.3 vspa fUj;jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.
3.3.2 %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpitf;
fzpj;jy;. 3.7 fiury;fisj; jahupj;jy;
3.3.3 %y;
3.3.4 %yu; jpzpT 3.8 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fis mbg;gilahf
cila fzpj;jy;fs;
96
mwpKfk;
,urhadtpaypy; mbg;gil fzpjtpay; fzpg;Gfisg; gad;gLj;jy; kw;Wk; ,urhadtpay;

rhu;ej
; jj;Jtq;fisg; kjpj;J tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;Fj; Njitahd mwpitj; jpUj;jkhfg;
ngw ,e;j myF cjTk;.
3.1 xl;rpNaw;w vz;
xl;rpNaw;w vz;izg; gad;gLj;jp Nru;it my;yJ %yf;$W xd;wpy; cs;s mZf;fs;

my;yJ mad;fspy; ,lk; khwg;gl;Ls;s ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaf; fzpf;fyhk;.
xl;rpNaw;w vz; MdJ xU ,urhadr; Nru;itapy; cs;s mZnthd;wpy; ,Ue;J
,of;fg;gl;l my;yJ Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;l ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia tpsq;fpf;
nfhs;s cjTk; xl;rpNaw;w vz; Nru;it my;yJ %yf;$W xd;wpy; cs;s mZnthd;wpd;
kpdN
; dw;wj;ijf; FwpfF
; k;. ,q;F vy;yhg; gpizg;GfSk; mad; gpizg;Gfshff; fUjg;gLk;.
,jd;gb gq;fl
P L
; Nru;it ,y;iy. gq;flP L
; r; Nru;it my;yJ %yf;$W xd;wpy; fhzg;gLk;
mZtpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;zhdJ Fwpjj ; mZnthd;wpd; kw;iwa mZf;fspy; gq;fplg;gLk;
,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaf; fUjp fz;L nfhs;sg;gLk;.
(a) xj;j mZf;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;GfSf;F - ,uz;L gpizg;G
mZf;fs; ,ilNa kpdndjpu; ,ay;G tpj;jpahrk; ,y;iy. ,uz;L mZf;fs;
,ilNa ,yj;jpud;fs; rkr;rPuhf gpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,t;thwhd mZf;fspd;
xl;rpNaw;w vz; g+r;rpakhFk;.
(b) xt;thj mZf;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l gq;fl P L
; g; gpizg;GfSf;F - ,uz;L NtWgl;l
mZf;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sNghJ gpizg;G ,yj;jpud; gq;fPL rkr;rPuhff
mt; tZf;f s; ,ilNa fhzg;g lhJ. ,t;thwhd gpizg;G fspy; gpizg;G
,yj;jpud;fs; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G $ba mZit Nehf;fp $Ljyhf xOq;fike;J
fhzg;gLk;. ,jd;gb Neu;> kiw xl;rpNaw;w vz;fshy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;L xl;rpNaw;w
vz;fs; tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz 3.1 ,y; mZf;fspd; / mad;fspd; tpj;jpahrkhd xl;rpNaw;w vz;fSf;fhd

cjhuzk; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
97
ml;ltiz 3.1 mZf;fs; / mad;fshy; ntspf;fhl;lg;gLk; NtWgLk; xl;rpNaw;w

vz;fSf;fhd cjhuzq;fs;:
3.1.1 %yf;$W xd;wpy; my;yJ gy;yZ mad; xd;wpy; my;yJ Nru;it

xd;wpy; cs;s mZnthd;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzptjw;F
gpuNahfpf;ff;$ba mbg;gil trjpfs;
vspa %yf;$Wfs;> %yf;$w;W mad;fs; kw;Wk; Nru;itfspy; fhzg;gLk; mZf;fs;

my;yJ mad;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisj; Jzpa fPNo jug;gl;l ,uz;L mbg;gil
tpjpfs; xJf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
(a) Nru;it xd;wpy; fhzg;gLk; vy;yh mZf;fspdJk; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fspd; $l;Lj;
njhif g+r;rpakhFk;.
(b) mad; xd;wpy; cs;s vy;yh mZf;fspdJk; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif
mt;tadpd; Vw;wj;jpw;Fr; rkdhFk;.
Nkw;gb ,uz;L tpjpfSf;Fk; nghUj;jkhd cjhuzq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
%yf;$W xd;wpy; cs;s mZnthd;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzpjy;.
cjhuzk; 1: ngh];gPd; (Phosphine) (PH3)
PH3 ,y; cs;s P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;.
PH3 ,d; nkhj;j Vw;wk; g+r;rpak;.
3[H ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + [P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = 0
3[+1] + [P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = 0
P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = -3
98
cjhuzk; 2: ngh];Nghupf;fkpyk; (Phosphoric) (H3PO4)

H3PO4 ,y; cs;s P,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;.
H3PO4 ,d; nkhj;j Vw;wk; g+r;rpakhFk;.
3[H,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + [P,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + 4[xl;rprdpd; xl;rpNaw;w
vz;] = 0
3[+1] + [P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = 0
P ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = -3
gy;yZ madpy; cs;s mZnthd;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzpjy;.

cjhuzk; 1: ry;Ngw;W mad; (Sulphate) (SO42-)
SO42- ,y; cs;s S ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;.
SO42- ,d; nkhj;j Vw;wk; -2 MFk;.
4[O ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + [S ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = -2
4[-2] + [S ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = -2
S ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = +6
Nru;it xd;wpy; cs;s xU mZtpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzpjy;.

cjhuzk; 1: fy;rpak; xl;irl;L (Calcium oxide) (CaO)
CaO ,y; cs;s Ca ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;.
CaO ,d; nkhj;j / Njwpa Vw;wk; g+r;rpakhFk;.
[Ca ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + [O ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] = 0
[Ca ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;] + [-2] = 0
Ca ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = +2
xU %yf;$wpd; fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpukhdJ %yf;$w;Wf; fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpukhdJ

%yf;$w;Wf; fl;likg;ig tuptbtkhfg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;JtJld; kw;Wk; mZf;fs;
vt;thW xOq;fike;Js;sd vd;gjidAk; Rl;bf; fhl;Lk;. ,f;fl;likg;Gfs; %yf;$wpy;
cs;s xt;nthU mZf;fspdJk; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fis mikg;G mZf;fspd; kpd;ndjpu;
,ay;G tpj;jpahrj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp fzpj;Jf; nfhs;s cjTk;. ,e;j mZFKiw
gpujhdkhfg; gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;gpy; cs;s %yf mZf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj;
jPuk
; hdpf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,e;j Kiwapy; xt;nthU gpizg;gpYk; cs;s Nrhb
,yj;jpud;fSk; kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G $ba mZtpd; rhu;ghf xOq;fikf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhff;
fUjg;gLk;. $ba kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;Gila mZ ,yj;jpuidg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;Sk;
fU (-1) kpd;Ndw;wj;jhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G Fiwe;j msT ,yj;jpuid
,of;Fk; fU (+) Vw;wj;jpidhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. ,yj;jpud;fspd; fzpj;jypd; gpd;du; ika
mZtpd; ,Wjp / Njwpa Vw;wk; ika mZtpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; vdg;gLk;. ,J fPNo
toq;fg;gl;l cjhuzq;fs; %yk; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
99
cjhuzk; 1: ngh];Nghupf;fkpyk; (Phosphoric acid) (H3PO4)
gb 1: Nru;itapd; fl;likg;ig tiuf. gb 2: kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik tpj;jpahrj;ij

mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Lgpizf;fg;
gl;l mZf;fspw;F +1 my;yJ -1
toq;Ff.
gb 3: ,yf;F itj;j %yfj;ijr; #oTs;s gb 4: ,yf;F itj;j %yfj;ijr; #o

vy;yhg; gpizg;GfSf;Fk; njhlu;f. toq;fg;gl;l Vw;wq;fs; ahtw;iwAk;
$l;Lf.
nghRguR= (+2)+(+1)+(+1)+(+1) = +5
nghRgurpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = +5
cU 3.1: H3PO4 ,Ys;s P mZtpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; Jzptjw;fhd gbfs;
fhgd; mZit ika mZthff; nfhz;l Nru;itfspy; fhgdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;.

cjhuzk; 1: kpNjd; (CH4) cjhuzk; 2: FNshNuh kpNjd; (CH3Cl)
C apd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = -4 C apd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = -2
cjhuzk; 3: ,UFNshNuh kpNjd; (CH2Cl2) cjhuzk; 4: ehw;FNshNuh kpNjd; (CCl4)
C apd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = 0 C apd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; = +4
100
3.1.2 xU jho;jN
; jw;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,yj;jpud; ,lkhw;wg; ghijiaf; fhz;gjw;F>
mZf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisg; gad;gLj;jy;.
%yfq; f Sk; Nru; i tfSk; xd;N whnlhd;W jhf;f KWk; NghJ Gjpa Nru; i tfs;
cUthfpd;wd. jpz;kr; Nrhbaj;jpw;Fk; FNshupd; thAtpw;Fkpilapyhd jhf;fj;ijf;
fUJf.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
%yf epiy mad; jpz;kk;
,j;jhf;fj;jpy;> %yfepiyapYs;s Nrhbak;> FNshupd; Mfpad KiwNa NeNuw;wKila

Nrhbak; fw;wad;> kiwNaw;wKila FNshiul;L mdad; Mfpadthf khw;wg;gLfpd;wd.
,t;tifahd jhf;fq;fspy; xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l ,yj;jpud;fs; xU
mZtpypUe;J kw;iwa mZtpw;F khw;wg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thwhd ,yj;jpud; efu;itf;
fhl;Lk; jhf;fq;fs; xl;rpNaw;wy; - jho;jj
; y; jhf;fq;fs; my;yJ jho;jN
; jw;Wj; jhf;fq;fs;
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fq;fs; ahtw;wpYk;> xU mZ> xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l

,yj;jpud;fis ,of;Fk;. ,r;nrad;Kiw xl;rpNaw;wk; vdg;gLk;. mj;Jld; kw;iwa
mZ xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;Fk;. ,e;jg; gb jho;j;jy;
vdg;gLk;.
xl;rpNaw;wk; ,yj;jpud;fis ,oj;jy; Na(g) Na+(g) + e.

0 +1
xl;rpNaw;wj;jpy;> xU mZ / madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; mjpfupf;Fk;.
jho;j;jy; ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;wy; Cl2(g) + 2e 2Cl-(g)

0 -1
jho;j;jypy; xU mZ / madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; FiwAk;.
,t; cjhuzj;jpy; FNshupd; thAit xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtp (Nrhbaj;ij xl;rpNaw;wkilar;

nra;Ak;) vd ,dk; fhzyhk; / ngauplyhk;. Nrhbaj;ijj; jho;j;Jk;; fUtp (FNshupid
jho;j;jyilar; nra;Ak;) vd ,dk; fhzyhk; / ngauplyhk;.
xl;rpNaw;wk;  xl;rpNaw;w vz; mjpfupj;jy;

jho;j;jy; xl;rpNaw;w vz; Fiwtiljy;
fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s cjhuzq;fspd; %yk; jho;j;Njw;wj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,yj;jpud;fspd;
,lkhw;wj;ij tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
cjhuzk; 1: kpNjdpd; (CH4) ,d; jfdk;
gpd;tUk; rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; nkNjdpd; (CH4) jfdj;ij vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; C, O vd;gtw;wpd; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; CO2, H2O Njhd;Wk;NghJ khw;w
kilAk;. ,ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
101
cjhuzk;:
jhf;fk; CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
xl;rpNaw;w epiy C = -4 O=0 C = +4 H = +1
vz; H = +1 O = -2 O = -2
Ijurdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wkilatpy;iy.

fhgdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; -4 ,y; ,Ue;J +4 ,w;F khw;wkilfpd;wJ. vdNt fhgd;
xl;rpNaw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
xl;rprdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; 0 ,ypUe;J -2 ,w;F khw;wkilfpd;wJ. vdNt xl;rprd;
jho;j;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fk;: CH4 ,y; cs;s C, xl;rpNaw;wkile;J CO2 cUthfpd;wJ.

xt;nthU C mZ 8 ,yj;jpud;fis ,of;fpd;wJ.
jho;j;jy; jhf;fk;: xl;rprd; jho;j;jg;gl;L H2O cUthfpd;wJ.

xt;nthU xl;rprd; mZ 2 ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;fpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 2: GNuhNgd; (C3H8) ,d; jfdk;.

,j;jhf;fk; fPo;tUk; rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; fhl;lg;gLk;. ,q;F CO2 kw;Wk;
H2O vd;gd cUthFk;NghJ C kw;Wk; O ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fs; khw;wkilfpd;wd.
X
jhf;fk; CH3YCH2ZCH3(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
X
xl;rpNaw;w vz; C = -3, YC = -2, ZC = -3 O=0 C = +4 O = -2
C mZf;fspd;
xl;rpNaw;w vz;fspd; (-3)+(-2)+(-3) = -8 (+4)  3 = +12
$l;Lj;njhif
%d;W fhgd; mZf;fspdJk; Nru;f;fg;gl;l xl;rpNaw;w vz; -8 ,ypUe;J +12 ,w;F

khwpAs;sJ. vdNt CO2 tpisit cUthf;f nkhj;jkhf fhgd; mZf;fspdhy; 20
,yj;jpud;fs; ,of;fg;gl;Ls;sd. vdNt ,q;F fhgd; xl;rpNaw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xl;rprd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; 0 ,ypUe;J -2 ,w;F khw;wkile;Js;sJ. vdNt 4 ,yj;jpud;fisg;

ngw;W ,uz;L O2- tpisT cz;lhfpAs;sJ. vdNt xl;rprd; jho;j;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fk;: CH3CH2CH2 ,Ys;s fhgd;> CO2 Mf xl;rpNaw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ.

xt;nthU C mZ 8 ,yj;jpud;fis ,of;fpd;wJ.
jho;j;jy; jhf;fk;: xl;rprd; jho;j;jg;gl;L H2O kw;Wk; CO2 cz;lhfpAs;sJ.
102
cjhuzk; 3: GNuhgPd; (C3H6) ,Ue;J GNuhNgd; (C3H8) cUthjy;.

fPo;fhl;lg;gl;l <Lnra;ag;gl;l rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; ,J fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,j;jhf;fj;jpy;
C3H6 ,y; cs;s C ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wkile;J MdJ
X
jhf;fk; CH3YCHZCH2(g) + H2(g) X
CH3YCH2ZCH3(g)
X
xl;rpNaw;w vz; C = -3, YC = -1, ZC = -2 H=0 X
C = -3, YC = -2, ZC = -3
C mZf;fspd;
xl;rpNaw;w vz;fspd; (-3)+(-1)+(-2) = -6 (-3)+(-2)+(-3) = -8
$l;Lj;njhif
fhgdpd; nkhj;j xl;rpNaw;w vz; -6 ,ypUe;J -8 ,w;F khw;wkilfpd;wJ. vdNt ,q;F

2 ,yj;jpud;fs; Vw;fg;gl;L tpisT cz;lhfpAs;sJ. vdNt fhgd; jho;j;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Ijurdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; 0 ,ypUe;J +1 ,w;F khw;wkile;J tpisT cz;lhfpd;wJ.

vdNt ,q;F nghUj;jkhd Ijurd; ,uz;L ,yj;jpud;fis ,oe;J ,uz;L H+ I
tpisthfpa C3H8 ,y; cz;lhf;Ffpd;wJ. vdNt Ijurd; xl;rpNaw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
jho;j;jy; jhf;fk;: CH3CHCH2 ,Ys;s fhgd; jho;j;jyile;J CH3CHCH3

cz;lhfpd;wJ.
xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fk;: Ijurd; xl;rpNaw;wg;gl;L CH3CHCH3 cz;lhfpAs;sJ.
3.2 mNrjdr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;
Nru; i tfSf; F xOq; f hd topapy; ngaupLjYf; F IUPAC ngaupLjy; Kiw

mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. IUPAC vd;gjd; nghUs; International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (J}a kw;Wk; gpuNahf ,urhadtpaYf;fhd ru;tNjr xd;wpak;). ,jd; cjtpAld;
,urhadr; Nru;itfSf;F xj;j jd;ikahd rpwg;ghd ngau;fis toq;f KbAk;.
nghJg; ngau;fs; (IUPAC ngauPl;L Kiw mwpKfg;gLj;Jtjw;F Kd;du;) ghtidapy;

fhzg;gl;l jw;fhyj;jpYk; ,t;tifahd ngau;fs; IUPAC ngauPlL
; f;F <lhfg; ghtidapy;
cs;sJ.
3.2.1 XuZ mad;fshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l mad; Nru;itfspd; ngauPL

khw;wg;glhj cNyhfg; ngaiuAk; gpd;G ide vd KbtilAk; khw;wg;gl;l mNyhfg;
ngaiuAk; vOJf. gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 3.2 ,y; rpy ngau;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
103
ml;ltiz 3.2 nghJthd rpy vspa mad;fspd; (XuZ mad;fs;) ngau;fs;
fw;wad;fs; mdad;fs;
H+ Ijurd; - hydrogen H- Ijiul;L - hydride
Na+ Nrhbak; - sodium Cl- FNshiul;L - chloride
K+ nghw;whrpak; - potassium Br- GNuhikl;L - bromide
Ca2+ fy;rpak; - calcium O2- xl;irl;L - oxide
Al3+ mYkpdpak; - aluminum S 2- ry;igl;L - sulfide
Zn2+ ehfk; - zinc N3- iej;jpiul;L - nitride
xU tifahd fw;waid cUthf;Fk; %yfj;ij cila mad; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;

ngaiu vOJtjw;fhd tpjpfs;:
1. vg;nghOJk; fw;wadpd; ngau; Kjypy; vOJjy; Ntz;Lk;.
2. fw;wadpd; ngau; mjd; %yfj;jpd; ngauhFk;.
3. mdadpd; ngau; mjd; %yfj;jpd; gFjpahd ngaUld;> -ide vd KbtilAk;.
4. fw;wad; kw;Wk; mdadpd;fspd; ngau;fs; ,ilNa ,ilntsp tpLjy; Ntz;Lk;.
fPo;tUk; cjhuzq;fspy; gpuNahfq;fs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk;:- NaCl = sodium chloride
MgO = magnesium oxide
CsBr = caesium bromide
3.2.2 ntt;NtW Vw;wq;fSila ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l fw;wad;fis

cUthf;Fk; %yfj;ij cila mad;Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;.
nghJthd ngau;fspy; cau;e;j Vw;wk; (cau; xl;rpNaw;w vz;) cila fw;wad;fspw;F

-ic vdTk; jho;e;j Vw;wk; (jho;e;j xl;rpNaw;w vz;) cila fw;wad;fSf;F -ous
vdTk; KbtilAk;. ,jid Fe2+ I ferrous vdTk; Fe3+ I ferric vdTk; ngauplypy;
fhzyhk;. fPNo nghJthd fw;wad;fspd; nghJg; ngau;fSk;> IUPAC ngau;fSk;
jug;gl;Ls;sd. vdpDk; IUPAC ngauPlb
; y;> cNyhf madpd; Vw;wk; cNuhkd; ,yf;fj;jpy;
cNyhfj;jpd; ngaUf;Fg; gpdd
; hy; ,ilntspapdw ; p rpwpa milg;Gf;FwpapDs; vOjg;gLk;.
104
ml;ltiz 3.3 ntt;NtW Vw;wq;fSila ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l

fw;wad;fis cUthf;Fk; fw;wad;fspd; ngau;fs;.
fw;wad; nghJg; ngau; Kiwikahd ngau;
(IUPAC*)
Fe2+ ferrous - ngu]; iron(II)

Fe3+ ferric - ngupf;F iron(III)
Cu+ cuprous - fpa+gpu]; copper(I)
Cu2+ cupric - fpa+gpupf;F copper(II)
Co2+ cobaltous - NfhNghy;w;w]; cobalt(II)
Co3+ cobaltic - NfhNghy;w;wpf; cobalt(III)
Sn2+ stannous - ,Rj;jhd]; tin(II)
Sn4+ stannic - ,Rj;jhdpf;F tin(IV)
Pb2+ plumbous - gpsk;g]; lead(II)
Pb4+ plumbic - gpsk;gpf;F lead(IV)
Hg22+ mercurous - Nku;f;$u]; mercury(I)
Hg2+ mercuric - Nku;f;$upf;F mercury(II)
IUPAC ngau; vOJtjw;fhd tpjpfs;:

1. vg;nghOJk; fw;wadpd; ngaiu Kjypy; vOjNtz;Lk;.
2. fw;wadpd; ngau; mjd; %yfj;jpd; ngau;> mjd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; (Vw;wk;) ngupa
cNuhkd; ,yf;fj;jpy; rpwpa milg;Gf; FwpapDs; ,ilntsp tplhJ vOjNtz;Lk;.
3. mdadpd; ngau; mjd; %yfj;jpd; gFjpg;ngau;> ngau; KbT -ide
4. fw;wad; kw;Wk; mdad;fspd; ngau;fs; ,ilNa ,ilntsp tplTk;.
cjhuzk;: FeS- iron(II) sulfide**
Fe2S3- iron(III) sulfide
CuCl - copper(I) chloride
CuCl2 - copper(II) chloride
** sulfide kw;Wk; sulphide ,uz;Lk; rupahdit kw;Wk; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gLk;.
vdpDk; ngauplypy; sulfide Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gLk;.
NkYs;s Nru;itfSf;fhd nghJg; ngau;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
FeS- ferrous sulfide
Fe2S3- ferric sulfide
CuCl - cuprous chloride
CuCl2 - cupric chloride
105
3.2.3 vspa gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;
mjpfsthd %yfq;fs; gq;fl P L

; r; Nru;itfis Mf;Ffpdw
; d. ,t;tifahd Nru;itfisg;
ngaupLk;NghJ Neu; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; nfhz;l %yfj;jpd; ngau; Kjypy; vOjg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;. mjidj; njhlu;e;J kiw xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; nfhz;l %yfj;jpd; ngau;
vOjg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
vspa gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fis vOJtjw;fhd xOq;F tpjpfs;:

1. Nru;itapd; gFjpahff; fhzg;gLk;> Fiwe;j kpdn ; djpu; ,ay;G nfhz;l %yfj;jpd;
ngau;> ngaupd; Kjw;gFjpahfTk; Nru;itapd; gFjpahff; fhzg;gLk;. $ba
kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;G nfhz;l %yfj;jpd; ngau; ngaupd; ,uz;lhk; gFjpahfTk;
tuNtz;Lk;.
2. Nru;itapd; ngaupy; Kjw;gFjpf;Fk; ,uz;lhk; gFjpf;Fk; ,ilapy; ,ilntsp
tpLjy; Ntz;Lk;.
3. $ba kpd;ndjpu; ,ay;Gila %yfj;jpd; KbTg; ngau; -ide vd khw;wg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;.
4. xj;j mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if Fwpj;Jf; fhl;l Kw;Nru;f;if gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
xj;j mZf;fspd; vz;zpfi ; fapd; mbg;gilapy; Kw;Nru;fi; f gpdt
; UkhW ,lg;gLk;.
1 = mono, 2 = di, 3 = tri, 4 = tetra, 5 = penta, 6 = hexa, 7 = hepta, 8 = octa
,Ug;gpDk; ngaupy; KjyhtJ %yfj;jpd; Kd;dhy; “mono” vDk; Kw;Nru;f;if
,lg;gLtjpy;iy.
5. Kw;Nru;f;if KbT “a” my;yJ “o” vdTk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ %yfj;jpd;
njhlf;fk; “a” my;yJ “o” vdTk; fhzg;gbd;> cr;rupg;gpw;fhf Kw;Nru;f;ifapd;
,Wjp capnuOj;J (vowel) tpyf;fg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;: mono + oxide = monoxide
tetra + oxide = teroxide
cjhuzk;: CO - carbon monoxide
H2S - dihydrogen monosulfide
SO3 - sulfur trioxide
N2O3 - dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 - dinitrogen tetroxide
P4O6 - tetraphosphorus hexoxide
H2O - dihydrogen monoxide
OF2 - oxygen difluoride
3.2.4 gy;yZ mad;fs; (Polyatomic ions)
rpy mNyhf mZf;fs; gq;fPl;L tYg; gpizg;gpdhy; ,ize;J gy;yZ mad;fs;

cUthFk;. gy;yZ fw;wad;fisf; fhl;bYk; gy;yZ mdad;fs; $bastpy; fhzg;gLk;.
gy;yZ mad;fspd; ngaiu vOJk;NghJ gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba epajpfs;:

,t;tif mad;fspd; ngau;fs; vOJk;NghJ gpd;tUk; gpw;Nru;f;if gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
1. gy;yZf; fw;wad;fspd; ngau;fs; -ium ,y; KbAk;.
2. gy;yZ mdad;fspd; ngau;fs; -iid, -ite kw;Wk; -ate ,y; KbtilAk;.
106
ml;ltiz 3.4 ,y; nghJthd gy;yZ mad;fspd; ngau;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.

ml;ltiz 3.4 gy;yZ mad;fspd; ngaUk; #j;jpuKk;
mad; ngau;
NH4+ ammonium - mNkhdpak;

OH- hydroxide - Ijnuhl;irl;L
CN- cyanide - raidl;L
HS- hydrogen sulfide - Ijurd; ry;igl;L
O22- peroxide - guxl;irl;L
O2- superoxide - Nknyhl;irl;L
SO32- sulfite - ry;igw;W
NO2- nitrite - iew;iuw;W
ClO2- chlorite - FNshiuw;W
HSO3- hydrogen sulfite - Ijurd; ry;igw;W
SO42- sulfate - ry;Ngw;W
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate - Ijurd; ry;Ngw;W
AlO2- aluminate - mYkpNdw;W
ZnO22- zincate - rpq;Nfw;W
NO3- nitrate - iej;jpNuw;W
ClO3- chlorate - FNshNuw;W
MnO42- manganate - kq;fNdw;W
MnO4- permanganate - gukq;fNdw;W
CrO42- chromate - FNuhNkw;W
Cr2O72- dichromate - ,UFNuhNkw;W
C2O42- oxalate - xl;rNyw;W
CO32- carbonate - fhgNdw;W
HCO32- hydrogen carbonate - Ijurd; fhgNdw;W
S2O32- thiosulfate - jNahry;Ngw;W
PO43- phosphate - ngh];Ngw;W
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate - Ijurd; ngh];Ngw;W
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate - ,UIjurd; ngh];Ngw;W
107
gy;yZ mad;fis cila Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;

NkNy $wg;gl;l xOq;F tpjpfSf;F mikthf fPNo jug;gl;l gy Nru;itfs; ngauplg;
gl;Ls;sd.
K2Cr2O7 MdJ xU vspa fw;waidAk;> xU gy;yZ mdaidAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
fw;wad; gFjpapd; ngau; = potassium
mdad; gFjpapd; ngau; = dichromate
Nru;itapd; ngau; = potassium dichromate (nghw;whrpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W)
(NH4)2Cr2O7 MdJ xU gy;yZ fw;waidAk;> xU gy;yZ mdaidAk; nfhz;lJ.

fw;wad; gFjpapd; ngau; = ammonium
mdad; gFjpapd; ngau; = dichromate
Nru;itapd; ngau; = ammonium dichromate (mNkhdpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W)
gy;yZ mad;fisf; nfhz;l rpy nghJthd Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;:

KH2PO4 = potassium dihydrogenphosphate (nghw;whrpak; ,UIjurd; ngh];Ngw;W)
FeC2O4 = iron(II) oxalate (,Uk;G(II) xl;rNyw;W)
NaHCO3 = sodium hydrogencarbonate (Nrhbak; Ijurd; fhgNdw;W)
3.2.5 mNrjd mkpyq;fs;
ePuf
; f
; iurypy; madhf;fkilaf;$ba xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l GNuhj;jidAk;>
xl;rpridf; nfhz;buhj mdaidAk; cila Nru;itfs; hydro Kw;Nru;f;ifia
cgNahfpj;J> mjidj; njhlu;e;J kw;iwa mNyhfk; my;yJ my;YNyhff; $l;lj;jpd;
ngau; -ic ,y; KbAkhW khw;wg;gl;L ngauplg;gLk;.
HCl (Hydrogen chloride) = hydrochloric acid

Ijurd; FNshiul;L IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyk;
HBr (hydrogen bromide) = hydrobromic acid

Ijurd; GNuhikl;L IjNuhGNuhkpf; mkpyk;
HCN (hydrogen cyanide) = hydrocynic acid

Ijurd; raidl;L IjNuhradpf; mkpyk;
H2S (dihydrogen sulfide) = hydrosulfuric acid

<u;Ijurd; ry;igl;L IjNuhry;g+upf; mkpyk;
Mdhy; ePu;f;fiury;fspy; xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l madhf;fkilaf;$ba

GNuhj;jidAk;> xl;rprd; cila mdaidAk; cila Nru;itfs; xl;rprd; mkpyq;fs;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. mdadpd; ngau; gpw;Nru;f;ifAld; vOjg;gLk;. ,J mkpyj;jpd;
ngauhfg; ghtpf;fg;gLk;.
108
mdad; ngau; -ate ,y; Kbtile;jhy;> gpw;Nri;f;if -ic gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

H2SO4 (mdad; SO42- sulfate ) = sulfuric acid
mdad; ngau; -ite ,y; Kbtile;jhy;> gpw;Nru;f;ifahf -ous gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
H2SO3 (mdad; SO32- sulfite ) = sulfurous acid
xj;j ika mZtpypUe;J cUthf;fg;gl;l NtWgl;l xl;Nrh mdad;fs; (oxoanions)

xl;rp mdad;fspd; (oxyanions) ,d; ngauply;.
Xu; xl;Nrh mdad; my;yJ xl;rp mdad; vd;gJ AxOyz- vDk; nghJr; #j;jpuj;ijf;
nfhz;l madhFk;. A MdJ ,urhad %yfnkhd;iwAk;> O MdJ xl;rprd;
mZitAk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. rpy %yfq;fs; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l xl;Nrh
mdad;fis cUthf;ff;$bad. xt;nthd;Wk; NtWgl;l vz;zpf;ifiaf; nfhz;lit.
NtWgl;l vz;zpf;ifapy; xl;rprd; mZf;fisf; nfhz;l xl;Nrh mdad;fspd; njhlu;
fPo; cs;sthW nghJthfg; ngauplg;gLk;.
Kw;Nru;fi; f per– MdJ cau; vz;zpfi ; fapy; xl;rprd; mZf;fisf; nfhz;l mdad;
fSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. kw;Wk; hypo– vDk; Kw;Nru;f;if ,opT vz;zpf;ifapy;
xl;rprd; mZf;fisf; nfhz;l mdad;fSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
ika mZtpy; fhzg;gLk; xl;rprd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk;. xOq;F

Kiwf;Nfw;g xl;Nrh mdadpd; ngau; fPo; cs;sthW ngwg;gLk;.
hypo____ite ___ite ___ate per___ate
- - - -
ClO = hypochlorite ClO2 = chlorite ClO3 = chlorate ClO4 = perchlorate
(+1) (+3) (+5) (+7)
,t;tifahd xl;Nrh mdad;fs; xl;Nrhtkpyq;fs; my;yJ cg;Gf;fspy; fhzg;glyhk;.
FNshNuh xl;Nrhtkpyq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fs; ml;ltiz 3.5 ,y;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 3.5 FNshNuh xl;Nrhtkpyq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fspd;
#j;jpuq;fSk; ngau;fSk;
Cl ,d; xl;Nrhtkpyj;jpd; xl;Nrhtkpyj;jpd; Nrhbak; Nrhbak; cg;gpd;

xl;rpNaw;w #j;jpuk; ngau; cg;gpd; ngau;
vz; #j;jpuk;
+1 HClO hypochlorous acid NaClO sodium hypochlorite

(cgFNshu]; mkpyk;) (Nrhbak; cgFNshiuw;W)
+3 HClO2 chlorous acid NaClO2 sodium chlorite
(FNshu]; mkpyk;) (Nrhbak; FNshiuw;W)
+5 HClO3 chloric acid NaClO3 sodium chlorate
(FNshupf;fkpyk;) (Nrhbak; FNshNuw;W)
+7 HClO4 perchloric acid NaClO4 sodium perchlorate
(guFNshupf;fkpyk;) (Nrhbak; guFNshNuw;W)
* f.ngh.j. (c.j),y; fUjg;gLk; ngauPl;L Kiw IUPAC ,d; 2005 ,d; rptg;G Gj;jfk;
crhj;Jizahff; fUjg;gl;Ls;sJ.
109
3.3 mZj;jpzpT> %y; kw;Wk; mtfhjNuh khwpyp
3.3.1 mZj;jpzptyF> %y; kw;Wk; mtfhjNuhtpd; khwpyp vd;gdtw;Wf;F

,ilapyhd ,izg;G
mZf;fs; kpfr; rpwpait. ,tw;wpd; jpzpTfis ntspff ; hl;l fpuhk; (grams), fpNyhfpuhk;
(kilograms) Nghd;w nghJthd jpzpTf;Fupa myFfisg; gad;gLj;jy; nrsfupakhd
jy;y. ,q;F mZj;jpzpT myF (atomic mass units) (u) vd miof;fg;gLk; rpwpa myF
mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,urhad %yfnkhd;wpdJ Xu; mZtpd; jpzpT> mZj;
jpzpthf> mZj;jpzptythf ntspf;fhl;lg;gLk;. %yfq;fSf;F gy;NtWgl;l rkjhdpfs;
mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. Xu; cjhuzkhf fhgd; MdJ 12C, 13C kw;Wk; 14C vdg; ngauplg;gl;l
%d;W rkjhdpfisf; nfhz;lJ. vdNt mZj;jpzptpw;fhf ruhrup mZj;jpzpT
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
3.3.2 %yfj;jpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.

gpd;tUk; topapy; ve;jnthU mZtpdJk; ruhrup mZj;jpzpit fzpf;f KbAk;.
fhgd; kw;Wk; FNshupd; vd;gdtw;iwg; nghUj;jkhd %yfq;fisf; fUjp ,J tpsf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; 1: ,aw;ifahd fhgdpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
fhgd; khjpupapy; rkjhdpfspd; jpzpTr; rjtPjk;.
12
C - 98.89%
13
C - 1.11%
14
C - Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fJ.
100 ,aw;ifahd fhgd; mZf;fspd; khjpupapd; jpzpT = [(98.89 × 12 u) + (1.11 × 13 u)]
,aw;ifahd fhgd; mZtpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpT = [(98.89 × 12 u) + (1.11 × 13 u)]/ 100
= 12.01 u
cjhuzk; 2: FNshupdpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.

FNshupd; rkjhdpfspd; jpzpTr; rjtPjk;.
35
Cl - 75.77%
37
Cl - 24.23%
100 ,aw;ifahd FNshupd; mZf;fspd; khjpupapd; jpzpT = [(75.77 × 35 u) + (24.23 × 37 u)]
,aw;ifahd FNshupd; mZtpd; ruhrup mZj;jpzpT = [(75.77×34.97 u)+(24.23×36.97 u)]/ 100
= 35.45 u
110
3.3.3 %y; (Mole)

kpfj; jpUj;jkhd 12 g jpzpTila 12C ,y; cs;s mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;F rkkhd
myFfs; / Jzpfi ; ffis cila gjhu;j;jq;fs; my;yJ mtfhjNuhtpd; ,yf;fkhdJ
xU %y; vd Kd;nkhopag;gl;Ls;sJ.
fPNo jug;gl;l cjhuzq;fs; xU %y; (1 mol) msthd %yfq;fs;> %yf;$Wfs;

kw;Wk; mad;fspy; fhzg;gLk; Jzpf;ifapd; vz;zpf;if fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
12
C ,d; 1 mol ,y; 6.022 × 1023 12C mZf;fs; fhzg;gLk;.
C6H12O6 ,d; 1 mol ,y; 6.022 × 1023 C6H12O6 %yf;$Wfs; fhzg;gLk;.
CaCl2 ,d; 1 mol ,y; 6.022 × 1023 Ca2+ mad;fs; fhzg;gLk;.
mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia fzf;fpLtjw;F> u kw;Wk; g (gram) vd;gdtw;Wf;fpilapyhd

njhlu;ig Gupe;J nfhs;s ,e;jf; fUj;ijg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
6.022 × 1023 vz;zpf;if 12C rkjhdp mZf;fspd; kpfTk; jpUj;jkhd jpzpT 12 g

kw;Wk; xt;nthU 12C rkjhdp mZtpd; jpzpT 12 u. vdNt>
1 u = 1.66 × 10-24 g
6.022 × 1023u = 1 g
(6.022 × 1023 atoms) × (12 u/1 atom) = 12.00 g
3.3.4 %yu; jpzpT
xU %y; (1 mol) msthd gjhu;j;jj;jpd; jpzpT %yu; jpzpT vdg;gLk;. jug;gl;l

gjhu;j;jj;jpd; (,urhad %yfk; my;yJ ,urhadr; Nru;it) jpzpit> gjhu;j;jj;jpd;
msT (moles) My; gpupf;fg;gLk;NghJ ngwg;gLk;. %yu; jpzptpd; SI myF kg mol-1.
vdpDk; toikahf %yu; jpzpthdJ g mol-1 ,dhy; jug;gLk;.
O ,d; %yu; jpzpT = 16.00 g mol-1
H2 ,d; %yu; jpzpT = 2 × 1.008 g mol-1 = 2.016 g mol-1
H2O ,d; %yu; jpzpT = (2 × 1.008 g mol-1) + 16.00 g mol-1
= 18.016 g mol-1
18.016 g jpzpTila ePu; MdJ mtfhjNuh khwpyp (xU %y; / 1 mol) msthd ePu;
%yf;$Wfisf; nfhz;lJ.
111
cjhuzk; 3.1
NaCl ,d; %yu;jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
tpil:
Na+ ,d; %yu;jpzpT = 22.99 g mol-1
Cl- ,d; %yu;jpzpT = 35.45 g mol-1
NaCl ,d; %yu;jpzpT = 22.99 g mol-1 + 35.45 g mol-1
= 58.44 g mol-1
58.44 g jpzpTila NaCl MdJ>
1 mol Na+ mad;fisf; nfhz;lJ.
1 mol Cl- mad;fisf; nfhz;lJ.
1 mol NaCl mad;fisf; nfhz;lJ.
3.4 ,urhadr; #j;jpuq;fspd; tiffs;
mZf;fspd; tiffs;> kpfr; rpwpa myFg; gjhu;j;jj;jpYs;s xt;nthU mZtpd;

%yfq;fspd; FwpaPLfSld; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if vd;gtw;iw vLj;Jf; fhl;l xU
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ,urhadr;#j;jpuk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. xU Nru;itapd; NtWgl;l
jfty;fisg; gpujpepjpg;gLj;Jtjw;F xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l tif ,urhadr;#j;jpuq;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
(a) mDgt #j;jpuk;
xU Nru;itapYs;s xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; rhu;gstpyhd mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if
mDgtr;#j;jpuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;gLfpdw
; J. Nru;itapd; %yfq;fspd;
jpzpTfspypUe;J ngwg;gLk; kpfr; rpwpa tifr; #j;jpuk; ,JNtahFk;.
Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;bd; (H2O2) mDgt#j;jpuk; HO.
vNjdpd; (C2H6) mDgt#j;jpuk; CH3 .
ngd;rPdpd; (C6H6) mDgt#j;jpuk; CH.
vijdpd; (C2H2) ,d; mDgt#j;jpuk; CH.
(b) %yf;$w;Wr;#j;jpuk;
Nru;it xd;wpd; xU %yf;$wpYs;s xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; mZf;fspd; jpUj;jkhd

vz;zpf;ifiaf; Fwpf;Fk; #j;jpuk; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; MFk;.
Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;bd; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; (H2O2).
vNjdpd; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; (C2H6)>
ngd;rPdpd; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; (C6H6).
vijdpd; %yf;$w;Wr;#j;jpuk; (C2H2).
112
3.4.1 ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;jpypUe;J jpzpTr; rjtPjk;

gpd;tUk; rkd;ghLfis cgNahfpj;J xU Nru;itapYs;s jug;gl;l xU %yfj;jpd;
jpzpTr; rjtPjj;ijf; fzpf;fyhk;.
#j;jpuj;jpy; A ,d; %y;fs;  A ,d; %yu;jpzpT (g mol-1)

%yfk; A ,d; jpzpTr; rjtPjk; =  100
Nru;itapd; %yu;jpzpT (g mol-1)
vg;nghOJk; xU Nru;itapd; vy;yh %yfq;fspd; jdpjj ; dpahd jpzpTr;rjtpjq;fspd;

$l;Lj;njhif 100%. vNjdpd; fhgd;> Ijurd; jpzpTr; rjtPjq;fisf; fzpj;jy;> fPNo
cjhuzkhff; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; 3.2
vNjdpd; fhgd;> Ijurd; jpzpTr; rjtPjk; Jzpjy;.

vNjdpd; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; C2H6
xU %y; vNjdpy; ,uz;L %y;fs; fhgd;> MW %y;fs; Ijurd; cs;sd.
2mol  12 g / mol
fhgdpd; jpzpTr; rjtPjk;   100
(2mol  12 g / mol )  (6mol 1g / mol )
= 80%
6mol 1g / mol

Ijurdpd; jpzpTr; rjtPjk;  100
(2mol  12 g / mol )  (6mol  1g / mol )
= 20%
[C jpzpTr; rjtPjk;] + [H jpzpTr; rjtPjk;] = 100%
3.4.2 Nru;itfspd; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzp;jy; (%yf;$w;W / mDgt)

Nru;itfspd; xt;nthU $wpd; / %yfj;jpd; jpzpitj; Jzptjw;Fg; gupNrhjid Kiwfs;
cs;sd. xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; jpzpT %y; vz;zpf;ifahf khw;wg;gl;L> %yfq;fSf;
fpilapyhd %yu; tpfpjj;ij cgNahfpj;J fzpj uPjpahf xU Nru;itapd; ,urhad
#j;jpuj;ij / mDgt #j;jpuk; / ,urhadr; #j;jpuk; vd;gtw;iwf; fzpf;fyhk;.
mDgt #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzptjw;fhd mbg;gilg; gbKiwfs;

1. Nru;itapy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; jpzpit fpuhkpy; ngWf.
2. xt;nthU tif mZtpYk; %y;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaj; Jzptjw;F xt;nthU
jpzpitAk; mjw;Fupa %yfj;jpd; mZj;jpzptpdhy; gpupf;Ff.
3. kpff;Fiwe;j %y;vz;zpf;ifia 1 Mf khw;Wtjw;F> xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; %y;
vz;zpf;ifia kpff; Fiwe;j %y; vz;zpf;ifahy; gpupf;Ff. ngwg;gLk; vz;fs;
ahTk; KO vz;fshf my;yJ KO vz;fSf;F mz;ikapypUe;jhy;> ,t;ntz;fs;
mDgt#j;jpuj;jpy; xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; FwpaPl;bd; mbapy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. xd;W
my;yJ xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;lit KO vz;fshff; fhzg;glhtpbd; gb 4 Ig;
gad;gLj;Jf.
113
4. gb 3 ,y; ngw;w vz;fis> vy;yh vz;fSk; KO vz;fshFkhW nghUj;jkhd

kpfr; rpwpa KOvz;zhy; ngUf;Ff. jrkjhdk; 0.2, 0.8 Mf ,Ug;gpd; mz;ik
apYs;s KO vz;fshf khw;Wf.
5. %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj; jpzpT / mDgt#j;jpuj; jpzpT tpfpjj;jpdhy; mDgt
#j;jpuj;ijg; ngUf;fp %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijg; ngWf.
3.4.3 mDgtr; #j;jpuj;jpzpT kw;Wk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpzpT vd;gdtw;iwg;

gad;gLj;jp %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzpjy;.
1. mDgtr; #j;jpuj;jpy; ,Ue;J mDgtr; #j;jpuj; jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
2. %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpy; ,Ue;J %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj; jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
3. KO vz; ngwg;gLkhW gpupj;jy;.
4. mDgtr; #j;jpuj;ij Nkw;gb vz;zhy; ngUf;Ftjd; %yk; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk;
ngwg;gLk;.
NkNy cs;s nrad;Kiwia tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s fPo; cs;s cjhuzk; cjTk;.
cjhuzk; 3.3
%yf rjtPjq;fs; Cl = 71.6%, C = 24.27%, H = 4.07% MfTila xU Nru;itapd;
%yf;$w;Wr; rjtPjj;ij fzpf;Ff.
gb 01: jpzpTr; rjtPjq;fs;: Cl = 71.65%, C = 24.27%, H = 4.07%
%yu;j;jpzpT = 98 g/mol
gb 02: 100 g Nru;itapy;> Cl = 71.65 g, C = 24.27 g, H = 4.07 g
mZj;jpzpTfs; C = 12, H = 1, Cl = 35.5
100 g Nru;itapy; %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if
71.65 g
Cl %y; fs;   2.043mol
35.5 gmol 1
24.27 g
C %y; fs;   2.022mol
12 gmol 1
4.07 g
H %y; fs;   4.07mol
1gmol 1
gb 03: Cl  2.043  2.022  1.01 C  2.022  2.022  1 H  4.07  2.022  2.01
gb 04: mDgtr;#j;jpuk; = CH2Cl
mDgtr; #j;jpuj; jpzpT = 49 g/ mol
gb 05: %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj; jpzpT / mDgtr; #j;jpuj; jpzpT tpfpjj;ijf;
fzpj;jy;.
%yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; = (mDgtr; #j;jpuk;)  2
= (CH2Cl)  2
= C2H4Cl2
Nru;itapd; %yu;j;jpzpT njupe;jhy;> Nru;itapd; ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;ijj; Jzpayhk;.
114
3.5 fyitapy; $W xd;wpd; mikg;G
3.5.1 gpd;dj;jpy; jug;gLk; mikg;G

xU njhFjpapd; nrwpitf; $Wtjw;F %d;W nghJthd E}w;WtPj Kiwfs; gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd. ,k;Kiwfshtd:
rkd;ghL
w A , d; jpzpT
A ,d; jpzpT E}w;WtPjk; ( ) 
w fyitapd; jpzpT
v A , d; fdtsT
A ,d; fdtsT E}w;WtPjk; ( ) 
v fyitapd; fdtsT
A , d; %y; vz; zpf; if

A ,d; %y; gpd;dk; (XA)  fyitapy; cs; s nkhj; j %y; vz; zpf; if
%y; gpd;dj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp gpd;dj;ij tpsf;Fjy;
%y; gpd;dk; (X) MdJ xU $wpd; %y; vz;zpf;iff;Fk;> fyitapy; gpurpdkha;

,Uf;Fk; $Wfs; xt;nthd;wpdJk; %y;fspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjkhFk;.
cjhuzk;: fiuak; (A) %y;gpd;dkhdJ> fiuak; A ,d; %y; vz;zpf;iff;Fk;
fyiapy; cs;s $Wfs; xt;nthd;wpdJk; %y; vz;zpf;iffspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fk;
(nA + nB + nC + ...) ,ilapyhd tpfpjkhFk;.
nA
A , d; %y; gpd; dk; ( X A ) =
nA  nB  nC  ...
3.5.2 xU fiurypy; rjtPj mikg;G (Vftpdf; fyit)
rkd;ghL
w fiuajj; pd; jpzpT

jpzpTr; rjtj
P k; ( )   100
w fiurypd; jpzpT
v fiuaj;jpd; fdtsT
fdtsTr; rjtj
P k; ( )   100%
v fiurypd; fdtsT
fiuaj;jpd; %y; vzz; pf;if

  100%
fiuajj
; pd; + fiug;ghdpd;
%y; E}w;Wtj
P k;
%y; vz;zpf;if %y; vz;zpf;if
gFjp vz;> njhFjp vz;fs; vd;gd xNu myiff; nfhz;bUg;gpd;> ,Wjpf; fzpak;
myiff; nfhz;buhJ.
115
fyit xd;wpd; mikg;ghdJ Fwpj;jsT fiurypy; fhzg;gLk; fiuaj;jpd; msitf;

nfhz;L jdpj;Jtg;gLj;jp tpsf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j nghJthd topapy; fyit xd;wpd;
mikg;G jpzpTr; rjtPjkhff; fPNo cs;sthW tpsf;fg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;:- jpzpTr; rjtPjj;ijg; gad;gLj;jy;.
fiuajj; pd; jpzpT
jpzpTr; rjtj
P k;   100
fiurypd; jpzpT
fiuajj; pd; jpzpT

jpzpTr; rjtj
P k;   100
fiuaj;jpd; jpzpT + fiug;ghdpd; jpzpT
Ijhd fiury;fs;> tsp khjpupfs; vd;gtw;wpd; mikg;igf; Fwpg;gjw;Fg; nghJthf xU

Fwpg;gpl;l fzpaj;jpYs;s gFjpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Ijhd fiurypy; fiuaj;jpd;
msT kpff;FiwT kw;Wk; fiurypd; mlu;jj ; p ePupd; mlu;jj
; pf;F kpf mz;ikapypUf;Fk;>
vdNt 250C apy; fiurypd; mlu;j;jpia 1 kgdm-3 Mff; fUjyhk;.
rkd;ghL mikg;gpd; khWgl;l tpgupg;G
fiuajj; pd; jpzpT g kg -1

; py; xU gFjp (ppt)
Mapujj  103
fiurypd; jpzpT mg g -1
fiuajj; pd; jpzpT mg kg -1

kpy;ypadpy; xU gFjp (ppm)  106
fiurypd; jpzpT  g g -1
fiuajj; pd; jpzpT g kg-1

gpy;ypadpy ; xU gFjp (ppm)  109
fiurypd; jpzpT
fiurypd; (Vftpdf; fyit) fdtsTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ fiuaj;jpd; fdtsT Fiwthff;

fhzg;gLk;NghJ fiuaj;jpd; mikg;G fPo; cs;sthW jug;gLk;.
rkd;ghL mikg;gpd; khWgl;l tpgupg;G
fiuajj; pd; fdtsT

; py; xU gFjp (ppt)
Mapujj  103 mL L-1
fiurypd; fdtsT
fiuajj; pd; fdtsT

kpy;ypadpy; xU gFjp (ppm)   106 L L-1
fiurypd; fdtsT
fiuajj; pd; fdtsT

 109 nL L-1
gpy;ypadpy ; xU gFjp (ppm)  fiurypd; fdtsT
116
Ijhd fiury;fSf;F mikg;ghdJ jpzpT / fdtsT gpd;dj;jhy; tpsf;fg;gLk;. ,J

ppm kw;Wk; ppb %yk; tpgupf;fg;gLk;. ,jw;F mg dm-3 kw;Wk;  g dm -3 Nghd;w myFfs;
KiwNa khw;wl P ;L myFfshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
NtWgl;l gUkd;fspd; myFfs; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrj;ij NtWgLj;jpf; nfhs;sTk;.

msTfis $basT tpQ;Qhd Kiwapy; tpsf;fTk; nkw;wpf; Kw;Nru;f;if gad;gLk;.
ml;ltiz 3.6 nkw;wpf; Kw;Nru;f;iffs;
nkw;wpf; nkw;wpf; ngUf;fk; nkw;wpf; nkw;wpf; ngUf;fk;

Kw;Nru;f;if FwpaPL Kw;Nru;f;if FwpaPL
tera- T 1012 deci- d 10-1
giga- G 109 centi- c 10-2
mega- M 106 milli- m 10-3
kilo- k 103 micro- µ 10-6
hecto- h 102 nano- n 10-9
deca- da 101 pico- p 10-12
cjhuzk; 3.4
jpzpTg;gb 20.0% Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;L fiurypy; H2O2 %y; gpd;dj;ijf;
fzpf;Ff.
nA H 2O2 %y; fs;
%y; gpd; dk; ( x A )  
nnkhj; jk; H 2O2 %y; fs;  H 2O %y; fs;
1 kg Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;L fiurypy;> H2O2 jpzpT = 200.0 g

H2O jpzpT = 800.0 g
200.0 g 800.0 g
H2O2 %y;fs;  = 5.88 mol H2O %y;fs;= = 44.44 mol
34 gmol-1 18 gmol-1
nA 5.88 mol
%y; gpd; dk; ( x A )   = 0.116
16
nnkhj; jk; (5.88  44.44) mol
%y; rjtPjk; = %y; gpd;dk; (xA) 100 = 11.6%
117
3.5.3 %yw;wpwd; (Molality)*
xU fpNyhfpuhk; fiug;ghdpYs;s fiua %y; msT fiurypd; %yw;jpwd; (m) MFk;.
rkd;ghL myF
fiua %y; mol

%yw;j pwd;   mol kg-1
fiug;ghdpd; jpzpT kg
fiua kpy;yp %y; mmol

%yw;j pwd;   mmol kg-1
fiugg
; hdpd; jpzpT kg
cjhuzk;:- 1.25 mol kg-1 my;yJ 1.25 m Rf;FNuhR fiury; xt;nthU fpNyhfpuhk;
ePupw;F (fiug;ghd;) 1.25 mol Rf;FNuhir (fiuak;) nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
* eilKiwapy; cs;s f.ngh.j. (cau;ju) ghlj;jpll
; j;jpy; cs;slf;fg;gl
tpy;iy.
3.5.4 %yu;j;jpwd; (Molarity) (nrwpit tpgupf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;)
fiurypd; fdtsit msj;jy; mjd; jpzpit msg;gjpYk; trjpahdJ. fiurypd;

nrwpit> xU jug;gl;l fdtsTf; fiurypYs;s fiua msT vd tiuaWf;fyhk;.
nrwpitf; Fwpg;gjw;Fg; nghJthfg; gad;gLj;Jk; xU myF %yu;j;jpwd; (M) MFk;.
xU ,yPw;wu; my;yJ fdnlrpkPww ; u; fdtsT fiurypYs;s fiua%y; vz;zpf;if
%yu;j;jpwd; MFk;.
cjhuzk;:- xU 1.25 %yu; my;yJ 1.25M Rf;FNuhRf; fiury;> xU dm3 Rf;FNuhRf;

fiury; (fiury;) 1.25mol Rf;FNuhirf; (fiuak;) nfhz;Ls;sJ.
rkd;ghL myF
fiuaj; jpd; %y; fs; mol

%yu; j; jpwd;   mol dm-3
fiury; fdtsT dm 3
fiuaj; jpd; kpy; yp %y; mmol

%yu; j; jpwd;   mmol dm-3
fiury; fdtsT dm 3
1.25M (1.25 %yu;) Rf;FNuhRf; fiuriyAk; 1.25m (1.25 %yy;) Rf;FNuhRf; fiuriyAk;
jahupf;fg; gad;gLj;Jk; ePupd; msT rkky;y. mjhtJ xU jug;gl;l fiurypw;F
%yu;j;jpwDk; %yy;jpwDk; rkkhftpUf;f KbahJ. Mdhy; Ijhd fiury;fSf;F
mtw;wpw;fpilapyhd tpj;jpahrk; Gwf;fzpf;ff;$baJ.
118
cjhuzk; 3.5
10 mg NaCl IAk; 500 g ePiuAk; fye;J xU NaCl fiury; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ.
fiurypd; %yy; jpwidAk; NaCl nrwpT (ppm) IAk; fzpf;Ff.
tpil:
%yy; jpwd; (m) = fiua %y;fs; / fiug;ghd; jpzpT

NaCl %y;fs; = 0.01 g/58 g mol-1 = 1.72 10-4 mol
%yy;jpwd; (m) = fiua %y; / fiug;ghd; jpzpT = 1.72  10-4 mol/0.5 kg
= 3.44  10-4 mol kg-1
NaCl jpzpT(fpuhkpy; )
NaCl nrwpT (ppm)   106
fiury; jpzpT(fpuh kpy; )
0.01( g )
  106  19.9 ppm
(500  0.01)g
3.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;

,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpy; gq;nfLf;Fk; Muk;g ,urhadg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; jhf;fpfs; vdTk;>
jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; cUthf;fg;gLk; ,dq;fs; tpisTfs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. xd;Nwh
my;yJ xd;wpYk; Nkw;gl;l tpisTfs; ,urhad khw;wj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk;. fhgd; xl;rprDld;
,ize;J fhgdPu; xl;irl;il cUthf;fy; Nghd;w ve;jnthU ,urhad khw;wKk;
,urhadj; jhf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd ,urhadj; jhf;fk; fPNo fhl;bathW
,urhadr; rkd;ghl;bdhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpdN
; ghJ %yf mZf;fs; cUthf;fg;gLtNjh my;yJ mopff ; g;gLtNjh
,y;iy. vdNt jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; ,ilNa jpzpT rkg;gLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. khw;W
topapy; $Wtjhapd; jhf;fpfspd; nkhj;j mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if tpisTfspd; nkhj;j
mZf;fspd; vz;zpfi ; ff;Fr; rkkhdJ. xU ,urhadj; jhf;fk;> Nkw;$wg;gl;l %yfq;fs;
rkg;gLj;jg;gl;L vOjg;gl;bUg;gpd;> mJ rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l / <Lnra;ag;gl;l jhf;fr;
rkd;ghLfs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
ve;jNthu; ,urhadj; jhf;fKk; ,e;j tpjpfSf;F mike;J elj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
119
xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;ijr; rkg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd tpjpfs;:

(a) jhf;fpfspd; gf;fj;jpYs;s mZf;fs; tpisTfspd; gf;fj;jpYs;s mZf;fSf;Fr;
rkkhftpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(b) ,urhadj; jhf;fj;ijr; rkg;gLj;jj; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfspd; #j;jpuq;fs;
khw;wg;glf;$lhJ.
(c) xU rkg;gLj;jpa ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;bd; vy;yhg; gFjpfSk; VjhtnjhU vz;zpdhy;
gpupf;fg;gl;L my;yJ ngUf;fg;gl;Lg; GjpanjhU rkg;gLj;jpa ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;il
cUthf;fyhk;.
(d) kpfTk; rpwe;j (Vw;Wf; nfhs;sf;$ba) rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghL vspa KOvz;fisf;
nfhz;ljhftpUf;Fk;. ,t; KOvz;fs; rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;bd; Fzfq;fs;
vdg;gLk;. ,J gPrkhdkhd ,yf;fkhf tpgupf;fg;gLk;.
,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;Jtjw;F ,uz;L topfs; cs;sd.
(a) ca;j;jwpjy; Kiw / rupghu;jj
; y; Kiw
(b) jho;j;Njw;W Kiw
3.6.1 nrt;itghu;j;jy; / rupghu;j;jy; Kiwapy; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr;

rkg;gLj;jy;.
gb 01: tptuzq;fis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; mtw;wpd; ngsjpf

epiyfis ,dk; fhZjy;. nghUj;jkhd #j;jpuq;fis vOjpr; rkg;gLj;jg;glhj
,urhadr; rkd;ghl;il vOJf.
gb 02: kpfTk; Fiwe;j vz;zpfi ; fapy; mtw;iwf; nfhz;l %yfq;fspy; Muk;gpjJ
;
(ghu;itaply;) rupghu;jj
; y; %yk; rkd;ghl;ilr; rkg;gLj;Jjy;. xt;nthU
%yfkhfj; jhf;fpfspYk; tpisTfspYk; mZf;fisr; rkg;gLj;Jtjw;Ff;
Fzfq;fisj; Jzpjy;.
gb 03: mk;Gf;Fwpapd; ,Ugf;fq;fspYk; mZf;fs; / mad;fs; Mfpatw;iwr;
rkg;gLj;Jtjw;F fz;lwpe;j Fzfq;fs; rupah vdr; Nrhjpj;jy;. mj;Jld;
rkd;ghl;ilr; rkg;gLj;j cgNahfpj;j Fzfq;fs; rpwpa KOntz;fsh vdr;
Nrhjpj;jy;.
120
vspa ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisg; rupghu;jj

; y; %yk; rkg;gLj;jyhk;. (<Lnra;ayhk;) fPNo
jug;gl;l cjhuzj;ijf; fUJf.
cjhuzk; 1:- ry;g+upf;fkpyk; kw;Wk; Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;L vd;gd jhf;fkile;J
Nrhbak; ry;Ngw;W kw;Wk; ePiu tpisthfj; jUk; jhf;fk;.
gb 1: jhf;fpfs; = ry;g+upf;fkpyk; kw;Wk; Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;L
tpisTfs; = Nrhbak; ry;Ngw;W kw;Wk; ePu;
rkg;gLj;jg;glhj jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
H2SO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
gb 2: tpisTg; gf;fkhff; fhzg;gLk; Nrhbak; mZf;fisg; gad;gLj;jp

,urhadr; rkd;ghl;ilr; rkg;gLj;jy;. tpisTg; gf;fkhff; fhzg;gLk;
Nrhbak; mZf;fspd; nkhj;j vz;zpf;if 2. vdNt Nrhbak; rhu;ghd
jhf;fj;jpd; Fzfk; 2.
vdNt jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
gb 3: mk;Gf;Fwpapd; ,uz;L gf;fKk; Vida mZf;fs; / mad;fisr;

rkg;gLj;jy;.
rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
ngsjpf epiyfs; cld; rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghL fPNo
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
cjhuzk; 2:- iejurd; kw;Wk; Ijurd; vd;gd jhf;fkile;J tpisthf mNkhdpahit

cUthf;Fk; jhf;fk;.
gb 1: jhf;fpfs; = iejurd; kw;Wk; Ijurd;
tpisTfs; = mNkhdpah
rkg;gLj;jg;glhj jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
N2 + H2 NH3
gb 2: jhf;fpg; gf;fkhfTs;s iejurd; mZf;fisg; gad;gLj;jp jhf;fr;

rkd;ghLfisr; rkg;gLj;jy;. jhf;fpg; gf;fkhfTs;s iejurd; mZf;fspd;
nkhj;j vz;zpf;if 2. vdNt iejurd; rhu;ghd jhf;ff; Fzfk; 2.
vdNt jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
N2 + H2 2NH3
121
gb 3: Fzfj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp Vida mZf;fs; (mad;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;).

N2 + 3H2 2NH3
ngsjpf epiyfs; cld; rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghL fPNo
jug;gLfpd;wJ.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
3.6.2 xU jho;j;Njw;W Kiwapd; jhf;fr; rkd;ghLfisr; rkg;gLj;Jjy; /

<Lnra;jy;.
mZf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fspd; khw;wj;Jld; njhlu;Gila ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs;

jho;j;Njw;wj; jhf;f tifapDs; mlq;Fk;. jho;j;Njw;wj; jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUk; Kiwapy;
rkg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Kiw 1: xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;w Kiw
xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wq;fisf; fUJjy; kw;Wk; ,tw;iwj; jhf;fpfspd;
Fzfkhfg; gad;gLj;jy;.
xU cjhuzkhf> S ,w;Fk; HNO3 ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; fPNo
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
gpd;tUk; topfs; rkd;ghl;ilr; rkg;gLj;j gpuNahfpf;fg;gLk;.
gb 1: jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fpfs; kw;Wk; tpisTfspd; #j;jpuq;fisj; jpUj;jkhf
vOJjy;.
S(s) + HNO3(aq)  H2SO4(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
gb 2: xl;rpNaw;wk;> jho;j;jy; vd;gtw;Wf;Fs;shFk; %yfq;fspw;F xl;rpNaw;w

vz;fis toq;Ff.
S(s) + HNO3(aq)  H2SO4(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
0 +5 +6 +4
MW ,yj;jpud;fis
mfw;wy;
xU ,yj;jpuid Vw;wy;
gb 3: xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wk; rkdw;Wf; fhzg;gLtjdhy; ,e;j ,yf;fj;jpdhy;

ngUf;fy; Ntz;Lk;. fPNo fhl;lg;gl;lthW ,t; ,yf;fq;fs; rkg;gLk;.
(,yj;jpud;fspd; gupkhw;wk; fl;lhak; rkg;gLj;jg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.)
S(s) + 6HNO3(aq)  H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + H2O(l)
gb 4: vQ;rpAs;s mZf;fisr; rkg;gLj;Jf.

S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
122
Kiw 2: mad; ,yj;jpud; miuj;jhf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;jy; Kiw

xt;nthU xl;rpNaw;wj; jho;j;jy; jhf;fj;jpYk; xU jhf;fp jho;j;jg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;. xU jhf;fp xl;rpNaw;wg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. rpyNtisfspy; xU
jhf;fj;jpy; xNu %yfk; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;Fk; jho;j;jYf;Fk; cl;gLk;. ,j;
jhf;fk; tpNrlkhf ,Utop tpfhuj; jhf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;tpU
jhf;fq;fSk; (xl;rpNaw;wk;> jho;j;jy;) miuj;jhf;fq;fshFk;. jho;j;Njw;W
jhf;fj;ij rkg;gLj;Jtjw;Fupa KjypU gbfs; ,t;tiuj;jhf;fq;fisf;
fz;lwpe;J rkg;gLj;jyhFk;.
jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;Jk; nrad;Kiw:

gb A: jhf;fj;ij ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fshfg; gpupj;jy;.
gb B: ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fisAk; rkg;gLj;Jjy;.
gb C: ,U gf;fq;fspYk; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fis ePfF
; tjw;F ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fis
Ak; ,izf;Ff.
cjhuzk;: H2SO4 (aq) Kd;dpiyapy; K2Cr2O7 ,w;Fk; SO2 ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpy;
Cr3+ kw;Wk; SO42- mad;fs; gpujhd tpisTfs; MFk;.
gb A: jhf;fj;ij ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fshfg; gpupj;jy;.
Cr2O72- + SO2 Cr3+ + SO42-
,uz;L miuj;jhf;fq;fs; tUkhW:
Cr2O72- Cr3+
SO2 SO42-
gb B: ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fisAk; rkg;gLj;Jjy;.
gb 01: rkd;ghl;bd; ,U gf;fq;fspYKs;s xt;nthU %yfj;jpwF
; k; xl;rpNaw;w
vz;fis toq;Ff.
gb 02: xl;rpNaw;wg;gl;l my;yJ jho;jj
; g;gl;l xt;nthU %yfj;jpd; mZf;fisr;
rkg;gLj;Jf.
gb 03: “nkhj;j” xl;rpNaw;w vz;izg; ngWtjw;F xl;rpNaw;w vz;iz
mt;nthl;rpNaw;w vz; cila mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahy; ngUf;Ff.
gb 04: kw;iwa gf;fj;jpw;F ,yj;jpud;fisr; Nru;j;J miuj;jhf;fq;fisr;
rkg;gLj;Jf.
gb 05: mkpy Clf fiury;fSf;F H+ mad;fisAk; fhu Clf fiury;fSf;F
OH- mad;fisAk; Nru;j;J Vw;wj;ijr; rkg;gLj;Jf.
gb 06: H2O %yf;$Wfisr; Nru;j;J Ijuridr; rkg;gLj;Jf.
gb 07: ,U gf;fq;fspYk; xl;rpridr; rupghu;f;f.
123
gb B ,y; $wg;gl;l miu mad;jhf;f rkg;gLj;jy; Kiwapd; gad;ghL fPNo jug;gl;

Ls;sJ.
mkpy Clfj;jpy; Cr2O72- I Cr3+ Mfj; jho;j;jy;
gb 1: FNuhkpaj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;iz ,Ljy;.
Cr2O72-(aq) Cr3+(aq)
(+6) (+3)
gb 2: FNuhkpak; mZit ,UGwKk; rkg;gLj;jy;.
Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
gb 3: mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifahy; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izg; ngUf;fp ,UGwKk;

nkhj;j xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; Fwpj;jy;.
Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
(+6)2 (+3)2
xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wk; MW
( +12 ,ypUe;J +6 ,w;F)
gb 4: xl;rpNaw;w vz; tpj;jpahrj;ijr; rkg;gLj;j ,yj;jpud;fis ,Ljy;.

6e + Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
,UGwKk; nkhj;j Vw;wj;ijf; fzpf;f.
6e + Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
nkhj;j Vw;wk; nkhj;j Vw;wk;

kiw vl;L Neu; MW
(-8) (-6)
gb 5: Vw;wj;ijr; rkg;gLj;j H+ mad;fisr; Nru;f;f.

14H+(aq) + 6e + Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq)
gb 6: Ijuridr; rkg;gLj;j ePu; %yf;$Wfis ,Ljy;.

14H+(aq) + 6e + Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
gb 7: ,UGwKk; nkhj;j mZf;fis rupg;ghu;j;Jr; rkg;gLj;jy;.

14H+(aq) + 6e + Cr2O72-(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
124
mkpy Clfj;jpy; SO2 I SO42- Mf xl;rpNaw;wy;.
gbfs; 1> 2> 3
SO2(g) SO42- (aq)

+4 +6
xl;rpNaw;w vz; khw;wk; ,uz;L
gb 4: xl;rpNaw;w khw;wj;ijr; rkg;gLj;j ,yj;jpud;fis ,Ljy;.
SO2(g) SO42- (aq) + 2e
gb 5: ,UGwKk; nkhj;j Vw;wq;fisf; fzpf;f
SO2(g) SO42- (aq) + 2e
nkhj;j Vw;wk; nkhj;j Vw;wk;

(0) (-4)
gpd;G Vw;wj;ijr; rkg;gLj;j H+ mad;fisr; Nru;f;f.

SO2(g) SO42- (aq) + 2e + 4H+(aq)
gb 6 kw;Wk; 7:
Ijuridr; rkg;gLj;j ePu; %yf;$Wfis ,lTk;.
2H2O(l) + SO2(g) SO42- (aq) + 2e + 4H+ (aq)
gb C: ,U gf;fq;fspYk; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fis ePfF

; tjw;F ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fis
Ak; ,izf;Ff.
xl;rpNaw;w miur; rkd;ghl;il 3 My; ngUf;fp ,UGwKk; ,yj;jpud;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.
rkd;ghLfis ,izj;jy;.
14H+(aq)+ Cr2O72-(aq)+3SO2(g)+6H2O(l) +6e 2Cr3+(aq)+3SO42-(aq) +12H+(aq)+7H2O(l) + 6e
vspikahf;fg;gl;l rkd;ghL (rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l mad; rkd;ghL)

2H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +3SO2(g) 2Cr3+(aq)+3SO42-(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + K2Cr2O7(aq) +3SO2(g) Cr2(SO4)3(aq) +K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
125
rkg;gLj;jpa jhf;fq;fspypUe;J ngwf;$ba jfty;fs;

 jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fkilAk; xt;nthd;wpdJk; %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if
 jhf;fj;jpy; cUthFk; tpisTfs; xt;nthd;wpdJk; %y; vz;zpf;if
 jho;j;Njw;wpj; jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if
H2SO4 Kd;dpiyapy; K2Cr2O7 MdJ SO2 cld; GupAk; NkNy $wg;gl;l jhf;fj;ijf;
fUJf.
(1) K2Cr2O7 xU mad; Nru;it. xU Cr2O72- mad; MdJ %d;W SO2 %yf;$WfSld;
jhf;fkilAk;.
(2) xU %y; K2Cr2O7 MdJ %d;W %y; SO2 cld; jhf;fkile;J xU %y; Cr2(SO4)3
ck; xU %y; K2SO4 ck; xU %y; H2O ck; cUthFk;.
miuj; jhf;f Kiwiag; gad;gLj;jp rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkd;ghLfSf;F NtW ,uz;L

cjhuzq;fs; fPNo tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; 3.6
Fe2+(aq) + NO3-(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + NO(g) fhu epge;jidfspy; rkg;gLj;jpa
miuj; jhf;fq;fs;
Fe2+(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + e- (xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fk;)
NO3-(aq) + 2H2O(  ) + 3e-  NO(g) + 4OH-(aq) (jho;j;jy; jhf;fk;)
xl;rpNaw;w miuj;jhf;fj;ij 3 My; ngUf;Ff.
3[Fe2+(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + e- ] xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fk;
miuj;jhf;fq;fis ,izf;Ff.
NO3-(aq) + 2H2O(  ) + 3e-  NO(g) + 4OH-(aq)
3[Fe2+(aq)  Fe3+(aq) + e- ]
3Fe2+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + 3e- + 2H2O(  )  3Fe3+(aq) + 3e- + NO(g) + 4OH (aq)
,yj;jpud;fis ePf;Ff.
3Fe2+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + 2H2O(  )  3Fe3+(aq) + NO(g) + 4OH-(aq)
126
cjhuzk; 3.7
fhu Clfj;jpy; ,w;Fk; ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd jho;j;Njw;w mad; rkd;ghl;ilr;
rkg;gLj;jy;.
MnO4- + Fe  MnO2 + Fe2+
tpil:
miuj; jhf;fj;ijr; rkg;gLj;jy;:

xl;rpNaw;w miuj;jhf;fk;: Fe  Fe2+ + 2e ------ (1)
jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fk;: 2H2O + 3e + MnO4-  MnO2 + 4OH- ------ (2)
xl;rpNaw;w miu mad; jhf;fk; (1)I 3 My; ngUf;Fjy; kw;Wk; jho;j;jy; miu
mad; jhf;fk; (2)I 2 My; ngUf;Fjy;. ,uz;L miur; rkd;ghLfisAk;
Nru;f;Fk;NghJ ,yj;jpud;fis ePf;fp tpLjy;.
3Fe + 2MnO4- + 4H2O  3Fe3+ + 2MnO2 + 8OH-
vy;iyg;gLj;Jk; Nrhjidg; nghUs; / jhf;fp
xU jhf;fj;jpy; Kw;whfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; jhf;fp vy;iyg;gLj;Jk; jhf;fp vdg;gLk;.

kw;iwa (Vida) jhf;fpfs; kpifahd jhf;fpfs; vdg;gLk;. gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; jug;gl;l
xU jhf;fj;jpy; cUthFk; tpisnghUspd; msitf; fzpg;gjw;F vy;iyg;gLj;Jk;
Nrhjidg; nghUs; vz;zf;fUtpd; gad;ghl;il vLj;Jf; fhl;Lk;.
cjhuzk;:
3 mol N2, 6 mol H2 vd;gtw;wpypUe;J vj;jid %y;fs;; NH3 cUthf;fg;glyhk;?
rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghL:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
3 %y; N2 I Kw;whfg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fj;

Njitahd H2 %y;fspd; vz;zpfi ; f = N2 %y; vz;zpfi
; f  3 = 9 %y; H2 Njitg;gLk;.
Njitahd H2 ,y; %y; mjpfk; fpilf;ff;$ba H2 ,d; %y;.
vy;iyg;gLj;Jk; fhuzp H2
6 %y; H2 I Kw;whfg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fj;

1
Njitahd N2 %y;fspd; vz;zpfi ; f = H2 %y; vz;zpfi
; f  = 2 %y; N2 Njitg;gLk;.
3
Njitahd N2 ,y; %y; FiwT fpilf;ff;$ba N2 ,d; %y;.
kpifahd Nrhjidg; nghUs; N2
vy;iyg;gLj;Jk; Nrhjidg; nghUs; msit mbg;gilahf cgNahfpj;J cUthFk;

NH3 msitf; fzpg;gjw;F H2 msT cgNahfpf;fg;glyhk;.
2 2
H2 %y; vz;zpf;if  = 6 %y;  = 4 %y; NH3
3 3
127
3.6.3 vspa fUj;jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;
fjpu;j; njhopw;ghl;L epa+f;fpisl;lhdJ fUj;Jzpf;iffis / ,yj;jpud;fis my;yJ

fhkh() fjpu;tPry; tbtj;jpy; rf;jpia Njhw;Wtpj;J> fjpu;j;njhopw;ghl;Lj; Nja;tpw;F
cl;glyhk;. ml;ltiz 3.6 ,y; ,t;thwhd Jzpfi ; ffs;> ,yj;jpud;fs; fhkh fjpu;tr
P y;
vd;gtw;wpd; nghJthd rpwg;gpay;Gfs; jug;gl;Ls;sd. mNefkhfg; nghJthf cl;gLfpdw ;
fUj;Jzpfi ; ffs; my;gh () Jzpf;iffSk; ,yj;jpud;fSk; MFk;. ,q;F ntspNaw;wg;
gLk; cau;fjp ,yj;jpud;fs; gPw;wh () Jzpf;iffs; MFk;.
ml;ltiz 3.7  ntsptPry;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;
ngau; FwpaPL Vw;wk; jpzpT
4
my;gh 2 He 2+ , 42 2+ <ypak; mZtpd; jpzptpw;Fr; rkk;
0
gPw;wh -1  2+ , 0-1 -1 ,yj;jpudpd; jpzptpw;Fr; rkk;
0
fhkh 0 ,  0 jpzpT ,y;iy
xU %yfj;jpd; fjpu;j; njhopw;ghl;Lr; rkjhdp NtnwhU %yfj;jpd; my;yJ mNj

%yfj;jpd; jpzpntz;zpy; NtWgl;l rkjhdpahf ,aw;ifapy; khw;wkiljy; fjpu;j;
njhopw;ghL vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;thwhd khw;wq;fs; fUj;jhf;fq;fs; my;yJ
jpupGfs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf 22688 Ra ,d; fjpu;j;njhopw;ghl;Lj; Nja;tpdhy;
222
86
Rn cUthjy; gpd;tUkhW vOjg;gLk;.
226 4 222
88 Ra  2 He  86 Rn
ngw;whu; fU kfl; fU
fUj;jhf;fq;fis <Lnra;tjw;fhd (rkg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd) tpjpfs;
tpjp 01: jhf;fKWk; fUf;fspd; jpzpntz;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif cUthFk; fUf;fspd;

jpzpntz;fspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkk;.
tpjp 02: jhf;fKWk; fUf;fspd; mZntz;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif cUthFk; fUf;fspd;

mZntz;fspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkk;.
NkNy jug;gl;l jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.
226 4 222
88 Ra  2 He  86 Rn
ngw;whu; fU my;gh kfl;fU
(,Nubak; 226) (,Nuld; 222)
jpzpT vz; 226  4 + 222
mZ vz; 88  2 + 86
128
cjhuzq;fs;:
7 0 7
4 Be + e
1 3 Li
ngw;whu; fU gPww
; h kfl;fU
(ngupypak; 7) (,ypjpak; 7)
jpzpT vz; 7 + 0 7
mZ vz; 4 + -1 3
rpy fUj;jhf;fq;fspy; GNuhj;jd;fs; ( 11p )> epa+j;jpud;fs; ( 01 n ) vd;gd rk;ge;jg;gLfpd;wd.
3.7 fiury;fisj; jahupj;jy;
fiuankhd;W xU fiug;ghdpy; fiuj;J cUthf;Fk; Vftpdf; fyitahdJ fiury;

vd mwpag;gLk;.
kpfj; jpUj;jkhd njupe;j nrwpTila> jahupf;fg;gl;l fiury;fs; epakf; fiury;fs;>

Kjd;ik epakq;fSf;F vjpuhf epak tsthf;fk; nra;ag;gLk;. kl;lw;wjhfj; J}a;ik
ahfTk;> cWjpahdjhfTk;> ePNuw;wg;glhjjhfTk;> ePupy; cr;r mstpy; fiuaf;$bajhfTk;
kw;Wk; cau; %yf;$w;W epiwiaf; nfhz;l Nru;itfs; Kjd; epakq;fs; vd
miof;fg;gLk;.
rpy cjhuzkhf gpd;tUk; ePuw;w Nru;itfisf; fUjyhk;.
Na2CO3, K2Cr2O7 kw;Wk; KIO3.
Nju;en
; jLf;fg;gl;l gFg;gha;tpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,urhadq;fshd Jiz / top epakg;
gjhu;j;jq;fs; vdg;gLgit Kjd;ik epakg; gjhu;j;jq;fSf;F vjpuhf epak tsthf;fk;
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;.
fPot
; Uk; Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp njupe;j nrwpTila fiury;fisj; jahupjJ
; f; nfhs;s
KbAk;. nrad;Kiw cjhuzq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
Kiwfs;:
(1) J}a Nru;itapypUe;J jpUj;jkhf mse;njLf;fg;gl;l jpzpT my;yJ
fdtsit ftdkhfg; nghUj;jkhd fiug;ghdpy; fiuj;jy;.
(2) Nrfupg;Gf; fiury;fis (stock solution) Ijhf;fy;.
NkNy $wg;gl;l ,U KiwfspYk; NtWgl;l topfspy; fiuriyj; jahupj;jiy fPNo

jug;gl;lit Rl;bf; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
129
(1) 1.0 mol dm-3, 500.00 cm3 Na2CO3 fiury; jahupj;jy;.
(a) Njitahd Na2CO3 %y;fisf; fzpj;jy;.

(b) Nrhjidg;nghUs; Nghj;jypypUe;J Njitahd Na2CO3 ia jpUj;jkhf
epWj;jy;
(c) 500.00 cm3 fdkhdf; FLitapDs; Na2CO3ia ,l;L> rpy fha;r;rp tbj;j
ePupy; ed;F fiuj;jy;
(d) fha;rr ; 500.00 cm3 FwpfF
; p tbj;j ePiu cgNahfpjJ ; f; fiuriy Ijhf;Fjy;.
(2) 1.0 mol dm-3, 250.00 cm3 HCl fiuriy> nrwpe;j HCl fiurypy; [36% (w/w)],
1.17 g ml-1 (1.17 g cm-3) ,Ue;J jahupj;jy;.
(a) fPo; cs;sthW nrwpe;j HCl ,d; nrwpitf; fzpj;jy;.
nrwpe;j HCl mkpyj;jpd; 1 dm3 ,y; cs;s>
HCl ,d; jpzpT = 1.17 g cm-3×1000 cm3× 36%
= 421.2 g
nrwpe;j HCl mkpyj;jpd; 1 dm3 ,y; cs;s>
HCl ,d; %y; vz;zpf;if = 421.2 g ÷ 36.5 g mol-1

= 11.5 mol dm-3
nrwpe;j HCl mkpyj;jpy; HCl ,d; nrwpT = 11.5 mol dm-3
(b) Njitg;gl;l fiuriyj; jahupf;fj; Njitahd %y; vz;zpf;ifiaf;

fzpj;jy;.
1.0 mol dm-3 HCl fiurypd; 250.00 cm3 fiurypy; cs;s
HCl ,d; %y; vz;zpf;if = (1.0 mol×250cm3) ÷1000 cm3
= 0.25 mol
Njitg;gl;l nrwpe;j HCl mkpyj;jpd; fdtsT v vd;f.
0.25 mol = (11.5 mol × v) ÷ 1000 cm3
v = 21.7 cm3
(c) fiuriyj; jahupj;jy;.

nrwpe;j HCl mkpyf; fiurypd; 21.7 cm3 I jpUj;jkhf mse;njLj;J>
250.00 cm3 fdkhd FLitapDs; ,ly;. ,J 250.00 cm3 Fwp tiu Ijhf;fy;.
,t;thW 1.0 mol dm-3 , 250.00 cm3 HCl fiury; jahupf;fg;gLk;.
130
(3) 1.0 mol dm-3, Na2CO3 Nrfupg;Gf; fiurypypUe;J (stock solution) 0.2 mol dm-3,
100.00 cm3, Na2CO3 fiury; jahupj;jy;.
(a) 0.2 mol dm-3, 100 cm3 , Na2CO3 fiurypYs;s %y;fisf; fzpj;jy;.
(b) 0.2 mol dm-3, 100 cm3 , Na2CO3 fiurypYs;s Na2CO3 %y;fspw;Fr; rkkhd
vz;zpf;if Na2CO3 %y;fs; cila 1 mol dm-3, Na2CO3 fiury;
fdtsitf; fzpj;jy;.
(c) 1 mol dm-3, Na2CO3 fiurypypUe;J fzpj;j fdtsitj; jpUj;jkhf
mse;J 100.00 cm3 fdkhd FLitapDs; ,Ljy;.
(d) fha;rr ; 100.00 cm3 FwpfF
; p tbj;j ePiu cgNahfpjJ ; f; fiuriy Ijhf;Fjy;.
(4) 6 mol dm-3 Nrfupg;Gf; HCl fiurypypUe;J 1 mol dm-3, 250.00 cm3,
HCl fiuriyj; jahupj;jy;.
6 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; Njitahd fdtsT v vd;f.
v ,w;fhd fzpg;G:
v
0.25 mol = 6 mol × cm3
1000
v = 41.60 cm3
6 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; 41.60 cm3 I jpUj;jkhf mse;njLj;J> 250.00 cm3
fdkhd FLitf;F khw;wy;. gpd;du; Fwp tiu Ijhf;fy; %yk; Njitahd
fiuriyg; ngwyhk;.
(5) ,uz;L Nrfupg;Gf; fiury;fisf; fye;J (cjhuzk;: 3 mol dm-3 kw;Wk;

0.5 mol dm-3 HCl fiury;) 1 mol dm-3 , 250.00 cm3 HCl fiuriyj; jahupj;jy;.
3 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; v cm3 Njit vdf; fUJf.
vdNt 0.5 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; (250 00 - v) cm3 Njit.
jahupf;fg;gl Ntz;ba HCl fiurypYs;s HCl ,d; %y; vz;zpf;if 0.25 mol.
fdtsT v ,w;fhd fdtsT:
v 3 0.5
( mol dm-3) + (250.00 - v) × mol dm-3) = 0.25 mol
1000 1000
v = 50.00 cm3
Njitahd 3 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; fdtsT = 50.00 cm3

Njitahd 0.5 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd; fdtsT = (250.00 - 50.00) cm3
= 200.00 cm3
MfNt 3 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypy; 50.00 cm3 cld; 0.5 mol dm-3, HCl fiurypd;
200.00 cm3 fyg;gjd; %yk; 1 mol dm-3, 250.00 cm3, HCl fiuriyj; jahupf;f
KbAk;.
131
3.8 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fis mbg;gilahf cila fzpj;jy;fs;
nrwpT njupej
; xU fiuriy cgNahfpjJ ; rpy njupahj ntt;NtW tif ePuf
; f
; iury;fspd;
nrwpitj; jPuk; hdpg;gjw;F ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. nrwpT njupe;j
fiury; (epakf; fiury;) nrwpT njupahf; fiurYld; mwpag;gl;l xU gPrkhdj;Jld;
jhf;fKWk;. epakf; fiurYld; nrwpT njupahf; fiury; Kw;whfj; jhf;fKWk; epiyapy>;
epakf; fiurypd; nrwpitAk; jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdj;ijAk; cgNahfpj;Jj; njupahj
fiurypd; nrwpitf; fzpf;fyhk;.
cjhuzk; 1: mkpy - fhuj; jhf;fk;
0.1M epakf; fiury; HNO3 cld; nrwpT njupahj fiury; Ba(OH)2
jhf;fKwtplg;gLfpdw; J. 25.00 cm3 Ba(OH)2 cld; Kw;whfj; jhf;fKWtjw;F
0.1M, 34.00 cm3 HNO3 Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. fPNo fhl;lg;gl;l gbKiwfisg;
gad;gLj;jp Ba(OH)2 ,d; nrwpitf; fzpf;fyhk;.
2HNO3(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)  Ba(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;bd;gb ,uz;L %y;fs; HNO3 xU %y; Ba(OH)2
cld; jhf;fKWfpd;wJ.
gad;gLj;jpa HNO3 %y;fisf; fzpj;jy;.
34.00 3
gad;gLj;jpa HNO3 mol  0.1 mol dm -3  dm  0.0034 mol
1000
gad;gLj;jpa HNO3 %y; = 25 cm3 ,y; cs;s Ba(OH)2 %y;  2
25
0.0034 mol  Concentration of Ba(OH) 2  dm 3  2
1000
Ba(OH)2 ,d; nrwpT = 0.068 mol dm-3
cjhuzk; 2: jho;j;Njw;wj; jhf;fk;

0.25 mol dm-3, 27.00 cm3 Fe(NO3)2 cld; Kw;whfj; jhf;fKWtjw;Fj; Njitahd
0.6 mol dm-3 KMnO4 ,d; fdtsT ahJ?
MnO4- ,w;Fk; Fe2+ ,w;Fkpilapyhd rkg;gLj;jpa jhf;fk;
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq)  5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
27.00
gad;gLj;jpa Fe2+ mol  0.25 mol dm -3  dm 3 = 6.75  10-3 mol
1000
6.75  10 3
gad;gLj;jj; Njitahd MnO4- %y; = mol
5
KMnO4 ,d; fdtsT> v dm3
6.75  10 3 v
mol  0.6 mol dm -3  dm 3
5 1000
V = 0.00225 dm3 = 2.25 cm3
132
cjhuzk; 3: jpzpTkhdk;
0.1 mol dm-3, Ba(OH)2 MdJ 0.2 mol dm-3, 30 cm3, H2SO4 mkpyj;Jld;
g+uzkhfj; jhf;fkile;J cUthFk; BaSO4 ,d; jpzpitf; fzpf;f.
rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghL>
H2SO4 (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq)  BaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)
rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fr; rkd;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; cUthFk; BaSO4 ,d;

jpzpitf; fzpj;jy;.
-3 30.00 cm3
gad;gLj;jg;gl;l H2SO4 ,d; msT = 0.2 mol dm  = 0.006 mol
1000 cm3
tPo;gbthfpa BaSO4 ,d; msT = 0.006 mol
BaSO4 ,d; %yu;jpzpT = 233 g mol-1
tPo;gbthfpa BaSO4 ,d; jpzpT = 20.006 mol  33 g mol-1
= 1.4 g
133
jPuf
; ;fg;gl;l gpurpdq;fs;:
Nfs;tp 1:
(a) iron(III) oxide ,y; cs;s ,Uk;G> xl;rprd; jpzpTr; rjtPjq;fs; ahit?
(b) xU fpNyhfpuhk; Fe2O3 ,ypUe;J gpupj;njLf;ff;$ba ,Uk;gpd; jpzpT
fpuhkpy; ahJ?
(c) xU fpNyhfpuhk; ,Uk;igg; gpupj;njLf;fj; Njitahd 66.4% Fe2O3 ia
cila Vkw;iww;W jhJg; nghUspd; nkw;wpf; njhd;fs; ahit?
tpil:
(a) Fe ,d; jpzpT %
1 mol Fe ,d; jpzpT  2 112 g Fe
 100   100  70%
1 mol Fe2 O3 ,d; jpzpT 160 g Fe2O3
O tpd; jpzpTr; %
O tpd; jpzpTr; % = 100% - Fe ,d; jpzpTr; % 100% - 70% = 30%
(b) Fe ,d; jpzpT
70 g Fe
1.000  103 g Fe2O3   700 g Fe
100 g Fe2O3
(c) Njitahd Vkw;iww;wpd; jpzpT

100 g Fe2O3 100 g jhJg; nghUs;
1 kg Fe  
70 g Fe 66.4 g Fe2O3
= 2.15 kg
Nfs;tp 2:
xU khztd; 4.0 mg Nrhbak; mad;fs; (NaCl tbtj;jpy;) 4.00 g FSf;NfhR

(C6H12O6), 96 g ePu; vd;gtw;iwf; fye;J xU fiury; jahupf;fpd;whd;.
(a) fiurypy; FSf;Nfhrpd; %yy;jpwd; ahJ?

(b) fiurypy; vt;tsT Na+ ppm ,y; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ?
tpil:
fiua %y;
(a) %yy; jpwd; 
fiug;ghdpd; jpzpT (kg )
4.0 g FSf; NfhR
FSf; NfhR %y; fs;  = 0.022 mol
180 g / mol
fiug;ghdpd; (ePupd;) jpzpT kg ,y; = 0.096 kg
0.022 mol
%yy; jpwd;   0.23 mol kg -1
0.096 kg
134
(b) fiury; jpzpT = 0.004 g + 4.00 g + 96 g

= 100.004 g
 Na  jpzpT 0.004 g
Na ppm ,y;  106  106
fiury; jpzpT 100.004 g
= 39.99 ppm
Nfs;tp 3:
NaCl, KCl Mfpatw;iwAila fyitapd; jpzpT 5.48 g. ,k;khjpup ePupy;

fiuf;fg;gl;L> kpifahd nts;sp iej;jpNuw;Wld; (AgNO3) gupfupf;fg;gl;lJ.
cUthFk; AgCl ,12.70 g jpzpTilaJ. fyitapy; cs;s NaCl ,d; jpzpTr;
rjtPjj;ijf; fzpf;Ff.
tpil:
12.70 g
AgNO3 %y;fs; =  0.088 mol
143.32g / mol
n(NaCl) NaCl ,d; %y; vz;zpf;if + n(KCl) KCl ,d; %y; vz;zpf;if= 0.088 mol
NaCl , d; jpzpT KCl , d; jpzpT

0.088 mol=  ------------------------- (1)
58.44 g / mol 75.55g / mol
mj;Jld; NaCl jpzpT + KCl jpzpT = 5.48 g ------------------------------- (2)
rkd;ghL (2) ,ypUe;J KCl jpzpT = 5.48 g - NaCl jpzpT
rkd;ghL (1) ,w;F gpujpapl>
NaCl , d; jpzpT 5.48 g - NaCl , d; jpzpT

0.088 mol= 
58.44 g / mol 75.55g / mol
NaCl ,d; jpzpT = 4.06 g
4.06 g
NaCl ,d; jpzpTr; rjtPjk; =  100% = 74.01%
5.48 g
135
ml;ltiz 3.8 rkd;ghLfspd; RUf;fk;

rkd;ghL myF
A ,d; jpzpT
A ,d; jpzpTg; gpd;dk; (w/w) = -
gjhu;j;jk; my;yJ fyitapd; jpzpT
A ,d; fdtsT
A ,d; fdtsTg; gpd;dk; (v/v) = -
fyitapd; fdtsT
A ,d; %y;fs;
A ,d; %y; gpd;dk; (XA) = fyitapd; nkhj;j %y;fs;
nA -
nA  nB  nC  ...
Nru;it xd;wpy; %yfk; #j;jpuj;jpy; cs;s X ,d; %y;fs;  X ,d; %yj;jpzpT (g mol-1)
X ,d; jpzpTr; rjtPjk; = fiurypd; fdtsT  100% -
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; jpzpT
jpzpTr; rjtPjk; (w/w) =  100% -
fyitapd; jpzpT
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; fdtsT  100%

fdtsTr; rjtPjk; (v/v) = -
fyitapd; fdtsT
fiuaj;jpd; jpzpT -
xU Mapuj;jpd; gFjpfs; (ppt) = 103
fiurypd; jpzpT
fiuaj;jpd; jpzpT
xU kpy;ypadpd;; gFjpfs; (ppm) =  106 -
fiurypd; jpzpT
fiuaj;jpd; jpzpT
xU gpy;ypadpd;; gFjpfs; (ppb) =  109 -
fiurypd; jpzpT
fiuaj;jpd; %y;fs;
%yw;wpwd; / %yy;wpwd; (m) = mol kg-1
fiug;ghdpd;; jpzpT
fiua %y;fs; mol dm-3

%yu;j;jpwd; (M) =
fiurypd; fdtsT
136
f.ngh.j (cau; juk;)
,urhadtpay;
juk; 12
tsE}y;
ngsjpf ,urhadtpay;
myF 4: rlj;jpd; thAepiy
myF 5: rf;jpapay;
tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
www.nie.lk
i
,urhadtpay;
tsE}y;
juk; 12

ISBN :
tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
,yq;if.
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk
,yq;if.
ii
gzpgg


mlq;fpa Fohkpdhy; ,t; Nkyjpf tsE}y; jahupff ; g;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; ,t;tsE}y;fs;
khztu;fs; ,t;thwhd E}y;fis kPlL ; tjd; %yk; ghltplaq;fs; njhlu;ghf mfd;w
thrpgg

fyhepjp. (jpUkjp) T. A. R. J. FzNrfu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk.
iii
gzpgg

,jd; tpisthf fw;wy; - fw;gpjj ; y; Kiwapaypy;> kjpgg
; L
P kw;Wk; fzpgg
; l
P ;by; Fwpg;gplj;
topfhl;bapy; fw;ww; NgWfs;> Mrpupau;fSf;F fw;wy; topfhl;ly;> fzpg;gL P fs; kw;Wk;
kjpg;gL


; g;

gzpg;ghsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
iv
fiyj;jpl;lf; FO
topfhl;ly;:
fyhepjp. (jpUkjp). T. A. R. J. FzNrfu>
gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
Nkw;ghu;it:
ghlj; jiyikj;Jtk;:

jpU.L. K. tLNf>
jpU. V. ,uh[{Njtd;>
jpUkjp. G. G.P. S. ngNuuh>

vOj;jhsu; FO:
fyhepjp. W. M. A. T. gz;lhu - rpNu\;l Nguhrpupau;> tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;. (myF - 4> 5)
fyhepjp. lf;\pf;fh td;dpahuhr;rp - rpNu\;l tpupTiuahsu;> cgfuz epiyak;>
gpuNahf tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
= [atu;jj ; dGug; gy;fiyf;fofk; (myF - 4)

= [atu;jj
; dGug; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
v
n`huz.
Gdpj gPwN
Kd;ml;ilAk; fzpdpahf;fKk;:
mDruiz:
jpU. wQ;rpj; jatd;r
vi
cs;slf;fk;
gf;fk;

1.0 rlj;jpd; thA epiy

1.1 rlj;jpd; %d;W gpujhd epiyfspd; Jzpf;iffspd; xOq;fikg;Gk;
mtw;wpw;Nf cupj;jhd ,ay;GfSk; .............................................................. 02
1.2 thA epiy ..................................................................................................... 06

1.2.1 thA tpjpfs; ...................................................................................................... 06
1.2.2 nghapypd; tpjp ................................................................................................... 09
1.2.3 rhs;rpd; tpjp ...................................................................................................... 11
1.2.4 mtfhjNuhtpjp .................................................................................................. 14
1.2.5 %yu;f;fdtsT .................................................................................................. 15
1.2.6 ,ize;j thA tpjp .......................................................................................... 17
1.3 jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjp ......................................................................... 17

1.3.1 %y; gpd;dk; njhlu;ghfg; gFjpaKf;fk; ........................................................ 18
1.4 thAf;fspd; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;if .............................................. 21

1.4.1 xU ,yl;rpa thAtpd; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;iff;fhd
vLNfhs;fs; ........................................................................................................ 21
1.4.2 %yf;$w;W ,af;fg; gz;Gf; nfhs;ifr; rkd;ghL ....................................... 22
1.4.3 ruhrupf; fjptu;f;f ,il kw;Wk; ruhrupf; fjp .............................................. 23
1.4.4 kf;Rnty; Nghw;Rkd; guk;gy; .......................................................................... 25
1.5 nka;thAfl;Fg; gpuNahfpg;gjw;fhd ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl;bw;fhd

jpUj;jq;fs; ........................................................................................................ 25
1.5.1 te;ju;thYR rkd;ghL ...................................................................................... 29
1.5.2 mtjpntg;gepiyAk; thAf;fisj; jputkhf;fYk; ....................................... 31
vii
2.0 rf;jpapay;
2.1 ntg;g ,urhadj;jpYk; ntg;g,af;ftpaypYk; cs;s
mbg;gilg; gjq;fs; ...................................................................................... 35
2.1.1 njhFjp> #oy;> vy;iy .................................................................................. 35
2.1.2 njhFjpapd; tiffs; ....................................................................................... 35
2.1.3 njhFjpnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs; ........................................................................... 37
2.1.4 xU njhFjpapd; epiy ..................................................................................... 38
2.1.5 ntg;gTs;Siw (H) ......................................................................................... 40
2.1.6 ntg;gk; ................................................................................................................ 41
2.2 NtWgl;l ntg;g,urhadr; nrad;KiwfSld; / jhf;fq;fSld;

,ize;j ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fs; / epak ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wq;fs; ...................................................................................................... 42
2.2.1 Gwntg;g mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiwfs; ............................................................ 42
2.2.2 ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfs; ....................................................................... 44
2.2.3 ntg;gTs;Siw tupg;glq;fs; .......................................................................... 46
2.2.4 ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; epak ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; ........ 47
2.2.5 
H ( H ) : I Neuhf ,y;yhj Kiwapy; Jzpjy; - vRtpd; tpjp ............... 51
2.3 rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw my;yJ mad;Nru;it xd;wpd; Njhd;wy;

ntg;gTs;Siw: Nghd; Vgu; rf;fuk; ........................................................... 59
2.4 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; RahjPd jd;ik ................................................. 62
viii
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 4 rlj;jpd; thA epiy
1. rlj;jpd; thA epiy

cs;slf;fk;
1.1 rlj;jpd; %d;W gpujhd epiyfspd; 1.4 thAf;fspd; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;if
Jzpf;iffspd; xOq;fikg;Gk; mtw;wpw;Nf 1.4.1 xU ,yl;rpa thAtpd; %yf;$w;W
cupj;jhd ,ay;GfSk; ,af;ff; nfhs;iff;fhd vLNfhs;fs;
• thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fk;
1.2 thA epiy 1.4.2 %yf;$w;W ,af;fg; gz;Gf; nfhs;ifr;
1.2.1 thA tpjpfs; rkd;ghL (epWTjy;; mtrpakw;wJ)
• ,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghL 1.4.3 ruhrupf; fjptu;f;f ,il kw;Wk; ruhrupf;
fjp vd;gtw;wpw;fhd Nfhyq;fs;
• ,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;il
1.4.4 kf;Rnty; Nghw;Rkd; guk;gy;
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l fzpj;jy;.
(tiuG uPjpahf)
1.2.2 nghapypd; tpjp
• ntg;gepiyAld; guk;gypd; khWif
(fdtsT - mKf;fj; njhlu;G)
1.2.3 rhs;rpd; tpjp 1.5 nka;thAfl;Fg; gpuNahfpg;gjw;fhd ,yl;rpa
(fdtsT - ntg;gepiy njhlu;G) thAr; rkd;ghl;bw;fhd jpUj;jq;fs;
1.5.1 te;ju;thYR rkd;ghL
1.2.4 mtfhjNuhtpjp
1.5.2 mtjpntg;gepiyAk; thAf;fisj;
(fdtsT - msTj; njhlu;G) jputkhf;fYk;
1.2.5 %yu;f;fdtsT (Vm)
1.2.6 ,ize;j thA tpjp
1.3 jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjp

1.3.1 %y; gpd;dk; njhlu;ghfg; gFjpaKf;fk;
1
mwpKfk;
gpugQ;rj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthd;Wk; ,urhad milahsk; nfhz;lit. rlj;jpd;

rpwpa Jzpf;if xU mZntd ehk; mwpNthk;. ~~rlk; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; khw;wk;
vd;gdtw;iwf; fw;wy;|| vDk; gpuptpd; fPo; ,urhadtpaypd; mbg;gil tiutpyf;fzj;ij
,yFthf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;. ntspapy; ,lj;ij milg;gJk;> jpzpit
cilaJkhd> ghu;ff
; f;$ba> njhl;Lzuf;$ba (kz;> ePu; Nghd;wit) mNjNghd;W
ghu;ff
; Kbahj (tsp Nghd;w) xt;nthd;Wk; rlk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. mikg;G kw;Wk;
,ay;gpd; mbg;gilapy; gjhu;j;jk;> fyit> %yfq;fs;> ,jidg; Nghd;W %yfq;fs;
kw;Wk; %yf;$Wfs; vdg; gy;NtW tifg;gLj;jy; cs;sd. ,it milahsg;gLj;j
KbAk;. vy;yhg; gjhu;j;jq;fSk; Fiwe;jsT nfhs;if uPjpahf %d;W epiyfspy;
ntspg;gLk;. jpz;kk;> jputk;> thA vd;gd mitahFk;. jpz;kj;jpy; Jzpf;iffs;
,Wf;fkhfg; gpizf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. mUfUNf (neUf;fkhf) xOq;fike;J ,Uf;Fk;
jpl;lkhd tbtk; nfhz;lJ. rpwpa mstpy; miraf;$baJ. jputj;jpy; Jzpf;iffs;
neUf;fkhf xOq;fike;J fhzg;gLk;. Mdhy; ,Wf;fkhf gpizf;fg;gl;buhJ jpzk
; j;Jld;
xg;gpLk;NghJ jputj;jpy; Jzpf;iffs; tpiuthf miraf;$bait. Jzpf;iffs;
,ilapyhd J}uk; vDk; ,ay;gpy; thAf;fs; Mdit. jpz;kk; kw;Wk; jputq;fspd;
,t;tpay;gpypUe;J ngupastpy; NtWgl;lit. xU thAtpy; Jzpfi
; ffs; ,ilj;J}uj;jpdhy;
NtWgLj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; ngupa nfhs;fydpy; Jzpf;iffs; $bastpy; Rakhf miraf;
$bad. vdNt thAj; Jzpf;iffs; ,ilNa ftu;r;rp tpir kpff; FiwT my;yJ
Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fJ kw;Wk; thAj; Jzpf;iffs; jd;dpr;irahdit vdf; fUJtJ
mDkjpf;fg;glf;$bait. ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;f khw;wj;Jld; njhlu;ghd
fUJNfhs;fis ,yFthf mDkhdpf;f KbAk;.
1.1 rlj;jpd; %d;W gpujhd epiyfspy; Jzpfi

; ffspd; xOq;fikg;Gk;
mtw;wpw;Nf cupj;jhd ,ay;GfSk;.
ntspapy; ,lj;ij milg;gJld; jpzpTk; cila xt;nthd;Wk; “rlk;” vd miof;fg;gl

KbAk;. ,j;jifa nghUl;fspy; ehk; ghuj;Jk; ];gupj;Jk; (njhl;Lk;) czuf;$ba
kuq;fs; Nghd;wd my;yJ ehk; ghu;ff
; Kbahj ehk; RthrpfF
; k; tsp Nghd;w nghUl;fSk;
mlq;Fk;. vy;yhr; rlq;fSk; jpz;kk;> jputk;> thA vDk; %d;W gpujhd epiyfshf
tifg;gLj;j KbAk;. rlkhdJ jdJ mikg;G khwhJ ,k;%d;W epiyfl;Fk; ,ilNa
khw;wg;glKbAk;. cjhuzkhf> ePuhdJ ntg;gkhf;fg;gl;L thAepiyf;F (ePuhtp)
khw;wg;glKbAk;. mj;Jld; Fspuhf;fg;gLtjhdhy; jpz;kkhfTk; khw;wg;gl KbAk;.
2
jpz;kk; jputk; thA

(cjhuzk;: Mzp) (cjhuzk;: ePu;) (cjhuzk;: He gY}d;fs;)
jpll
; khd tbtKk; msTk; jpll
; khd tbtkw;wJ jpll
; khd tbtkw;wJ
Mdhy; jpll; khd jpll
; khd fdtstw;wJ
fdtsTilaJ. fdtsTilaJ.
jpz;kk; jputk; thA

typikahd %yf;$w;W %yf;$w;W ,il %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs;
,iltpirfs;. %yf; tpirfs; kpf typik eypthdit. %yf;$Wfs;
$Wfs; mjpu;tilAk;. ahdit md;W. %yf; tpiuthfr; Rw;wp ,aq;ff;
Mdhy; Rw;wp ,aq;f $Wfs; Rw;wp ,aq;ff; $bad.
KbahJ. $bad.
cU 1.1 rlj;jpd; %d;W epiyfs;
Jzpfi
; ffspd; ,af;fk; kw;Wk; xOq;fikg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; rlj;jpd; %d;W epiyfSk;
NtWgLfpd;wd. Jzpf;if ,ilj;J}uk; thAepiyapy; kpf cau;thfTk; mNjrkak;
kpfneUq;fpa ,ilj;J}uk; jpz;k epiyapy; Jzpf;iffs; ,ilNaAk; mikAk;.
thAepiyAld; xg;gpLk;NghJ jput epiyapy; Jzpf;i ffs; $bastpy; tpyfp
mikatpy;iy> jpz;kepiyiatplf; $basT neUq;fpAk; ,y;iy. MfNt> jpz;k
epiyapy; kl;Lk; Jzpf;iffs; xU xOq;fhd epiyapy; fhzg;glKbAk;. mNjrkak;
thA jput epiyfs; ,uz;bYk; Jzpf;iffs; vOkhw;whd xOq;fikg;gpy; cs;sd.
,jd; tpisthfj; jputepiyj; Jzpfi
; ffSld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ thAepiyj;Jzpfi
; ffs;
tpiuthfTk; RahjPdkhfTk; ,aq;fKbAk;. vt;thwpUg;gpDk; jpzk
; epiyj; Jzpfi
; ffspd;
mirTfs; kdpjf; fz;zhy; ghu;gg
; jw;F kpfTk; rpwpjhd> vy;iyg;gLj;jg;gl;l mjpu;Tf;
FupaitahFk;. rlj;jpYs;s Jzpf;iffspd; xOq;fikT ,af;fq;fspd; tpisthfg;
ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfshd fdtsT> tbtk;> mKf;fg;gLk; jfT> mlu;j;jp
Nghd;wtw;wpd; NtWghLfs; fPNo ml;ltizapy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
3
ml;ltiz 1.1 rlj;jpd; ,ay;Gfspd; gz;gwpuPjpahd xg;gPL
fdtsT jpl;lkhdJ jpl;lkhdJ nfhs;fyj;jpd;

fdtsit milg;gJ.
tbtk; jpl;lkhdJ nfhs;fyj;jpd; nfhs;fyj;jpd;

tbtj;ijf; tbtj;ijf;
nfhs;tJld; nfhs;tJld;
nfhs;fyj;jpd;; nfhs;fyj;jpd;;
KOf;fdtstpwF ; k; fdtsitAk; KOikahf
guk;Gtjpy;iy. milf;Fk;.
mKf;fg;gLk; mKf;fg;gLjy; mKf;fg;gLjy; ngUkstpy; mKf;fg;glf;

jfT kpfTk; fbdk; kpfTk; fbdk; $baJ
mlu;j;jp cau; ngWkhdk; cau; ngWkhdk; Fiwe;j ngWkhdk;

/g cm-3 cilaJ. cilaJ. cilaJ.
,Uk;G ePu; Ijurd;
(7.874 g cm-3) (0.997 g cm-3) (0.071 g cm-3)
Fwpg;G: jputkhdJ nfhs;fyj;jpd; tbtj;ij Vw;gjhf ehk; $Wfpd;Nwhk;. mj;Jld;

,t;tbtk; ngwg;gLtJ Vd; vd ehk; Nahrpf;fpd;Nwhk;. toikahf> ve;jnthU
nghUSk; ,iltpirfs; Nghd;w ntt;NtW tif tpirfshy; ,Of;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,jdhNyNa tbtk; ,t;thW mikfpdw ; J. KfitapYs;s rpwpJ jug;gl;l njhif
(fdtsT) ePuhdJ Nkw;gug;gpOtpirahy; tbtikf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. jputj;jpdpilNa
%yf;$w;wpil tpirfspd; tpisthf Nkw;gug;gpd; rpwpa cl;FopT tisT
Vw;gLfpdw ; J. Kfitapd; Rtu;fspd; tpirfs; mjd; kPJ mjs;Sfpd;wd. mj;Jld;
GtpaPu;g;G tpirahdJ Nkw;gug;G ,OtpirapYk; cau;thf miktjhy; mjidf;
fPoN
; ehf;fp ,Of;fpdw ; J. MfNt jl;ilahd Nkw;gug;Gld; Kfitapd; tbtj;ijg;
ngWfpdw ; J. vy;yh NtWgl;l tpirfspidj; jpUg;jpahf;Ftjw;fhf ,J Vw;gLfpwJ.
vt;t hwhapDk; Nkw;g ug; gpOtpir ahdJ GtpaP u; g ; G tpirapYk; cau;t hf
mike;jpUf;Fkhapd; nfhs;fyj;jpd; tbtj;ij Vw;Fk;NghJ Nkw;gug;Gj; jl;ilahf
mikahJ. GtpaPu;g; G ,y;i y vd vLj;Jf; nfhz;lhy; Nkw;g ug;gpOtpir
kpfTau;thFk;. ,jdhy; Nkw;gug;gpd; xt;nthU gFjpAk; KbAkhdtiu Nkw;gug;gpy;
kpFjpAld; kpf neUf;fkhf mikAk;. ,J mtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd tpirfisf;
Fiwf;f KaYk;. jug;gl;l fdtstpd; Nkw;gug;igf; Fiwg;gjw;Ff; Nfhstbtj;ij
mDkjpf;F k;. Vnddpy; ,t;tbtNk jug;gl;l xU fdtstpw;Ff; Fiwe;j
Nkw;gug;gpid cilajhFk;.
rlj;jpd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l epiyahdJ> ntg;gkhf;fy; my;yJ Fspu;r;rpahf;fy; %yk;

gpwpnjhU epiyf;F khw;wg;glKbAk;. ntg;gepiyapy; mjpfupg;ghdJ Jzpf;iffspd;
mirtpy; tpiuthd mjpfupg;Gld; Jzpf;iffspd; ,ilj;J}uj;ij cau;j;JtJk; epiy
khw;wj;jpw;F toptFf;Fk;. ,tw;wpypUe;J ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;ghdJ jpz;kepiyg;
4
gjhu;j;jq;fisj; jputepiyf;Fk; jputepiyg; gjhu;j;jq;fis thAepiyf;Fk; khw;Wk;.

ntg;gepiy FiwthdJ ,jd; vjpu; epfo;itj; jUk;. cU 1.2 MdJ rlj;jpd; epiyfs;
jkf;fpilNa vt;thW khw;wg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij ntspf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
cUfy; jputk; Mtpahjy;

gjq;fkhjy;
jpz;kk; thA
gbthjy;
jpzk
; khf;fy; jputkhf;fy;
(ciwjy;) jputk; (xLq;Fjy;)
cU 1.2 rlj;jpd; epiyfl;F ,ilapyhd khw;wPLfs;
cjhuzk;; 1.1
rlj;jpd; ve;epiyapy; Jzpf;iffs; mjpfsT njhLifapy; ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy;
vOkhw;whf xOq;fikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;?
tpil:
jput epiy
ml;ltiz 1.1 ,d; cjtpAld; rlg;n ghUl;f spd; %d;W epiyfisAk; ehk;
tpgupfF
; k;NghJ> Jzpfi
; ffspd; ,af;fKk; xOq;fikg;Gk; mbg;gilahff; nfhs;sg;gLk;.
rpwg;ghf> xU clyj;jpd; (Body) ntg;grf;jpahdJ mjd; mZf;fspd; / %yf;$Wfspd;
,af;fj;jhy; vOtjhFk;. mj;Jld; gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ntg;gepiyf;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhFk;.
MfNt mJ rlj;jpd; ruhrup ,af;fr; rf;jpia msg;gJld; Jzpf;iffspd; ,af;fk;
my;yJ ntg;gtpaf;fj;jpw;Fk; nghWg;ghdjhFk;.
ehq;fs; Vw;fdNt mwpej

; ikf;F ,zq;f %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; mtw;iw mizf;f
itf;fpd;wd. Mdhy; ntg;grf;jpahdJ %yf;$Wfisj; js;sp itf;fpd;wJ. MfNt
rlj;jpd; %d;W epiyfSf;Fk; fhuzkhdJ %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfSf;Fk; %yf;$Wfspd;
ntg;grf;jpf;Fk; ,ilNaahd tpisNtahFk;.
%yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; kpf eype;jpUg;gJld; ntg;gepiyiaf; Fiwg;gjd; %yk;

ntg;grf;jpiaf; Fiwf;fhJtpbd; %yf;$Wfs; jputkhf;fg;gLk; my;yJ jpzk
; khf;fg;gLk;
Nghf;fpidf; fhl;lkhl;lhjdthFk;. mKf;fg;gLtjdhy; kl;Lk; xU thAitj; jputkhf;f
KbahJ. ,Ue;jNghJk; %yf;$Wfs; xd;Wld; xd;W kpf neUq;FtJld; %yf;$w;W
,iltpirfs; cau;thd mstpy; njhopw;gLk;. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; ntg;gepiyiaf;
Fiwg;gjd; %yk; ntg;grf;jp Fiwf;fg;gLk;NghJ thAf;fisj; jputkhf;fy; kpf
,yFthFk;. ,e;elj;ijfs; cU. 1.3 %yk; tpsf;fg;glKbAk;. ,q;F rlg;nghUl;fspd;
%d;W epiyfspy; njhopw;gLk; %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; kw;Wk; ntg;grf;jp kPse; lj;ij
Ald; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
5
%yf;$w;wpil tpir $Lk;

thA jputk; jpz;kk;
thA jputk; jpz;kk;

ntg;grf;jp FiwAk;
cU 1.3: rlj;jpd; %d;W epiyfspd; %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfSld;

ntg;grf;jpf;F vjpuhd elj;ijfs;
ehk; Vw;fdNt rlj;jpd; %d;Wepiyfspd; ntspg;ghl;bidf; fw;Ws;Nshk;. ,g;NghJ

thAepiygw;wpAk; rlj;jpd; ,e;epiy njhlu;ghd elj;ijfisf; nfhz;Lelhj;Jk; tpjpfs;
njhlu;ghfTk; ehk; NkYk; fw;Nghk;.
1.2 thA epiy
gjhu;j;jq;fs;> rhjhuz ntg;g mKf;f epge;jidfspy; thAepiyapy; ntspg;gLk;

elj;ijfs; njhlu;ghf vkJ ftdj;ijr; nrYj;JNthk;.
ml;ltiz 1.1 ,y; tpgupj;j gpd;tUk; ngsjpf ,ay;Gfs; njhlu;ghd thAepiyapd;

elj;ijfs;.
 thAf;fs; cau;thd mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf;Fupad.
 thAf;fs; vy;yhj;jpirapYk; rkkhf mKf;fj;ij ntspg;gLj;Jtd.
 jpz;kq;fs;> jputq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ kpfTk; Fiwe;j mlu;j;jpAilad.
 thAf;fspd; fdtsT kw;Wk; tbtk; vd;gd jpl;lkw;wit.
 fdtsT> tbtk; vd;gd nfhs;fyj;jpdjhFk;.
 vt;nthU nghwpKiw cjtpAkpd;wp thAf;fs; Kw;whfTk; rkkhfTk; fyf;ff;
$bad.
thAf;fspd; %yf;$w;wpil ,iltpirfs; Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fd vDk; cz;ikapd;

mbg;gilapy; mtw;wpd; vspikj;jd;ik mikfpwJ. gupNrhjidfs; %yk; fz;lwpag;gl;l
xNu thAtpjpfspdhy; mtw;wpd; ,ay;Gfs; nfhz;L elhj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thA tpjpfs;
thAf;fspd; msf;fg;glf;$ba ,ay;Gfspd; ,ilNa Neubahfj; njhlu;Gfs; cilad.
,t;tpay;Gfs; rpytw;wpy;> mKf;fk;> fdtsT> ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; msT (amount)
my;yJ jpzpT Nghd;wit kpfKf;fpakhdit. Vnddpy; ,q;F tpgupff ; g;gl;l thAepiyapd;
khwpfl;F ,ilapy; njhlu;GfSz;L. ,k;khwpfs; jkf;F ,ilNa xd;wpnyhd;W
rhu;e;Js;sik thAtpjpfisj; njhLf;f topNfhypd.
6
1.2.1 thA tpjpfs;
ehq;fs; fye;jiuahLfpd;w thAtpjpfshdit gy;NtW tpQ;Qhdpfshy; thAf;fspd;

ngsjpf ,ay;G njhlu;ghf Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l gupNrhjidfspd; KbTfshFk;. mKf;fk;>
fdtsT> ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; thAf;fspd; njhif Nghd;w khwpfSf;fpilNaAs;s
njhlu;Gfisf; fUJtJld; mjpypUe;J ngwg;gl;l KbTfs; rlj;jpd; thAepiy njhlu;ghfg;
ngUksT jfty;fs; kdpjUf;F cjtpahf> jpUk;gTk; cjTk;.
,yl;rpa thA kw;Wk; ,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghL
thA %yf;$WfspilNa %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; fhzg;gltpy;iy vdf; fUJk;NghJ

mj;jifa thAf;fs; ,yl;rpa thAf;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. mjhtJ ,yl;rpa thAf;fs;
jkf;fpilNa ftu;rr
; pfisNah my;yJ js;SiffisNah ntspg;gLj;Jtjpy;iy. ,jw;F
Nkyhf> nfhs;fyj;jpd; fdtsTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ ,yl;rpa thAj; Jzpf;iffspd;
fdtsT Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fJ vdf; fUjg;gLk;.
jdpntg;gepiy (T), mKf;fk; (P), fdtsT (V) mj;Jld; njhif (n %y;fs;) vDk;
fhuzpfs; thAf;fspd; elj;ijiag; ghjpg;gdthFk;. jho;e;j mKf;fq;fs; P, T, V kw;Wk;
n Mfpatw;wpd; njhlu;ghdJ gpd;tUk; ntspg;ghl;lhy; mikAk; vd thAf;fspd; kPJ
vLf;fg;gl;l ngUk; vz;zpf;ifahd mstPLfs; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
PV = nRT
,J ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghL vd mwpag;gLtJld; ,q;F R vd;gJ xt;nthU thAf;fl;Fk;

xNu mstpdjhd thA khwpyp R vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. jug;gl;l ntg;g> mKf;fepiyapy;
Nkw;gb njhlu;Gf;F mika xOFk; ve;jnthU thATk; ,yl;rpa thA vd mwpag;gLk;.
,k;khwpyp R MdJ xU %y; xU ,yl;rpa thAtpwF ; 0 0C, 1 atm fPo; cs;s epge;jidapy;
fzpf;fg;glKbAk;. (0 0C kw;Wk; 1 atm ,y; xU %y; thAtpd; fdtsT 22.414 dm-3)
PV 101325 Pa  22.414  10-3 m3

R  8.314 J K -1mol-1
nT 1 mol  273.15 K
,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghlhdJ ehd;F khwpypfl;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;igj; jUtJld;

vt;thAtpdJk; epiyiaAk; ,J tpgupf;fpd;wJ vdTk; ehk; fhzKbAk;. MfNt ,J
epiyr;rkd;ghL (equation of state) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghl;bid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l fzpj;jy;
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghlhdJ jug;gl;l xU thAtpd; fdtsT> mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy

kw;Wk; %y;fs; Nghd;w fzpaq;fspy; VjhtJ xd;wpid kw;iwa %d;W jug;Gfs;
jPuk
; hdpff
; vk;ik mDkjpf;fpdw
; J. thAtpd; milahsk; njupe;jpUg;gpd; mjd; jpzpitg;
gad;gLj;jp %yu;jpzpitAk; ehk; fzpf;fKbAk;. NkYk; ,jidg; gad;gLj;jp mjd;
7
mlu;jj; piaAk; jPuk

; hdpff; KbAk;. kpf Kf;fpakhf kdjpy; nfhs;sNtz;baJ ahnjdpy;
,yl;rpa thA khwpypapd; ngWkhdj;jpw;F Vw;wjhd myFfspy; kw;iwa fzpaq;fspd;
myFfs; mikaNtz;Lk;. toikahf mKf;fkhdJ atm, Pa, bar, torr Nghd;w gy;NtW
myFfspy; ntspg;gl KbAk;. vdNt ,j;jifa gpurd;dq;fspy; ml;ltiz 1.2 ,y;
jug;gl;l mKf;f khw;wL P fs; cjtpahf mikAk;.
ml;ltiz 1.2 mKf;f myFfs;
cjhuzk; 1.2
xU thA cUisahdJ 0.950 d m3 fdtsitAilaJ. ,t;TUisahdJ mKf;fj;jpd;

fPo; jputg; Gwg;Ngdhy; (C3H8) epug;gg;gl;Ls;sJ. cUis fhypahFk;NghJ rpwpJ
Gwg;Ngd; thA kPjpia tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk; ntg;gepiyapYk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
(i) #oy; tspkz;ly epge;jidfs; 25 0CAk; 750 torr ck; Mf (1torr = 133.32 Pa)
mikAkhdhy; cUis fhypahFk;NghJ vQ;Rk; Gwg;Ngd; thAtpd; %y;fs;
ahJ?
(ii) cUisapy; vQ;rpAs;s Gwg;Ngdpd; jpzpT ahJ
(iii) cUisapy; vQ;rpAs;s Gwg;Ngdpd; mlu;j;jp ahJ?
tpil:
(i) Kjypy; jug;gl;l jfty;fisr; RUf;fkhf;Ff.
ntg;gepiy> T = (25+273)K = 298 K
mKf;fk;> P = 750 torr 133.32 Pa/1 torr = 99990 Pa.
fdtsT> V = 0.950 dm3 = 0.950  10m3
mwpag;glhjJ n
PV = nRT I gad;gLj;Jf.
PV 99990 Pa  0.950 103 m3

n   0.038 mol
RT 8.314 J K-1mol-1  298 K
(ii) Gwg;Ngdpd; %yu;j;jpzpT (C3H8) = 44 g mol-1
jpzpT = 0.038 mol 44 g/1 mol = 1.672 g
(iii) mlu;j;jp = jpzpT / fdtsT = 1.672 g / 0.950 d m3 = 1.76 g d m-3
8
ehk; Nkw;Fwpj;j cjhuzj;ijf; fUJk;NghJ> ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl;bid ntt;NtW

tbtq;fspy; ntspg;gLj;Jtjpy; vspa khw;wq;fis mjpy; nra;tjpd; %yk; jpzpT
kw;Wk; mlu;j;jpia kjpg;gpLtjw;Ff; fPNo fhl;batz;zk; Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
ehk; mjid Muk;gpj;jhy;> PV = nRT, ,jidg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.

n
P  RT
V
/ P = CRT
,q;F C MdJ nrwpthFk;.
m
mj;Jld; NkYk; PV = nRT MdJ PV = RT
M
,q;F m MdJ jpzpTk; M MdJ thAtpd; %yu;jpzpTk; MFk;. NkYk; ,jidg;

gpd;tUkhWk; vOjyhk;.
1 m
P   RT
M V 
dRT
P=
M
m
d MdJ mlu;j;jp mj;Jld; d 
V
,t;tbg;gilapy;> Fwpg;gpl;l epge;jidfspd; fPo; ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J
NtW gy thAtpjpfs; ngw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;.
1.2.2 nghapypd; tpjp (mKf;fk; - fdtsTj; njhlu;G)
mjhtJ ~~xU Fwpj;jnjhif (jpzpT) thAtpy; mKf;fkhdJ khwh ntg;gepiyapy;

fdtstpw;F Neu;khwhf mikAk;”. ,J 17k; E}w;whz;Lf;Fupa xU mau;yhe;J
tpQ;Qhdp nwhngl; nghapy; vdgtuhy;> xU thAtpd; mKf;fk; khwh ntg;gepiyapy;
vt;thW fdtsTld; khWfpwJ vdf; fw;wy; %yk; mwpag;gl;ljhFk;. vdNt ,J
nghapypd; tpjp (1627 - 1691) vdg;gLk;.
1 k
P my; yJ P  > k xU khwpyp
V V
,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J nghapypd; tpjp gpd;tUkhW ngwg;gLk;.

PV = nRT
9
thAtpd; njhif kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy khwhJ itf;fg;gbd; nT xU khwpyp.

R ck; xU khwpypahjyhy; nRT = k (xU khwpyp).
/ PV = k.
,jpypUe;J fUjg;gLtJ “khwhntg; gepiyapy; fdtstpdJk; mKf;f j; jpdJk;
ngUf;fkhdJ xU Fwpj;j njhif thAtpw;F xU khwpypahFk;”. ,J nghapypd;
tpjpia ntspg;gLj;Jk;; NtnwhU topahFk;.
xU Fwpj;jnjhif thAtpw;F khwh T apy; fdtsT V1 ,id milg;gJld; mKf;fk;
P1 ,ypUe;Jk; fdtsT V2 ,w;Fk; mKf;fk; P2 ,w;Fk; khw;wg;gLk;NghJ nghapypd;
tpjpapypUe;J
P1V1 = P2V2
cU 1.4 fhl;LtJ ,U kuG topapyhd tiuGfs; nghapypd; tpjpiag; gpujpepjpgg

; Lj;Jgit
MFk;. cU 1.4a vd;gJ PV = k ,d; ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyapyhd tiuGfis
xg;gpLtjhFk;. xt;nthU tiugpYk; k ,d; ngWkhdk; NtWgLfpd;wnjdpy; xU jug;gl;l
jpzpTila thAtpw;F ,J ntg;gepiyAld; kl;Lk; khWgLk;. cau; ntg;gepiyfspy;
fdtsT tpuptiltjhy; tiuGfs; Nky;Nehf;fp cau;jj
; g;gLfpdw
; d vd;gJ Fwpgg ; plj;jf;fJ.
NkYk; xU Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyapy; fdtsT ,Uklq;fhapd; mKf;fk; miug;gq;fhtJk;
ftdpf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
mKf;fk;
mKf;fk;
fdtsT
cU. 1.4 khwh ntg;gepiyapy; mKf;fkhdJ KiwNa (a) fdtsT (V) clDk;
(b) 1/V clDk; khwy;fs;
cU 1.4b P vjpu; 1/V tiuigg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,J Xu; cw;gj;jpapD}L
nry;Yk; Neu;NfhL. (vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; cau; mKf;fk; thA nghapypd; tpjpapypUe;J
tpyFtJld; Neu;Nfhlhf miktjd; KbT md;W.) nghapyhy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l
gupNrhjidfspypUe;J ,t;tiuGfs; ngwg;gl;ld. thAf;fs; mKf;fg;gLk; jfT
cau;thdit vdTk; msTuPjpapy; fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ. Vnddpy; xU Fwpj;j jpzpT
thA mKf;fg;gLk;NghJ mNj vz;zpf;ifahd %yf;$Wfs; xU rpwpa ,lj;jpy;
mlf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,J fUJtJ ahnjdpy; thAf;fs; cau; mKf;fj;jpy; $basT
mlu;j;jpAiladthFk;.
10
(Fwpg;G: fdtsT V I milf;fpw xU Fwpj;j jpzpT m>
thA thAtpd; mlu;j;jp d MdJ vd ehk; mwpNthk;.
MfNt vd vOjKbAk;.
cjhuzk; 1.3
Fwpj;j xU njhif thAtpd; fdtsthdJ khwhntg;gepiyapy; ,Uklq;fhf;fg;gbd;;
mjd; mKf;fj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ijf; fzpf;Ff.
V1 = V , V2 = 2V, P1 = P, P2 = ?
nghapypd; tpjpiag; gpuNahfpg;gpd; P1V1 = P2V2
P V = P2  2V P Gjpa mKf;fkhdJ Muk;gj;jpd; miuklq;fhFk;.

P2 
2
cjhuzk; 1.4
xU gY}dhdJ miwntg;gepiyapy; xU Fwpj;j njhif thAthy; epug;gg;gl;Ls;sJ.
tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy; (100 kPa) thAthdJ milf;fpd;w fdtsthdJ 2.50 d m3
MFk;. mNj ntg;gepiyapy; 20 kPa mKf;fj;ij cs;Ns milAk; tiu gY}dhdJ
vd;d fdtsTf;F tpuptila KbAk;?
P1 = 100 kPa P2 = 20 kPa V1 = 2.5 d m3 V2 = ?
nghapypd; tpjpiag; gpuNahfpf;Fk;NghJ P1V1 = P2V2
100 kPa  2.5 dm3 = 20 kPa  V2
/ V2 = 12.5 d m3
gY}dhdJ 12.5 d m3 tiu epug;gg;gl KbAk;.
1.2.3 rhs;rpd; tpjp (ntg;gepiy fdtsTj; njhlu;G)
[hf;Fap]; rhs;]; kw;Wk; N[hrg; NfY}rhf;fpd; fz;Lgpbg;Gfshy; xU Fwpj;j njhif

(jpzpT) thAtpwF; khwh mKf;fj;jpy; fdtsT ntg;gepiy mjpfupgG ; ld; mjpfupff
; pd;wJ.
Fsputplg;gLk;NghJ Fiwfpd;wJ. xt;nthU ghif ntg;gepiy khw;wj;jpw;Fk; 00C
apYs;s fdtstpd; klq;fpdhy; thAtpd; fdtsT khWgLk;. (mjpfupg;G my;yJ

FiwT) 00C apYk; t 0C apYk; fdtsT V0 kw;Wk; Vt MfTkhf mikayhk; vdf;
nfhs;f. vdpd; ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjKbAk;.
 t   t   273.15  t 
Vt  V0    V0  V0  1    V0  
 273.15   273.15   273.15 
11
,e;epiyapy;> ntg;gepiyf;F xU Gjpa myF tiuaWf;fg;gl;lJ. Gjpa myfpy; t 0C

vd;gJ T0=273.15 + t mj;Jld; 0 0C vd;gJ T0 = 273.15 vdj; jug;gLk;. Gjpa ntg;gepiy
myfhdJ nfy;tpd; ntg;gepiy myF (K) my;yJ jdpntg;gepiy myF vd
miof;f g; gLk; . -273.15 0C vd;g jid ntg; g,af;f tpay; uP jpapy; g+r; r pak; vd
tiuaWf;fg;gLtJld; ,JNt nfhs;ifastpy; milaf;$ba ,ope;j ntg;gepiyahFk;.
,t;ntg;g myfpidg; gpuNahfpf;Fk;nghOJ>
 273.15  t 
ehk; ,j;njhlu;ig Vt  V0   vd kPs vOjKbAk;.
 273.15 
V1 T1
,jid V  T vd kPsikf;f KbAk;.
2 2
V1

T1 khwpyp
my;yJ
V = kT
MfNt “Fwpj;j xU jpzpTila xU thAtpw;F khwh mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; mjd; fdts

thdJ jdp ntg;gepiyf;F Neu;tpfpjrkdhFk;” ,J rhs;];rpd; tpjp vd miof;fg;gLk;.
NkYk;> ,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghl;bidg; gad;gLj;jp xU Fwpj;j jpzpTila thATf;F

khwh mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; thAtpd; fdtsTkPJ ntg;gepiyapd; jhf;fj;jpidf; fw;f
KbAk;.
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghl;ilg; gpd;tUkhW kPsm

; ikf;f KbAk;.
PV = nRT
V = nRT/P
Fwpj;j jpzpTila thAtpw;F mKf;fk; khwhjpUf;Fk;NghJ
nR
= khwpyp
P
/ VT my;yJ V = kT
rhs;];rpd; tpjpapypUe;J> vy;yh thAfl;Fk; jug;gl;l vt;nthU mKf;fj;jpYk; fdtsT

vjpu; ntg;gepiy (nry;rpa];) tiughdJ xU Neu;NfhlhfTk; ,jidg; g+r;rpaf;
fdtsTf;F ePlL ; k;NghJ xt;nthU NfhLk; ntg;gepiy mr;rpid -273.15 0C apy; ntl;Lk;.
ntt;NtW mKf;fq;fl;F tiugpd; NfhLfspd; rha;Tfs; NtWgbDk; g+r;rpa fdtstpy;
vy;yhf; NfhLfSk; ntg;gepiy mr;rpid -273.15 0C my;yJ 0 K apy; re;jpg;gijf;
fhzyhk;.
12
ntg;gepiy mr;rhdJ nfy;tpd; K ,y; Fwpf;fg;gbd; NfhLfs; 0 K apy; re;jpf;Fk;

cU 1.5.
fdtsT
ntg;gepiy
cU 1.5 khwh mKf;fj;jpy; ntg;gepiy njhlu;ghd fdtsT tiuG
cjhuzk;: 1.6
mwpe;j njhif %y;fis cila xU thAtpw;F khwh mKf;fj;jpy; fdtsT

Kk;klq;fhf;fg;gLk; NghJ ntg;gepiy khw;wj;ijf; fzpf;Ff.
V1 = V V2 = 3V T1 = T T2 = ?
V1/ V2 = T1/T2
V/3V = T/T2
T2 = 3T
NkYk; ,jid NeubahfTk; kjpg;gplyhk;. fdtsthdJ nfy;tpd; ntg;gepiyf;F

(T) Neu; tpfpj rkkhtjhy; Gjpa ntg;gepiyahdJ Muk;g ngWkhdj;jpd;
Kk;klq;fhfhFk;. mjhtJ 3T.
13
 273.15  t 
Vt  V0   vDk; rkd;ghl;bidf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;f.
 273.15 
mj;Jld; t = -273.15 vdg; gpujpapLf. ,q;F thAtpd; fdtsT g+r;rpaj;jpw;Fr; rkk; vd

ehk; ngWk;NghJ mjd; fUj;J thAthdJ fhzg;gLtjpy;iy vd;gjhFk;. ,jpypUe;J
ntg;gepiyia milAk; Kd;Ng thAthdJ jputkhf;fg;gl;LtpLk; vd ehk; tpsq;fpf;
nfhs;sKbAk;. kpff; Fiwe;j> vLNfhs; my;yJ fw;gid ntg;gepiyapy; thAf;fs;
g+r;rpa fdtsit milf;Fkhf ,Ue;jhy; mJ jdpgg ; +r;rpa ntg;gepiy vd miof;fg;gLk;.
vy;yh thAf;fSf;Fk; jho;mKf;fj;jpy; cau; ntg;gepiyapYk; rhs;rpd; tpjpfF
; mikAk;.
cjhuzk;: 1.6
XU gY}dhdJ xU Fwpj;j njhif thAthy; epug;gg;gLtjd; tpisthff; fdtsT
2 d m3 Mf 23 0C apy; cz;L. mNj Muk;g mKf;fj;jpy; ntg;gepiy 27 0Cf;F
cau;j;jg;gbd; thAtpd; fdtsitf; fzpf;Ff.
T1 = 23 + 273 = 296 K T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K V1 = 2.0 d m3 V2 = ?
khwh mKf;fj;jpy; rhs;];rpd; tpjpiag; gpuNahfpf;Fk;NghJ>
V1 V2

T1 T2
2.0 dm3 V2

296 K 300 K
V2  2.03 dm 3
MfNt fdtsT khw;wk; 0.03dm3
1.2.4 mtfhjNuh tpjp (njhif - fdtsTj; njhlu;G)
nghapypdJk; rhs;]r
; pdJk; tpjpfspd; mgptpUj;jpfspidj; njhlu;eJ
; 1811 ,y;> ,j;jhypa
tpQQ
; hdp mkjpah mtfhjNuh vd;gtu; xU thAtpd; njhif kw;Wk; fdtsT njhlu;ghd
KbTfis mizf;f Kad;whu;. ,jpypUe;J mtfhjNuhtpd; tpjp vd mwpag;gLk; Gjpa
fUJNfhs;fis Kd;itj;jhu;. xNu ntg;g mKf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo; rkfdtsT
thAf;fs; ahTk; rk vz;zpf;ifahd %y;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; vd mJ $WfpwJ.
mjhtJ V  n my;yJ V = kn vd ehk; vLf;f KbAk;. xU %y; thAtpy; 6.022  1023

vz;zpf;ifahd %yf;$Wfs; mikAnkdj; jPuk ; hdpf;fg;gl;lJld; ,J mtfhjNuh
khwpyp vdTk; mwpag;gl;lJ (NA my;yJ A vd Fwpg;gplg;gLk;)
14
,yl;rpathA tpjpfspd; cjtpAld; mtfhjNuhtpd; tpjpia ,yFthfg; gpd;tUkhW

tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
PV  nRT
RT
V n
P
RT N RT
V   N
P N A PN A
,q;F N kw;Wk; N A vd;gd KiwNa thA %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifAk; mtfhjNuh

khwpypAkhFk;. xNu ntg;g> mKf;f epiyikfspy; rkfdtsTfs; cila P kw;Wk;
Q Mfpa thAfl;F Nkw;gb njhlu;Gfisg; gpuNahfpf;Fk; NghJ>
RT
VP   NP
PL
RT
VQ   NQ
PL
khwh P, khwh T apy; ehk; vLf;f KbAk;. (R kw;Wk; NA khwpypfshjyhy;)
VP N P

VQ N Q
vspikahff; $wpdhy;> xU thAtpw;F khwh mKf;fk; kw;Wk; ntg;gepiyapy;

fdtsthdJ thAf;fspd; %y; vz;zpf;iff;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhFk;.
V  n (mtfhjNuhtpjp)
Nkw;$wpatw;iwf; fye;JiuahLtJ thA tpjpfis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s cjtpahtJld;
fdtsT V I cila jug;gl;l thAtpw;F ,yl;rpa thAr; rkd;ghl;bw;F ,yl;rpa
thAr;rkd;ghl;bidg; ngwTk; cjTk;.
1 1
nghapypd; tpjp: V : V  k1 --------------- (1)
P P
rhs;rpd; tpjp: VT : V  k2T ----------------- (2)
mtfhjNuhtpd; tpjp: V n : V  k3n ------------------ (3)
nT
/ ehk; ,jid V  k1k 2 k3 vd vOj KbAk;.
P
nT
V
P
PV
k
nt
Vnddpy; k = R
/ PV  nRT
15
1.2.5 %yu;f; fdtsT (Vm)

xU thAtpd; fdtsT %y; vz;zpf;iff;F Neu;tpfpjrkkhjyhy;>
V
Vm 
n
mKf;fKk; ntg;gepiyAk; xNuasthf mikAk;NghJ xt;nthU thAtpdJk; xU %y;

MdJ xNu fdtsT Vm I nfhz;likAk; mJ gpd;tUkhW fzpf;fg;gLk;.
RT
Vm 
P
MfNt epakntg;gmKf;f epiyapy; (STP) vt;th thAtpdJk; Vm MdJ xNu

fdtsthfNt mikAk;. epak ngWkhdj;jpw;F ,U njhFjp epge;jidfisg;
gpuNahfpf;fyhk;.
 xd;W> epakntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;fj;jpy; (STP) my;yJ ,q;F 273.15K(00C)
ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; 1 bar (mjhtJ 100 kPa ,y;) mKf;fk; STP apy; xU
,yl;rpa thA ,yl;rpa thAf;fspd; Nru;khdj;jpw;F %yu;f;fdtsthdJ
3 -1.
22.414 d m mol
 ,uz;lhtJ> tiutpyf;fzj;jpy>; ,e;epge;jidfs;; epak Rw;Wg;Gw ntg;gepiy

25 0C (298.15 K) vd vLf;fg;gLtJld; mKf;fk; 100 kPa (SATP) ck; MFk;.
,t;tifapy; xU thAtpd; %yu;f;fdtsT 24.790 d m3mol-1 MFk;. SATP apy;
%yu;f;fdtsT Vmθ vd Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
Fwpg;G: mtfhjNuhtpjpapypUe;Jk;> xU thAtpd; %yu;j;jpzpT M MdJ

mlu;j;jp d f;F Neu;tpfpjrkk; vd ehk; fhzKbAk;.
V = kn = k(m/M), MfNt M = k(m/V) = kd.
cjhuzk; 1.7
298 K ,Yk; 1atm mKf;fj;jpYk; He thAtpd; %yu;f;fdtsitf; fzpf;Ff.
,jid 298 K ,Yk; 1atm mKf;fj;jpYk; Ne thAtpd; %yu;f;fdtsTld; xg;gpLf.
PHe = 1 atm = 101325 Pa, VHe = ?, THe = 298 K, nHe = 1.00 mole
PHeVHe = nHeRTHe
VHe = nHeRTHe / PHe
= (1mol  8.314 J K-1 mol-1  298 K) / 101325 Pa = 2.44  10-2 m3
PNe = 1 atm = 101325 Pa, VNe = ? , TNe = 298 K, nNe = 1.00 mole
PNeVNe = nNeRTNe
VNe = nNeRTNe / PNe
= (1 mol  8.314 J K-1 mol-1  298 K) / 101325 Pa = 2.44  10-2 m3 = 2.44 d m3

mjhtJ xNu ntg;g mKf;f epiyapy;> ntt;NtW thAf;fspd; %y; vz;zpf;iffs;
rkkhdhy;> mit rk fdtsit milf;Fk;.
16
1.2.6 ,ize;j thA tpjp
mKf;fk;> fdtsT kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy njhlu;ghf vy;yh thAf;fSk; xNu Kiwapy;

elg;gjdhy; njhifahdJ %y;fspy; msf;fg;gLnkdpy; ,yl;rpa thAf;Fg; gad;gL
Kiwapy; xU tpfpjkhf> xU Fwpj;j njhif thATf;F ; mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy kw;Wk;
fdtsT vd;gd (T1, V1, P1) ,ypUe;J (T2, V2, P2) f;F ntspg;gLj;j KbAk;.
,e;epiyapy; ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjKbAk;.
PV
1 1
Muk;g epge;jid: nR 
T1
PV
2 2
,Wjp epge;jid: nR 
T2
P1V1 P2V2
/  ,J ,ize;j thA tpjpahFk;.
T1 T2
cjhuzk;: 1.8
25 0C apYk; 760 mm Hg ,Yk; xU jug;gl;l njhif thAthdJ 600 cm3 fdtsit

milf;fpwJ. 10 0C apYk; 650 cm3 fdtstpYk; mjd; mKf;fk; ahjhFk;?
(T1, V1) to (T2, V2, P2) ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOj KbAk;

P1 = 760 mm Hg = 1 atm = 101325 Pa, V1= 600 cm3 = 0.600 d m3, T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K
V2 = 650 cm3 = 0.650 d m3, T2 = 10 + 273 = 283 K, P2 = ?

P1V1 P2V2
,ize;jthA tpjpapypUe;J; 
T1 T2
101325 Pa  0.600 d m3 P2  0.650 d m3


298 K 283 K
P2 = 666.2 mm Hg = 88823 Pa = 88.823 k Pa
1.3 jhw;wdpd; (Dalton’s) gFjpaKf;f tpjp
ngUk;ghyhd gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghLfspy; jdpnahU thAthf ,y;yhJ thAf;

fyitfshfNt ehk; Kfq;nfhLf;fpdN ; whk;. MfNt mikg;Gf;$W thAf;fspd; gq;fspgg ; hy;
Vw;gLtJ mt;thAf;fspd; gFjpaKf;fq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ehk; RthrpfF
; k; tspahdJ
gpujhd $Wfshf iejurd;> xl;rprd; thAf;fisf; nfhz;lJld; NtWtif thAf;fis
kpff; Fiwe;j msTfspy; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,t;thAf;fs; ahTk; nkhj;j tspkz;ly
17
mKf;fj;jpwF
; g; gq;fspgG
; r; nra;fpdw
; d. mj;Jld; thAf;fyitnahd;wpd; mikg;Gf;$W
thAnthd;W jdpjJ ; mf;fdtsit milf;Fk;NghJ cQw;Wk; mKf;fk; mt;thAtpd;
gFjpaKf;fk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
jk;Kl; jhf;fKwhj thAf;fyitnahd;iwf; fUJk;NghJ njhFjpapd; nkhj;j mKf;fkhdJ

mjd; mikg;G thAf;$Wfspd; jdpjj
; dp gFjpaKf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkdhFk;.
thAf;fs; A, B, C iaf; nfhz;l fyitnahd;wpy; jdpjj

; dp gFjpaKf;fq;fs; KiwNa
PA, PB, PC MFnkdpy; nkhj;j mKf;fk; PT MdJ gpdt
; Uk; rkd;ghl;lhy; jug;gLk;.
PT = PA + PB, + PC
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghl;bypUe;J jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;ftpjpahdJ gpdt

; UkhW ngwg;glKbAk;.
A, B iaf; nfhz;l thAf;fyitnahd;wpy; mtw;wpd; %y;fs; KiwNa nA, nB MfTk;
nkhj;j %y;fs; nT vdTk; fUJf.
PV = nRT
thA A f;F nA = PAV/RT
thA B f;F nB = PBV/RT
thA fyitf;F nT = PTV/RT
nT = nA + nB
PTV PAV PBV

/  
RT RT RT
RUf;Fkplj;J
PT = PA + PB
,JNt jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;ftpjpahFk;.
1.3.1 %y;gpdd
; k; njhlu;ghfg; gFjpaKf;fk;
ntg;gepiy T, thA A apd; %y;fs; nA, thA B f;F nB vdTk; fdtsT V cila
nfhs;fydpy; epug;gg;gl;bUg;gjhff; nfhz;lhy; cQw;wg;gLk; gFjpaKf;fq;fs; KiwNa
PA, PB MfTk; nkhj;j mKf;fk; PT ck; vd;f.
n A RT nB RT
PA  kw;Wk; PB 
V V
jhw;wdpd; tpjpapd;gb PT  PA  PB
18
Nkw;$wpatw;iwg; gpujpapl>
n A RT nB RT RT
PT    ( nA  nB )
V V V
PA , PB apd; ntspg;ghLfisj; jdpj;jdpahf PT My; tFf;f
PA n A RT / V nA
   XA XA MdJ A apd; %y;gpd;dk;
PT (nA  nB ) RT / V (n A  nB )
,NjNghy;
PB nB RT / V nB
   XB XB MdJ B apd; %y;gpd;dk;
PT (nA  nB ) RT / V (n A  nB )
MfNt ,jid ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOj KbAk;
PA  X A PT ck; PB  X B PT MFk;.
xU thAf;$nwhd;wpd; gFjpaKf;fkhdJ nkhj;j mKf;fj;jpdJk; mt;thAtpdJ

%y;gpd;dj;jpdJk; ngUf;fj;jpw;Fr; rkkhFk;.
cjhuzk;: 1.9
(i) xU thAf;fyitahdJ 0.8 mol iejurd; thA (N2), 0.2 mol xl;rprd; (O2) thA
vd;gtw;iw cilaJ. xU Fwpjj ; ntg;gepiyapy; njhFjpapd; nkhj;j mKf;fk;
1.00 atm vdpd; thAf;fspd; gFjpaKf;fq;fisf; fzpfF
; f.
(ii) xU nfhs;fyk; ntgg;gNkw;wg;gLk;NghJ N2 thA O2 thATld; jhf;fKw;W NO
thAit cUthf;Fk;. rkepiyapy; nfhs;fykhdJ 0.7 mol N2 thA> 0.15 mol
O2(g) kw;Wk; 0.1mol NO(g) it nfhz;Ls;sJ. N2(g) ,d; gFjp mKf;fk; 0.88 atm
vdpd; O2(g) kw;Wk; NO(g) ,d; gFjp mKf;fq;fisf; fzpfF ; f.
tpil:
nN 2
(i) X N2 
nN 2  nO2
0.8mol
X N2 
0.8mol  0.2mol
X N 2  0 .8
PN 2  X N 2 PT
PN 2  0.8  1.00atm
PN 2  0.8atm
,Nj Nghd;W
X O2  0 .2
19
nN2 0.7 mol 0.7

X N2   X N2  
(ii) nN2  nO2  nNO 0.7 mol  0.15 mol  0.1 mol 0.95
PN2 0.88 atm

PN2  X N2 PT  PT    1.19 atm
X N2 0.7 / 0.95
nO2 0.15 mol 0.15

X O2   X O2  
nN2  nO2  nNO 0.7 mol  0.1 5 mol  0.1 mol 0.95
0.15
PO2  X O2 PT  PO2  1.19 atm  0.19 atm
0.95
nNO 0.10 mol 0.10

X NO   X NO  
nN2  nO2  nNO 0.7 mol  0.15 mol  0.1 mol 0.95
0.10
PNO  X NO PT  PNO  1.19 atm  0.12 atm
0.95
/ PN2  0.88 atm, PO2  0.19 atm, PNO  0.12 atm, PT  1.19 atm
,t; thAf;fs; Nrfupff; g;gLtjw;Ff; Fwpgg

; plj;jf;f topKiwfs; vJTk; jug;glhJ> ntWkNd
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; tpisTfspd; %y; vz;zpfi ; ffs; jug;gl;Ls;sd. jhw;wdpd; tpjp gw;wpa
vkJ mwptpd; mbg;gilapy; mjidg; gpuNahfpfF ; k;NghJ> J}athAf;fisg; Nghd;w
,ay;Gfis cilad vdTk; jug;gl;l thAf;fyitapd; $Wfs; ahTk; jkf;Fs; ,urhad
uPjpapy; jhf;fkw;wit vdTk; vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLk;. vt;thwpUg;gpDk;> nrad;Kiwapy;
thAf;fs; njhlu;Ggl;l jhf;fq;fspy>; mtw;wpidr; Nrfupff; g; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; topKiwahdJ
gpwpnjhU thAit cUthf;fyhk; my;yJ NtW rpy tpisTfis Vw;gLj;jyhk;.
cjhuzkhf> ePupd; kPJ ftpo;j;J itf;fg;gl;l nfhs;fsdpy; ePiu ,lk;ngau;j;J
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; thAr; NrfupgG
; El;gk; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. thAthy; KOikahf
ePu; ntsprn; ry;Yk;tiu ePu; nfhz;l Nghj;jYs; FohapD}lhf thAf;fisf; Fkpoj ; j; y;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;. thAthdJ ePupy; fiutjpyi ; y vdTk; ePUld; jhf;fkiltjpyi ; y
vdTk; nghJthf ehk; vLj;Jf; nfhs;Nthk;. vt;thwpUg;gpDk; thAit ehk; J}a;ikahfg;
ngwKbahJ. ,jw;Fg; gjpy; jhf;fj;jpy; cUthf;fg;gLk; thAthdJ ePupd; Mtpahjyhy;
ngwg;gLk; ePuhtpAld; fyitahf mikAk;. msf;fg;gLk; mKf;fj;Jld; thA nfhz;Ls;s
mKf;fk; ePuhtpapd; epuk;gyhtpaKf;fKk; Nru;eJ
; fhzg;gLk;. vdNt Fwpgg ; pll
; ntg;gepiyapy;
Nrfupff
; g;gLk; thA cQw;Wk; mKf;fj;jpidj; jPuk ; hdpg;gjw;Ff; fyitapd; nkhj;j
mKf;fj;jpypUe;J ePuhtpapd; mKf;fj;jpidf; fopgg; J mtrpakhdjhFk;. vdpd; Nrfupff ; g;gLk;
thAtpd; gFjpaKf;fk;> ,jd; fdtsT> ntg;gepiy vd;gtw;wpid ,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;by;
gad;gLj;jpr; Nrfupff; g;gl;l thAtpd; njhifiaf; fzpff ; KbAk;.
20
cjhuzk;: 1.10
gpdt
; Uk; jhf;fj;jpwF
; mikthf KClO3 jpzk
; j;jpypUe;J ehk; xl;rprd; thAitj;
jahupff
; yhk; vdf; nfhs;Nthk;.
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
270C apYk; 760 torr mKf;fj;jpYk; 1.5 dm3 O2 thA ePupdk
; J
P Nrfupff; g;gLfpdw
; J.
0
cUthf;fg;gLk; O2 thAtpd; %y; vz;zpfi ; fiaf; fzpfF ; f. 27.0 C apy; ePupy;
MtpaKf;fk; 26.7 torr.
tpil:
jhw;wdpd; tpjpapypUe;J gpdt

; UkhW vOjKbAk;.
P nkhj;jk; = Pxl;rprd; + PePu;
Pxl;rprd; = Pnkhj;jk; - PePu; = (760 - 26.7) torr
= 733.3 torr
= 97764 Pa.
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghl;bidg; gad;gLj;jpd;
PV 97764 Pa  1.5  103 m3

PV = nRT kw;Wk; n  = 0.058 mol
RT 8.314 JK 1mol 1
1.4 thAf;fspd; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;if
Nkw;$wpa gFjpfspy;> thAepiy njhlu;ghd gupNrhjidfs; mtjhdpf;f g;gl;l

cz;ikfSf;F (nghapypd; tpjp> rhs;];rpd; tpjp Nghd;wit) thAtpjpfis tpsq;fpf;
nfhs;sKbe;jJ. Nkw;gb gupNrhjidfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lNghJ> vt;thW xU Fwpj;j
njhFjp ntt;NtW epge;jidapd; fPo; vt;thW ele;Jnfhs;Sfpd;wJ vd ehk; tpsq;fpf;
nfhs; s KbAk; . ,Ue; j NghJk; gupNrhjidfs; %yk; ngwg; g l; l Nkw; F wpj; j
mtjhdpg;GfspypUe;J Vd; xU njhFjp mt;thW ele;Jnfhs;fpd;wJ vd mwpa my;yJ
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F ehk; mKf;Fk;NghJ mKf;fk; mjpfupg;gjid
vjpu;T $w thAtpjpfs; cjTk;. Mdhy; xU thAit mKf;Fk;NghJ %yf;$w;W
kl;lj;jpy; elg;gJ ahnjd ehk; mwptJ NjitahdjhFk;. MfNt xUtiff;
nfhs;ifastpyhd khjpupahdJ Nkw;Fwpj;j epfo;Tfs; my;yJ tpdhf;fs; mj;Jld;
nfhs;iffs; Nghd;wd rpwe;j mtjhdq;fis tpsf;Ftjw;F vkf;F cjtpahFk;.
thAf;fspd; elj;ijfs; %yf;$w;W kl;lj;jpy; tpsf;f Kaw;rp nra;a cjTtJ %yf;$w;W
,af;ff; nfhs;if MFk;.
21
1.4.1 ,yl;rpa thAtpd; %yf;$w;Wf; nfhs;iff;fhd vLNfhs;fs;
 thAf;fs; rpwpa rpwpa mj;Jld; $basT NtWgLj;jg;gl;l vz;zpf;ifahd

Jzpf;iffshy; (%yf;$Wfs; my;yJ mZf;fs;) njhFf;fg;gl;ld.
%yf;$Wfspd; cz;ikahd fdtsthdJ thA %yf;$Wfis milf;Fk;
nkhj;jf; fdtsTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ kpfTk;; rpwpjhifahy; Jzpf;iffs; $basT
Ntwhf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. my;yJ NtWnrhw;fspy; $wpdhy; %yf;$Wfspd; cz;ikahd
fdtsthdJ mtw;wpw;fpilg;gl;l ntw;wpl ntspAld; xg;gpLk;NghJ Gwf;fzpf;fj;
jf;fd. ,f;nfhs;ifahdJ Jzpf;iffs; xd;wpw;nfhd;W kpf neUf;fkhfTs;s
jputq;fs; my;yJ jpz;kq;fspYk; ghu;ff ; thAf;fs; milf;Fk; fdtsT kpf
cau;thf miktijj; jpUj;jkhf vjpu;T$WfpwJ. thAj;Jzpf;iffs; $basT
Ntwhf;fp itf;fg;gl;bUg;gjhy; jputq;fs; kw;Wk; jpz;kq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
mlu;j;jp Fiwe;jit. ,t; vLNfhshdJ thAf; fspy; mKf;fg;gLk; jfT cau;T
vd tpsf;f cjTk;.
 thAf;fspd; xt;nthU Jzpfi; fAk; vOkhw;whd (rhj;jpakhd vy;yhj; jpirfspYk;)
Neu;Nfhl;L ,af;fkhf> mJ kw;nwhU %yf;$W my;yJ nfhs;fyj;jpd; Rtu;fSld;
NkhJk;tiu mirAk;. ntt;NtW %yf;$Wfs; ntt;NtW fjpAld; mikAk;.
Nkhjy;fs; g+uz kPsj ; d;ikf;Fupad. mjhtJ rf;jpahdJ xU Jzpf;ifapypUe;J
kw;nwhd;wpw;F khw;wg;glf;$baJ> mtw;wpd; rf;jpahdJ khwf;$baJ. Mdhy;
Njwpa epfo;thfr; rf;jp ,of;fg;glNth Vw;fg;glNth ,y;iy. nfhs;fyj;jpd; Rtu;fspy;
%yf;$Wfspd; Nkhjy;fspd; tpisthf cUthtNj xU thAtpd; mKf;fk; MFk;.
 thAj; Jzpfi ; ffspd; ruhrup ,af;fr; rf;jpahdJ jdpahd ntg;gepiyf;F khj;jpuk;
Neu;tpfpj rkkhdJ.
,J vkf;Fg; gpdt ; Uk; jfty;fis ntspg;gLj;Jk;. thAj; JZf;iffs; (%yf;$W
my;yJ mZ) jkf;Fupj;jhd jpzpT kw;Wk; fjpiaf; nfhz;lit. Vd; vdpy;
jug;gl;l thAj; Jzpf;ifapd; ,af;fr; rf;jp (KE) gpdt
; Uk; rkd;ghl;bdhy; jug;gLk;.
1
KE  m v2
2
,q;F m vd;gJ xU thAj; Jzpf;ifapd; jpzpT kw;Wk; v vd;gJ mt;thAj;
Jzpf;ifapd; Ntfk; (my;yJ fjp). khwhf; fdtstpy; thAitr; #lhf;Fk;NghJ>
mKf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk;. Vnddpy; thAitr; #lhf;Fk;NghJ Jzpfi ; ffspd; ,af;fr;
rf;jp mjpfupf;Fk;. kw;Wk; nfhs;fyj;jpd; Rtu; cld; mjpf jlitfs; NkhJif
milAk;. $ba mKf;fj;ij ntspg;gLj;Jk;. jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU %y;
(1 mol) Jzpf;iffspd; ,af;fr; rf;jp fPo;tUk; rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; jug;gLk;.
3
KE  RT
2
22
ehq;fs; gpd;tUk; Fwpg;Gfis Nkyjpfkhf cUthf;fyhk;.

 thAj; Jzpf;iffs; xd;wpy; ,Ue;J xd;W Rakhd elj;ijia ntspf;fhl;Lk;.
Vnddpy; thAj; Jzpf;iffs; kpff;$bastpy; gpupf;fg;gl;lit (jdpikg;gLj;jg;
gl;lit). mit NkhJif milAk; tiu xd;wpy; ,Ue;J xd;W RahjPdkhf
mirAk;. mjdhy; thAj; Jzpf;iffs; ,ilNa ,ilf;ftu;r;rp tpir my;yJ
js;Sif tpir fhzg;glhJ. ,jdhy; gad;gLj;Jk; jhw;wdpd; thAf;fSf;fhd
gFjpaKf;f tpjpia vk;khy; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;. nfhs;fydpd; KOtplKk;
thA %yf;$Wfspdhy; Vd; epug;gg;gLfpd;wd vd;w tpsf;fj;ijAk; ,jpy; ,Ue;J
ngw;Wf; nfhs;sf;$bajhf cs;sJ.
 nfhs;fydpd; Rtu; cld; Vw;gLk; nkhj;j NkhJiffspd; mstpdhy; thAf;fspd;
mKf;fk; Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpdw
; J.
,e;j mDkhd Nghapy; tpjpia tpsf;Ffpdw
; J. jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy>; rk msthd
thAf;fs;> Fiwe;j fdtsthd nfhs;fydpy; XuyFg; gug;gpy; $basT NkhJif
Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;. Fiwe;j fdtsTila nfhs;fydpy; Jzpfi ; ffs; gazpfF ; k; J}uk;
Fiwthff; fhzg;gLk;. vdNt jug;gl;l gug;gpy; $basT NkhJif Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,jdhy; $basT mKf;fk; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,e;j vLNfhs; %yk; thAf;fspd; mKf;fk;> thA %yf;$Wfspd; %y; vz;zpfi
; ff;F
Neu;tpfpj rkkhdJ vd;gij vjpuT
; $wyhk;. $ba vz;zpfi
; fahd thA %yf;$Wfs;>
$ba vz;zpfi ; fahd NkhJifia RtUld; Vw;gLj;Jk;. ,jdhy; $ba thA
mKf;fk; Vw;gLk;.
1.4.2 %yf;$w;W ,af;fg; gz;Gf; nfhs;ifr; rkd;ghL
1
PV  mNc 2
3
,t;ntspg;ghl;by; ,g;NghJ mKf;fj;ijg; ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa gz;ghf> mZ,af;fk;

njhlu;ghfj; jUfpdw
; J. jug;gl;l xU nfhs;fyj;jpy; jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; Fwpgg
; plj;jF
Nkw;gb njhlu;ghdJ mKf;fkhdJ %yf;$Wfspd; fjptu;ff ; ,ilf;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhFk;.
Nkw;gb rkd;ghl;bypUe;J %yf;$w;Wf;fjp mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ nfhs;fyj;jpy; cQw;wg;gLk;
mKf;fKk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ vd ehk; ghuf;fKbAk;. C 2 MdJ %yf;$Wfspd; Ntfk;
my;yJ fjptu;f;f,il vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
1.4.3 ruhrupf; fjptu;ff

; ,il%yk; kw;Wk; ruhrupff
; jp vd;gtw;wpwf
; hd Nfhyq;fs;
gpd;tUkhW ntt;NtW tbatq;fspy; %yf;$Wfspd; Ntfq;fis mwpe;jpUj;jy;

gaDs;sJ. khwh ntg;gepiyapy; khwh fdtsTila ghj;jpuj;jpy; N %yf;$Wfs;
ntt;NtW Ntfq;fs; c1, c2, ...cN, cld; gazpf;Fk;NghJ> mjidg; gpd;tUkhW vOj
KbAk;.
c1  c2  ...  cN
mj;Jld; ruhrupf; fjp, C
N
23
c12  c2 2  c32  ...  cN 2

fjptu;f;f ,il C2 
N
fjptu;f;f ,il%yk; = C2
fjptu;f;f ,il C 2 MdJ ntg;gepiyapy; rhu;e;Js;sjidf; fhl;l nghUj;jkhd

rkd;ghl;bidg; ngWtjw;F %yf;$w;W ,af;fr; rkd;ghl;bidg; gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
mNC 2
V fdtstpy; N vz;zpf;ifAila Jzpf;iffSf;Fupa mKf;fk;, P  vd
3V
mNC 2
ehk; mwpe;Js;sikapdhy; PV  vd ehk; vOj KbAk;.
3
N = nNA, Mjyhy; ,q;F NA mtfhjNuh khjpup> n vd;gJ %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if.
1
PV  mnN A C 2
3
M = m NA, Mjyhy;> Nkw;gb rkd;ghl;bid kPsm
; ikf;Fk;NghJ (M MdJ %yu;jj
; pzpT)
1
PV  nM C 2
3
,yl;rpa thAr;rkd;ghL PV = nRT Nkw;gb rkd;ghl;bid gpujpapLk;NghJ>

1
nRT  nM C 2
3
3RT
C2 
M
mj;Jld; fjptu;f;f,il%yj;ij ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjKbAk;.
3RT
C2 
M
24
cjhuzk; 1.11
25 0C ,y; H2(g) kw;Wk; N2(g) ,d; %y; ,iltu;f;ff; fjpiaf; fzpf;Ff.
tpil:
T = 25 ºC = 298 K
M(H2) = 2.0 g mol-1 = 0.002 kg mol-1
M(N2) = 28.0 g mol-1 = 0.028 kg mol-1
R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
H2(g) ,w;F>
2 3RT 3  8.314 J K -1mol-1  298 K

C  I gpujpapl  = 1927.8 m s-1
M 0.002 kg mol-1
N2(g) ,w;F>
3RT 3  8.314 J K -1mol-1  298 K

C2  I gpujpapl  = 515.2 m s-1
M 0.002 kg mol-1
Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpypUe;J jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapy; xNu ,af;frf;jpAila tpiuthf

mirAk; ghuk; Fiwe;j %yf;$Wfis tplg; ghuk; $ba %yf;$Wfs; nkJthf
mirfpd;wd vd ehk; $w KbAk;. ,t;tpaf;frf;jpahdJ Neubahf ntg;gepiyAld;
njhlu;GilaJ. mj;Jld; %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; nfhs;ifapy; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J gpdt
; UkhW
ep&gpf;f KbAk;.
mNC 2
PV  vd ehk; mwpe;Js;Nshk;.
3
,jid 2 My; ngUf;fp 2 My; tFj;jhy;>
mNC 2  2 N  1 mC 2   RT
PV   
3 3 2 
1  3
N  mC 2   RT
2  2
1 2 3 R  3
 mC     T  (k B )T
2  2 N  2
25
,q;F kB = Nghw;Rkd; khwpypahFk;.
1 2
mj;Jld;  mC  vd;gJ ,af;frf;jp (KE) vd vOjKbAk;.
2 
3
mj;Jld;> xU %yf;$wpw;F KE  k BT
2
3
KE  (k B )T N A
2
3 R 
KE   T N A
2  NA 
3
xU %Yf;F KE  RT
2
,af;frf;jpahdJ nfy;tpd; ntg;gepiyapy; kl;Lk; jq;fpAs;sJ vd ep&gpf;fpd;wJ.
1.4.4 kf;Rnty; Nghw;Rkd; guk;gy;

,Ue;jNghJk;> Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpypUe;J N2 %yf;$w;wpd; Ntfk; 515 m s-1 vd vk;khy;
fzpf;fg;gl;lhYk;> vy;yh N2 %yf;$WfSk; ,t; Ntfj;Jld; gazpf;fpdw ; d vd;gjpy;iy.
,JNghd;W %yf;$Wfs; Neu;Nfhl;Lj; jpirapy; mirfpd;wd. ,e;j ,af;fk; fhtpf;
fzpakhFk;. ,J Nghd;w njhlu;gpdhy; %yf;$w;Wf; fjp tpgupf;fg;gLk;. ,q;F fjpg;
guk;gy; g+r;rpaj;jpypUe;J 515 m s-1 ,w;F Nkyhff; fUjg;gLk; ngWkhdk; tiu ,J
khWgLk;. ,J Vnddpy; jdp %yf;$Wfs; NkhJifailAk; rf;jpia gupkhwpf; nfhs;Sk;.
mtw;wpd; fjp khWgLk;. cU 1.6 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lthW Fwpj;j fjpAld; ,aq;Fk;
%yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dj;Jld; fjpg;guk;gy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J kf;Rnty; - Nghw;Rkd;
fjpg; guk;gy; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
; f
; f
%yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpfi
%yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpfi
%yf;$w;W fjp m/s-1 %yf;$w;W fjp m/s-1
(a) (b)
cU 1.6 (a) ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyapy; iejurd; thAtpwF ; kf;Rnty; - Nghw;Rkd; fjpgg
; uk;gy;
(b) 300 K ,y; %d;W thAf;fSf;F fjpgg
; uk;gy;
26
1.5 nka;thAfl;Fg; gpuNahfpgg

; jw;fhf ,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;bw;fhd
jpUj;jq;fs;.
thAtpjpfs;> %yf;$w;W ,af;ftpay; nfhs;iffl;fhd gpujhd fUJNfhs; > thA mtj;ij
%yf;$Wfs; jkf;Fs; ftu;rr
; pfshy; my;yJ js;Siffshy; ,ilj;jhf;fkw;wd vd;gjhFk;.
nfhs;fyj;jpd; fdtsTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ thA %yf;$Wfspd; fdtsT Gwf;fzpff ; j;jf;fJ
vd;gJ kw;iwa fUJNfhshFk;. ,Ue;jNghJk; nka;thAf;fisAk; cs;slf;fpa fzpgG ; fl;F
thAtpjpfisg; gad;gLj;jpa NghJk; thA mtj;ijapy; %yf;$Wfs; ,ilNa ,il
%yf;$w;W tpirfs; cz;L vd;w cz;ikAk; cz;L. ,y;yhtpll ; hy; cjhuzkhf thAf;fs;
jputkhf KbahJ. xU %y; %yf;$Wfs; fUjg;gLk;NghJ gpdt ; UkhW ntspgg
; Lj;jg;gLk;
mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf; fhuzp (z) MdJ ,yl;rpa thAf;fspwF ; xd;wpwF; rkkhFk;. (z = 1)
PV
z
nRT
nka;thAfl;Fg; gupNrhjid uPjpahd juTfshy; ngw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gLk; z ,d; ngWkhdk;
xd;W my;y.
PV = RT vd xU %y; ,yl;rpa thAtpwF

; vOj KbAk;. khw;W topapy; $Wtjhapd;
PV
jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;  1 vd KbthFk;. ,yl;rpa thAf;fspy; rpy elj;ijapy;
RT
,Ue;J nka;thAf;fs; Fwpgg
; plj;jf;f tpyfiy cz;ikapy; ntspff
; hl;Lfpdw
; d. Fwpjj
;
PV
msT z  MdJ mKf;fgL jd;ikapd; msT> mKf;fg;gLfhuzp> mKf;fg;gLFzfk;
RT
vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,J tpyfiy mstplg; gad;gLk; fdpakhFk;. cjhuzkhf> khwh
ntg;gepiyapy; xU %y; ,yl;rpa thAtpwF ; > mKf;fj;Jld; z ,d; fw;if my;yJ
NtWghl;il gFg;gha;ej ; hy; ,q;F PV xU khwpyp (Nghapy; tpjp) kw;Wk; P vjpu; Z tiuG
vy;yh mKf;fq;fspYk; x- mr;rpwF ; (mKf;f mr;rpwF; ) rkhe;jukhd Neu;NfhlhFk;.
cU 1.7(a) ,y; 273 K ,y; gy thAf;fSf;F kw;Wk; cU 1.7(b) ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyapy;
xU thAtpwF ; tiuag;gl;Ls;sd.
,yl;rpa thA
,yl;rpa thA VjhtJ
ntg;gepiyapy;
mKf;fk; mKf;fk; /atm
(a) (b)
cU 1.7 (a) khwh ntg;gepiyapy; mKf;fj;Jld; mKf;fg;gLjd;ikapd; (Z) khwy; tiuG (a) ,Ds;
cs;s rpwpa tiuG ,yl;rpa thAtpwF ; k; nka;thAtpwF
; k; Nghapy; tpjpff
; hd tiuG.
(b) CH4 thAtpd; mKf;fj;Jld; mKf;fg;gLjd;ikapd; khwy; ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyfs;
27
cU 1.7 (a) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s tiuGfspypUe;J khwh ntg;gepiyapy; nka;thAf;

fSf;fhd PV/RT Vs P (z Vs P) tiuGfs; x-mr;rpw;F (mKf;fk;) rkhe;jukhd xU
Neu;NfhL my;y vdr; Rygkhff; fhzyhk;. mq;F ,yl;rpa elj;ijapypUe;J Fwpgg ; plj;jf;f
tpyfy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ntt;NtW tif nka;thAf;fspw;F ,Utifahd tisTfs;
tpisthfpd. H2 ,w;Fk; `Pypaj;jpw;Fkhd tisTfspy; mKf;fk; mjpfupf;f z ,d;
ngWkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk;. ,uz;lhtJ tif tisT fhgd;nkhNdhl;irl; (CO) kw;Wk;
nkNjd; (CH4) Nghd;w thAf;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;j tiuGfspy; Kjypy; ,yl;rpa
elj;ijapypUe;J xU vjpu; tpyfy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mLj;J mjpfupg;Gld; z ngWkhdk;
Fiwtile;J xU thAtpd; kpff; Fiwe;j xU ngWkhdj;ijailAk;. mjd;gpd; mJ
mjpfupf;fj;njhlq;fp ,yl;rpa thAtpwf
; hd Gs;spiaj; jhz;bj; njhlu;eJ
; Neu;tpyfiyf;
fhl;batz;zk; ,t;tjhdpg;Gfspy; ,Ue;J nka;thAf;fs; vy;yh epge;jidfspd; fPOk;
,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;ilg; gpd;gw;Wtjpy;iy vdf; fz;lwpayhk;.
,yl;rpa elj;ijapypUe;jhd ,t;tpyfyhdJ cU 1.7 (a) ,d; xU cl;$whf tiuag;gLk;.

mKf;fk; vjpu; fdtsT tiutpidf; fUJtjpd; %yk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sg;glyhk;.
mt;tiugpy; nka;thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fk; vjpu; fdtsT juT nfhs;ifastpy;
fzpf;fg;gl;ltw;Wld; xg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;tiuNg Boyle tpjpapd; tiuG (,yl;rpathA
nthd;wpdJ) vd ehk; mwpe;Js;sNjhL nka;thA mNj elj;ijiag; gpd;gw;wpdhy; ,U
tiuGfSk; xUq;fpizAk; vdTk; mwpNthk;. kpf cau; mKf;fj;jpy; msf;fg;gl;l
fdtsT fzpff ; g;gl;l fdtsit tplTk; $baJ vdTk; jho; mKf;fq;fspy; msf;fg;gl;l
kw;Wk; fzpf;fg;gl;l fdtsTfs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W neUf;fkhf mikAk; vd;gJk; kpfj;
njspT. NkYk; ,J jho;mKf;f epge;jidfs; ,yl;rpa elj;ijiar; rhjfkhf;F
fpd;wd vdTk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. fdtsT mjpfupg;Gld; thAf;fs; ,yl;rpa elj;ijiaf;
fhl;Ltjhy;>nfhs;fydpd; fdtsTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ %yf;$Wfspd; fdtsT Gwf;fzpff ; g;
glyhk;. NtWtpjkhff; $wpd; mKf;fk; kpff;Fiwthf cs;sNghJ thAtpd; elj;ij
$basT ,yl;rpa elj;ijahfpd;wJ. kw;Wk; mJ thAtpd; ,ay;gpYk; ntg;gepiyapYk;
jq;fpAs;sJ.
NkYk; ,k;nka;thAtpd; elj;ijia cau; mKf;fq;fspy; %yf;$Wfs; neUf;fkhFk;

NghJ %yf; $Wfspd; tiuaWj;j msTfshy; Njhw; W tpf; f g; g Lk; %yf;$ w; W
,ilj;jhf;fq;fspd;, kw;Wk; js;Siffspd; Nru;f;ifahf ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;. jho;
mKf;fq;fspy; Mdhy; ,d;dKk; ,yl;rpaelj;ijf;Fupa epiyapy; %yf;$w;wpilf;
ftu;r;rpfspd; jho;%yu;f;fdtsit tpistpf;fpd;wd. kw;Wk; mKf;ff;fhuzp 1 I tplf;
FiwT. (z<1) NghJkhd cau; mKf;fq;fspy; %yf;$Wfs; neUf;fkiltJld;
%yf;$wpd; %yu;f;fdtsT mJ xU Gs;spj;jpzpthf ,Uf;Fk;NghJs;s epiyAld;
xg;gpLk;NghJ mjpfupfF
; k;. cau; ntg;gepiyapy; cU 1.7 (b) %yf;$w;wpilf; ftu;rr
; pfs;
FiwtNjhL PV fhuzp mjpfupj;J z ngWkhdq;fis 1 ,Yk; mjpfupf;Fk;. (z > 1)
vdpDk;> ,yl;rpaf; Nfhl;bypUe;jhd tpyfyhdJ cau;ntg;gepiy ,yl;rpaj;jd;ikia
28
Xustpw;Fr; rhjfkhf;Fk; vdf; fhl;Lk; tifapy; Fiwthf cs;sJ. Mjyhy; kpfj;

jho; mKf;fq;fSk; cau; ntg;gepiyfSk; nka;thAf;fspd; ,yl;rpa elj;ijf;Fr;
rhjfkhd epge;jidfs; vd ehk; $wyhk;.
jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapYk; mKf;fj;jpYk; %yu;f;fdtstpYs;s NtWghLfisf;

fUJtjd; %yk; nka;thAtpd; ,e;j elj;ijia ,yl;rpa thATld; xg;gpl;lhy;
mKf;fg;gLk; jd;ikf;fhuzp z ,d; njhlu;G tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sg;glyhk;. xU %y;
nka;thA fdtsT Vreal I nfhz;Ls;sjhAk; ,yl;rpathAtpw;F mJ Videal vdTk;
PVreal
fUJf. Mjyhy; Z  vd vOjyhk;.
RT
RT
mNj epge;jidapy; mt;thA ,yl;rpa elj;ijiaf; fhl;bdhy; Videal 
P
Vreal
,jid KjyhtJ rkd;ghl;by; gpujpapl Z  V
ideal
MfNt mKf;fg;gLjd;ikf; fhuzp z MdJ xU thAtpd; cz;ik %yu;ff ; dtstpw;Fk;

mt;ntg;gepiyapYk; mKf;fj;jpYk; mt;thA ,yl;rpa thA elj;ijiaf; fhl;Lk;NghJ
mjd; %yu;f;fdtstpw;Fkhd tpfpjk; MFk; vdf;fhzyhk;.
,g;gupNrhjidapd; mbg;gilapy; nka;thAf;fs; vy;yh epge;jidfspYk; nghapypd;

tpjp> rhs];rpd; tpjp kw;Wk; mtfhjNuhtpd; tpjpfisR; rupahfg; gpd;gw;Wtjpy;iy
vdf; fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
Kjyhtjpw;F ehk; %yf;$w;W ,af;ftpay; nfhs;ifapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l fUJNfhs;

fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. ,q;F xU thAtpd; %yf;$Wfspw;F ,ilNa ftu;r;rptpir
,y;iy kw;Wk; thAtpdhy; milf;fg;gl;l ,lj;Jld; xg;gpLk;NghJ xU thA %yf;$wpd;
fdtsT Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;f msT rpwpaJ vdf; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
thA %yf;$WfspilNa ,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; ,y;yhtpbd; thA xUNghJk; jputkhfhJ.

vt;thnwdpDk; Fspu;jypd;NghJk; mKf;fg;gLk;NghJk; thAf;fs; jpukhFk; vd ehk;
mwpNthk;. thAf;fs; Fspug;gLk;NghJk; mKf;fg;gLk;NghJk; thA %yf;$Wfs;
neUf;fkhfpj; jputq;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. xU thA %yf;$wpd; fdtsT Gwf;fzpff
; j;
jf;fJ vdpd; cz;ik thAtpdJ mKf;fk; vjpu; fdtsT tiughdJ ,yl;rpathAtpd
Jld; xUq;fpizaNtz;Lk;. MfNt cz;ik thAf;fs; ,yl;rpa elj;ijapypUe;J
tpyFfpd;wd.
29
1.5.1 te;ju;thYRtpd; rkd;ghL
,t;tyfpd; Muk;gj;jpy; ,yl;rpa thA tpjp PV= nRT vdj; njupe;j epiyr; rkd;ghL
vd mwpag;gLk;. msf;fg;glf;$ba khwpfs; P, V, T kw;Wk; n cld; $ba thAf;fspd;
elj;ijia tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. Nkw;gb tpsf;fq;fspypUe;J nka;
thAf;fspd; %yf;$Wfs; kj;jpapYs;s ,ilj; jhf;fq;fs; fhuzkhf ,yl;rpathA
tpjpfspypUe;J tpyfiyf; fhl;Lfpd;wd vd tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. MfNt nka;
thAf;fspd; elj;ijia tpgupf;f ,d;Ndhu; tifahd epiyr;rkd;ghLfs; mtrpak;.
Vnddpy; mtw;wpd; msf;fg;gl;l mKf;fq;fs; kw;Wk; fdtsTfs; ,yl;rpa thAtpw;F
cupa ngWkhdkhf ,Uf;fhJ.
cau; mKf;fq;fspy; thAf;fspd; %yf;$Wfs; kpf neUf;fkhdit kw;Wk; %yf;$w;W

,ilj;jhf;fq;fs; njhopw;glj; njhlq;Fk;. MfNt cau; mKf;fj;jpy; %yf;$Wfs;
nfhs;fyj;jpd; RtUld; KONtfj;Jld; mbf;fKbahJ. Vnddpy; ,k;%yf;$w;Wf;
ftu;rr
; p tpirfs; fhuzkhf mit Vida %yf;$Wfshy; gpd;dpOf;fg;gLk;. (,e;elj;ij
kPjhd xU tupg;glk; cU 1.8 ,yl;rpa thATldhd xg;gl
P ;by; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.) ,J
%yf;$Wfshy; nfhs;fyd; Rtupy; nrYj;jg;gLk; mKf;fj;ij tpl nka;thAthy;
nrYj;jg;gLk; mKf;fk; FiwthdJ.
Rtu;
Rtu;
(a) (b)
cU 1.8 Rtu; kPjhd NkhJifapd; xg;gPL

(a) ,yl;rpa thA %yf;$W (b) nka; thA %yf;$W
%yf;$Wfspd; NkhJifapy; nka; thA %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ftu;rr

; pahy; mKf;ff;
FiwT Vw;gLtJ fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
jug;gl;l xU Neuj;jpy; RtUldhd xU Nkhjy; vz;zpf;if thAtpd; mlu;j;jpf;F

Neu;tpfpjrkdhtjhy; mKf;fj;jpd; jpUj;jf;fhuzp thAtpd; mlu;jj
; p tu;ff
; j;jpwF
; Neu;tpfpj
rkd; my;yJ fdtstpd; tu;f;fj;jpw;F Neu;khW tpfpjrkd;. mjdhy; jpUj;jf;fhuzp
an 2
vd vOjg;glyhk;.
v2
30
,q;F a ftu;r;rp tpirfspd; gUkd; njhlu;ghd khwpyp kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy kw;Wk;

mKf;fj;jpy; jq;fpapuhJ. n ck; v ck; KiwNa thA%y;fs; kw;Wk; nfhs;fyj;jps;
fdtsT. MfNt ,e;epge;jidapd; fPo; njhFjpapd; mKf;fk; gpd;tUk; ntspg;ghl;lhy;
jug;gLk;.
an 2
Pideal  Preal 
V2
cau; mKf;fj;jpy; %yf;$Wfs; Vwf;Fiwa njhLifapy; ,Ug;gjhy; FWfpa tPr;Rj;

js;Sif tpirfs; %yf;$Wfis rpwpa Nfhzq;fshf elf;fitf;fpwJ. mjdhy;
%yf;$Wfshy; epug;gg;gl;l xU Fwpgpll
; j;jF fdtsittpistpff
; pwJ. ,g;NghJ ,yl;rpaf;
fdtsit msf;fg;gl;l fdtsit tplf; Fiwthf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. Vnddpy; fdtsT
v ,y; msg;gjw;Fg; gjpy; mit ,g;NghJ xU gaDs;s fdtsT (v-nb) ,w;F
tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
 an2 
 P  2 
(V  nb)  nRT
 V 
te;ju;thYR rkd;ghL vd miof;fg;gLtJld; a Ak; b Ak; te;ju;thYR khwpypfs;
vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. ehk; ,r;rkd;ghl;il xU %y; nka;thAtpw;F vOjpdhy; mJ
gpd;tUtij vLf;Fk;.
 a 
 P  2  (V  b)  RT
 V 
1.5.2 mtjp ntg;gepiyAk; thAf;fspd; jputkhf;fYk;
mj;jpahaj;jpd; njhlf;fj;jpy; xU Fwpj;j ngsjpfepiyiag; NgZtjpy; %yf;$w;wpil

tpirfspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpd; msT gw;wpf; fye;JiuahbNdhk;. rlkhdJ Njitf;Nfw;g
%yf;$w;wpilj; J}uq;fis khw;Wtjw;fhd ntg;gk; my;yJ Fsput ; pjj
; y; vd;gtw;wpD}lhf
ngsjpf epiyfSf;fpilNa ,ilkhw;wg;glyhk;.
cjhuzj;jpw;F> ehk; xU thAtpd; jputkhf;fy; Fspu;tpj;jy; kw;Wk; mKf;fj;jpD}lhf

epfog;glyhk; vd epidg;Nghk;. ,J Xustpw;Fr; rupahapDk; vkf;F nka;thAf;fspd;
mtj;ij khw;wq;fs; njhlu;ghf mtw;wpd; elj;ij gw;wpa NkYk; fUj;Jf;fs; Njit.
Fwpg;G: myF 12 ,y; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;. jiyg;Gf;fspy; xd;W kw;Wk; xU rpwpa

tpgupg;G ,t;tj;jpahaj;jpy; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;. Vnddpy; thAf;fspd; jputkhjYf;Fj;
Njitahd epge;jidfs; gw;wpa mbg;gilf; fUj;Jf;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fNtz;baJ
mtrpakhdJ.
31
cjhuzj;jpw;Ff; fhgdPnuhl;irl; mj;jifa mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; fdtsT

njhlu;Gfs; kPjhd jfty;fs; mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. ,q;F mKf;fk; kw;Wk; ntg;gepiyapyhd
NtWghLfspy; jq;fpapUe;J fhgdPnuhl;irl; xU thAthf xU jputkhf kw;Wk; xU
jpz;kkhfj; njhopw;gl KbAk; vdf; fz;lwpag;gl;lJ.
cau; ntg;gepiy ,yl;rpa thA elj;ijf;F rhjfkhdJ kw;Wk; xU thA kpf cau;
ntg;gepiyapYk; jputkhf;fg;gl KbahJ. fhgdPnuhl;irl;ilf; fUJNthk; vdpy;> cau;
ntg;gepiyapy; ,J thAthf ntspg;gLk;. mKf;fk; 73 atm ,Yk; Fiwthf cs;s
NghJ 30.98 0C (304.2 K) ,y; jputkhfj; njhlq;Fk;. ntg;gepiy 30.98 0C MdJ
fhgdPnuhl;irl;bd; mtjp ntg;gepiy (T C) vd miof;fg;gLk;. fhgdPnuhl;irl;il
jput epiyapy; mtjhdpf;ff;$ba cau; ntg;gepiy ,JthFk;. ,jdpYk; $ba
ntg;gepiyapy; ,J thA epiyapy; kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;. vdNt mtjp ntg;gepiyia
ehk; gpd;tUkhW tiuaiw nra;ayhk;. xU gjhu;jj; j;jpd; mtjp ntg;gepiy vdg;gLtJ
mt;ntg;gepiyapy; my;yJ mjdpYk; cau;thd ntg;gepiyapy; Mtpg; gjhu;j;jj;ij
vt;tsT cau; mKf;fj;ijg; gpuNahfpj;Jk; mjidj; jputkhf khw;w Kbahj mtjp
ntg;gepiyapy; Mtp xd;iwj; jputkhf khw;wj; Njitahd mKf;fk; mtjp mKf;fk;
vdg;gLk;.
mKf;fk; / atm
jputk;
jpzk
; k;
Mtp
ntg;gepiy / 0C
cU 1.9 CO2 ,d; mtj;ij tiuglk;
32
ml;ltiz 1.3 rkd;ghLfspd; njhFg;G
thAtpjp rkd;ghL khwpypfshf itf;fg;gLk;

gukhdq;fs; (parameters)
,yl;rpa thAtpjp PV = nRT ,y;iy
k
nghapy; tpjp P n ck; T ck;
V
rhs;]; tpjp V = kT n ck; P ck;
mtfhjNuh tpjp VA = VB vdpd; P ck; T ck;
NA = NB MFk;.
1
%yf;$w;W ,af;f rkd;ghL PV  mNC 2
3
c1  c2  c3  .....  cN
ruhrupf; fjp C
N
2 (c12  c2 2  c32 ....  cN 2 )

fjptu;ff
; ,il C 
N
3RT
fjptu;ff
; ,il C2 
M
jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;ftpjp PA = XAPT
PT = PA + PB + PC
PV
mKf;fg;gLk; jfTf;fhuzp z xU %y; thAtpwF
;
RT
 an 2 
te;ju;thYR rkd;ghL  P  2 (V  nb)  nRT
 V 
33
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 5 rf;jpapay;
2. rf;jpapay;
cs;slf;fk;
2.1 ntg;g ,urhadj;jpYk; ntg;g,af;ftpaypYk; • epak fiug;ghd; Vw;w ntg;gTs;Siw

cs;s mbg;gilg; gjq;fs; 
khw;wk; H sol
2.1.1 njhFjp> #oy;> vy;iy
2.1.2 njhFjpapd; tiffs; • epak ePNuw;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;
• jpwe;j njhFjp 
H hyd
• %ba njhFjp
• jdpikg;gLj;jpa njhFjp • epak fiuryhjy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;

• Vftpd> gy;ypdj; njhFjpfs; H dissolution
2.1.3 njhFjpnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs; • epak gjq;fkhjy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;
• Ez;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs; 
H sub
• ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs;
• tpuptpay;Gfs; • epak Mtpahjy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;
• nrwptpay;Gfs; 
H evap
2.1.4 xU njhFjpapd; epiy

• Rakhd / jd;dpr;irahd • epak cUfy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; H fus
nrad;Kiwfs;

• Rakhf epfohj nrad;Kiwfs; • epak mZthjy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; H at
• kPSk; ,ay;Gs;s nrad;Kiwfs; • epak Kjyhk; madhf;f ntg;gTs;Siw

• kPsh ,ay;Gs;s nrad;Kiwfs; 
khw;wk; H IE1
2.1.5 ntg;gTs;Siw (H)
2.1.6 ntg;gk; • epak ,yj;jpud; Vw;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;
• jd;ntg;gf;nfhs;ssTk;; 
H EG
ntg;gf;nfhs;ssTk;
• mad;Nru;itnahd;wpd; epak rhyf ntg;g
2.2 NtWgl;l ntg;g,urhadr; nrad;KiwfSld;/ 
Ts;Siw khw;wk; H L
jhf;fq;fSld; ,ize;j ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wq;fs; / epak ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fs; 
2.2.1 Gwntg;g mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiwfs; 2.2.5 H ( H ) : I Neuhf ,y;yhj Kiwapy;
• epakntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fs; Jzpjy; - vRtpd; tpjp
2.2.2 ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfs; • jhf;fq;fspd; epak jhf;f ntg;g
2.2.3 ntg;gTs;Siw tupg;glq;fs; Ts;Siw
2.2.4 ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; epak 2.3 rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw my;yJ mad;Nru;it
ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; xd;wpd; Njhd;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw: Nghd; Vgu;
 rf;fuk;
• epakNjhd;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; H f
 2.4 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; RahjPd jd;ik

• epakjfd ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; H C
• xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; epak ve;jpug;gp
• epak gpizg;G gpupif ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; khw;wk;

H D
• fpg;]pd; RahjPd rf;jpAk; (G), jhf;fj;jpd;
RahjPd jd;ikAk;
• epak eLepiyahf;fy; ntg;gTs;Siw
• fpg;]pd; RahjPd rf;jpAk; (G)> jhf;fj;jpd;

khw;wk; H neu RahjPd jd;ikAk;
34
rf;jpapay; - ntg;g ,urhadk;
,t;tyfpy; rf;jpkhw;wk; ntg;gtbtpy; epfo;tJ gw;wp my;yJ mjd; gq;fspg;Gg; gw;wpa

fw;if gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahlg;gLfpd;wJ. Vwf;Fiwa vy;yh ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fSk;
nghJthf ntg;g tbtpy; rf;jpia cwpQR ; fpdw
; d my;yJ ntsptpLfpdw
; d. ntg;gj;jpwF
; k;>
ntg;grf;jpf;Fkpilapy; cs;s NtWghl;il tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tJ kpfTk; Kf;fpakhFk;.
NtWgl;l ntg;gepiyfspYs;s ,uz;L nghUl;fSf;fpilapy; epfOk; ntg;grf;jpapd;
,lkhw;wk; ntg;gk; MFk;. mj;Jld;> nghJthf ehk; #lhd nghUspy; ,Ue;J Fspuhd
nghUspw;F ntg;gk; gha;tJ gw;wpg; NgRfpd;Nwhk;. “ntg;gk;” vd;Dk; gjk; “jhNd
ntg;grf;jpapd; ,lkhw;wj;ijf; Fwpg;ghf czu;jj ; pDk;” xU nrad;Kiw eilngWk;
nghOJ Vw;gLk; rf;jpkhw;wq;fis tpgupg;Nghkhapd; ‘ntg;gk; cwpQ;rg;gl;lJ’ my;yJ
‘ntg;gk; ntsptplg;gl;lJ’ vdg; NgRfpd;Nwhk;. ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ eilngWk;
ntg;gkhw;wk; gw;wpa fw;if ntg;g ,urhadkhFk;. mj;Jld; ntg;g ,urhad epfo;Tfisf;
fUJk; nghOJ mit vg;NghJk; Rl;Lk; epiy epak epiy MFk;.
,g;ghlk; %yf;$w;W kl;lj;jpy; eilngWk; rf;jp khw;wq;fs; gw;wpa fw;ifAlDk; mjd;

tpisthfj; njhFjpapy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fSlDk; njhlu;Ggl;lJ. ,J rk;ge;jkhf
ntg;g ,urhadj;jpy; mlq;fpAs;s mbg;gilr; nrhw;gjq;fs; Kjypy; tiuaWf;fg;gl;L
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. cwpQr
; g;gLk; my;yJ ntsptplg;gLk; rf;jpapd; msTld;
njhlu;Gila Nfj;jpufzpjf; FwpaPLfs; “+”, “-” Mfpatw;wpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij tpsq;fpf;
nfhs;tJld; mit jhf;fq;fspd; tiffis Gwntg;g> mfntg;gj; jhf;fq;fs; vd
tpsf;Ftjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wJ. mjd;gpd;du; ntt;NtW ,urhad epfo;Tfspy;/
jhf;fq;fspy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wq;fis tiuaWj;jYk;> epak epiyf;F
tpupthf;fg;gl;L gw;wpa fye;JiuahlYk; eilngWk;> mbg;gil ntg;g ,urhad tpjpfs;
(vRtpd; tpjp) ,urhad epfo;Tfspy; fzpj; jYf;F g; nghUj;jkhd ,lq; f spy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,Wjpahf xU jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;fhd rhj;jpak; ve;jpug;gp> ntg;g
cs;Siw> fpg;]pd; rf;jp rhu;ghff; fye;Jiuahlg;gl;L (G = H - TS) jhf;fq;fs;
Rakhf epfo;jy; gw;wp vjpu;T $wg;gLk;.
2.1 ntg;g ,urhadj;jpYk; ntg;g ,af;ftpaypYk;cs;s mbg;gilg;

gjq;fs;; (Basic Terms)
2.1.1 njhFjp> #oy;> vy;iy

mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs; ntg;g ,urhad tpjpfs;> Mfpatw;iw tiuaWf;fTk;>
tpsf;fTk;>; tpsq;fpfn
; fhs;Stjw;Fk; ,k; Kf;fpa gjq;fs; gad;gLj;jf;$bajhf
,Uf;Fk;.
njhFjp
rlg;nghUspd; VjhtnjhU gFjp my;yJ mfpyj;jpypUe;J fw;wha;tjw;fhfg; gpupj;
njLf;fg;gl;l gFjp ntg;g ,urhadj; njhFjp vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. (my;yJ
fw;wYf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;l nghUs;> njhFjp vd vspjhf tiuaWf;fg;gLk;)
35
#oy;
fw;wYf;fhf mfpyj;jpypUe;J Nju;en
; jLf;fg;gl;l njhFjpapd; gFjp my;yhjdTk;>
njhFjpAld; ,ilj;jhf;fk; milaf;$ba ahTk; #oy; vdg;gLk;. (my;yJ
njhFjpf;F ntspg;Gwkhf cs;s ahTk;)
vy;iy
#oiyAk; njhFjpiaAk; Ntwhf;Fk; tpspk;G vy;iyahFk;.
cjhuzk;:- FLit (flask)apd; Rtu;
#oy;
njhFjp;
vy;iy
cU 2.1 njhFjp #oy; vy;iy vd;gtw;wpd; vLj;Jf;fhl;L
2.1.2 njhFjpfspd; tiffs;
njhFjpf;F k; #oYf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;f q;fspd; / nrad;Kiwfspd;

mbg;gilapy; ntt;NtW tifahf njhFjpfs; tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
 jpwe;j njhFjp (open system)
xU njhFjp rf;jpiaAk;> rlg;nghUisAk; / jpzpitAk; #oYld; gupkhw;Wk;

Mapd; mJ jpwe;j njhFjp vdg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf cg;G ePu;f; fiuriyf;
nfhz;l jpwe;j Nghj;jy; jpwe;j njhFjpiag; gpujpepjpjJ
; tg;gLj;Jk;.; ,q;F rlg;nghUs;
my;yJ ntg;gk; xNu Neuj;jpy; my;yJ jdpj;jdpahf njhFjpapypUe;J #oYf;F
my;yJ #oypypUe;J njhFjpf;Fr; Nru;f;fg;glyhk; my;yJ mfw;wg;glyhk;.
 %ba njhFjp (closed system)
vy;iyapD}lhfr; rf;jpiag; gupkhw;wk; nra;a mDkjpf;Fk; njhFjp Mdhy;

rlg;nghUs; gupkhw;wj;ij mDkjpf;fhj njhFjp %ba njhFjp vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzkhf milf;fg;gl;l Nghj;jypDs; cs;s jputk; mjd; MtpAld; rkepiy
apypUf;Fk;NghJ %ba njhFjpiag; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; ntg;gNkw;wg;gLk;NghJ
my;yJ Fsp&l;lg;gLk; NghJ mg;Nghj;jypy; cs;s nghUspdhy; KiwNa rf;jp
cwpQ;rg;gLk; my;yJ ntsptplg;gLk;. Mdhy; rlg;nghUis milf;fg;gl;l
Nghj;jypw;Fs; (Mtp my;yJ jputk;) Nru;f;fNth> mfw;wNth KbahJ.
 jdpikg;gLj;jpa njhFjp (isolated system)
rf;jpiaAk; rlg;nghUisAk; #oYld; gupkhw;wk; nra;ahj njhFjp jdpikg;gLj;jpa

njhFjp vdg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf %b milf;fg;gl;l ntg;gf; FLitapYs;s xU
khjpup (sealed thermosflask) ntg;gf;FLitapd; Rtu;fs; fhtypg; gjhu;j;jq;fshy;
Mf;fg;gl;lJ. ,J xU jdpikg;gLj;jpa njhFjp MFk;.
36
rlg;nghUs;
>
rf;jp rf;jp rf;jp
rf;jp
>
%ba njhFjp jdpikg;gLj;jpa
jpwe;j njhFjp;
njhFjp
(a) (b) (c)

cU 2.2 tplar;RUf;fkhd Njhw;wk; (schematic view)
(a) jpwe;j (b) %ba (c) jdpikg;gLj;jpa
njhFjpfs;
 Vftpd> gy;ypd njhFjpfs;
xU njhFjpapy; cs;s rlg;nghUs;fs; vy;yhtw;wpdJk; ngsjpf epiyfs; xNu

khjpupahfTk; (rPuhdjhfTk;) ,Ue;jhy; mj;njhFjp Vftpdkhd njhFjpahFk;.
cjhuzkhf thAf;fspd; fyit> Kw;whff; fyf;Fk; jfTs;s jputq;fspd; fyit
Vidait. xU njhFjpapYs;s cs;slf;fq;fs; ahTk; xNu ngsjpfepiyapy;
,y;yhjpUf;Fk; nghOJk; mj;njhFjp gy;ypdj;njhFjpahFk;. cjhuzk; fyf;Fk;
jftw;w jputq;fs;> jpz;kKk; fyf;Fk; jftw;w jputKk; njhlu;gpy; ,Uj;jy;>
jpz;kk; thATlDk; njhLifapy; ,Uj;jy; Nghd;wit.
2.1.3 njhFjpnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs;
 Ez;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs;
xU njhFjp Ez;ghu;itf;Fupa njhFjp vd miof;fg;gLk; nghOJ mJ fpll ; j;jl;l

mZg;gupkhzj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. mjhtJ mZ my;yJ %yf;$w;W gupkhzq;
fisf;; nfhz;b Uf;F k;nghOJ mjd; ,ay;Gfs; Neupy; / Neuhf ,y;yhj
Kiwfspdhy; jPu;khdpff
; g;gLk;. mjhtJ %ba ghj;jpuj;jpYs;s mZf;fs; my;yJ
%yf;$Wfspd; ,af;frf;jp> Ntfk; Nghd;wit.
 ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs;.(mstplf;$ba ,ay;Gfs;)
njhFjpapd; gupkhzj;JlDk;> ngUk;ghu;itf;F upa epiyAlDk; ,ize;j

,ay;GfshFk;. cjhuzk; mKf;fk;> fdtsT> ntg;gepiy> nrwpT> mlu;j;jp>
ghFj;jd;ik> Nkw;gug;G ,Otpir> > xspKwpTr; Rl;b> epwk; etc ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa
,ay;Gfs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
xU njhFjpapYs;s ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfspd; tiffs;
xU njhFjpapYs;s mstplf;$ba ,ay;Gfs; ,U tiffshfg; gpupf;fg;gLk;.
1. tpuptpay;Gfs; 2. nrwptpay;Gfs;
37
tpuptpay;Gfs;; (extensive properties)
xU njhFjpapd; jpzpT my;yJ gUkdpy; jq;fpAs;s ,ay;Gfs; tpuptpay;Gfs; vdg;gLk;.

cjhuzk;: fdtsT> %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if> jpzpT> rf;jp> mfr;rf;;jp /cs;sPl;Lr; rf;jp
(internal energy) Nghd;wit. gy gFjpfshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;s njhFjpapd; tpupthd
,ay;G> mj;njhFjpapd; rpW gFjpfspd; tpupthd ,ay;gpd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkkhFk;.
jputq;f; s; 1> 2> 3 %d;wpd; jpzpTfs; KiwNa m1g , m2 g , m3 g fyf;fg;gl;lhy; mt;tpisTj;
njhFjpapd; nkhj;jj; jpzpT mNj ntg;g mKf;f epiyapy; m1g + m2 g ,+ m3 g f;Fr;
rkdhFk;. vdNt jpzpT Xu; tpuptpay;ghFk;.
nrwptpay;Gfs;; (intensive properties)
xU njhFjpapd; jpzptpNyh my;yJ gUkdpNyh jq;fpapuhj ,ay;Gfs; nrwptpay;Gfs;

vdg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf xU njhFjpapd; xspKwpTr; Rl;b> Nkw;gug;G ,Otpir> mlu;j;jp>
ntg;gepiy> nfhjpepiy> ciwepiy Nghd;witahFk;. ,t;tpay;Gfs; mj;njhFjpapy;
cs;s gjhu;j;jj;jpd; %y; vz;zpf;iffspy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
xU tpuptpay;G xU %ypw;F my;yJ xU fpuhkpw;F my;yJ xU cm3w;F (mjhtJ xU

myfpwF ; ) $wg;gLk; nghOJ mt;tpuptpay;G Ez; ,ay;ghf khWk;. cjhuzkhf jpzpT>
fdtsT> ntg;gf;nfhs;ssT Mfpad tpuptpay;GfshFk;. mNj Neuj;jpy; mlu;jj ; p>
%yu;ff; dtsT (molar volume) jd;ntg;gf;nfhs;ssT (specific heat capacity) Mfpad
nrwptpay;GfshFk;.
2.1.4 xU njhFjpapd; epiy
xU njhFjpapd; ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa ,ay;Gfspd; Fwpj;j ngWkhdq;fs; njupe;jpUg;gpd;

mj;njhFjp vg;ngsjpf epiyapy; cs;snjdf; Fwpg;ghff; $wyhk;. cjhuzkhf
thA epiyapy; cs;s xU rlg;nghUs; mKf;fk; p, fdtsT v, ntg;gepiy T
Nghd;w rhuhkhwpfshy; tpgupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,g;gupkhzq;fspd; mjhtJ rhuhkhwpfspd;
ngWkhdq;fs; mr; rlg;nghUs; jput epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ khw;wkilAk;. vdNt
xU njhFjpapd; epiy> mstplg;glf;$ba mj;njhFjpapd; Fwpj;j ngUk;ghu;itf;
Fupa ,ay;Gfshy; tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
njhlf;fepiy (intial state)
xU njhFjpapd; njhlf;fepiyahdJ mj;njhFjp #oYld; vt;tpj ,ilj;jhf;fjpw;Fk;

cl;glKd; ,Ue;j Muk;gepiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk;.
KbTepiy (final state)
xU njhFjp #oYld; ,ilj;jhf;fk; mile;J Kbj;jgpd;G ,Uf;Fk; epiy KbT

epiyahFk;. xU njhFjp #oYld; gjhu;j;jk;> my;yJ ntg;gk; my;yJ rf;jp my;yJ
ahtw;iwAk; gupkhWtjd;%yk; ,ilj;jhf;fk; mila KbAk;.
38
xU njhFjpapd; epiyia tpgupf;fg; gad;gLk; P, V, T, mikg;G> n (%y;fspd; msT)

Nghd;wit epiy khwpfs; my;yJ epiyj; njhopw;ghLfs; vdg;gLk;. xU njhFjpapd;
epiy khw;wkilAk;nghOJ mj;njhFjpapd; epiykhwpfspd; ngWkhdq;fs; khw;wkilAk;.
vdNt epiynjhopwg ; hLfs; njhFjpapd; njhlf;f> ,Wjp epiyfspy; kl;LNk jq;fpAs;sJ.

mk;khw;wk; vt;thW epfo;e;jJ vd;gjpy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy. xU njhFjpapd; epiy
khwpfspd; (epiyj;njhopwg; hLfspd); ngWkhdq;fs; njupej
; hy; Vida jpzpT> ghFj;jd;ik>
mlu;j;jp Nghd;w mj;njhFjpapd; vy;yh ,ay;GfSk; njspthff; Fwpg;gplg;glyhk;.
epiykhwpfs; xd;wpw;nfhd;W rhu;Gs;sjhapUg;gjhy; (interdependent) xU njhFjpapd;
epiyiaf; Fwpg;gjw;F vy;yh epiykhwpfSk; Njitaw;wJ. rpy epiykhwpfs;
njupe;jpUj;jy; NghJkhdJ.
epak epiy (standard state)

Fwpg;gplg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;> xU njhFjpapy; ntg;gkhw;wk; epfo;tij
fUJk; nghOJ> epak mKf;fk; P0 I khw;Nww;W mKf;fkhf Fwpf;fg;gLtJ
mtrpak;. xU jug;gl;l gpuNahfj;jpYk; epak mKf;fk; khwhg; n g W k h d k ;
cilaJ. IUPAC apdhy; rpghu;R nra;ag;gl;l P0 ,d; ngWkhdk; 1 atm
(jpUj;jkhf 101325 Pa) (tiuaWf;fg;gl;l epak ntg;gepiy ,y;iy vd;gijAk;
vt;thwhapDk; 298 K ntg;gepiy epak ntg;gepiyahfr; rpy rkaq;fspy;
Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ vd;gijAk; ftdj;jpw;; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.) xU J}a
gjhu;jj; j;jpd; epak epiy mjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd mtj;ijapd; khw;Nww;W
epiyapy; nrwpT khwpfshy; tpgupf;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf jpz;k ,Uk;gpd;
epak epiyapy; J}a ,Uk;G xU tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy; jug;gl;l
ntg;gepiyapy; (500 K). epak epge;jidfis mg;gupkhzj;jpwF ; upa Fwpal
P b
; y;
Nky; vOj;J ‘0’ Nru;g;gjd; %yk; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd. (H, G, S
Vidait). fiury;fs; rk;ge;jg;gLk; nghOJ nrwpT 1 mol dm-3 vdf;
Fwpf;fg;gLk;. fiury;fSf;F epakepiy nrwpT mol dm-3 MFk;.
Rakhd / jd;dpr;irahd nrad;Kiwfs; (spontaneous process)
ntspjJ; }z;ly; vJTkpdw ; pj; jhdhfNt eilngWk; nrad;Kiwfs;. cjhuzkhf cNyhff;

Nfhypd; #lhd KidapypUe;J Fspuhd Kidf;F ntg;gk; flj;jy; epfOk;. ,r;nrad;
Kiwapy; mj;njhFjp njhlf;fepiyapypUe;J ,Wjp epiyf;F epiykhw;wkiljy; Fwpjj ;
jpirapy; khj;jpuk; epfOjy; rhjfkhdjhFk;. Rakhf epfOk; gy nrad;Kiwfs; ngUk;ghYk;
,aw;ifahd nrad;KiwfshFk;. mj;Jld; ,it kPsKbahj nrad;KiwfshFk;.
(jd;dpr;iraw;w) Rakhf epfohj nrad;Kiwfs; (non spontaneous process)
Rakhf eilngwKbahj nrad;Kiwfs; MFk;. cjhuzkhf fhgd; (C) tspapy;

vupe;J CO2 I cUthFk;NghJ ntg;gj;ij ntsptpLfpd;wJ. vdpDk; mJ Rakhfg;
gw;wp vupakhl;lhJ. ,jid Muk;gpf;f ntg;gk; toq;fNtz;bAs;sJ.
39
kPSk; ,ay;Gs;s nrad;Kiwfs; (reversible process)
xU kPSk; nrad;Kiwapy; xU njhFjp njhlf;fepiyapypUe;J ,Wjpepiyf;F

khWk;nghOJ nra;ag;gLk; njhlu; khw;wq;fisj; jpUj;jkhd Kiwapy; kPsr; nra;jy;
rhj;jpakhfyhk;. njhlf;f epiyapYUe;J ,Wjpepiyf;F khw;wkilAk;nghOJ mk;khw;wk;
rpwpa gbKiw fspD}lhf kpf nkJthf epfo;j;Jk;NghJ kPSk;jd;ik rhj;jpakhFk;.
,t;thW nra;Ak;NghJ xt;nthU ,ilepiyAk; #oYld; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. ,j;jifa
epge;jidfspd; fPo; njhFjpapd; njhlf;f ,Wjp epiyfs; Kw;whf kPSk; jd;ikiag;
ngWfpd;wJ. cjhuzk; gdpf;fl;b (ice) cUFk; nghOJ Fwpj;j msT ntg;gk; cwpQr ; g;
gLfpd;wJ. mNj msT ntg;gj;ij me;ePupypUe;J mfw;Wk; NghJ ePu; gdpf;fl;bahf
khWfpd;wJ.
kPsh ,ay;Gs;s nrad;Kiwfs; (irreversible process)
kPsh ,ay;Gs;s nrad;Kiw vdg;gLtJ #oypy; epiyahd khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jhJ

njhlf;f epiyia kPsg; ngwKbahj nrad;KiwahFk;. ngUk;ghyhd Rakhf epfOk;
nrad;Kiwfs; ,aw;ifahf kPSk; jd;ikaw;wit. cjhuzk; capupay; %g;nga;jy;
xU kPshj ,ay;Gs;s nrad;KiwahFk;. jhdhfNt xU kiyapypUe;J ePu; fPoN
; ehf;fpg;
gha;jy; xU kPshj ,ay;Gs;s nrad;KiwahFk;.
2.1.5 ntg;g cs;Siw (vd;jy;gp) (H)
ngUk;ghyhd ngsjpf khw;wq;fSk; ,urhad khw;wq;fSk; khwh mKf;f epge;jidfspy;

eilngWfpd;wd my;yJ elj;jg;gLfpd;wd. nghJthf Ma;T $lj;jpy; jhf;fq;fisr;
#oYf;Fj; jpwe;j FLitfspYk; KfitfspYk;> gupNrhjidf; Foha;fspYk; elhj;Jk;
nghOJ mq;F njhopw;gLk; mKf;fk; mz;zsthf xU tspkz;ly mKf;fkhFk;.
(1atm  105Pa) khwh mKf;fr; nrad;Kiwfspy; njhFjpapDs;Sk; ntspNaAk; Vw;gLk;
ntg;gg;gha;r;riyr; (heat flow) fzpag;gFj;Jtjw;F ,urhadtpayhsu; (vd;jy;gp) ntg;g
cs;Siw vd;Dk; ,ay;ig (property) cgNahfpf;fpd;wdu;. ,J H vd;Dk; FwpaPl;bdhy;
Fwpff ; g;gLk;. khwh mKf;fj;jpy; ntg;g khw;wk; rkd; ntg;gTs;Siw vd;Dk; njhlu;igf;
Fwpf;fpd;wdu;. vd;jy;gp (ntg;gcs;Siw) xU tpupthd ,ay;ghFk;. , jd ; gU kd ;
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; mstpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. xU gjhu;jj ; j;jpd; ntg;g cs;Siwiaf; fzpgg
; J
rhj;jpakw;wJ. vdNt ehk; cz;ikapy; msg;gJ ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; (H)
xU jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H tpisTfspd; ntg;gcs;Siwf;Fk;

jhf;fpfspd; ntg;gcs;Siwf;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s NtWghlhFk;.
H = HtpisTfs; - Hjhf;fpfs;
40
2.1.6 ntg;gk; (Heat)
ntg;gcs;Siw khwh mKf;fj;jpy; ntg;gj;jpw;Fr; (q) rkkhf ,Ug;gjhy; ehk; ntg;g

khw;wj;jpw;fhd mstPLfisf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;syhk;. Ma;T$lj;jpy; ngsjpf> ,urhadr;
nrad;Kiwfspy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gkhw;wq;fs; fNyhupkhdp nfhz;L mstplg;gLfpwJ.
,j;NjitfSf;fhf tbtikf;fg;gl;l %ba nfhs;fyd; fNyhupkhdp vdg;gLk;. ntg;g
khw;wj;ijf; fzpg;gpLtjw;F Kjypy; ehk; jd;ntg;gk; ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT Mfpatw;iw
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;.
jd;ntg;gKk; ntg;gf; nfhs;ssTk;
jd;ntg;gk; (s) xU fpuhk; gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ntg;gepiyia xU ghif nry;rparpD}lhf

(Celsius) cau;j;Jtjw;Fj; Njitahd ntg;gj;jpd; msthFk;.
ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT (C) xU jug;gl;l msT gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ntg;gepiyia xU ghif

nry;rparpD}lhf cau;j;Jtjw;Fj; Njitahd ntg;gj;jpd; msthFk;. jd;ntg;gk; xU
nrwptpay;G Mdhy; ntg;gf;nfhs;ssT xU tpuptpay;G ntg;gf; nfhs;sstpw;Fk;
jd;ntg;gj;jpw;Fkhd njhlu;G
C = ms
,q;Nf m MdJ gjhu;j;jj;jpd; jpzpitf; fpuhkpy; $Wjy;.

Fwpg;G: jd;ntg;gj;ijf; Fwpg;gjw;Fr; rpyNtisfspy; c gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
cjhuzkhf ePupd; jd;ntg;gk; 4.184J g-1 0C-1, mj;Jld; 100.0 g ePupd; ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT
(100.0g)(4.184Jg-1C-1) = 418.4J 0C-1 jd;ntg;gj;jpd; myF Jg-1C-1 (my;yJ Jg-1K-1) ntg;gf;
nfhs;sstpd; myF J 0C-1 (my;yJ Jk-1) vd;gijf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;f.
jd;ntg;gKk;> gjhu;j;jj;jpd; msTk; njupe;jpUg;gpd; khjpupapd; ntg;gepiykhw;wk;

t [ntg;gepiy 0C] my;yJ T (ntg;gepiy K) nrad;Kiwapd; NghJ cwpQ;rg;gl;l
my;yJ ntsptplg;gl;l ntg;gj;jpd; msitg; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghL nfhz;L fzpf;fyhk;.
q = mst my;yJ q = msT
,q;F m - khjpupapd; jpzpT> t ntg;gepiy khw;wk; mjhtJ t = t KbT - tMuk;gk;> q MdJ

FwpaPl;L tof;F- ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wj;jpw;fhd FwpaPlhf mikAk;. mfntg;gr;
nrad;K iwapd;NghJ cwpQ;r g;gl;l ntg;gj;jpd; msT q NeuhdJ. Gwntg;gj;
jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ ntsptplg;gl;l ntg;gj;jpd; msT kiwahdJ.
41
2.2 NtWgl;l ntg;g ,urhadr; nrad;KiwfSld; / jhf;fq;fSld;

,ize;j ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; epak ntg;g cs;Siw
khw;wq;fSk;
H vLj;Jr; nrhy;tJ xU jhf;fj;jpdN

; ghJ khwh mKf;fj;jpy; cwpQr
; g;gLk; my;yJ
ntsptplg;gLk; ntg;gj;jpd; msthFk;. xU jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;gcs;Siw Neu; my;yJ
kiwg; ngWkhdKilaJ vd;gJ mr;nrad;Kiwapy; jq;fpAs;sJ. xU jhf;fj;jpd; nghOJ
Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; mj;njhFjpapy; cs;s gjhu;jj
; j;jpd; mstpwF
; Neu;tpfpj
rkkhFk;.
2.2.1 Gwntg;g> mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiwfs;
ntg;g ,af;fr; nrad;Kiw Xu; ,urhadj; jhf;fk; my;yJ ngsjpf khw;wkhf ,Uf;Fk;
nghOJ mk;KOr; nrad;Kiwapy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gg;gha;rr ; ypd; jpirapd; mbg;gilapy;
mk;khw;wk; mfntg;gj; jhf;fk; my;yhj Gwntg;gj; jhf;fk; vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
mt;tpU nrad;KiwfSk; gpdt ; UkhW NtWgLj;jg;gLfpdw; d.
ml;ltiz 2.1 mfntg;g> Gwntg;gr; nrad;KiwfSf;fpilapyhd xg;gL

P
mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiw Gwntg;gr; nrad;Kiw

xU nrad;KiwahdJ ntg;gk; cwpQr; g; xU nrad;Kiwapd; Muk;gepiy ,Wjp
gLtjd; %yk; Muk;g epiy ,Wjpepiyahf epiyahf khw;w g; g Lk;N ghJ ntg; gk;
khw; w kilAnkdpd; mr; n rad; K iw ntsptplg;gLkhapd; m r ; n r a d ; K i w
mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiw vd miof;fg;gLk;. Gwntg;gr; nrad;Kiw vdg;gLk;.
njhFjpapd; ,Wjpepiy njhlf;f / Muk;g njhFjpapd; ,Wjpepiy njhlf;f /Muk;g

epiyapYk; cau;rf;jpAilaJ. khw;wj;jpw; epiyapYk; jho;rf;jpAilaJ. Nkyjpf
Fj; Njitahd Nkyjpf rf;jp njhFjp rf;jp ntg;gkhf ntsptplg;gLk;.
apdhy; ntg;gkhf #oypypUe;J cwpQr ; g; cjhuzk;: vy;yh jfdr; nrad;KiwfSk;
gLk;. c+k;: mNkhdpak; FNshiul;il Gwntg;gj; jhf;fq;fshFk;.
ePupy; fiuj;jy;.
nghJthf mfntg;g ngsjpf khw;wq;fspd; ngsjpf khw;wk; Gwntg;gjhf;fkhapd;

NghJ Muk;g / njhlf;fepiyia ,Wjp njhlf;f epiyia ,Wjp epiyf;F khw;W
epiyf;F khw;Wtjw;F ntg;gk; toq;fg; tjw;F ntg;gk; ntspNaw;wg;gl (ePf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzk; xU jpz;kj;jpw;F gl) Ntz;Lk;. xU jputk; ciwAk;
ntg;gj;ij toq;Ftjd; %yk; cUfr; nghOJ ntg;gk; ntsptplg;gLk;.
nra;jy; mfntg;gj; jhf;f nray; K iw
ahFk;.
42
jhf;fp + rf;jp (ntg;gk;)  tpisTfs; jhf;fp tpisTfs; + ntg;gk;

1 1 1
N 2 (g) + O 2 (g)  90 kJ  NO (g) H 2 (g) + O 2 (g)  H 2 O (g) + 242 kJ
2 2 2
#oy; #oy;
ntg;gk; ntg;gk;
>>> njhFjp njhFjp >>>
Xu; mfntg;gr; nrad;Kiwf;F H Neu;g; XU Gwntg;gr; nrad;Kiwf;F H kiwg;

ngWkhdk; MFk;. (+) (njhFjpapdhy; ngWkhdk; MFk;. (-) (njhFjpapypUe;J
#oypypUe;J ntg;gk; cwpQr
; g;gLfpdw
; J.) #oYf;F ntg;gk; ,of;fg;gLfpd;wJ.)
mjhtJ H > 0) mjhtJ H < 0)
tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs;
ntg;g cs;Siw
ntg;g cs;Siw
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
khwh mKf;fj;jpy; msf;fg;gLk; ntg;gkhw;wk; njhFjpapy; Vw;gLk; ntg;gTs;Siw

khw;wj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. khwh mKf;fj;jpy; njhopw;gLk; fNyhupkhdpia cgNahfpj;J
xU nrad;Kiwapd; NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wj;ij Neubahf msf;f
KbAk;.
epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wq;fs;

xU jhf;fj;jpd; Muk;gepiy (jhf;fpfs;)> ,Wjpepiy (tpisTfs;) ahtw;iwAk; jpUj;jkhf
(precisely) tpgupf;Fk;NghJ> mj;jhf;fj;jpw;Fupa msf;fg;gl;l ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;
jdpjJ; tkhd (unique) ngWkhdk; cilajhf ,Uf;Fk;. jhf;fpfSf;Fk; tpisTfSf;Fk;
epak epiyia tiuaWj;jhy; (105Pa mKf;fKk; Mu;t ntg;gepiy) jhf;fpfSk;>
tpisTfSk; epak epiyapy; cs;s jhf;fq;fspd; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; mj;jhf;fj;jpd;
epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; vd vk;khy; $wKbAk;. mt;thW miof;fg;gLk; epak
ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;> “degree” FwpaPl;Lld; H Fwpf;fg;gLk;. epak epiyapd;
tiutpyf;fzj;jpy; ntg;gepiy gq;F nfhs;shtpbDk; H ngWkhdq;fs; ntg;gepiy
apy; jq;fpapUg;gjhy; epak cs;Siwg; ngWkhdq;fis ml;ltizg;gLj;Jk;NghJ
ntg;gepiy Fwpg;gplg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,g;ghlj;jpy; (text) ntg;gepiy Fwpg;gplhjtiu
jug;gl;Ls;s epakntg;gepiyg; ngWkhdq;fs; 298.15K my;yJ 250C vd vLf;fg;gLk;.
vspa Kiwapy; gpd;tUkhW epakjhf;f ntg;gTs;Siwia tiuaWf;fyhk;.
43
epak epge;jidapd; fPo; xU jhf;fj;jpy; jug;gl;l jhf;fpfspd; msTfs;

jhf;fkile;J epakepiyapy; cs;s tpisTfis cUthf;Fk;nghOJ Vw;gLk;
ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; epak jhf;fntg;gTs;SiwahFk;.
2.2.2 ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfs;
epak tof;fFwpal ; ld; H (my;yJ H ) ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s rkd; nra;j ,urhadr;
P L
rkd;ghLfs;> mj;jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghL vdg;gLk;. gpd;tUk; tof;ff;
FwpaLP fs; (conventions) ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;by; Nru;ff
; g;glNtz;baJ mtrpakhFk;.
1. rkd; nra;j ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;by; cs;s gPrkhd Fzfq;fs; xU jhf;fj;jpy;

<LgLk; jhf;fpfspdJk; tpisTfspdJk; %y;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaf; Fwpf;Fk;.
2. xU jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; myF kJ mol-1. NkYk; jhf;fj;jpy;

<LgLk; jhf;fpfspd; tpisTfspd; vz;zpf;if xU %ypYk; mjpfkhf ,Ug;gpDk;
ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; myF khw;wkilahJ. Mdhy; ngWkhdk; khw;w
kilAk;.
3. ; fkhf epfOk;NghJ H vz; ngWkhdk; khw;wkilahJ.

Xu; ,urhadj;jhf;fk;> gpdK
Mdhy; FwpaPL vjpuhf khwpaikAk;. (same magnitude with reversed in sign).
4. jhf;fpfs; tpisTfspdJ ngsjpf epiyapy; (mtj;ijapy;) H (my;yJ H)

jq;fpapUg;gjhy; ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;by; vy;yhf; $WfspdJk; ngsjpf
epiy mtj;ij Fwpg;gplg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
5. Xu; ntg;g ,urhadr; rkd;ghL xU vz;zpdhy; ngUf;fg;gl;lhy;> ntg;g cs;Siw

khw;wKk; mt;ntz; ngWkhdj;jpdhy; ngUf;fg;glNtz;baJ mtrpak;.
6. H ngWkhdk; kiwg; ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;bUe;jhy; mj;jhf;fk; Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk;

vdg; nghUs;gLk;;. Neu;f;FwpaPl;il H ngWkhdk; nfhz;bUe;jhy; mj;jhf;fk;
mfntg;gj; jhf;fkhf mikAk;.
cjhuzk;;:
gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fisf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;f.

2H2(g) + O2(g) 
 2H2O(g) H = -483.7 kJ mol-1
 2H2O(  )
2H2(g) + O2(g)  H = -571.6 kJ mol-1
NkNy jug;gl;l ,urhadr; rkd;ghLfs; gy topfspy; mu;j;jq; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.

 483.7 kJ xU %y; jhf;fj;jpw;F ntsptplg;gLk; rf;jp
 483.7 kJ 2 %y; H2 jhf;fKWtjw;F ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ
 483.7 kJ xU %y; O2 jhf;fKWtjw;F ntsptplg;gLfpwJ
 483.7 kJ 2 %y; ePuhtp cUthFk;NghJ ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ
44
jhf;fKWk; %y;fspd; vz;zpfi

; f jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdf; Fzfq;fSf;Fr; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;
nghOJ> H jhf;fj;jpd; nghOJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; msitf;
Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
Fwpg;G: ,e;epfo;tpy; 483.7 kJ mol-1 fUJtJ 2 %y; Ijurd; thA xU %y; xl;rprDld;
jhf;fKw;W 2 %y;fs; thAepiy ePiu cUthf;Fk; nghOJ 483.7 kJ ntg;gk;
ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjhFk;.
rpy Ntisfspy; Nkw;gb jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 
 2H2O(g) , H = -483.7 kJ mol-1
Fwpg;G: ,e;epfo;tpy; vOjg;gl;lijg; Nghd;W tiuaWf;fg;gl;l jhf;f msT (defined

extent of reaction) eilngWk; nghOJ 483.7 kJ ntg;gk; ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ.
jhf;f msT myifAilaJ. (extent of reaction) mol
Nkw;gb jhf;fj;jpw;F>
H = H  mol = -483.7 kJ mol-1  mol = -483.7 kJ
cjhuzkhf ehk; jhf;fq;fisg; gpd;tUkhW vOjpdhy;>
4H2(g) + O2(g) 
 4H2O(g)
mg;nghOJ ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; H ,id vOJNthk;. 2 H = -967.4 kJ.
,J fUJtJ Kjyhtjhd (Muk;g) H ngWkhdk; 2 ,dhy; ngUf;fg;glNtz;Lk;
vd;gJ MFk;. MfNt jhf;f mstpw;Fg; (extent of reaction) gjpyhf> jhf;fkilAk; xU
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; cz;ikahd msitg; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. mJ jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk;
VjhtJ xU gjhu;j;jj;jpd; msitr; rkd;ghl;bypUf;Fk; mjd; gPrkhd Fzfj;jhy;
gpupj;jhy;>
NkNyAs;s jhf;fj;jpw;F ehk; ngWtJ (xl;rprDf;F)
H = -483.7 kJ mol-1  2 mol = -967.4 kJ
ehk; H kl;Lk; nfhLj;jhy; mJ ,t;thW mikAk; = -967.4 kJ mol-1
jhf;fq;fisg; gpd;tUkhW vOjpd;>
2H2(g) + 1 O2(g) 
 H2O(  ) Hf = -285.5 kJ mol-1
2
2H2(g) + 1 O2(g) 
 2H2O(g) Hf = -241.8.1 kJ mol-1
2
NkNy cs;s ngWkhdq;fspd; miug;gq;fhf ntg;g cs;Siwg; ngWkhdq;fs; ,Ug;gijg;

ghu;f;fyhk;.
nghJthff; $wpd; NkNy ,Uf;Fk; rkd;ghL H2 thA jfdkile;J ePiuf; nfhLg;gijf;

Fwpf; f pd; wJ. KjyhtJ jputeP u ; cUthjiyAk;> ,uz; lhtJ jhf;f k; ePu htp
cUthjiyAk; fUJfpd;wJ. ,U jhf;fq;fSk; khwh ntg;g mKf;f epiyfisf;
Fwpf;fpd;wd. H ,d; kiwg;ngWkhdkhdJ ,J Xu; Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk; vd;gijf;
Fwpfhl;Lfpd;wJ.
45
Kd;Kfj;jhf;fk; Gwntg;gkhf ,Ug;gpd>; gpdK

; fj;jhf;fk; mfntg;gkhf ,Uf;Fk;. mj;Jld;
vjpu;kiwahfTk; (vice-versa) mikAk;. ,t;tpjpia ,urhadr; nrad;KiwfSf;Fk;>
ngsjpfr; nrad;KiwfSf;Fk; gpuNahfpf;fyhk;.
2H2O(  ) 
 2H2(g) + O2(g) H = +571.1 kJmol-1
2H2O(g) 
 2H2(g) + O2(g) H = +483.7 kJmol-1
2.2.3 ntg;g cs;Siw tupg;glq;fs; (Enthalpy diagrams)
gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.


 12CO2(g) + 11H2O(l) H = -5650kJmol
-1
C12H22O11(s) + 12O2(g) 
NkNy cs;s jhf;fj;jpd; H ngWkhdk; kiwahf ,Ug;gjd; fUj;J> tpistpd;

ntg;g cs;Siw jhf;fpapd; ntg;g cs;SiwapYk; FiwT vd;gjhFk;. ntg;gk; jhf;F
njhFjpapypUe;J #oYf;F ,of;fg;gLk;nghOJ njhFjpapd; ntg;g cs;Siw Fiwfpdw
; J.
Rf;FNuhrpd; jfdk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk;.
fPo;tUk; jhf;fj;jpy;
N2(g) + O2(g) 
 2NO(g) H = +180.50 kJmol-1
tpisT> jhf;fpapYk; cau; ntg;gTs;SiwAilaJ. vdNt H Neu;ngWkhdKilaJ.

ntg;gTs;Siw mjpfupgg ; jw;Fr; #oypypUe;J ntg;gk; cwpQr
; g;gLfpwJ. vdNt ,j;jhf;fk;
Xu; mfntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. xU ntg;g cs;Siw tupg;glk; xU nrad;Kiwapy; Vw;gLk;
ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpid tuptbtpy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; tiuglkhFk;.
Vw;fdNt 2.1 ml;ltizapw; fhl;batw;iw fPNo cs;s cUf;fs; 2.3 a, b Gwntg;gj;

jhf;fj;ijAk; mfntg;gj;jhf;fj;ijAk; tupg;glk; %yk; vt;thW vLj;J $wyhk; vdf;
fhl;Lfpd;wd.
tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs;
ntg;g cs;Siw
ntg;g cs;Siw
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
cU 2.3 ntg;g cs;Siw tupg;glq;fs;

(a) mfntg;gr; (b) Gwntg;gr;
nrad;Kiw nrad;Kiw
46
2.2.4 ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wq;fSk; epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wq;fSk;
 epak Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; Hf
epak Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; Hf epakepiyapy; cs;s xU %y;

gjhu;jj; k; epakepiyapy; cs;s mjd; Mf;ff;$w;W %yfq;fspd; (Fwpf;fg;gl;l) khw;Nww;W
tbtq;fspypUe;J Njhd;Wk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;. 1 atm (101325Pa)
mKf;fj;jpYk;> jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapYk; Vwj;jho vy;yh %yfq;fspw;Fk; rpytw;wpw;Fj;
jtpu khw;Nww;W tbtk; kpfTk; cWjpahdJ. FwpaPl;by; cs;s  ntg;g cs;Siw
khw;wk; epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; vd;gijAk; fPNo vOjg;gl;l FwpaL P (subscript)
“ f ” ,j; jhf;fj;jpy; cUthd gjhu;jj
; k;> mjid Mf;Fk; %yfq;fspypUe;J Njhd;wpaijAk;>
ntg;g cs;Siwiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. Vnddpy; %yfj;jpd; kpfTk; cWjpahd tbtk; jhNd
cUthjypy; vt;tpj ntg;g Ts;Siw khw;wKk; eilngWtjpy;iy.
J}a %yfk; xd;wpd; khw;Nww;W / Rl;L tbtj;jpd;

epak Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw 0.
cjhuzk;: ntg;g ,urhadj; juTfs;> nghJthf ml;ltizg;gLj;jg;gLk; ntg;gepiy

298.15K ,y;> rpy %yfq;fspd; kpfTk; cWjpahd tbtk; fPNo gl;bay;
gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Na(s), H2(g), N2(g), O2(g), C (s, graphite), Br2(  )
cjhuzk;: fhgdpd; epiygw;wpf; fUJifapy; fhgd; ,aw;ifapy; fhuPakhff; fhzg;

gLtJld; itukhfTk; fhzg;gLfpdw ; J. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; mt;tpUtbtq;
fSf;fpilapy; mikaf;$ba ntg;g cs;Siw NtWghL cz;L. vdNt
,U tbtq;fSf;Fk;  H f  0 Mff; nfhs;s KbahJ.

C(s, graphite); 
 C(s, diamond) H f  1.9 kJ mol-1
kpfTk; cWjpahd tbtj;ij khw;Nww;W / Fwpg;G tbtkhfj; Nju;e;njLf;

fpdN
; whk;.; mjhtJ jho; ntg;g cs;Siw nfhz;lijj; Nju;en
; jLf;fpdN
; whk;.

mjhtJ jho; ntg;g cs;Siw cila fhuPaj;jpw;F  H f  0 vdf;
nfhs;sg;gLk;. H f (graphite); = 0
250C apYk; 1105Pa mKf;fj;jpYk; tpisT kpfTk; cWjpahd tbtkhf

,y;yhtpbd; Njhd;wy; jhf;fj;jpd; tpistpd; ngsjpf epiy njspthff;
Fwpg;gplg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
H2(g) + 12 O2(g) 
 H2O(  ) H f  -285.8 kJ mol-1
H2(g) + 12 O2(g) 
 H2O(g) H f  -241.8 kJ mol-1
47
,U H f ngWkhdq;fSf;fpilapyhd NtWghL ePupd; Mtpahjy; ntg;gj;ijf; (heat of

vapourization) (44 kJ mol-1) Fwpf;Fk;.
ehk; ngUkstpy; epak Njhd;wy; ntg;gcs;Siwiag; gy;tifahd fzpgG

; fSf;Fg;
; whk;. ,g;ghlj;jpy; cjhuzk; %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;baJ Nghd;W H f I
gad;gLj;JfpdN
gpuNahfpff
; f;$ba Kiwapy; ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;il Kjypy; vOjNtz;Lk;.
Nghky;bifl;bd; (HCHO) epakj; Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw 298 K ,y; -108 kJ mol-1
MFk;.
,e;epfo;T gpdt
; Uk; rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; fPNo fhl;lg;gLfpdw
; J.
H2(g) + 12 O2(g) + C(graphite) 

 HCHO(g) H f  -108 kJ mol-1
rpy cjhuzq;fisf; fye;Jiuahl Kd;> rpy ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspdJ / epfo;TfspdJ

epak ntg;g cs;Siwfis tiuaWg;gJ gaDs;sjhf mikAk;.
 epak jfd ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H c
epak epiyapYs;s %yfnkhd;wpd; my;yJ Nru;itnahd;wpd; xU %y;> kpif xl;rprdpy;

(my;yJ tspapy); g+uzkhfj; jfdkile;J epakepiyapYs;s tpisTfis cUthf;Fk;
NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
-1
C3H8(g) +5O2(g) 
 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) H c[C3 H8 ( g )] = -2219.9 kJ mol
C(s) + O2(g) 
 CO2(g)  H C = -393.5 kJ mol-1
 epak gpizg;Gg; gpupif ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;  H D
epak epiyapy; thA epiyapy; cs;s Nru;it xd;wpd; xU %y; gpizg;G cile;J
epakepiyapy; cs;s thA epiy mZf;fshf my;yJ thA epiyf;$Wfshff; $l;lw;
gpupifailAk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
H2(g)  2H(g)
  H D = 432 kJ mol-1
CH4(g) 
 CH3(g) + H(g)  H D = 428 kJ mol-1
CH3(g) 
 CH2(g) + H(g)  H D = 441 kJ mol-1
CH2(g) 
 CH(g) + H(g)  H D = 454 kJ mol-1
CH(g) 
 C(g) + H(g)  H D = 344 kJ mol-1
vdNt nkNjdpd; gpizg;Gg; gpupifr; rf;jp NkNy jug;gl;l ehd;F ntg;g cs;Siwg;
ngWkhdq;fspdJk; ,ilahFk;.
CH4(g) ,d; ruhrup epak gpizg;G gpupif rf;jp = (428+441+454+344)  4 kJ mol-1
= 416.75 kJ mol-1
48

 epak eLepiyahf;fy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; Hneu
epak epiyfspy; ePu;f;fiurypy; cs;s xU %y; H+ mad;fs;@ ePu;f;fiurypYs;s xU

%y; OH- mad;fSld; jhf;fkile;J jput ePu; (H2O(  )) ,d; %y; xd;iw cUthf;Fk;NghJ
Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;.

 H2O(  )
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  Hneu = -57 kJ mol-1

 epak fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;;  H sol
epak epiyfspy;; thA epiyapy; cs;s xU %y; mad;fs; 1.0 mol dm-3 fiuryhf
khWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;.
Mn+(g) + fiug;ghd;  n+
 M (fiug;ghd;)

 epak ePNuw;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H hyd
epak epiyapy;; thA epiyapy; cs;s xU %y; mad;fs; ePupy; fiue;J 1.0 mol dm-3
nrwpTila ePu;f; fiuryhf khWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;.
0
Na+(g) + ePu;  +
 Na (aq) H hyd = -406 kJ mol-1

 epak fiuryhjy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H dissolution
epak epiyapYs;s> xU %y; gjhu;j;jk; fiug;ghdpy; fiue;J 1.0 mol dm-3 nrwpTila
fiuryhf khWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;.

NaCl(s) + ePu; 
 NaCl(aq) H dissolution = 1 kJ mol-1

 epak gjq;fkhjy;; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H sub
epak epiyapYs;s> jpz;k %yfnkhd;wpd; xU %y; my;yJ jpz;kr; Nru;it xd;wpd;

xU %y;@ g+uzkhf epak epiyapYs;s thA epiyf;F khWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wk;.

Ca(s) 
 Ca(g) H sub = 193 kJ mol-1

 epak Mtpahjy;; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; H evap
epak epiyapy>; xU %y; jputepiyapYs;s> Nru;it my;yJ %yfk; epak epiyapYs;sd.

thA epiyapYs;s> Nru;it my;yJ %yfkhf khWk; NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw
khw;wk;.

Br2(  ) 
 Br2(g) H evap = 30.91 kJ mol-1
49
 epak cUfy;; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H fus
epak epiyapy;;> xU %y; jpz;k epiyapYs;s> Nru;it my;yJ %yfk; epakepiyapy;

cs;s; xU %y; jputepiyr;> Nru;itahf my;yJ %yfkhf khWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
 Al(  )
Al(s)  H fus = 10.7 kJ mol-1

 epak mZthjy;; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H at
epak epiyapy; cs;s %yfk; xd;W epakepiyapYs;s xU %y; thA mZf;fshf

khWk; NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
1 Cl (g) H at = 121 kJ mol-1
2 2  Cl(g)


 epak Kjyhk; madhf;fy;; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H IE1
epak epiyapYs;s thAepiy xU %y; msthd %yf mZtpd; xt;nthU mZtp

ypUe;Jk; fUTld; kpfTk; jsu;thfg; gpizj;Js;s xU ,yj;jpud; tPjk; mfw;wp>
thAepiyapYs;s xU %y; msthd xU Neu; Vw;wKila mad;fis cUthf;Fk;
nghOJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
+ 
Na(g) 
 Na (g) + e H IE1
= 496 kJ mol-1

 epak ,yj;jpuNdw;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H EG
epak epiyapYs;s xU %y; thAepiyapYs;s mZf;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; ,yj;jpud;fisg;

ngWtjd; %yk; xU %y; thAepiy kiwNaw;wk; xd;iwf; nfhz;l mad;fis
cUthf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wkhFk;.
Fwpg;G: ,g;ngWkhdk; ,yj;jpud; ehl;lj;jpd; vjpuf

; ; Fwpal
P i
; l cilaJ. (T = 0 K
,Uf;Fk;nghOJ> me;epiyapy; Vw;gLk; (,yj;jpudhl;l) rf;jp khw;wj;jpd; vjpug
; ;
ngWkhdk;) MfNt Neu; ,yj;jpudhl;l ngWkhdk;> Gwntg;g ,yj;jpud; Vw;wiy
xj;jpUf;Fk;.
- 
Cl(g) + e 
 Cl (g) H EG = -349 kJ mol-1
MfNt Cl(g) apdJ ,yj;jpud; ehl;lk; = 349 kJ mol-1
Fwpg;G: fw;wad; cUthFk; re;jug;gj;jpy>; Njhd;wy; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; RTapdhy;

NtWgLk;.
H = HEG - RT
50
 mad; Nru;itnahd;wpd; epak rhyf gpupif ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; H L
epak epge;jidapy; xU %y; jpz;k mad; Nru;it xd;W thA epiyapYs;s

Neu;> kiw mad;fshf khw;wg;gLk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk;.
NaCl(s)  Na+(g) + Cl-(g) H L = +788 kJ mol-1
2.2.5 H (H)I Neupy;yhj Kiwapy; (kiwKf Kiwapy;) Jzpjy; (Indirect

determination)
vR tpjp (Hess law)

ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; vd;Dk; vz;zf;fU kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Ug;gjw;fhd
fhuzk; rpwpa vz;zpf;ifahd mstPLfis cgNahfpjJ ; mjpf vz;zpf;ifahd
(ngUk;ghyhd) jhf;f ntg;gq;fisf; fzpf;fyhk; vd;gNjahFk;. gpd;tUk; ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; tpNrl ,ay;Gfs; (features) ,jidr; rhj;jpakhf;Ffpd;wJ.
H xU tpuptpay;ghFk;. mj;Jld;> ,J epiyj; njhopw;ghLilaJ.
NO(g) 25 0C apy; mjid Mf;Fk; %yfq;fspypUe;J cUthf;Fk; NghJ Vw;gLk;

epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;ijf; fUJf.
N2(g) + O2(g) 
 2NO(g) H = 180.50 kJ mol-1
xU %y; NO(g) cUthtjw;Fj; Njitahd ntg;g cs;Siwiaf; $Wk;nghOJ

(express) vy;yhf; Fzfq;fisAk; ,uz;lhy; tFf;Fk; nghOJ H ngWkhdj;ijAk;
,uz;lhy; tFf;fg;gLk;.
1 N (g) + 1 O (g) H = 90.25 kJ mol-1

2 2 2 2  NO(g)

epiyj; njhopw;ghL vd;gjdhy; H ,d; FwpaPL xU nrad;Kiw gpd;Kfkhf

eilngWk; nghOJ (vjpuhdjhf) kiwahf khw;wkilfpwJ. xU %y; NO(g)
gpupifailAk; nghOJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;> xU %y; NO(g)
cUthFk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; vjpug
; ; ngWkhdkhf mikAk;.
mjhtJ -H 
NO(g)  1 1 H = -90.25 kJ mol-1

 2 N2(g) + 2 O2(g)
vR khwh ntg;gf; $l;ly; tpjpf;fhd cjhuzk;:-

N2(g), O2(g) Mfpatw;wpypUe;J NO2(g) Njhd;Wtjw;fhd epak ntg;g cs;Siw
khw;wj;ijf; fhz;;gjw;F>
1 N (g) + O (g)  H = ?
2 2 2  NO2(g)

51
ehk; ,j;jhf;fk; ,Ugbfspy; eilngWtjhff; fUjyhk;. Kjypy; N2(g), O2(g) ,ypUe;J

NO(g) thAit cUthf;fpg; gpdd; u; NO2(g) thAit NO(g), O2(g) Mfpa thAf;fspypUe;J
cUthf;fpd;wJ. ,t; ,U rkd;ghLfspd; gbfisAk; mtw;wpd; jdpj;Jtkhd H
ngWkhdq;fis xd;whff; $l;Lk;nghOJ ehk; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; nkhj;jr; rkd;ghLk;>
H dJ ngWkhdk; fpilf;fg;ngWk;.
1 N (g) + 1 O (g) H = 90.25 kJ mol-1 ......... (1)
2 2 2 2  NO(g)

NO(g) + 12 O2(g) 
 NO2(g) H = -57.07 kJ mol-1 ......... (2)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
(1) + (2); 1 N (g) + O (g) H = +33.18 kJ mol-1

2 2 2  NO2(g)

NkNy jug;gl;l cjhuzj;ijg; Nghd;W> vR tpjpahdJ ehk; cgNahfpj;j jj;Jtj;ijf;

$Wfpd;wJ.
mjhtJ xU nrad;Kiw gy gbfspy; my;yJ gy epiyfspD}lhf epfOk; nghOJ

(nfhs;ifuPjpahf vdpDk;) nkhj;jr; nrad;Kiwf;fhd ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;
mg;gbfSf;fhd ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wj;jp;d; $l;Lj;njhifahf mikAk;.
,d;DNkhu; Kiwahff; $Wk;nghOJ vRtpd; tpjp ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; epiyj;

njhopw;ghl;bay;gpd; tpisthFk;. Muk;gepiyapypUe;J ,Wjpepiyf;F khw;wkilAk;
ghijAld; rk;ge;jg;glhJ. H (my;yJ H - khw;wk; epak epge;jidfspd; fPo;
eilngWk; nghOJ) xNu ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; my;yJ jhf;fk; eilngWk;
ghijfspy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
,t; vz;zf;fUitf; fPNo tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ Nghd;W (KiwNa cU 2.4> 2.5 %yk;)

ntg;g cs;Siw tupg;glk; %yk; my;yJ ntg;g,urhad rf;fuk; %yk; tpsf;fpf;
fhl;lyhk;.
,ilepiyfs;
ntg;g cs;Siw
ntg;g cs;Siw
jhf;fpfs; jhf;fpfs;
tpisTfs; tpisTfs;
(a) (b)
cU.2.4 jhf;fp A I tpisT B ahf khw;wkilAk; Gwntg;gj; jhf;fj;ij
,U topfspD}lhf khw;Wk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wq;fs;
NkNy jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
(a) Neubahd khw;wk; (b) rpy ,ilepiyfisf; nfhz;l ,Ugbr;nrad;Kiw
52
cU 2.4 - vRtpd; tpjpapd; $w;iw tpgupff ; pdw

; J. jhf;fpfs; A, tpisTfs; B ahf
khw;wkilAk; NghJ Vw;gLk; nkhj;j ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; mJ xU gbapy; my;yJ
,Ugbfspy; my;yJ gy gbfspy; epfo;jj
; g;gLk;nghOJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wq;fs;
rkk;. Vnddpy; ntg;gcs;Siw tupg;glj;jpy; jhf;fpfSf;Fk; tpisTfSf;Fkhd
rhu;epiyia ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; jOtp epw;gNjahFk;.
ntg;gcs;Siw tiuglj;ij NkNyfhl;bathW mikg;gjd;%yk; fzpj;jy;fis

Nkw;nfhs;syhk;. vdpDk; mjid kpf vspikahfr; nra;tjw;F xU KiwAz;L.
mr;nrad;Kiwia tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F ntg;g,urhadr; rf;fuk; fPNo fhl;bathW
Njitg;gLfpdw
; J. ,q;Nf jhf;fp A I B ahf khw;Wtjw;F ,Ughijfs; fUjg;gLfpdw
; J.
ghij
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
,ilepiyfs;
ghij
cU 2.5 ntg;g ,urhadr; rf;fuk;
ntg;g ,urhadr; rf;fuj;ij tiuAk; nghOJ gpd;tUk; mwpTWj;jy;fisg; gpd;gw;WtJ

Kf;fpakhFk;.
Kjypy; ntg;gcs;Siwkhw;wk; fhzg;glNtz;b a jhf;f j;jpw;f hd jhf;fj;jpid

vOjNtz;Lk;. mj;Jld; mk;Gf;Fwpapd; kPJ H I vOjNtz;Lk;. gpd;du; Vida
jhf;fq;fis ntg;g ,af;ftpay; jfty;fSld; mt;tiuglj;jpy; Nru;jJ ; ntg;g ,urhad
(vR tpjp) tl;lj;ij Vw;gLj;jTk;. NkYk; njupej
; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wq;fis xt;nthU
kw;iwa jhf;fq;fspd; mk;Gf;Fwpapd;Nky; vOjTk;. njhlu;r;rpahd mk;Gf;FwpfSld;
tiuglj;ijr; #o;eJ ; ,U ghijfis mikAq;fs;. vjpuj ; ; jpirapy; nry;Yk; mk;Gf;Fwpfs;
fl;lhakhf ,Uf;ff;$lhJ.
NkYk;> mf;Fwpj;j jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; %y; vz;zpf;ifapdhy; njupe;J nfhs;sg;gl;l

ntg;g cs;Siwg; ngWkhdq;fs; ngUf;fg;glNtz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf xU %y; gjhu;jj ; j;jpd;
(fhgd;) vupifapy; epak jfd ntg;g cs;Siwg; ngWkhdk; mj;jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk;
gjhu;j;jj;jpd; (fhgdpd;) %y; vz;zpf;if ahy; ngUf;fg;glNtz;Lk; vd;gij kdjpw;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;> ,J rkd;ghLfSld; $ba gpurpdq;fis jPuf ; ;Fk; (cjhuzj;ijg;
ghu;ff
; Tk;) NghJk; fl;lhakhf cs;thq;fg; glNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;: vkf;F ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; Njitg;gl;lhy;>

3C(s) + 4H2(g)  C3H8(g) H = ?
53
vt;thW ehk; njhlu;e;J nry;tJ vd Xu; tpdh vOfpd;wJ. ehk; fhuPaj;ijAk;

(graphite) IjuridAk; jhf;fkilar; nra;jhy; rpwpjsT jhf;fNk epfOk;. Mdhy;
Kw;Wg;ngwhJ. tpisT Gwg;Ngdhf kl;Lk; vy;iyg;gLj;jg;glhky; NtW gy IjNuhfhgd;
fSk; cUthFk;. cz;iknad;dntdpy; ehk; Neubahf NkNy $wg;gl;l jhf;fj;jpw;fhd
ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;ij msf;fKbahJ. gjpyhf Neupy; Kiwapy; gupNrhjid
uPjpahf epuk ; H ngWkhdq;fspypUe;J Neupy; Kiwapy; fzpjj
; hzpjj ; y;fis Nkw;nfhs;syhk;.
,q;Nf vR tpjp ngUksT Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. Neuhd Kiwapy; mstpl
Kbahj H ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpg;gjw;F topfhl;Lfpd;wJ.
ntg;g cs;Siwg; ngWkhdj;ij vR tpjpia cgNahfpjJ ; j; Jzptjw;F ehk; nghUj;jkhd

,urhadr; rkd;ghLfis xd;W Nru;f;fNtz;Lk;. rpwe;j Muk;gkhfj; jug;gl;l jfd
jhf;fq;fSf;F Fwpg;gplg;gl;l jhf;fpapd; xU %iy mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L ,urhadr;
rkd;ghLfis vOjTk;. fhgd; - Ijurd; - xl;rprd; Nru;itfspd; jfdj; jhf;fq;fisf;
fUj;jpw; nfhs;Sk;nghOJ tpisT CO2(g) ck; H2O(l) ck; MFk;.
,g;gpurpdj;ijj; jPug
; ;gjw;fhd ghij gpd;tUkhW:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 
 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) H = -2219.9 kJ mol-1 (a)
C(s) + O2(g)   CO2(g) H = -393.5 kJ mol-1 (b)
1 O (g) + H (g) H = -285.8 kJ mol-1 (c)
2 2 2  H2O(l)

(a) jhf;fj;jpd; gpd;Kfj; jhf;fk;

3CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) 
 C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) H = 2219.9 kJ mol-1 (a)
ehk; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;Sk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd jhf;fpfs; C(s), H2(g) iaf; fUJNthk;.

xt;nthd;wpdJk; nghUj;jkhd %y;fisg; ngWtjw;F ehk; rkd;ghL (b) I 3 MYk;>
rkd;ghL (c) I 4 MYk; ngUf;fNtz;Lk;.
3C(s) + 3O2(g) 
 3CO2(g) H = 3(-393.5) kJ = -1180.5 kJ mol-1 (b)
2O2(g) + 4H2(g) 
 4H2O(g) H = 4(-285.8) kJ = -1143.2 kJ mol-1 (c )
,q;F nkhj;j khw;wKk; tpgupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 3 %y; C(s) ck; 4 %y; H2 thATk;

jhf;fkile;J xU %y; C3H8(g) cUthfpd;wJ. ,JNt ekf;Fj; Njitahd khw;wk;.
,g;NghJ khw;wj;jpw;Fl;gl;l %d;W rkd;ghLfisAk; $l;Ltjd; %yk; mjhtJ (a) ,
(b) , (c ) Mfpatw;iw xd;wpizg;Nghk;.
3CO2(g) + 5H2O(g) 
 C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) H = -2219.9 kJ mol-1 (a)
3C(s) + 3O2(g)  3CO2(g)

 H = 3(-393.5)kJ = -1180.5 kJ mol-1 (b)
2O2(g) + 4H2(g)  4H2O(g)
 H = 4(-285.8)kJ = -1143.2 kJ mol-1 (c)
3C(s) + 4H2(g)  C3H8(g)

 H = -103.8 kJ mol-1
54
NkNy cs;sij ntg;g ,urhadr; rf;fuj;ij cgNahfpj;Jj; jPuj

; ;jy;.
H = 3(-393.5) kJ + 4(-285.8) kJ + 2219.9 kJ = -103.8 kJ mol-1
ntg;g cs;Siw tiuglj;ij cgNahfpj;Jj; jPu;j;jYk; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jYk;:
,t;ntg;gTs;Siw tiuglj;ij tiue;Js;Nshk;. Mdhy; vz;ngWkhdq;fs; xd;iwAk;

mr;rpy; Fwpf;ftpy;iy.Vnddpy; ntg;gTs;Siwapd; (H) jdpg;ngWkhdq;fisj; Jzpa
KbahJ. vt;thwhapDk; ntg;gTs;Siw epiyj; njhopw;ghL cilajhy; ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wk; (H) jdpg;gl;l (unique) ,k;khw;wq;fSld; nrayhw;wyhk;. MapDk; gy NtW
,ay;GfSld; Muk;gg; Gs;spahfg; g+r;rpag; ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;bUj;jy; gaDilajhf
mikAk;. ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
(a) (b)
cU 2.6 C(s) + H2(g)  C3H8(g) vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd ntg;gTs;Siw tiuglk;
(a) xt;nthU nrad;KiwiaAk; jhf;fj;jpd; jpirAld; KiwNa mtw;wpd; ntg;gTs;Siwg;
ngWkhdq;fisAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
(b) ntg;gTs;Siw ,ilntspiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; jhf;fj;jpd; Njitahd
jpirf;F ,zq;f ntg;gTs;Siwapd; FwpaPl;il ehk; jPu;khdpf;fyhk;.
55
jhf;fq;fspd; epak jhf;f ntg;gcs;Siw
xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fpfSk;> tpisTfSk; epak epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> mj;jhf;fj;jpd;

NghJ> Vw;gLk; ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; epak jhf;f ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; vd ehk;

fw;Ws;Nshk;. mjid H my;yJ  Hrxn vdf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. epak Njhd;wy; ntg;g
cs;Siwapd; gpujk gad;ghLfspy; xd;W epak jhf;f ntg;gcs;Siwiaf; fzpg;gjw;
fhFk;.
cjhuzk; 2.1
Nrhbak; ,UfhgNdw;wpd; gpupifj; jhf;fj;jpd; epak jhf;f ntg;gcs;Siwiaf;

fzpg;gjw;F vRtpd; tpjpiag; gad;gLj;JNthk;. ntJg;gYf;F (baking) mg;gr;Nrhlhit
cgNahfpf;Fk;NghJ eilngWk; xU rpwpa jhf;fkhFk;.

2NaHCO3(s) 
 Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Hrxn =?
tpil:
vRtpd; tpjpapypUe;J ehk; fhzf;$bajhf ,Ug;gJ vd;dntdpy; gpd;tUk; ehd;F
rkd;ghLfSk; $l;lg;gLk; NghJ NkNyAs;s jhf;fj;ijj; jUk; vd;gjhFk;.

2NaHCO3(s) 
 2Na(s) + H2(g) + 2C(s)(graphite) + 3O2(g) H = -2 H f [ NaHCO3 (s)]
(a)

2Na(s) + C(graphite) + 32 O2(g) 
 Na2CO3(s) H = H f [Na2 HCO3 (s)] (b)
1 O (g) + H (g) 
2 2 2  H2O(  )
 H = H f [H2 O(l)]
(c)

C(graphite) + O2(g) 
 CO2(s) H = H f [CO2 (g)] (d)
_______________________________________________________________________

2NaHCO3(s) 
 Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)  Hrxn =?
rkd;ghL (a) 2 %y;fs; NaHCO3 mjd; %yfq;fspypUe;J cUthtijg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;


gLj;Jk; jhf;fj;jpd; gpd;Kfj;jhf;fkhFk;. (a) jhf;fj;jpd; H, H f [ NaHCO3 (s)] ,d; ,U
klq;fpd; kiwngWkhdkhFk;. rkd;ghLfs; (b), (c), (d) KiwNa xU %y; Na2CO3(s),
H2O(  ), CO2(g) Mfpatw;wpd; Njhd;wy; ntg;gj;ijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. ,q;F rk;ge;jg;gl;
bUf;Fk; jhf;fj;jpd; H I gpd;tUkhW $wyhk;.

H rxn 
 H f  Na2CO3 ( s )  H f  H 2O (l)  H f CO2 ( g )  2H f  NaHCO3 ( s ) 
= (-1130.68kJ mol-1) + (-187.78kJ mol-1) + (-393.5kJ mol-1) + (1901.62kJ mol-1)
= 189.65 kJ mol-1 [2moles NaHCO3(s)]
= 94.8 kJ mol-1 [1mole NaHCO3(s)]
56
ntg;g cs;Siw tupg;glj;ij cgNahfpj;J vR nrad;Kiwia kdf;fz;zhy;

ghu;ff
; f;$bajhf cs;sJ. mj;Jld; ntg;gcs;Siwapd; epiyj;njhopwg
; hl;bay;G vt;thW
mr;rkd;ghl;il mila cjTfpwJ vd;gijAk; fhzf;$bajhf ,Uf;fpwJ.
Nrhbak; ,U fhgNdw;wpd; gpupif ,Ugbfspy; epfo;fpd;wJ vdf; fw;gid nra;Aq;fs;.

Kjyhk; gbapy; xU ghj;jpuj;jpy; cs;s 2 %y; NaHCO3 gpupifailag;gLk;nghOJ
NkNy cs;s rkd;ghL (a) apy; cs;sthW 2 %y; Na(s), 2 %y; C(graphite), 3 %y; O2,
xU %y; H2 I cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. 2k; gbapy; (b), (c), (d) Mfpa rkd;ghLfSf;fpzq;f
2 %y; Na(s), 2 %y; C(graphite), 1 %y; H2(g), 3 %y; O2 Mfpait Nru;f;ifaile;J
tpisTfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
2[NaHCO3(g)]  1 3
gb 1.  Na(s) + 2 H2(g) + C(graphite) + 2 O2(g)
H = 2[- H f [NaHCO3(s)] = (2mol NaHCO3) -(-950.81 kJ mol-1)
gb 2. 2Na(s) + C(graphite) + 32 O2(g) 

 Na2CO3(s)
H = H f [Na2CO3(s)]  -1
 [1mol Na2CO3(s)[ (-1130.68 kJ mol )
C(graphite) + O2(g) 
 CO2(g)
H = H f (CO2(g)] = [1mol CO2(g)[ (-393.5 kJ mol-1)
H2(g) + 12 O2(g) 
 H2O(  )
H = H f [H2O(  )] = [1mol H2O(  )] (-187.78 kJ mol-1)
ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; epiyj; njhopw;ghLilajhFk;. NkYk; epiyj;njhopw;ghL

cilatw;wpy; Vw;gLk; vk;khw;wKk;> mk;khw;wk; epfOk; ghijapy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
nkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk;> rkd;ghLfspy; fhl;bathW vR tpjpff
; pzq;f
xt;nthU gbfspdJk; epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; $l;Lj; njhifahf mikfpdw ; J.
MfNt NkNy cs;s nrad;Kiw fPNo nrhy;yg;gl;Ls;s epak jhf;f ntg;g cs;Siw
khw;wj;jpwf
; hd nghJ njhlu;gpd; Fwpj;j gpuNahfkhFk;.
H  rxn   P H  f ( products )   r H  f ( reac tan ts )
 P ck;  r ck; KiwNa tpisTfspdJk; jhf;fpfspdJk; gPrkhdf; Fzfq;fshFk;.

tpisTfspd; nkhj;jj; Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;jpypUe;J jhf;fpfspd; nkhj;jj;
Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wj;ijf; fopj;jhy; ngwg;gLtJ jhf;f ntg;g cs;Siw

khw;wkhFk;. ( Hrxn rpyNtisfspy;  H r vdTk; vOjg;gLk;.)
vspikahd cjhuzkhf xU fUJNfhl; jhf;fk; xd;iwf; fUJf.

aA + bB 
 cC + dD Hrxn =?
57

a, b, c, d Mfpad gPrkhd Fzfq;fshFk;. ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;F Hrxn gpd;tUkhW jug;gLk;.

H rxn  [cH  f [C ]  d H  f [ D ] ]  [aH  f [ A]  bH  f [ B ] ]

Hrxn I fzpg;gjw;F NkNy jug;gl;l jhf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;Jk;nghOJ> mj;jhf;fj;jpy;
gq;Fgw;Wk; Nru;itfspd; H f ngWkhdq;fs; njupe;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,g;ngWkhdq;
fisj; Jzptjw;F Neuhd nrad;Kiw my;yJ Neuy;yhj (Neuhf ,y;yhj) nrad;Kiw
iag; gpuNahfpf;fyhk;.
Neuhd nrad;Kiw
,k;Kiwapy; mr;Nru;itia Mf;Fk; %yfq;fspypUe;J ,yFthfj; njhFf;ff;$ba

Nru;itfspd; H f fzpj;jYf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdJ. cjhuzkhf C2H6(g) jfdkhjy;

jhf;fj;jpd; Hrxn fzpg;gjw;F C2H6(g), O2(g), CO2(g), H2O(g) Mfpatw;wpd; H f ngWkhdq;
fis epak epiyapy; msf;fg;glNtz;Lk; my;yJ njupe;jpUf;fNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;; 2.2

C2H6(g) ,d; jfdj;jpw;fhd Hrxn fzpg;gjw;F (Neuhd Kiw)
7
jhf;fk;: C2H6(g) + 2 O2(g) 
 2CO2(g) + 3H

H rxn  [2H f [ CO ( g )]  3H f [ H O (  )] ]  [ H f [ C2 H 6 ( g )]  72 H f [ O ( g )] ]
2 2 2
7
= 2 -393.5 kJ mol-1 + 3 -285.8 kJ mol-1 -[-84.7 kJ mol-1 + 2 0.00 kJ mol-1]
= -1559.7 kJ mol-1
Neupy;yhj nrad;Kiw
gy epfo;Tfspy; my;yJ jhf;fq;fspy; Nru;itfis mjid Mf;Fk; %yfq;fspypUe;J

Neubahfj; njhFf;fKbahJ. rpy epfo;Tfspy;> jhf;fq;fs; kpf nkJthf epfOk;
d;ikAilajhfTk; my;yJ gf;fjhf;fq;fspdhy; ehk; tpUk;Gk; Nru;itay;yhj NtW
Nru;itfis cUthf;FtjhfTk; fhzg;gLk;. ,r; re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Kjypy; tpgupj;jJ
Nghd;W H f vRtpd; tpjpf;fpzq;f Neupy;yhj Kiwapy; Jzpag;gLk;.
58
cjhuzk;; 2.3

C2H6(g) ,d; jfdj;jpw;fhd Hrxn I Neupy;yhj Kiwia cgNahfpj;J fzpf;fTk;.
tpil:
,J ePq;fs; mjpfstpy; re;jpf;Fk; vR tpjpapd; cgNahfk;.
,J fPNo cs;s tl;lj;jpy;> jhf;fk; fpilahf vOjg;gl;Ls;sJ. mj;Jld; Njhd;wy;

ntg;g cs;Siwg; ngWkhdq;fs; rf;fuj;ijg; g+u;j;jp nra;tjw;Fr; Nru;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
O2 cldhd C2H6 ,d; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd vR tpjpapd; rf;fuk;
C2H6 xl;rprDld; (O2) milAk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd vRtpd; tpjpapd; rf;fuk;
jw;NghJ fzpjj
; Yf;fhf ,U ghijiaAk; Mf;Fk; vy;yh ntg;gcs;Siwg; ngWkhdq;
fisAk; vOjp mtw;iwr; rkd; nra;Nthk;.
-84.7 kJ mol-1 + H = 2-393.5 kJ mol-1 + 3-285.8 kJ mol-1
H = -1559.7 kJ mol-1
2.3 rhyf ntg;g cs;Siw my;yJ mad; Nru;it xd;wpd; Njhd;wy;

ntg;g cs;Siw: Nghd; Vgu; rf;fuk;
madhf;fw; rf;jp> ,yj;jpud; ehl;lrf;jp Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; ve;j %yfq;fs;

cWjpahd mad;Nru;itfis cUthf;Fk; vd vjpu;T $wyhk;. madhf;fw; rf;jpAk;
,yj;jpud;ehl;lrf;jpAk; thA mtj;ijapy; eilngWk; nrad;Kiwahf tiuaWf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. Mdhy; 100 kPa (1 tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk;) 25 0C apYk; mad; Nru;itfs;
ahTk; jpzk; q;fs;. mad;Nru;itfspd; jpzk ; epiyapy; #o;epiy Kw;wpYk; NtWgl;ljhFk;.
Vnddpy; jpzk ; j;jpy; xU fw;wad; Fwpj;j vz;zpfi
; fahd md;dad;fshy; #og;gl;Ls;s
Jld; kWjiyahfTk; fhzg;gLk;. jpzk ; mad;Nru;it xd;wpd; nkhj;j cWjpj; jd;ik>
vy;yh mad;fSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sNjad;wp xU fw;waDf;Fk;
xU md;daDf;Fkhd ,ilj;jhf;fj;jpy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy. mad; jpz;kk; xd;wpd;
59
cWjpj;jd;ikf;fhd mstwpuPjpahd mstPL mjd; rhyfr;rf;jpahFk;. xU jpz;k %y;

mad;Nru;itia Kw;whf thAepiy mad;f shfg; gpupf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wk; rhyfr; rf;jp vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. (T = 0 K ,y; rhyf ntg;g
cs;Siwapd; ngWkhdNk rhyf rf;jpahFk;.)
rhyfr; rf;jpia Neubahf msf;fKbahJ> MapDk;> mad;Nru;itapd; fl;likg;Gk;>

mikg;G $WfSk; njupe;jpUg;gpd;> mr;Nru;itapd; rhyfr; rf;jpiaf; $Nyhkpd; tpjpia
(Coulomb’s law) cgNahfpj;Jf; fzpf;f yhk;. $Nyhkpd; tpjp $WtjhtJ ,U
mad;fSf;fpilapyhd mOj;jrf;jp mad;fspd; Vw;wj;jpd; ngUf;fj;jpw;F Neu;tpfpj
rkk;> mt;tad;fSf;fpilapyhd J}uj;jpw;F Neu;khWtpfpjrkk;. (,q;F fye;Jiuahlg;gl
khl;lhJ.)
mad;Nru;it xd;W xU njhlu; gbfspD}lhf cz;lhfpd;wJ vd vLj;Jf; nfhz;L

Neupy;yhj Kiwapy; rhyfrf;jpia ehk; Jzpayhk;. ,r;nrad;Kiw Nghd; - Vgu;
rf;fuk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,J xU mad;Nru;itapd; rhyfr; rf;jpia> madhf;fw;rf;jp>
,yj;jpud; Vw;wy; rf;jp (,yj;jpud; ehl;l rf;jp) kw;Wk; mZ> %yf;$$w;W ,ay;GfSld;
njhlu;GgLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,J vRtpd; tpjpia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Ls;sJ. Nghd; - Vgu;
rf;fuk; mad; jpz;kk; xd;W cUthFk;nghOJ njhlu;e;J nry;Yk; gbfis tiu
aWf;fpdw; J. ,ypjj
; pak; GNshiul;bd; rhyfr;rf;jpiaf; fzpgg
; jw;fhd mjd; cgNahfj;ij
ehk; vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.
,ypj;jpaj;jpw;Fk; GNshupDf;Fkhd jhf;fj;ijf; fUJNthk;.
Li(s) + F2(g) 
 LiF(s)
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; -594.1 kJ, ,J LiF(s) ,d; epak
Njhd;wy; ntg;g cs;SiwahFk;.
mjid Mf;Fk; %yfq;fspypUe;J Ie;J ntt;NtW gbfspD}lhf ,ypj;jpak; GNshiul;
cUthjiyf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;Sk;NghJ fPNo tpgupff
; g;gl;bUf;Fk; Ie;J gbKiwfspD}lhf
mad;Nru;it xd;W cUthFk;NghJ Vw;gLk; rf;jpkhw;wj;ij vR tpjp cjtpAld;
fz;Lgpbf;f cjTfpd;wJ.
1. jpz;k ,ypj;jpak; Mtpahf khw;wk; miltjw;fhd gjq;fkhjy; gb
Li(s) 
 Li(g) H 1  155.2 kJ mol-1
2. F2(g) , F(g) Mf gpupifAWjy;

F2(g) 
 F(g) H 2  150.96 /2 kJ mol-1 = 75.3 kJ mol-1
3. thAepiy Li mZf;fspd; madhf;fk;

Li(g)  +
 Li (g) + e H 3  520 kJ mol-1
4. ,yj;jpuid Vw;W F- cUthjy;

F(g) + e  -
 F (g) + e H 4  -328 kJ mol-1
5. Li+(g) ck; F-(g) ck; ,izjy;

Li+(g) + F-(g) 
 LiF(s) H 5  - x kJ mol-1
60
LiF ,d; rhyfr; rf;jp gpd;tUkhW tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.

LiF(s) + rf;jp  +
 Li (g) + F-(g) H L  H 5  -x kJ
H 5 ,d; ngWkhdj;ijg; gpd;tUk; Kiwapy; fzpf;fyhk;. nkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; epak


ntg;g cs;Siw khw;wk; Hrxn -594.1kJ I gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.

Hrxn = H 1 H 2 H 3 H 4 H 5
5 gbfisAk; $l;Lk;nghOJ ehk; ngWtJ nkhj;jj; jhf;fk;

Li(s) + 12 F2(g) 
 LiF(s)
-594.1kJ mol-1 = 152.2 kJ mol-1 + 75.3 kJ mol-1 + 520 kJ mol-1 + (-328 kJ mol-1) + H 5
H 5 = -1016.6 kJ mol-1
vdNt LiF(s) ,d; rhyfrf;jp 1016.6 kJ mol-1
fPNo cs;s cU LiF ,w;fhd Nghd;-Vgu; rf;fuj;ijr; RUf;fkhfj; jUfpd;wJ. gbfs;

1> 2> 3> Mfpatw;wpw;Fr; rf;jp toq;f Ntz;bAs;sJ. kw;Wk; 4k;> 5k; gbfspy; rf;jp
ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ> H 5 ngupa vjpu;g;ngWkhdkhf ,Ug;gjhy; LiF ,d; rhyfrf;jp
ngupa Neu;g;ngWkhdk;. ,JNt LiF ,d; cWjpj;jd;ikf;Ff; fhuzkhf cs;sJ. cau;
rhyfr;rf;jp cila Nru;it cau; cWjpj;jd;ik cilaJ vd ehk; kdjpw;
nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. rhyfr; rf;jp vg;nghOJk; Neu;g;ngWkhdk; cilaJ. Vnddpy; xU
jpz;kj;jpy; cs;s mad;fis thA epiy mad;fshfg; gpupj;jy; vg;nghOJk; mfntg;gr;
nrad;Kiw.
cU 2.7 Nky; cs;s njhFjpapd; Nghd; Vgu; tl;lk;


( H 5 = -1016.6 kJ mol-1 vdNt rhyfj;jpd; gpupif ntg;gTs;Siw LiF(s)f;F 1016.6 kJ mol-1)
(a) Kiwg;gbahd nra;Kiwfs; xd;whff; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
(b) xt;nthU nrad;KiwAk; jdpj;jdpahff; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
61
2.4 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; RahjPd jd;ik
Rakhd nrad;Kiwfs;: gupNrhjid uPjpahd ,urhadj;jpd; (experimental chemistry)

Kf;fpa gFjp Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fq;fSld; nrayhw;Wfpd;wJ. mjhtJ njhFjpf;F
ntspNaapUe;J rf;jp njhlu;r;rpahf toq;fhky; jhf;fk; eilngWfpd;wJ. my;yJ
Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fk; Muk;gkhdJk; VjhtJ xU jhf;fp Kw;whfj; jhf;fkilAk;
tiu jhf;fk; epfOk; my;yJ kPSk; jhf;fk; vdpd; tpisTfs; mfw;wg;glhtpby; xU
rkepiy epiyia milAk;. xU jhf;fk; Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fk; vd;W $Wk;nghOJ
mJ fl;lhakhf tpiuthf epfOk; jhf;fk; vd;W fUjf;$lhJ. Rakhf mjhtJ
jd;dpr;irahf epfOk; nrad;Kiwapd; ntg;g,af;ftpaypd; tiutpyf;fzj;jpy; Neuk;
xU gFjp md;W. xU Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fk; cldbahf eilngwyhk; my;yJ
cldbahf eilngwhky; ,Uf;fyhk;. my;yJ Kw;whfNt eilngwhky; Nghfyhk;.
cjhuzkhf 25 0C apYk; 100 kPa mKf;fj;jpYk; ituk; fhuPakhf khw;wkiljy;
Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fk;. MapDk; kpf nkJthf epfo;tjhy; xU kdpjdpd; tho;ehspy;
,k;khw;wj;ij mtjhdpf;f KbahJ.
ntg;g ,af;ftpaypd; ,yf;Ffspy; xd;whf ,Ug;gJ> xU FO jhf;fpfis xd;W

Nru;f;Fk;nghOJ jhf;fk; eilngWkh vd vjpu;T $Wjy;. ntg;g,af;ftpay; xU
jhf;fk; eilngWkh my;yJ eilngwkhl;lhjh vdf; $WNk jtpu mj;jhf;fj;jpd;
Ntfk; gw;wp vLj;Jiuf;fkhl;lhJ.
xU jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ rf;jp ntsptplg;gLjy; mj;jhf;fk; Rakhf epfOk; vd;gijf;

Fwpf;fpd;wJ vd xU rkak; vz;zg;gl;lJ. ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; H my;yJ
H ,d; Fwp xU jhf;fj;jpd; Rakhf epfOk; Mw;wiy topfhl;lg; NghJkhdJ md;W.
Vnddpy; rpy Rakhf epfOk; jhf;fq;fs; Gwntg;gj; jhf;fq;fshf cs;sJ. vdpDk;
(H -ve), gy mfntg;gj; jhf;fq;fSk; (H +ve) jd;dpri
; rahf eilngWtjhf mwpag;gl;
Ls;sJ.
Rakhf / jd;dpr;irahf epfOk; nrad;Kiw xd;wpy; ntg;gk; mfj;JwpQ;rg;gLtJ

my;yJ ntsptplg;gLtJld; NkYk; ve;jpug;gp vd miof;fg;gLk; ,d;DNkhu; fhuzpiaf;
fUj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. ve;jpug;gp vdg;gLtJ njhFjp xd;wpd; vOkhwhd jd;ikapd;
mstPlhFk;. ve;jpug;gp (S) epiyj;njhopw;ghLilaJ. njhFjpapd; vOkhw;Wj; jd;ik
mjpfupf;f ve;jpug;gpapd; ngWkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk; ve;jpug;gpf;fhd myF JK-1 mol-1.
xU gjhu;jj
; j;jpd; ve;jpug;gpfF
; g; gy fhuzpfs; gq;fspff
; pdw
; d> ngsjpfepiy> ntg;gepiy>
%yf;$w;Wg;gUkd;> %yf;$w;wpilf; ftu;r;rp tpirfs;> fyj;jy; Nghd;wit. ,q;F
,e;epiyapy; vspjhfg; ngsjpf epiyahYk; ntg;gepiyahYk; tpgupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
thAf;fs; cau; ve;jpug;gp cilajhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. Vnddpy; thAj; Jzpf;iffs;

cau; vOkhw;W ,af;fk; cilajhf ,Uj;jyhFk;. jputq;fs; jpz;kq;fis tpl cau;
ve;jpug;gp cilad. jput> jpz;k Jzpf;iffspd; ,af;fk; kpfTk; fl;Lg;ghl;by; cs;sJ.
miw ntg;gepiyapy; xU %y; nrg;G cNyhfj;ijtpl xU %y; jput ePu; cau;
ve;jpug;gp cilaJ. xU %y; jputePiu tpl xU %y; CO2 kpfTk; cau; ve;jpug;gp
cilaJ. xU gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ve;jpug;gp ntg;gepiyAld; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. Vnddpy;
%yf;$Wfspd; mirT ,af;fk;> Row;rp ,af;fk; Mfpad ntg;gepiyAld; mjpfupff ; pdw
; d.
0 0
50 C apYs;s ePu; 25 C apYs;s ePupYk; cau; ve;jpug;gpAilaJ.
62
Xu; ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; epak ve;jpug;gp khw;wk;

Xu; ,urhadjhf;fj;jpd; epak ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; S rxn vd;Dk; FwpaPl;lhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
,jid epak %yu; ve;jpug;gpg; (epak epiyapYs;s xU %y; gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ve;jpug;gp)
ngWkhdq;fspypUe;J fzpf;fyhk;. xt;nthU epak %yu; ve;jpug;gpg; ngWkhdq;fSk;
rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;bYs;s gPrkhd Fzfq;fshy; ,q;F ngUf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.
  
Srxn   S(tpisTfs; )   S(jhf; fpfs; )

S rxn vdg;gLtJ J}a (fyf;fg;glhj) epakepiyapYs;s jhf;fpfs; J}aepiyapy; cs;s
(fyf;fg;glhj) tpisTfshf khw;wg;gLk;NghJ Vw;gLk; ve;jpug;gp khw;wkhFk;. xU jhf;fj;jpd;
gPrkhdj;ijAk;> jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; Mfpatw;wpd; ngsjpf epiyiaAk; fUj;jpw;

nfhz;L S rxn Fwp mjpfkhf kjpg;gL
P nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. nkhj;j thA %y;fspd;

vz;zpf;if jhf;fpfs; tpisthf khw;wg;gLk;NghJ mjpfupj;jhy; S rxn Neu;g;ngWkhdk;
cilajhf ,Uf;Fnkd vjpu;T $wKbAk;. tpisTfs; jhf;fpfspYk; cau; ve;jpug;gp
cilait. kWjiyahf thAepiy tpisTfspd; %y; vz;zpf;if> thAepiyj;

jhf;fpfspd; vz;zpf;ifapYk; Fiwthf ,Ug;gpd;> S rxn FwpaPL kiwahf ,Uf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; 2.4
IjurDk; xl;rprDk; jhf;fKw;W ePuhtpAUthFk; jhf;fk; RahjPdkhdJ.

2H2(g) + O2(g) 
 2H2O(g)

,j;jhf;fj;jpd; ve;jpug;gp khw;wj;jpw;fhd Fwpia vjpu;T $Wf. mj;Jld; S rxn I 25 0C
apy; fzpf;Ff.
tpil:
Ijurd;> xl;rprDld; jhf;fKw;W ePuhtpiaf; nfhLf;fpdw

; J. xt;nthU %y; jhf;fj;jpYk;
3 %y; thA 2 %y; thAf;fshf khw;wkilfpd;wJ. vdNt jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ nkhj;j

thA %y; vz;zpf;if Fiwtilfpd;wJ. vdNt S rxn ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;F kiwahf
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
epak %yu; ve;jpug;gpg; ngWkhdq;fis cgNahfpj;J xU jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak

ve;jpug;gpiaf; fzpj;jy;.
  
Srxn   S(tpisTfs; )   S(jhf; fpfs; )
= (2 mol) ( S  [H 2 O(g)])  {(2 mol) ( S  [H 2 (g)])}  (1 mol) ( S  [O 2 (g)])

= (2 mol) (188.8 JK-1 mol-1) - {(2 mol) (130.7 JK-1 mol-1) + (1 mol) (205.1 JK-1 mol-1}
= -88.9 JK-1 mol-1
63
gPrkhdj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; vjpu;T $wpaJ Nghd;W jhf;fj;jpd; ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; kiwahf

cs;sJ.

xU jhf;fj;jpd; RahjPd jd;ikia mwptjw;F ntg;gcs;Siw khw;wk; Hrxn > ve;jpug;gp

khw;wk; S rxn Mfpa ,uz;ilAk; fUj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. vkf;Fj; njupe;jJ Nghd;W
xU jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F ntg;g cs;Siw (enthalpy) FiwtiljYk;> ve;jpug;gp
mjpfupj;jYk; Mjuthf mikAk;. vdNt mj;jhf;fk; RahjPdkhf epfo;fpd;wJ. NkYk;
gpd;tUk; ,izg;Gfisr; rpy ntg;gepiy epge;jidfspd; fPo; fUjyhk;.
 
Hrxn -ve, S rxn +ve vy;yh ntg;gepiyfspYk; Rakhf epfOk;.
 
Hrxn +ve, S rxn +ve cau; ntg;gepiyapy;; Rakhf epfOk;.
 
Hrxn -ve, S rxn -ve jho; ntg;gepiyapy; Rakhf epfOk;.
 
Hrxn +ve, S rxn -ve vy;yh ntg;gepiyfspYk; Rakhf epfohJ. (gpd;Kfj;
jhf;fk; Rakhf epfOk;.)
fpg;];rpd; RahjPd rf;jpAk; (G) jhf;fj;jpd; RahjPd jd;ikAk;
ehk; ghu;j;jJ Nghd;W xU jhf;fj;jpd; Rakhf epfOk; jd;ik xU njhFjpapd; ve;jpug;gp

khw;wk;> ve;jy;gp khw;wk; Mfpatw;wpdhy; epu;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. fpg;]pd; RahjPdrf;jp
(G) my;yJ vspjhfr; RahjPdrf;jp epiynjhopw;ghLilaJ. mj;Jld; ve;jpug;gp> vd;jy;gp
Mfpa ,uz;ilAk; ,izf;fpdw ; J. T jdp ntg;gepiyiaf; Fwpff ; pdw
; J. G I gpdt
; UkhW
tiuaWf;fyhk;.
G = H - TS
G, H, S fSf;fpilapyhd njhlu;G
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU jhf;fk; epfOk;nghOJ Vw;gLk; RahjPd rf;jp khw;wk;
G = H - TS
xU jhf;fk; khwh ntg;gepiyapy; epak epiyfspy; epfOk; nghOJ Vw;gLk; RahjPd

rf;jp khw;wk;
  
Grxn = Hrxn - T S rxn
Fwpg;G: rpyNtisfspy; 
Grxn MdJ Gr vdf; Fwpf;fg;gLk;.

 rkepiyapy; cs;s jhf;fj;jpw;F Grxn = 0 Kw;Gwk;> gpw;Gwk; Mfpa ,U
jpirfspYk; tpisAk; khw;wk; (net change) g+r;rpak;. khwh ntg;gepiyapy;
 
mKf;fj;jpy; Rakhd jhf;fj;jpw;F Grxn < 0, Rakw;w jhf;fj;jpw;F Grxn >0
64
cjhuzk; 2.5
fhgd; Xu; xl;irl;L xl;rprDld; jhf;fKw;Wf; fhgdPu;xl;irl;ilf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ.

CO(g) + 12 O2(g) 
 CO2(g)
 
Hrxn , S rxn Mfpatw;wpypUe;J ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak RahjPd rf;jpkhw;wj;ijf;
fzpf;f.
(  H f [CO2(g)] = -393.5 kJ mol-1,  H f [CO(g)] = -110.5 kJ mol-1, S  [CO2(g)] = 213.7 J mol-1 K-1,
S  [CO(g)] = 197.7 J mol-1 K-1, S  [O2(g)] = 205.1 J mol-1 K-1)
tpil:
epak Njhd;wy; ntg;gcs;Siwia cgNahfpj;J ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd ntg;g cs;Siw

khw;wj;ij epak epge;jidfspd; fPo; fzpf;f.

Hrxn = H f (tpisTfs;) - H f (jhf;fpfs;)
= H f (CO2(g);) - H f (CO(g); - 12 H f (O2(g);)
= -393.5 kJ mol-1 - (-110.5 kJ mol-1) - 0 kJ mol-1

= -283.0 kJ mol-1
epak ve;jpug;gpg; ngWkhdq;fis cgNahfpj;J epak epge;jidfspd; fPo; ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;

fhd ve;jpug;gp khw;wj;ijf; fzpf;f.

S rxn = S(tpisTfs;) - S(jhf;fpfs;)
= S(CO2(g);) - S(CO(g); - 12 S(O2(g);)
= 213.7 J mol-1 K-1 - (197.7 J mol-1 K-1) -  12 (205.1 J mol -1
K-1)
= -86.6 J mol-1 K-1
Fwpg;G:

gPrkhdj;jpypUe;J vjpu;T $wpaJ Nghd;W S rxn kiwahdJ. 1.5 %y; thA> 1 %y;
thAit cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.

Hrxn fzpg;Gg; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;il cgNahfpf;f.
  
Grxn = Hrxn -  S rxn
= -283.0 kJ mol-1 - (298 K) (-86.6 J mol-1 K-1) (1KJ/1000 J)
= -257 kJ mol-1

Grxn kiwahdJ. vdNt Rakhf jhf;fk; epfOk;.
65
ml;ltiz 2.2 A - rkd;ghLfspd; RUf;fk;

rkd;ghL myFfs;
jhf;f ntg;gcs;Siw H   v p H (tpisTfs; ) -  vr H (jhf; fpfs; ) kJ mol-1
epak jhf;f ntg;g 

H rxn   P H  f   r H  f (jhf; fpfs; ) kJ mol-1
(tpisTfs; )
cs;Siw khw;wk;
( P , r tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs; Mfpatw;wpd; gPrkhd
Fzfq;fs;)
vR tpjp xU nrad;Kiw gy gbfspD}lhf / epiyfsp
D}lhf epfOk; NghJ (fUJNfhl; gbfshf
,Ug;gpDk;) xU KOr; nrad;Kiwf;Fkhd ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wk;> xt;nthU gbfspdJk; ntg;g
cs;Siw khw;wj;jpd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr;
rkd;
(,d;DNkhu; Kiwapw; $wpd; vR tpjp) epiyj;
njhopw;ghLila ntg;g cs;Siw ,ay;gpd;
vspa tpisT. njhlf;f epiyapypUe;J ,Wjp
epiyf;Fr; nry;Yk; ghijfSld; rk;ge;jg;glhJ.
H (m y; y J H  ,r; n rad; K iw e pak
epge;jidfspy; eilngw;why;) xNu ngWkhdj;
ijf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; my;yJ ntg;g cs;Siw
khw; wj;j pd; ngWkhdk; jhf;f k; eilngWk;
ghijapy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak  J K-1 mol-1

Srxn   P S  f   r S  f (jhf; fpfs; )
ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; (tpisTfs;)
epakepiyapd;    kJ mol-1
Grxn = Hrxn - T S rxn
RahjPd rf;jpkhw;wk;

Rakhf epfOk; Grxn < 0
xU jhf;fk; Rakhf

epfOk; jd;ik Grxn > 0
Rakhf epfohj jhf;fk;

rkepiy Grxn = 0
 
vy;yh ntg;gepiyfspYk; Rakhf epfOk; Hrxn -ve,  S rxn +ve
cau; ntg;gepiyapy;; Rakhf epfOk; 

Hrxn 
+ve, S rxn +ve
 
jho; ntg;gepiyapy; Rakhf epfOk; Hrxn -ve, S rxn -ve
vy;yh ntg;gepiyfspYk; Rakhf epfohJ  

Hrxn +ve, S rxn -ve
(gpd;Kfj; jhf;fk; RakhdJ)
crhj;Jiz:
Atkins, P. andPaula, J. (2000) Atkins’ Physical Chemistry.Oxford, New York: Oxford University
Press.
Chang, R. (2010) Chemistry 10th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
66
f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;)
,urhadtpay;
juk; 12
tsE}y;
mNrjd ,urhadtpay;
myF 6: s, p kw;Wk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
tpQ;Q hdj; Jiw

Njrpa fy;t p epWtfk;
www.nie.lk
,urhadtpa y;
tsE}y;
juk; 12

tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
,yq; i f.
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk
,yq; i f.
ii
gzpgg
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; jukhd fy;tpapd; tpUj;jpf;fhfg; gbKiwahd

re;ju;g;gq;fis vLj;Jf; nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ. ,e;j tupirapy; njhlq;F epiyahf
Nkyjpf tsE}y; jahupg;G ,jid Nkw;Nfhs; fhl;b epw;fpd;wJ.

ghl epGzj;Jtf; FOtpdu; kw;Wk; mDgtkpf;f ghlrhiy Mrpupau; Fohk; MfpNahu;
mlq;fpa Fohkpdhy; ,k; Nkyjpf tsE}y; jahupff ; g;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; ,t;tsE}y;fs;
khztu;fs; ,t;thwhd E}y;fis kPlL ; g;ghu;g;gjd; %yk; ghltplaq;fs; njhlu;ghf
mfd;w njspthd tpsf;fj;ijg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s KbAk;. mNjNtis Mrpupau;fs;
,jid thrpg;gjd; %yk; $ba tpidj;jpwdhd fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisg;
ngWtjw;fhfj; jq;fspd; jpl;lq;fis ,yFthf xOq;FgLj;jpf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
,t;thwhd tsE}y;fs; cq;fs; iffSf;Ff; fpilf;fr; nra;tjw;F cjtpa Njrpa

fy;tp epWtf mYtyu; Fohkpw;Fk; fy;tpg;Gyg; gq;fspg;ig ey;fpa ntspthup
fyhepjp.(jpUkjp) T.A.R.J. FzNrfu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk.
iii
gzpgg

tpisthf eilKiwapy; cs;sJ. ,e;jg; Gjpa fiyj;jpl;l tl;lj;jpy;> ghl cs;slf;fk;
caupay; ghlq;fSf;fhd ghlj;jpl;l tplaq;fs; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Kd;ida Mrpupau;
mwpTiug;G topfhl;bf;Fg; gjpyhfg; Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;b mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,jd; tpisthff; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapaypy;> kjpg;gL P kw;Wk; fzpg;glP ;by;
Fwpg;gplj; jf;f khw;wk; vjpu;ghu;f;f g;gLfpd;wJ. Gjpjhf mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s
MrpupaUf;fhd topfhl;bapy; fw;ww; NgWfs;> Mrpupau;fSf;Ff; fw;wy; topfhl;ly;>
fzpg;gLP fs; kw;Wk; kjpg;gL
Kd;ida fiyj;jpl;lk; mKyhf;fg;gLifapy;> cau;ju tpQ;Qhdg; ghlq;fSf;Fr;

ru; t Njr uP j papy; mq; f P f upf; f g; g l; l Jkhd Mq; f py nkhopg; ghlg; Gj; j fq; f s;
JizE}y;fshf mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;bUe;jd. NtWgl;l ghlE}y;fs; ,ilNa ghl
tplaq;fs; njhlu;ghf Kuz;ghLfs; fhzg;gl;likahYk; cs;@u; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy;
cs;slf;fj;ij cs;slq;f Ntz;ba vy;iyg;gLj;jy; Ntz;b ,Ue;jikahy; Nkw;gbg;
Gj; j fq; f spd; gad; g hL Mrpupau; f Sf; F k; khztu; f Sf; F k; nghUj; j khdjhf
mikatpy;iy. Nkw;gb gpur;rpidfis ePq;fs; ntw;wp nfhs;tjw;F ,e;j tsE}y;
nfhz;L tug;gl;Ls;sJ.

khztu;fs; ghl cs;slf;fq;fisj; jkJ njuptpw;F mika Mq;fpynkhopapy;> jha;
vy;iyg;gLj;jg;gl;bUj;jy;> ,jd; ,d;Ndhu; rpwg;gpay;ghFk;. fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy; vjpu;ghu;ff
; g;
,e;j tsE}y; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; ghlepGzj;Jtk; nfhz;ltu;fshYk; mDgtkpf;f

ghl Mrpupau;fspd; msg;gupa gq;fspg;Gld; vOjg;gl;L> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfj;jpd;
fy;tp mYtyfu; rigapdJk; NguitapdJk; mDkjp ngw;W tUtjdhy; ,it
cau;juk; nfhz;lit vd mq;fPfhuk; ngWfpd;wJ.
gzpg;ghsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
iv
fiyj;jpl;lf; FO
topfhl;ly;:
fyhepjp. (jpUkjp). T.A.R.J. FzNrfu>
gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
Nkw;ghu;it:
ghlj; jiyikj;Jtk;:

jpU.L. K. tLNf>
jpU. V. ,uh[{Njtd;>
jpUkjp. G. G.P. S. ngNuuh

vOj;jhsu; FO:
fyhepjp. M. N. nfskhy; - rpNu\;l tpupTiuahsu;> tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk; (myF - 6)

= [atu;jj; dGug; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
jpUkjp. jP g pfh nej; r pq; ` - rpNu\;l Mrpupau; (Xa;T)>
v
jpUkjp. Kbj mj; J Nfhus - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;> gpu[hgjp kfspu; tpj;jpahyak;>
n`huz.
Gdpj gPwN
nry;t p. C. A. N. ngNuuh - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
jpUkjp. V.K.W.D. rhypfh khjtp - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
K];ypk; kfspu; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G 04.
Kd;ml;ilAk; fzzpahf;fKk;:
nry; t p. fkyNtzp fe; i jah
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
jpU.f.Ffg; g pupad;
,e;J kfspu; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G-06
mDruiz:
jpU. wQ;rpj; jatd;r
vi
cs; s lf; f k;
gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp................................................................ iii

gzpg;ghsu; mtu;fspd; nra;jp............................................................................... iv
fiyj;jpl;lf; FO ................................................................................................. v - vi
4.0 s, p, d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,urhadk;....................................... 1-56
s njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
4. 1 $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fs;............................................................................. 1
4.1.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs;
4.1.2 $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3 cg;Gfspd; ntg;gTWjpj; jd;ik
4.1.4 $l;lk; 1 cg;Gfspd; fiujpwd;
4.1.5 Rthiyg; gupNrhjid
4. 2 $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs;............................................................................. 6
4.2.1 $l;lg; Nghf;Ffs;
4.2.2 fhukz; $l;l 2 %yfq;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.2.3 cg;Gfspd; ntg;gTWjpj;jd;ik
p njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
4. 3 $l;lk; 13 %yfq;fs;........................................................................... 10
4.3.2 mYkpdpak;
4. 4 $l;lk; 14 %yfq;fs;........................................................................... 12
4.4.2 ituKk;> fhuPaKk;
4.4.3 fhgd; XNuhl;irl;L> fhgd; <nuhl;irl;L
4.4.4 fhgdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyk;
4. 5 $l;lk; 15 %yfq;fs;........................................................................... 15
4.5.2 iejurdpd; ,urhadk;
4.5.3 iejurdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyq;fs;
4.5.4 mNkhdpahTk;> mNkhdpak; cg;GfSk;
4. 6 $l;lk; 16 %yfq;fs;........................................................................... 21
4.6.2 $l;lk; 16 ,d; Ijiul;Lf;fs;
4.6.3 xl;rprd;
4.6.4 fe;jfk;
4.6.5 xl;rpridf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Nru;itfs;
4.6.6 Ijurd;ngnuhf;irl;L
4.6.7 fe;jfj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Nru;itfs;
4.6.8 fe;jfj;jpd; xl;rp mkpyq;fs;
vii
4. 7 $l;lk; 17 %yfq;fs;.............................................................................. 27
4.7.2 $l;lk; 17 ,d; vspa Nru;itfs;
4.7.3 FNshupdpd; jhf;fq;fs;
4. 8 $l;lk; 18 %yfq;fs;............................................................................. 32
4.8.2 $l;lk; 18 %yfq;fspd; vspa Nru;itfs;
4. 9 s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspdhy; fhl;lg;gLk; Mtu;j;jdg; Nghf;Ffs;... 33

4.9.1 tYtsNthl;L ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G
4.9.2 cNyhf ,ay;G
4.9.3 ePu;> mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;Wld; %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd
xl;irl;Lfspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.9.4 Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs; kw;Wk; Ijiul;Lfs; vd;gtw;wpd; mkpy>
%y <upay;G elj;ijfs;
4.9.5 %d;whk; mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;Nf Viyl;Lfspd; ,ay;G
d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;............................................................................ 37
4.10 jhz;ly; %yfq;fs;
4.10.1 ,Uf;if
4.10.2 ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
4.10.3 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; xl;irl;Lf;fs;
4.10.4 njupT nra;ag;gl;l rpy d njhFg;G xl;irl;Lf;fspd; ,urhadk;
4.10.5 jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspd; ,izg;Gr; Nru;itfs;
4.10.6 vspa> rpf;fy; mad;fs;> Nru;itfs; vd;gtw;wpd; ngauPL
4.10.7 rpf;fy;fspd; epwq;fisg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
4.10.8 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;.
4.10.9 njupT nra;ag;gl;l d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; fw;wad;fspw;fhd
,dq;fhZk; gupNrhjidfs;
viii
f.ngh.j.(c/j),urhadk;: myF 6 s, p kw;Wk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,urhadtpay;
6. s, p kw;Wk; d njhFg;G
%yfq;fspd; ,urhadtpay;
cs;slf;fk;
4.0 s, p, d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,urhadk;. 4.7 $l;lk; 17 %yfq;fs;
s njhFg;G %yfq;fs; 4.7.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs;
4.1 $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fs; 4.7.2 $l;lk; 17 ,d; vspa Nru;itfs;
4.1.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs; 4.7.3 FNshupdpd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3 cg;Gfspd; ntg;gTWjpj; jd;ik 4.8 $l;lk; 18 %yfq;fs;
4.1.4 $l;lk; 1 cg;Gfspd; fiujpwd; 4.8.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs;
4.1.5 Rthiyg; gupNrhjid 4.8.2 $l;lk; 18 %yfq;fspd; vspa Nru;itfs;
4.2 $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs;
4.9 s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspdhy; fhl;lg;gLk;
Mtu;j;jdg; Nghf;Ffs;
4.2.2 fhukz; $l;l 2 %yfq;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.9.2 cNyhf ,ay;G
4.9.3 ePu;> mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;Wld;
%d;whk; Mtu;jj ; d xl;irl;Lfspd; jhf;fq;fs;
p njhFg;G %yfq;fs; 4.9.4 Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs;> Ijiul;Lfs; vd;gtw;wpd;
4.3 $l;lk; 13 %yfq;fs; mkpy> %y <upay;G elj;ij
4.3.1 $l;lg; Nghf;Ffs; 4.9.5 %d;whk; mtu;jj; dj;jpd; FWf;Nf Viyl;Lfspd;
4.3.2 mYkpdpak; ,ay;G
4.4 $l;lk; 14 %yfq;fs;
4.4.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs; d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
4.4.2 ituKk;> fhuPaKk; 4.10 jhz;ly; %yfq;fs;
4.4.3 fhgd; XNuhl;irl;L> fhgd; <nuhl;irl;L 4.10.1 ,Uf;if
4.4.4 fhgdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyk; 4.10.2 ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
,ay;Gfs;
4.5 $l;lk; 15 %yfq;fs; 4.10.3 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; xl;irl;Lf;fs;
4.5.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs; 4.10.4 njupT nra;ag;gl;l rpy d njhFg;G
4.5.2 iejurdpd; ,urhadk; xl;irl;Lf;fspd; ,urhadk;
4.5.3 iejurdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyq;fs; 4.10.5 jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspd; ,izg;Gr;
4.5.4 mNkhdpahTk;> mNkhdpak; cg;GfSk; Nru;itfs;
4.6 $l;lk; 16 %yfq;fs; 4.10.6 vspa> rpf;fy; mad;fs;> Nru;itfs; vd;gtw;wpd;
4.6.1 $l;lg;Nghf;Ffs; ngauPL
4.6.2 $l;lk; 16 ,d; Ijiul;Lf;fs; 4.10.7 rpf;fy;fspd; epwq;fisg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
4.6.3 xl;rprd; 4.10.8 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;.
4.6.4 fe;jfk; 4.10.9 njupT nra;ag;gl;l d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
4.6.5 xl;rpridf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Nru;itfs; fw;wad;fspw;fhd ,dq;fhZk; gupNrhjidfs;
4.6.6 Ijurd;ngnuhf;irl;L
4.6.8 fe;jfj;jpd; xl;rp mkpyq;fs;
1
mwpKfk;
,g;gFjpahdJ s, p kw;Wk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ngsjPf ,urhad ,ay;Gfis
tpgupf;fpd;wJ. Mtu;jj
; d ml;ltizapYs;s %yfq;fSf;fpilNaahd Nghf;FfisAk;
Nfhyq;fisAk; ,dq;fhz ,g;gFjp cjTk;.
s njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
4.1 $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fs;

$l;lk; 1 ,d; vy;yh %yfq;fSk; cNyhfq;fs; - Ijurd; kl;Lk; tpjptpyf;F. mJ
my;YNyhfkhFk;. vy;yhf; $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fSk; tYtsT Xl;by; ns1 ,yj;jpudpiy
aikg;Gilad. Mjyhy; cau; jhf;Fjpwd; cilad.
NrhbakhdJ ,aw;i fapy; ntt;NtW cg;Gfshf> NaCl (ghiw cg;G) kw;Wk;

Na2B4O7·10H2O (ntz;fhuk;) Nghd;W fhzg;gLk;. KCl (rpyitw;) kw;Wk; KCl·MgCl2·6H2O
(fhziyw;) Nghd;wd ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; nghw;whrpak; cg;Gf;fshFk;.

vy;yhf; fhu cNyhfq;fSk; gsgsg;ghdit mit cau; kpd; kw;Wk; ntg;gf;
flj;jpfshFk;. ,t;TNyhfq;fs; nkd;ikahdit mj;Jld; $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpr;
nry;Yk;NghJ NkYk; nkd;ik mjpfupff ; pd;wJ. $l;lk; 1 cNyhfq;fspd; cUFepiyfs;
$l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ Fiwfpd;wd. fPNoAs;s ml;ltiz 4.1 ,Ys;s
ngWkhdq;fs; ,k;%yfq;fs; kj;jpapYs;s Nghf;Ffis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sg; gad;gLj;j
KbAk;. $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fs; Nru;itfis cUthf;Fk;NghJ vg;NghJk; xl;rpNaw;w
vz; +1 If; fhl;Lk; ngUk;ghyhd Nru;itfs; cWjpahd mad; jpz;kq;fshFk;.
ml;ltiz 4.1 $l;lk; 1 ,d; ,ay;Gfs;

Li Na K Rb Cs
jiuepiy ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G [He]2s1 [Ne]3s1 [Ar]4s1 [Kr]5s1 [Xe]6s1
cNyhfMiu/ pm 152 186 231 244 262
cUFepiy/ °C 180 98 64 39 29
M+ ,d; Miu/ pm 60 95 133 148 169
1k; madhf;frf;jp/ kJ mol-1 520 495 418 403 375
2k; madhf;frf;jp/ kJ mol-1 7298 4562 3052 2633 2234
Li ,ypUe;J Cs tiu mZthiu mjpfupg;ghdJ> ,k;%yfq;fspd; madhf;f rf;jpf;

Fiwitf; $l;lj;jpy; fPoN ; ehf;fp Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; ,J $l;lk; 1 ,d; ,urhad
,ay;Gfis tpsq;Ftjw;F cjTfpd;wJ. $l;lk; 1 ,d; %yfq;fspd; jhf;Fjpwd;
$l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
2
** xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;ij vOJk;NghJ Nru;itfspd; ngsjpf epiyfisj; jUtJ

mtrpakhdjhf ,Ue;jNghJk; myF 6 ,y; ngsjpf epiyfisj; jUtJ g+uz
Gs;spfisg; guPl;irapy; ngWtjw;F mtrpakhdjy;y.
xl;rprDld; (O2) jhf;fk; 4M + O2 2M2O
kpif xl;rprDld;(O2) 2Na + O2 Na2O2

Na gunthl;irl;Lfisj; jUk;
kpif xl;rprDld; (O2) K, Rb , Cs M + O2 MO2

Rg;gu; xl;irl;Lfisj; jUk;
iejurDld; (N2) Li kl;Lk 6Li + N2 2Li3N

cWjpahd iej;jpiul;il Mf;Fk;
IjurDld; (H2) 2M + H2 2MH
ePUld; (H2O) 2M + 2H2O 2MOH + H2
mkpyq;fSld; (H+) 2M + 2H+ M+ + H2
ePUld; jhf;fk;
$l;lk; 1 cNyhfq;fs; $l;lj;jpd; topNa fPo;Nehf;fp ePUld; mjpfupf;Fk; jhf;Fjpwd;

cilait. ePUld; jhf;Fjpwd;Nghf;F fPNoAs;sthW>
Li Na K Rb Cs
nkd;ikahf cf;fpukhf vupjYld; ntbj;jYld; ntbj;jYld;
cf;fpukhf
ePUld; my;yJ tspapy; fpilf;Fk; ePuhtpAld; Li MdJ cf;fpukw;w jhf;fj;jpy; <Lgl;L

,ypjpak; Ijnuhl;irl;ilAk; Ijurd; thAitAk; cUthf;Fk;. vt;thwhapDk;> Nrhbak;
kw;Wk; nghl;lhrpak; ,uz;Lk; ePUld; cf;fpukhfj; jhf;fKw;W cNyhf Ijnuhl;irl;ilAk;
Ijurd; thAitAk; cUthf;Ffpdw ; d. Li jtpu Vidait Gwntg;gj;jhf;fj;jpwF
; upait.
xl;rprd; / tspAld; jhf;fq;fs;

Li MdJ xl;rprd; kw;Wk; N2 ,uz;LlDk; jhf;fKwf;$baJ. ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ Li
vupeJ
; xU ntz;nghbahf ,ypjpak; xl;irl;il cUthf;Fk;. iejurDld; ,ypjpakhdJ
,ypjpak; iej;jpiul;ilj; (Li3N) jUk;. vt;thwhapDk; Nrhbak; kw;Wk; nghl;lhrpak;
iejurDld; jhf;fkw;wd. Nrhbak; tspapy; vupf;fg;gLk;NghJ rpwpjsT Nrhbak;
xl;irl;Lld; gpujhdkhf Nrhbak;gunthl;irl;il cUthf;Fk;. ,jw;F khwhfg;
3
nghl;lhrpaj;ij tspapy; vupf;Fk;NghJ rpwjsT nghl;lhrpak; xl;irl;L> nghl;lhrpak;

gunthl;irl;Lld; gpujhdkhfg; nghl;lhrpak; Rg;gu; xl;irl;il cUthf;Fk;. Nrhbak;
my;yJ nghl;lhrpak; gunthl;irl;by; xl;rprdpd; xl;rpNaw;w epiy -1 ck; nghl;lhrpak;
Rg;gu; xl;irl;by; -1 kw;Wk; 0 ck; MFk;.
$l;lk; 1 cNyhf xl;irl;Lf;fs; ePUld; jhf;fp cNyhf Ijnuhl;irl;Lfisf; fPNo

fhl;bathW cUthf;Fk;.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
#lhf;fg;gLk;NghJ ,ypjpakhdJ iejurDld; ,ypjpak; iejnuhl;irl;ilj; jUk;.

,ypjpak; kl;LNk xU cWjpahd fhucNyhf xl;irl;il cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ePUld;
,ypjpak; iej;jpiul;lhdJ mNkhdpahitAk; ,ypjpak; Ijnuhl;irl;ilAk; cUthf;F
fpd;wJ.
Li3N(s) + 3H2O(l) 3LiOH(aq) + NH3(g)
$l;lk; 1 Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs; fhgdPu;xl;irl;Lld; jhf;fpg; nghUj;jkhd fhgNdw;Wfis

cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ,f;fhgNdw;Wfs; fhgdPux ; l;irl;Lld; NkYk; jhf;fp cNyhf Ijurd;
fhgNdw;Wfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) 2NaHCO3(s)
Nrhbak; Ijurd; fhgNdw;whdJ Nrhbak; fhgNdw;iwtpl ePupy; fiu jpwd; Fiwe;jJ.
Ijurd; thATld; jhf;fk;
$l;lk; 1 %yfq;fs; IjurDld; jhf;fpj; jpz;k> madpf; cNyhf Ijiul;Lfis

cUthf;Fk;. ,t;itjiul;Lfspy; Ijurdpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; -1 MFk;. ,t;TNyhf
Ijiul;Lfs; ePUld; cf;fpukhfj; jhf;fp Ijurd; thAitj; jUfpd;wd.
2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
NaH(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
mkpyq;fSld; jhf;fk;
,ypjpak;> Nrhbak; kw;Wk; nghl;lhrpak; vd;gd Ijhd mkpyq;fSld; cf;fpukhfj;

jhf;fKw;W Ijurd; thAit cUthf;Ftjld; nghUj;jkhd cNyhf cg;GfisAk;
cUthf;FtdthFk;. ,j;jhf;fq;fs; cau; Gwntg;gkhfTk; ntbj;jYlDk; mikAk;.
xU rpy njupT nra;ag;gl;l jhf;fq;fs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
2Li(s) + dil. 2HNO3(aq) 2LiNO3(aq) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + dil. H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
4
4.1.3 cg;Gf;fspd; ntg;gTWjpj; jd;ik
iej;jpNuw;Wfspd; gpupif
$l;lk; 1 ,d; iej;jpNuw;Wfs; grisf;fhfTk; ntbnghUl;fSf;fhfTk; gad;gLj;jg;gLtd.

,e;iej;jpNuw;Wfs; ntg;gg;gpupifailtd. LiNO3 MdJ ,ypjpaxl;irl;L> iejurd;
<Nuhl;irl;L kw;Wk; xl;rprdhfg; gpupifailAk;. vt;thwhapDk; kw;iwa $l;lk; 1 ,d;
iej;jpNuw;Wfs; ntg;gg;gpupifapy; cupa cNyhf iej;jpiuw;WfisAk; xl;rpridAk;
jUtdthFk;.

4LiNO3(s)   2Li2O(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

2KNO3(s)   2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
fhgNdw;Wfspd; gpupif
fhgNdw;Wfs; cWjpahdit. mit xl;irl;Lfshfg; gpupiaailaKd; cUFk;

,ay;Gilad. vt;thwhapDk; Li2CO3 Fiwe;j cWjpAilaJ. mj;Jld; ,yFthfg;
gpupifailaf;$baJ.

Li2CO3(s)   Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
,UfhgNdw;Wfspd; ntg;gg;gpupif
$l;lk; 1 ,d; ,UfhgNdw;Wfspd; gpupif fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2NaHCO3(s) 

 Na2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
ntg;gTWjpj;jd;ik $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupf;Fk;.
LiF, Li2CO3 kw;Wk; Li3PO4 Nghd;w rpy ,ypjpak; cg;Gfisj; jtpu $l;lk; 1 ,d; cg;Gfs;
ePupy; fiuaf;$bait.
mdad;fs; epwKs;sd my;yhtpbd; vy;yh cg;GfSk; ntz;jpz;kq;fs; MFk;.
$l;lk; 1 ,d; Viyl;Lfspd; fiujpwd; $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;. ,J

ml;ltiz 4.2 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz 4.2 Nrhbak; Viyl;Lfspd; fiujpwd;

cg;G fiujpwd; / mol L-1
NaF 0.99
NaCl 6.2
NaBr 9.2
NaI 12.3
5
madpf; jpz;kq;fspd; fiujYf;Fupa rf;jpr; rf;fuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpf; fiujpwDs;s

NtWghLfis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;. fiujpwdhdJ fpg;]; RahjPd rf;jp %yk;
tpsf;fg;glKbAk;. fiujyhf;fr; nraw;ghl;bw;Fupa fpg;]; RahjPd rf;jpapd; kiwj;jd;ik
fhuzkhf $l;lk; 1 mad; jpz;kq;fs; ngUk;ghYk; ePupw; fiuaf;$bad.
fiuryhf;fr; nraw;ghLfspd; ntg;gTs;Siw kw;Wk; ve;jpug;gpr; rf;fuq;fs; fPNo

fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
cU 4.1 fiuryhf;fr; nraw;ghLfspd; ntg;gTs;Siw kw;Wk; ve;jpug;gpr; rf;fuq;fs;
,t;tpU rf;jprr
; f;fuq;fisAk; gad;gLj;jpf; fiuryhf;f ntg;gTs;Siw kw;Wk; ve;jpug;gpfs;
fzpf;fg;gl KbAk; vd;gJld; ,t;thW fzpf;fg;gl;l ngWkhdq;fs; fPNo ml;ltiz
4.2 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd. RahjPd rf;jpahdJ gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;lhy; fzpf;fg;glKbAk;.
G   H   S 
ml;ltiz 4.3 cg;Gf;fspd; fiuryhf;fj;jpw;Fupa RahjPd rf;jp khw;wk;.

cg;G ntg;gTs;Siw ve;jpug;gp khw;wk; × T RahjPd rf;jp
khw;wk; / kJ mol-1 (K × kJ mol-1 K-1) khw;wk; / kJ mol-1
NaF +1 -2 +3
NaCl +4 +13 -9
NaBr -1 +18 -19
NaI -9 +23 -32
Nrhbak; Viyl;Lfspy; fiujpwd; Nghf;FfSld; nghUj;jg;ghL milAk; fzpf;fg;gl;l

RahjPdr; rf;jpfs; ,ay;ghfr; Nrhbak; GNshiul;bypUe;J Nrhbak; maill;L tiuapyhd
RahjPdr; rf;jp khw;wq;fspd; kiwj;jd;ik mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wJ.
4.1.5 Rthiyr; Nrhjid
fhu cNyhfq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; Nru;itfisAk; ,dq;fhzr; Rthiyr; Nrhjidiag;
gad;gLj;j KbAk; $l;lk; 1 cNyhfq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; Nru;itfspd; Rthiy
epwq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
,ypjpak; - fpuk;rd; rptg;G Nrhbak; - kQ;rs;
UgPbak; - rptg;G-Cjh rPrpak; - ePyk;-Cjh
nghl;lhrpak; - nrt;t+jh (lilac)
6
4.2 $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs;
$l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs; fhukz; cNyhfq;fs; vd mwpag;gLk;. ns2 vd tYtsT Xl;L

,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G ,Ug;gjdhy; ,tw;wpd; jhf;Fjpwd; $l;lk; 1 cNyhfq;fis
tplf; FiwthFk;. fy;rpak; kw;Wk; kfdPrpak; ,uz;Lk; ,aw;ifapy; njhyikw;whf
(CaCO3.MgCO3) kfidw;W (MgCO3), ifuirw;W kieserite (MgSO4.H2O) kw;Wk; fhdiyw;W
(KMgCl3.6H2O) vd;gd kfdPrpak; fdpaq;fshFk;. GNshNuhmg;gw;iww;W [3(Ca3(PO4)2).CaF2]
kw;Wk; [pg;rk; (CaSO4.2H2O) Mfpad tu;j;jf uPjpahf Kf;fpak; tha;e;j fy;rpaj;jpd;
fdpaq;fshFk;.
ngupypak; kw;Wk; kfdPrpak; vd;gd eiuepw cNyhfq;fs;. kw;iwa $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs;

nkd;ikahdit> nts;sp epwkhdit. $l;lk; 2 cNyhf xl;irl;Lfs; fhuj;jd;ik
ahdit vdpDk; BeO tpjptpyf;fhdJ.
,J <upay;gpidf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. ngupypakhdJ mYkpdpaj;ij xj;jJ. ,J Mtu;j;jd

ml;ltizapy; Al kw;Wk; Be ,w;F ,ilapyhd %iytpl;lk; njhlu;ghy; vd mwpe;J
nfhs;s KbAk;.
$l;lk; 1 cNyhfq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fs; cau; mlu;j;jpAk;

typikahd cNyhfg; gpizg;Gk; cilad. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk; $ba vz;zpfi; fahd
,yj;jpud;fs; ngwg;gLtjhfTk; Fiwe;j mZthiuAk; miktjhy; typikahd
cNyhfg; gpizg;G miktNjahFk;.
ns2 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;igf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy $l;lk; 2 ,d; Kjyhk; madhf;f

rf;jpfs; $l;lk; 1 %yfq;fis tpl cau;thdjhFk;. $l;lj;jpy; fPoN
; ehf;fpj; jhf;Fjpwd;
mjpfupg;gJk; +2 xl;rpNaw;w epiyia cUthf;FtJk; ,yFthdjhFk;. ml;ltiz
4.4 ,y; $l;lk; 2 %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.4 $l;lk; 2 ,d; ,ay;Gfs;
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G [He]2s2 [Ne]3s2 [Ar]4s2 [Kr]5s2 [Xe]6s2
cNyhfMiu / pm 112 160 197 215 224
cUFepiy / °C 1560 923 1115 1040 973
M2+ Miu / pm 30 65 99 113 135
1k; madhf;frf;jp / kJ mol-1 899 736 589 594 502
7
4.2.2 fhukz; %yfq;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
xl;rprDld; (O2) 2M + O2 2MO

kpif xl;rprDld; (O2)
Ba gunthl;irl;il cUthf;Fk;. Ba + O2 BaO2
iejurDld; (N2), cau; ntg;gepiyfspy; 3M + N2 M3N2
ePUld; (H2O(l)), miwntg;gepiyapy;
(cjhuzk;: Ca, Sr and Ba) M + 2H2O M(OH)2 + H2
#lhdePUld; (H2O(l))
(cjhuzk;: Mg nkJthfj; jhf;Fk;) Mg + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + H2
ePuhtpAld; (H2O(g)) Mg + H2O MgO + H2
mkpyq;fSld; (H ) +
M + 2H +
M2+ + H2
IjurDld;(H2), cau; ntg;gepiyfspy;
Ca, Sr, Ba clDk; cau; mKf;fj;jpy;
Mg clDk; M + H2 MH2
nrwpe;j mkpyq;fSld; Mg + 2H2SO4 MgSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
Mg+4HNO3 Mg(NO3)2+2NO2+2H2O
ePUld; jhf;fk;
ngupypak; ePUld; jhf;fkw;wJ MapDk; ePuhtpAld; jhf;fKWk;. kfdprpak; ePUld;

jhf;fKWjy; miwntg;gepiyapy; Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fJ. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; #lhd ePUld;
ed;F jhf;fkilAk;. fy;rpak;> Jue;jpak; kw;Wk; Ngupak; vd;gd Fspu; ePUld; tpiuthfj;
jhf;fkiltd. ePUld; jhf;fj;jpy; cNyhf Ijnuhl;irl;ilAk; Ijurd; thAitAk;
cUthf;FtdthFk;.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
IjurDld; jhf;fk;
vy;yhf; $l;lk; 2 ,d; %yfq;fSk;> Be tpjptpyf;F> IjurDld; jhf;fKw;W cNyhf

Ijiul;Lf;fis cUthf;Ftd. ,it mad; jpzk ; q;fs;> ,t;Ijiul;Lf;fspy; Ijurdpd;
xl;rpNaw;w epiy -1. ,t; cNyhf Ijiul;Lf;fs; ($l;lk; 1 ,idg;Nghy; mghafukhd
jy;y) tPwhf ePUld; jhf;fkile;J Ijurd; thAitj; jUtdthFk;.
Ca(s) + H2(g) CaH2(s)
CaH2(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H2(g)
iejurDld; jhf;fk;
$l;lk; 2 ,d; vy;yh %yfq;fSk; iejurdpy; vupf;fg;gLk;NghJ iej;jpiul;Lf;fis

M3N2 cUthf;Fk;. ,t;iej;jpiul;Lf;fs; ,ypjpak; NghyNt ePUld; mNkhdpahit
cUthf;Ftd.
3Mg (s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
8
iej;jpNuw;Wfspd; gpupif
ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ> $l;lk; 2 ,d; iej;jpNuw;Wfs; ngUk;ghYk; ,ypjpa iej;jpNuw;wpid
xj;j jhf;felj;ijahFk;. $l;lk; 2 iej;jpNuw;Wfspy; gpupifapy; cNyhf xl;irl;L>
iejurd; xl;irl;L kw;Wk; xl;rprid cUthf;FtdthFk;. $l;lk; 2 ,d; vy;yh
iej;jpNuw;WfSk; ePupy; fiuaf;$badthFk;.
2Mg(NO3)2(s) 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
fhgNdw;Wfspd; gpupif
,f;fhgNdw;Wfspd; ntg;gTWjpahdJ $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpwJ.
,f;fhgNdw;Wfspd; ntg;gTWjpahdJ fw;wadpd; gUkDld; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. $l;lj;jpy;
fPoN
; ehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ fw;wadpd; Vw;w mlu;jj
; p FiwTld; fw;wadpd; Kidthf;Fk;
tYTk; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ.
Mg2+ cld; ,izf;fg;gl;l fhgNdw;W madhdJ Ba2+ cld; ,izf;fg;gl;ljpid

tplf; $Ljyhf Kidthf;fg;gLk;. cau;thf Kidthf;fg;gl;l fhgNdw;W madhdJ
,yFthd gpupiff;F cl;gLtjhdJ MgCO3 ,d; gpupif ntg;gepiyahdJ BaCO3
,Yk; Fiwthdjhf miktjid tpsf;FfpwJ. nghJthd cNyhf fhgNdw;wpd;
gpupifahdJ gpd;tUkhW fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
MCO3 MO + CO2
gpupif ntg; g epiyahdJ MgCO3 ,d; 540 °C apypUe; J BaCO3 ,d; 1360 °Cf; F
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
,UfhgNdw;Wfspd; gpupif
$l;lk; 2 ,d; Ijurd; fhgNdw;Wfs; ePu;f;fiurypy; kl;Lk; cWjpahdit. mj;Jld;
$l;lk; 2 Ijurd; fhgNdw;Wfs; miwntg;gepiyapy; cWjpaw;wd.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
$l;lk; 2 ,d; fiujpwd;fs; Nru;itfspy; jq;fpAs;sd. iej;jpNuw;Wf;fs;> iej;jpiuw;Wfs;>

Viyl;Lfs;> Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs;> ry;igl;Lfs; kw;Wk; ,UfhgNdw;Wfs; Nghd;w rpy
Nru;itfs; ePupy; fiuaf;$bad.
Ijnuhl;irl;Lfs;> ry;Ngw;W> ry;igw;W> fhgNdw;W> nghRNgw;W> kw;Wk; xl;rNyw;Wfs;

Nghd;wtw;wpd; fiujpwd;khWif> $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp khWk;Nfhyk; fPNo ml;ltiz
4.5 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
$l;lk; 2 cg;Gfspy; XuyF kiwVw;w mdad;fisf; nfhz;l cg;Gfs;> FNshiul;L
kw;Wk; iej;jpNuw;Wfs; Nghd;wd nghJthff; fiuaf;$bad. vt;thwhapDk; XuyF
Vw;wj;jpYk; $ba Vw;wj;ijf; nfhz;l mdaDf;Fupa cg;Gfs;> fhgNdw;Wfs; kw;Wk;
9
nghRNgw;Wfs; Nghd;wd fiuAk; jftw;wd. vy;yhf; fhgNdw;WfSk; ePupy; fiuAk;

jftw;wd. tpjptpyf;F BeCO3. Ijurd; fhgNdw;Wfspd; fiujpwd; fhgNdw;Wfis
tplf; $baJ.
MgSO4 ,ypUe;J BaSO4 ,w;Fr; nry;Yk;NghJ $l;lk; 2 ,d; ry;Ngw;Wfspd; fiujpwd;

MdJ fiuAk; jftpypUe;J fiuahj; jftpw;F khwpr; nry;fpwJ> khwhf Ijnuhl;irl;bd;
fiujpwd; khw;wkhdJ $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpf; fiuahj; jftpypUe;J fiuAk; jftpwF
; r;
nry;fpwJ. cjhuzkhf Mg(OH)2 mupjpw; fiuAk;. mNjrkak; Ba(OH)2 fiuaf;$baJ
vd;gJld; td;fhuf; fiuriy cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 4.5 $l;lk; 1 kw;Wk; 2 ,d; Nru;itfspd; fiujpwd;
Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+
Cl- aq aq aq aq aq aq
Br- aq aq aq aq aq aq
I- aq aq aq aq aq aq
OH- aq aq IS SS SS aq
CO32- aq aq IS IS IS IS
HCO3- aq aq aq aq aq aq
NO2- aq aq aq aq aq aq
NO3- aq aq aq aq aq aq
S2- aq aq aq aq aq aq
SO32- aq aq SS IS IS IS
SO42- aq aq aq SS IS IS
PO43- aq aq IS IS IS IS
CrO42- aq aq aq aq IS IS
C2O42- aq aq SS IS IS SS
aq - fiutJ IS - fiuahjJ SS - mupjpw; fiutJ
fhukz; cNyhfq;fs; kw;Wk; Nru;itfs; RthiyAld; rpwg;ghd epwq;fis cUthf;F

tJld; fPNo fhl;ba Rthiy epwq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpr; Rthiyr; Nrhjid %yk; ,k;
%yfq;fis ,dq;fhzyhk;.
fy;rpak; - nrk;kQ;rs;-rptg;G
Jue;jpak; - fpupk;rd; rptg;G
Ngupak; - kQ;rs;-gr;ir
10
p njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
4.3 $l;lk; 13 %yfq;fs;

Nghud; xU Fwpg;gplj;jF my;YNyhfk; vd;gJld; Nghudpd; Nru;itfs; gq;fPl;Lr;
Nru;itfs; MFk;. vt;thwpUg;gpDk; mYkpdpakhdJ <upay;Gld; $ba xU cNyhfkhFk;.
,e;jpak; kw;Wk; jhypak; ,uz;Lk; cNyhfq;fshFk;. rpwpa mZthiu fhuzkhf>
$l;lj;jpy; Kjy; cWg;gpduhd B MdJ $l;lk; 13 ,d; kw;iwa cWg;gpdu;fistpl
NtWgl;ljhFk;. Nghud; MdJ $l;lk; 14 ,d; Si cld; cWjpahd %iytpl;lj;
njhlu;Gfisf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. $l;lk; 13 ,d; vy;yh %yfq;fSk; cWjpahd +3
xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisf; fhl;Lfpdw
; d. $l;lk; 13 %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; fPNo ml;ltiz
4.6 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.6 $l;lk; 13 %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
**B Al **Ga **In **Tl

jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
mikg;G [He]2s22p1 [Ne]3s23p1 [Ar]3d104s24p1 [Kr]4d105s25p1 [Xe]4f145d106s26p1
cNyhfMiu/ pm - 143 153 167 171
gq;fPl;L Miu/ pm 88 130 122 150 155
cUFepiy/ °C 2300 660 30 157 304
M3+Miu/ pm 27 53 62 80 89
1k; madhf;frf;jp/
kJ mol-1 799 577 577 556 590
2k; madhf;frf;jp/
kJ mol-1 2427 1817 1979 1821 1971
3k; madhf;frf;jp/
kJ mol-1 3660 2745 2963 2704 2878
** jw;Nghija f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy.
4.3.2 mYkpdpak;
mYkpdpakhdJ GtpNahl;by; Mff;$ba ,Uf;ifAila %yfq;fspy; %d;whtjhdjhFk;.
jdJ ntspf;fhl;lg;gLk; gug;gpy; mYkpdpakhdJ Al2O3 gilia cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
,g;gilahdJ xl;rprDld; NkYk; jhf;fKWtjpypUe;J mYkpdpaj;ijj; jLf;fpd;wJ.
,j;jifa CLGftplhj gilapdhy; Al MdJ tspAld; jhf;fkw;w xU %yfkhff;
nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
11
mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhf;fq;fs;
mYkpdpakhdJ O2 clDk; myrd;fSlDk; cldbahfj; jhf;fkilaf; $baJ. mj;Jld;
N2 clDk; jhf;fkilaf; $baJ.
xl;rprDld; (O2) : 4Al + O2 2Al2O3
myrd;fSld; (X2) : 2Al + 3X2 2AlX3
iejurDld; (N2) : 2Al + N2 2AlN
mYkpdpakhdJ $l;lk; 1 kw;Wk; 2 %yfq;fistplj; jhf;Fjpwd; Fiwe;jJ. ngupypaj;ijg;
Nghd;W mkpyq;fs;> fhuq;fs; ,uz;LlDk; jhf;fkilaf;$baJ. mkpyq;fs; kw;Wk;
%yq;fSld; Al ,d; jhf;fq;fspd; <Lnra;j rkd;ghLfs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 2OH (aq) + 6H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4] (aq) + 3H2(g)
ePu;f;fiurypy; mYkpdpak; madhdJ hexa aquaaluminium ion Mff; fhzg;gLk; vd

vjpu;ghu;ff
; g;gLfpwJ.
vt;thwhapDk;> Al3+,d; ePu;g;gFg;ghy; Al(OH2)5(OH)]2+ (pentaaquahydroxidoaluminium ion)
cUthfpwJ. gpd;du; [Al(OH2)4(OH)2]+ (tetraaquadihydroxidoaluminium ion) cUthf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ.
[Al(OH2)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l) [Al(OH2)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)

[Al(OH2)5(OH)]2+(aq) + H2O(l) [Al(OH2)4(OH)2]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
mYkpdpak; maDld; OH- ,d; Nru;fi ; fapd; NghJ Kjypy; (Cd;gir Nghd;W) n[yw;wd P ;
-
Nghy mYkpdpak; Ijnuhl;irl;L tPo;gbthFk;. kpifahd OH mad;fSld; mYkpdpa
Ijnuhl;irl;L tPo;gbthdJ tetra oxide aluminate rpf;fy; madhf khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
Al3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) Al(OH)3(s) (white gelatinous ppt)
Al(OH)3(s) + OH- (aq) [Al(OH)4] (aq) or AlO2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
$l;lk; 13 %yfq;fs; jkJ ns2np1 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G NkYk; %d;W gq;fPl;Lg;

gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; jkJ tYtsT Xl;by; MW ,yj;jpud;fs;
nfhz;lika KbAk;. ,jd; tpisthf> $l;lk; 13 ,d; gy Nru;itfs; ml;lkj;ijg;
g+u;j;jpahf;fh. gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfs; Mjyhy; xU ,yj;jpud; toq;fpaplkpUe;J xU
Nrhb ,yj;jpuid Vw;Wf; nfhs;fpd;w cY}ap mkpyq;fshfr; nraw;gl KbAk;. ml;lkk;
g+u;jj
; pahfhj ,r;Nru;itfs; ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;Fiwr; Nru;itfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpdw
; d.
B kw;Wk; Al ,uz;bYk; ml;lkk; g+u;j;jpahfhj Nru;itfs; thA mtj;ijapy; <u;gFjpaq;
fshf miktjd; %yk; ml;lk tpjpiaj; jpUg;jp nra;fpd;wd. (cU: 4.2).
cU: 4.2 thAepiy Al2Cl6 ,d; fl;likg;G
12
4.4 $l;lk; 14 %yfq;fs;

gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;gpd; tiyg;gpd;dy; fl;likg;G cUthtjd; fhuzj;jhy; $l;lk; 14

,d; Kjy; %d;W %yfq;fSk; cau; cUFepiyfs; cilad. fhgd; xU my;YNyhfk;
mNjrkak; rpypf;fd;> N[u;khdpak; Mfpad cNyhfg; Nghypfs; MFk;. $l;lj;jpy;
,Wjp %yfq;fshd nts;sa P k; kw;Wk; <ak; Mfpad cNyhfq;fs; MFk;.
fhgdhdJ ,aw;ifapy;> gpujhdkhf epyf;fup> krF vz;nza;> fy;irw;W (CaCO3), CO2

Mf tspapYk; kfdirw;W (MgCO3) kw;Wk; njhyikw;W (CaCO3·MgCO3) Mff;
fhzg;gLfpwJ. fpwigw;W> (fhupak;)> ituk; kw;Wk; Gy;yuPd;fs; Mfpad fhgdpd;
gpwjpUg;gq;fs; MFk;. Gy;yuPd;fs; mz;ikapy; fz;lwpag;gl;lJ. kpfTk; fz;lwpag;gl;l
Gy;yupd; MdJ C60, buckminsterfullerene (my;yJ bucky-ball - cijge;J Nghd;w) MFk;.
fhgdhdJ capu;fspd; mbg;gilahdJk; Nrjd ,urhadj;jpy; kpf Kf;fpakhdJkhd
%yfKk; MFk;. rpypf;fd;> N[u;khdpak; ,uz;Lk; ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; gpujhdkhf
Fiwflj;jpfshfg; gad;gLfpd;wd. ,jw;F Nkyhfr; rpypf;fdhdJ mNrjd gy;gFjpa
ifj;njhopypy; ngupJk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
$l;lk; 14 %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; ml;ltiz 4.7 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
C **Si **Ge **Sn **Pb

jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
cNyhfMiu/ pm - - - 158 175
gq;fPl;L Miu/ pm 77 118 122 140 154
cUFepiy/ °C 3730 1410 937 232 327
M 4+
Miu/ pm - - 53 69 78
** eilKiwapYs;s f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy
4.4.2 ituKk; fhuPaKk;
ituKk; fhuPaKk; (ngd;rpw;fup / fpwigw;W) Vftpd mZ(xNu mZf;fs;)r; rhyf

fl;likg;ghy; njhFf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ituk; (sp3 fyg;G mZ> ehd;Kfp) MdJ fdtbt
gspqF; f; fl;likg;G cilaJ. fhupak; (sp2 fyg;Gf; fhgd;> jsKf;Nfhzp) ,U jstbtf;
fhgd; gilfshf mLf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. fhupaj;jpYs;s fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;ghdJ
ituj;jpy; miktijtplf; Fiwthf (ituk; 154pm kw;Wk; kw;Wk; fpwigw; 141pm)
miktjw;Ff; fhuzk; fhgd; mZf;fspd; fyg;ghFk;. Xuplg;glhj  ,yj;jpud;fs;
miktjhy; fhupak; xU kpd; kw;Wk; ntg;gk; flj;jkpahf mikfpwJ. (cU: 4.3)
fhupaj;jpYs;s fhgd; gilfspilNa nkd;ikahd ,ilf; ftu;r;rpfs; miktjhy;
fhupakhdJ xU rpwe;j cuha;T ePf;fpahf mikfpd;wJ.
13
sp2 fyg;G Xuplg;glhj Xgpw;wy;fs;
cU: 4.3 fhupaj;jpd; Xuplg;glhj  ,yj;jpud;fs;
GyuPd;fs; kw;nwhU fhgd; gpwjpUg;gj; njhluhFk;. GyuPd;fspy; fhgd; mZf;fs; Nfhs

tbtj;jpy; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. cU 4.4 ,y; fhupak;> ituk;> GyuPd; (C60) vd;gtw;wpd;
fl;likg;Gfs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
(a) (b) (c)

cU: 4.4 (a) fhupak;> (b) ituk; kw;Wk; (c) GyuPd; (C60) fl;likg;Gfs;
4.4.3 fhgNdhu;xl;irl;L kw;Wk; fhgdPu;xl;irl;L
fhgNdhu;xl;irl;lhdJ epwkw;w> kzkw;w> cau; er;Rj;jd;ikahd thA. fhgNdhu;

xl;irl;bd; gpizg;G ntg;gTs;SiwahdJ C=O ,Yk; ghu;ff ; cau;thdJ. CO gpizg;G
ePskhdJ ntspg;gilahd C=O gpizg;gpYk; ghu;ff ; r; rpwpjhdjhFk;. ,jpypUe;J
C kw;Wk; O ,w;F ,ilapy; fhgNdhu;xl;irl;bd; mikg;G gpizg;ghdJ xU ntspgg ; ilahd
C=O gpizg;G my;y vd KbT nra;ayhk;. C kw;Wk; O mZf;fs; ,uz;bw;Fk; ,ilNa
cs;s gpizg;Gj; jd;ikahdJ xU Kk;ikg; gpizg;ghFk;. CO ,d; cY}apapd;
fl;likg;ghdJ cU 4.5 ,Ys;sJ.
cU: 4.5 CO ,d; cY}apapd; fl;likg;G
,Uk;G cw;gj;jpapy; xU jho;j;jpahff; fhgNdhu;xl;irl;L gad;gLj;jg;gLfpdw

; J. NkYk;
fhgd; mZtpYs;s jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud; fhuzkhf Cf;fy; jhf;fq;fspy; xU ,izap
ahf CO MdJ gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;wJ.
14
fhgdPu;xl;irl;L (cU: 4.6)MdJ ,yz;ld; tpirfs; fhuzkhf jho;ntg;gepiy kw;Wk;

my;yJ cau; mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; jpz;kkhf;fg; glf;$bajhFk;. jpz;k CO2 (cyu;
gdpf;fl;b) MdJ rhjhuz tspkz;ly epge;jidfspd; fPo; gjq;fkhfp thAepiy
fhgdPu;xl;irl;L Mf cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. czTf; ifj;njhopypy; nghJthf xU
ciwepiy fUtpahfTk; nraw;if kioia Mf;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
cU: 4.6 CO2 cY}apapd; fl;likg;G
4.4.4 fhgdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyk;
fhgdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyk; vd mwpag;gLk; fhNghdpf;fkpyk; (H2CO3) MdJ xU

nkd;dkpykhFk;. H2CO3 ,d; gpizg;gpd; fl;likg;ghdJ cU 4.7 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; ePupy; CO2 ,idf; fiug;gjd; %yk; fhNghdpf;fkpyk; Mf;fg;glKbAk;.
CO2(aq) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) CO32-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
cU: 4.7 H2CO3 gpizg;Gf; fl;likg;G
fhNghdpf;fkpyj;jpd; mkpyj;jd;ikahdJ mjpy; xl;r prd; mZTld; Neubahf

,izf;fg;gl;l Ijurd; mZthdJ xU GNuhj;jpud; Mf fiurypy; tpLtpff
; g;gLtjdhy;
fhl;lg;gLfpwJ.
fhgdPu;xl;irl;lhdJ %yfq;fSld; jhf;fKw;W fhgNdw;Wfis cUthf;Ftjdhy;

mjd; mkpyj;jd;ik fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. kpif CO2 ,d; gpurd;dj;jhy; $l;lk; 1 kw;Wk; 2
,d; fhgNdw;Wfs; njhlu;e;J Ijurd; fhgNdw;Wfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + kpif CO2(g) + H2O(l) 2NaHCO3(aq)
15
4.5 $l;lk; 15 %yfq;fs;
$l;lk; 15 ,d; Kjy; %yfkhd iejurdhdJ mf;$l;lj;jpy; Vida %yfq;fspypUe;J

NtWgl;l ,ay;Gfisf; fhl;lg;gad;gLfpd;wJ. (ml;ltiz 4.8) $l;lk; 15 %yfq;fspd;
cNyhf ,ay;Gfs; $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wJ. iejurd;> nghRguR
,uz;Lk; my;YNyhfq;fs;. mj;Jld; mit ,uz;Lk; -3 Kjy; +5 tiu xl;rpNaw;w
vz;fisf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. iejurd; MdJ xl;rprd; kw;Wk; GNshupDld; +5 xl;rpNaw;w
epiyfis mila KbAk;. typikahd Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf; (942 kJ mol-1) nfhz;bUg;g
jdhy; <u;iejurd;> N2 MdJ rhjhuz epge;jidapy; ngUksT rlj;JtkhdJ. iejurd;
jtpu;e;j Vida %yfq;fs; jpz;kq;fshff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. cau;e;j kpd;ndjpupay;G>
rpwpa mZthiu kw;Wk; d Xgpww
; y; ,d;ik fhuzkhf mf;$l;lj;jpy; Vida %yfq;fis
tpl iejurd; NtWgLfpwJ.
N **P **As **Sb **Bi
jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
cNyhfMiu/ pm - - - - 182
gq;fPl;L Miu/ pm 75 110 122 143 152
cUFepiy/ °C -210 44 (white) 613 630 271
590 (red)
ngsypq; kpd;ndjpu;jd;ik 3.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 2.0
** eilKiwapYs;s f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy
4.5.2 iejurdpd; ,urhadk;
iejurd; (nfhjpepepiy -195.8 0C ) MdJ rhjhuz tspaKf;fj;jpy; ePupy; rpwpjsT

fiuaf;$baJ. MapDk; mKf;f mjpfupgG ; ld; fiujpwd; $basT mjpfupfF
; k;. iejurd;
gpwjpUg;gq;fis Mf;Ftjpy;iy. <u;iejurdhdJ xU rpy jhf;fq;fis kl;LNk fhl;Lk;.
mtw;wpy; xd;W fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.

3Mg(s) + N2(g)   Mg3N2(s)
iejurd; xU rlj;Jt thA vdpDk; cau; epge;jidapy; mjd; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs;
epfo;fpd;wd. kpd;nghwpahy; toq;fg;gLk; Gwr; rf;jp %yk; iejurdhdJ cldbahf
xl;rprDld; jhf;fKWfpd;wJ. ,j;jhf;fk; kpd;dy; eilngWk;NghJ ,aw;ifapy;
mikfpd;wJ.
N2(g) + 2O2(g) 2NO2(g)
iejurdhdJ -3 ,ypUe;J +5 tiu xl;rpNaw;w epiyfisf; fhl;Lfpdw; J. ,t;nthl;rp

Naw;w epiyf;Fupa Nru;itfs; ml;ltiz 4.9 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
16
ml;ltiz 4.9 iejurdpd; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs;

xl;rpNaw;w epiy Nru;it #j;jpuk; gpizg;gpd; fl;likg;G
-3 Ammonia NH3
-2 Hydrazine N2H4
-1 Hydroxylamine NH2OH
0 Dinitrogen N2
+1 Dinitrogenmonoxide N2O
+2 Nitrogenmonoxide NO
+3 Dinitrogentrioxide N2O3
+4 Nitrogendioxide NO2
+4 Dinitrogentetroxide N2O4
+5 Nitric acid HNO3
+5 Dinitrogenpentoxide N2O5
17
4.5.3 iejurdpd; xl;Nrh mkpyq;fs;
iejurd; mkpykhdJ rhjhuz tspkz;ly epge;jidfspy; cWjpaw;wjhf mikAk;

xU nkd;dkpykhFk;. iejuR mkpyj;jpd; gpizg;gpd; fl;likg;G cU 4.8 ,y; jug;gl;
Ls;sJ.
cU: 4.8 iejuR mkpyj;jpd; gpizg;gpd; fl;likg;G
iejuR mkpykhdJ ,Utoptpfhuj;jpyPLgl;L iej;jpupf;F mkpyj;ijAk; epwkw;w

iejurNdhu; xl;irl;L thAitAk; cUthf;Fk;.
3HNO2(aq) HNO3(aq) + 2NO(g) + H2O(l)
iejurNdhu; xl;irl;L> njhlu;e;J xl;rprDld; jhf;fk; miltjhy; nrq;fgpy epw
iejurdPu; xl;irl;L cUthfpd;wJ.
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
iej;jpupf;fkpyk; (cU: 4.9) xU vz;nza;jd;ikahd hazardous jputk; MFk;. ,t;tkpy
khdJ Xu; td;xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahf cf;fpukhd ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisj; juf;$baJ.
cU: 4.9 iej;jpupf;fkpyj;jpd; gpizg;gpd; fl;likg;G

xspapd; J}z;lyhy; gpupif Vw;gLtjhy; iej;jpupf;fkpykhdJ xl;rpridAk; iejurdPu;
xl;irl;ilAk; cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
4HNO3(aq) 
h
 4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
,f;fhuzj;jpdhy; nrwp HNO3 MdJ Ma;T$lj;jpy; fgpyepwf; fz;zhbg; Nghj;jy;fspy;
fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ>
iej;jpupf;fkpyj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;Wk; kw;Wk; jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;fs;

Ijhd iej;jpupf;fkpykhdJ cNyhfq;fSld; jhf;fKw;W cNyhf iej;jpNuw;W kw;Wk;
Ijurd; thAitj; jUfpwJ. ,j;jhf;fq;fspy; Ijurd; njhlughf iej;jpupf;fkpykhdJ
xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfj; njhopw;gLfpdw
; J. kfdPrpak; kw;Wk; nrk;Gld; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ
iejurd; njhlu;ghfr; nrwpe;j iej;jpupf;fkpyk; Xu; fUtpahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
Mg(s) + dil. 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + conc. 4HNO3(l) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
3Cu(s) + dil. 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Cu(s) + conc. 4HNO3(l) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
18
my;YNyhfq;fshd fhgd; kw;Wk; fe;jfk; Nghd;wtw;Wld; nrwp. HNO3 MdJ xU

xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
C(s) + conc. 4HNO3(l) CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

S(s) + conc. 6HNO3(l) H2SO4(l) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
4.5.4 mNkhdpahTk; mjd; cg;Gf;fSk;
mNkhdpahthdJ xU epwkw;w rpwg;ghd kzKila thA.

NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)
mNkhdpak; Ijnuhl;irl;L xU nkd;%yk; mj;Jld; gFjp gpupifaile;J mNkhdpak;
mad;fisAk; Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fisAk; nfhLf;fpwJ.
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
kw;iwa ve;j xU %yq;fisg; Nghd;Nw ,JTk; Ijhd mkpyq;fSld; cg;Gf; fiuriy

cUthf;Fk;.
2NH4OH(aq) + dil. H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
ePu;f;fiurypy; mNkhdpak; madpd; ePu;g;gFg;ghdJ ,iz %ykhd mNkhdpahit

cUthf;Fk;.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
vy;yh mNkhdpak; cg;GfSk; fhuq;fSld; jhf;fKw;W mNkhdpahit cUthf;Fk;.

NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3 (g) + H2O(l)
mNkhdpahtpd; jhf;fq;fs;
mNkhdpahthdJ FNshupDld; jho;jJ ; k; fUtpahfj; njhopwg
; LtJld; ,q;F cUthFk;
tpisTfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; mNkhdpah kw;Wk; FNshupdpd; msTf;F Vw;g khWgLfpdw
; d.
kpif mNkhdpah FNshupDld; iejurd; thAit tpisTfspy; xd;whf nfhLf;fpd;wJ.
vt;thwhapDk; kpif FNshupdhdJ iejurd; Kf;FNshiul;il tpisTfspy; xd;whf
nfhLf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; ,r;Nru;it ePiuj; njhw;W mfw;wg; gad;gLk;.
kpif mNkhdpah> 8 NH3(g) + 3 Cl2(g) N2(g) + 6 NH4Cl(s)
cUthFk; HCl MdJ jhf;fKwhj mNkhdpahTld; njhlu;e;J jhf;fKw;W NH4Cl I

cUthf;Fk;.
kpif FNshupDld; 3 Cl2(g) + NH3(g) 3 HCl(g) + NCl3(l)

iejurd; Kf;FNshiul;lhdJ xU gq;fPl;L FNshiul;L. ,J ePUld; jhf;fKw;W
mNkhdpahitAk; cgFNshuR mkpyj;i jAk; (hypochlorous acid) cUthf;F k;.
cgFNshuR mkpyj;ij cUthf;Fk; jfthy; iejurd; Kf;FNshiul;lhdJ ePiuj;
njhw;WePf;fg; gad;gLk;.
NCl3(l) + 4H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)+ 3HOCl(aq)
19
thAepiy mNkhdpahthdJ Ijurd; FNshiul;Lld; jhf;fpj; jpz;k mNkhdpak;

FNshiul;bd; ntz;Gifia cUthf;Fk;. ,J mNkhdpahtpw;F xU cWjpg;ghl;Lr;
NrhjidahFk;.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
CuO kw;Wk; Cl2 cld; mNkhdpahthdJ xU nkd; jho;jJ

; k; fUtpahfj; njhopwg
; Lfpdw
; J.
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g)
2NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) N2(g) + 6HCl(g)
cau; epge;jidfspy; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfTk; mNj Neuj;jpy; xU mkpykhfTk;
cNyhfq;fSld; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
2Na(s) + 2NH3(l) 2NaNH2(l) + H2(g)
3Mg(s) + 2NH3(l) Mg3N2(l) + 3H2(g)
mNkhdpak; cg;Gfspd; ntg;gg;gpupif
rpy mNkhdpak; cg;Gf;fs; ntg;gg;gLj;Jk;;NghJ gpupifAw;W mNkhdpah thAitAk;

mkpy thAf;fisAk; cUthf;Fk;.
(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(NH4)2SO4(s) NH3(g) + H2SO4(g)*
*,j;jhf;fj;jpd; tpisTfs; epgejidfspw;F Vw;g NtWgl KbAk;.
vt;thwhapDk; #lhf;fg;gLk;NghJ rpy mNkhdpak; cg;Gfspy; cs;s mdad;fshy;

mNkhdpak; mad; xl;rpNaw;wg;gLtjhy; gy tpisTfs; cUthFk;.
NH4NO2(s) N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)
(NH4)2Cr2O7(s) N2(g) + Cr2O3(s) + 4H2O(g)
mNkhdpak; cg;Gf;fis ,dq;fhzy;
vy;yh mNkhdpak; cg;GfSk; NaOH cld; ntg;gk; Vw;Wk; NghJ mNkhdpah thAitj;
jUk;. ,t;thA nrwpe;j HCl ,y; eidj;j fz;zhbf;NfhYld; ntz;J}kk; mNkhdpak;
FNshiul;ilj; jUk;.
NH4+(aq) + OH¯(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s) ntz;J}kk;
20
iej;jpNuw;wpd; jhf;fq;fs;
iron(II)/ nrwp. H2SO4 cld; jhf;fKw tplg;gl;L iej;jpNuw;W maid ,dq;fhzyhk;.

,J fgpytisar; Nrhjid vd mwpag;gLk;. [Fe(NO)]2+ fgpy tisak; Nrhjidf;
Fohapy; cUthtJ iej;jpNuw;wpd; gpurd;dj;ij cWjpg;gLj;Jk;.
2NO3- (aq) + 4H2SO4(l) + 6Fe2+(aq) 6Fe3+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4SO42- (aq) + 4H2O(l)
Fe2+(aq)+ NO(g) [Fe(NO)]2+(aq)
(fgpyepwk;)
Njtjhtpd; fyg;GNyfk; my;yJ Al / NaOH cld; iej;jpNuw;wpd; jhf;fj;jpy;; mNkhdpah

cUthFk;.
3NO3- (aq) + 8Al(s) + 5OH-(aq) + 18H2O(l) 3NH3(g) + 8[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
4.6 $l;lk; 16 %yfq;fs;

$l;lk; 16 ,d; Kjy;%yfkhd xl;rprdhdJ mf;$l;lj;jpd; Vida %yfq;fspypUe;J
NtWgl;l ,ay;Gfisf; fhl;LfpwJ. $l;lj;jpy; fPoN
; ehf;fp cNyhf elj;ij mjpfupff
; pdw
; J.
vt;thwpUg;gpDk; $l;lk; 16 ,d; ve;jnthU %yfKk; cz;ikahd cNyhfkhf elg;gJ
,y;iy. xl;rprd; kw;Wk; fe;jfk; ,uz;Lk; my;YNyhfq;fs;. ,f;$l;lj;jpy; Vida
%yfq;fs; cNyhfk; kw;Wk; my;YNyhf ,ay;Gfisf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. xl;rprd; kl;LNk
thA. $l;lj;jpy; Vida %yfq;fs; jpz;kq;fs;. xl;rprd; jtpu;e;j $l;lj;jpd; Vida
%yfq;fs; +6 Kjy; -2 tiuapyhd ,ul;ilvz; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
+6 kw;Wk; -2 xl;rpNaw;w epiyfspd; cWjpj;jd;ik $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpf; FiwAk;.
mNjrkak; +4 xl;rpNaw;wepiyapd; cWjpj;jd;ik mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
O S **Se **Te **Po
jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
madhiuX2-/ pm 140 184 198 221 -
gq;fPl;L Miu/ pm 73 103 117 137 140
cUFepiy/ °C -218 113 (±) 217 450 254
ngsypq;
kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik 3.4 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.0
1k; ,yj;jpud; Vw;wy;
ntg;gTs;Siw/ kJ mol-1
X(g) + e X-(g) -141 -200 -195 -190 -183
2k; ,yj;jpud; Vw;wy;
X-(g) + e X2-(g) 844 532 - - -
** eilKiwapYs;s f.ngh.j.(cau;juk;) ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy
21
4.6.2 $l;lk; 16 ,d; Ijiul;Lfs;
$l;lk; 16 ,d; %yfq;fs; IjurDls; vspa Ijiul;Lfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.mit

ahTk; gq;fPlL
; Ijiul;Lfs;. $l;lj;jpd; Ijiul;Lfspy; Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l ,ay;Gfspd;
NtWghL fPNo ml;ltiz 4.11 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz 4.11 $l;lk; 16 ,d; Ijiul;Lfspd; Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l ,ay;Gfs;
H2O H2S H2Se H2Te

cUFepiy/ °C 0.0 -85.6 -65.7 -51
nfhjpepiy / °C 100.0 -60.3 -41.3 -4
gpizg;GePsk;/ pm 96 134 146 169
gpizg;G Nfhzk;/ ° 104.5 92.1 91 90
$Ljyhd Ijurd; gpizg;G mikAk; jd;ikahy; H2O MdJ $l;lj;jpd; Vida

Ijiul;Lfistpl mrhjhuzkhf cau;ej ; nfhjpepiy kw;Wk; cUFepiyia cilaJ.
$l;lj;jpd; Vida vy;yh Ijiul;Lf;fspd; kj;jpapy; ePu; kl;LNk xNunahU er;Rj;jd;ik
aw;w Ijiul;lhFk;.
ikamZtpd; gUkd; mjpfupgg

; pd; fhuzkhfg; gq;fl
P L
; Ijiul;Lfspd; gpizg;G ePsj;jpy;
NtWghl;bid mtjhdpf;fg;glKbAk;. MfNt fPo;Nehf;fpg; gpizTf; Nfhzq;fs;
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
gpizg;Gr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspd; kPjhd jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; js;Sif Fiwthf

miktjhy; $l;lj;jpy; fPoN
; ehf;fpr; nry;Yk; NghJ gq;flP L
; g;gpizT Nfhzq;fs; Fiwe;J
nry;f pd;wd. H2S, H2Se kw;W k; H2Te gpizTf; NfhzkhdJ 90°f; F mz; i kahf
mikfpd;wd. ,jw;F Nkyjpfkhf nrydpak; kw;Wk; njY}upak; Mfpad tpNrlkhf
IjurDld; ,ize;J nfhs;tjw;F J}a p Xgpww ; y;fis gad;gLj;Jtjdhy; ,e;epiyik
cs;sjhff; fUjyhk;.
4.6.3 xl;rprd;
xl;rprdhdJ ,U gpwjpUg;gq;fs; <u;xl;rprd; (O2) kw;Wk; %nthl;rprd; (XNrhd; O3)

cilaJ. <u; xl;rprdhdJ epwkw;w> kzkw;w> kw;Wk; ePupy; rpwpjsT fiuAk; thAthFk;.
XNrhd; %f;ifj; Jisf;Fk; kzKilaJ. XNrhdpd; gpizTf; Nfhzk; 111.50. ,t;tpU
gpwjpUg;g thAf;fSk; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
(a) (b)
cU: 4.10 xl;rprdJk; XNrhdpdJk; fl;likg;Gfs;
22
nghl;lhrpak; FNuhNkw;W kw;Wk; Ijurd; gunthl;irl;bd; Cf;fw; gpupiffs; (Cf;fp

Kd;dpiyapy;) xl;rprd; jahupf;fg; gad;gLk;.
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g), - MnO2 / Pt Kd;dpiyapy; ntg;gkhf;fy;

2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g), - MnO2 Kd;dpiyapy; ntg;gkhf;fy;
cNyhfq;fs; <u;xl;rprDld; jhf;fKw;W cNyhf xl;irl;Lf;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.

<u; xl;rpridtpl XNrhd; xU typjhd xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahFk;. mgptpUj;jp mile;j
ehLfs; gytw;wpy; XNrhdhdJ ePupYs;s Neha;f;fpUkpfis mopj;J njhw;WePf;fy;
nra;tjw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ. FNshupidg; Nghyd;wp> XNrhdhdJ ghjpg;ghd gf;ftpisT
fisj; J}a;jhf;fypd;NghJ cUthf;Ftjpy;iy.
4.6.4 fe;jfk;
fPNo tpsf;fpathW fe;jfj;ijg; ghFgLj;j KbAk;.

fe;jfk;
d d
gspq;FU tbtk; gspq;FUtw;w tbtk;
d d d d d
rha;rJufe;jfk; xUrupTf;fe;jfk; gpsh];bf $o; fe;jfg;ghy;
(-fe;jfk;) (-fe;jfk;) (fsp)
cU: 4.11 fe;jfj;jpd; ghFghL
xl;rprd; Nghyd;wp ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gfistplf; fe;jfkhdJ jkf;Fs; jhNk xw;iwg;

gpizg;Gfis Mf;Ffpdw ; J. ngUksT fhzg;gLk; gpwjpUg;gkhdJ rha;rJuf; fe;jfkhFk;.
,J  fe;jfk; (-S8) vdg;gLfpwJ. ,J vl;L cWg;gpdu; nfhz;l> tisnespf;
fl;likg;Gila fpuPltbt mikg;ghFk;. ,J fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jid 9300f;F
Nky; #lhf;Fk;NghJ -S8 ,jd; xOq;fikg;ghdJ kw;nwhU nghJthff; fhzg;gLk;
tbtkhd fe;jfk; S Mf khw;wkilfpd;wJ. ,t;tpU tbtq;fSk; xd;W kw;wjpd;
gpwjpUg;gkhFk;.
(a) (b) (c)

cU: 4.12 (a) fpuPltbtk; S8 (b) rha;rJu fe;jfk; (c) xUrupTf;fe;jfk;
23
gspq;FU tbtq;fshd rha;rJuk; kw;Wk; xUrupTf; fe;jfq;fs; S8 tisaq;fis

cila fpuPl tbtq;fshFk;. rha;rJug; gspq;Ffs; kw;Wk; Crp Nghd;w tbtKila
xUrupTg; gspqF; fs; ,UNtW topKiwfspy; ,jd; mikg;ghdJ xOq;fikf;fg;glKbAk;.
950C f;F fPo; rha;rJu tbtKila cWjpahd gspq;FU gpwjpUg;gkhf mikAk;.
cUfpa fe;jfj;ij ePUf;Fs; Cw;wg;gLk;NghJ fe;jfj;jpd; xU kPsj

; d;ikAila gspqF ; U
tw;w fe;jf tbtk; Njhd;Wk; jpwe;j rq;fpyptbtKila cUfpa fe;jfj;ijr; rLjpahff;
Fspu;tpf;Fk;NghJ jput fe;jfkhdJ jpwe;j rq;fpypAilaJk; gspq;FUtw;wJkhd
fe;jfkhf khw;wkilAk;. gspqF
; Utw;w fe;jftbtkhdJ Neuj;Jld; gspqF ; Uf; fe;jfkhf
khw;wkilAk;. gspq;FUtw;w fe;jf tbtkhdJ thl;lj;jf;fJ (malliable). Mdhy;
cWjpaw;wJ.
4.6.5 xl;rprd; nfhz;l Nru;itfs;
ePu; kw;Wk; Ijurd; gunthl;irl;L
H2O ,dJk; H2O ,dJk; fl;likg;Gfs; fPNoAs;s cUf;fspy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
cU: 4.13 (a) H2O, (b) H2O2 ,d; tbtq;fs;
ePuhdJ ngUkstpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;; fiug;ghdhFk;. ePu; gpd;tUkhW madhf;fkilAk;.

,J ePupd; Ramadhf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
xU <u;top ,ay;G %yf;$whdJ GNuhj;jpud; Vw;wy; my;yJ ,oj;jy; my;yJ ,uz;Lkhf
mikaKbAk;. ePuhdJ xU <u;top ,ay;Gr; Nru;itahFk; Vnddpy; mJ GNuhj;jpuid
Vw;f my;yJ GNuhj;jpuid tpLtpf;Fk; jpwDilaJ. ePupd; <upay;G elj;ij fPNo
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
H2O(l) + HCl(aq) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2O(l) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
24
4.6.6 Ijurd; gunthl;irl;L
Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;L xU Kidthf;fkw;w %yf;$W (H2O2) H2O2 %yf;$W xU

jsj;jpy; ,y;yhj ,uz;L OH $l;lq;fis cilaJ. thA epiyapy; %yf;$W tbtk;
tise;j tbtKilaJ. H-O-O-H gpizg;Gf; Nfhzk; 94.8°. cU 4.13 ,y; fhl;ba
fl;likg;G ‘O’ mZfspYs;s jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd js;Sif tpiria
,opthf cilaJ. cU 4.13 ,y; fhl;bathW ,U H-O $l;lq;fs; jk;kpilNa 111.5°
NfhzKilad.
mjpfsT Ijurd; gpizg;Gf; fhuzkhf H2O2 xU ghFj;jd;ikAs;s jputk;. H2O2

xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfTk; jho;j;Jk; fUtpahfTk; njhopw;glyhk;. mJ xl;rpakpykhf
xl;rpNaw;wkilAk;> ePuhf jho;j;jy; milAk;.
jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fk;:
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e 2H2O(l)
xl;rpNaw;wy; miuj;jhf;fk;
H2O2(aq) 2H+(aq) + O2(g) + 2e
,Utop tpfhuk;
2H2O2(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
H2O2 ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

H2O2 xU xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahf@
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2I-(aq) I2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) 2Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H2O2 xU jho;j;Jk; fUtpahf@

2MnO4-(aq) + 5H2O2(aq) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5O2(g) + 8H2O(l)
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3H2O2(aq) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3O2(g)
Ijurd; ry;igl;L
Ijurd; ry;igl;L H2S MdJ xU epwkw;w> er;Rj;jd;ikahd kw;Wk; mkpyj;jd;ikahd

thA. ,J ~~mOfpa ($o;) Kl;il|| kzKila thA. cNyhf ry;igl;Lfspw;F xU
td;dkpyj;ijr; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; H2S I Mf;f KbAk;. ,J ePupy; fiue;J nkd;dkpyf;
fiuriyj; jUfpd;wJ.
25
Ijurd; ry;igl;bd; jhf;fq;fs;
H2S MdJ td;fhuq;fSld; xU mkpykhfr; nraw;gLk;.

NaOH(aq) + kpifH2S(g) NaHS(s) + H2O(l)
kpif 2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g) Na2S(s) + 2H2O(l)
H2S MdJ cNyhfq;fSld; xU mkpykhfTk; mNjrkak; xU xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfTk;

njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
2Na(s) + kpif 2H2S(g) 2NaHS(s) + H2(g)
2Na(s) + kl;Lg;gLj;jpa H2S(g) Na2S(s) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2S(g) MgS(s) + H2(g)
H2S xU jho;j;Jk; fUtpahf@

2KMnO4(aq)+3H2SO4(aq)+5H2S(g) K2SO4(aq)+5S(s)+2MnSO4(aq)+8H2O(l)
K2Cr2O7(aq)+4H2SO4(aq)+3H2S(g) K2SO4(aq)+Cr2(SO4)3(aq)+3S(s)+7H2O(l)
2H2S(aq) + SO2(g) 3S(s) + 2H2O(l)
fe;jftPnuhl;irl;L
fe;jftPnuhl;irl;lhdJ ePupw; fiuaj; jf;fJk; epwkw;wJkhd thA. fe;jf<nuhl;irl;L

xU xl;rpNaw;Wk; kw;Wk; jho;j;Jk; fUtpahfr; nraw;gLk;.
fe;jftPnuhl;irl;bd; jhf;fq;fs;
xU xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahf@
2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)
3Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + MgS(s)
xU jho;j;Jk; fUtpahf@
5SO2(g) + 2KMnO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq)
3SO2(g) + K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + Cr2(SO4)3 (aq)+ H2O(l)
SO2(g) + 2FeCl3(aq) + 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + 2FeCl2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
26
4.6.8 fe;jfj;jpd; xl;rpakpyq;fs;
fe;jfj;jpd; nghJthd xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; -2, 0, +2, +4 kw;Wk; +6.
ry;g+upf; mkpyk;
ry;g+upf;fkpykhdJ xU <u;GNuhj;jpupf;F td;dkpykhFk;. fe;jf %nthl;irl;L ePUld;

jhf;fKw;W ry;g+upf;fkpyj;ij cUthf;Fk;.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
nrwp H2SO4 MdJ ePu; mfw;Wk; fUtpahfj; njhopw;gLk;.

C6H12O6(s) 6C(s) + 6H2O(g)
C2H5OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)
nrwpe;j #lhd ry;g+upf;fkpykhdJ xU xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfr; nraw;gl KbAk;.
cNyhfq;fSld;@
2H2SO4(l) + Mg(s) SO2(g) + MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2H2SO4(l) + Cu(s) SO2(g) + CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
my;YNyhfq;fSld;@
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Ijhd H2SO4 MdJ xU mkpykhfr; nraw;gLk;.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(s) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
ePUf;F ,U H+ mad;fis toq;fp xU GNuhj;jpuNdw;wpahff; fPof

; f
; z;lthW Ijhd
ry;g+upff
; kpykhdJ xU Ijhd mkpykhfr; nraw;gLfpwJ.
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
cU: 4.14 ry;g+upf;fkpyj;jpd; fl;likg;G
27
ry;g+uR mkpyk;
tspapd; xl;rpNaw;wy; %yk; ry;g+uR mkpykhdJ vg;NghJk; rpwpa msT ry;g+upf;

fkpyj;jpidf; nfhz;likAk;. ry;g+uR mkpykhdJ ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprDld;
jhf;fKw;Wr; ry;g+upff
; kpyj;ij cUthf;Fk;. ,jd; fl;likg;G cU 4.15 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sJ
,t;tkpykhdJ ry;g+upf;fkpyj;jpYk; ghu;ff; nkd;dkpykhFk;.
cU: 4.15 ry;g+uR mkpyj;jpd; fl;likg;G
jNahry;g+upf;fkpyk; (fe;jf ry;g+upf;fkpyk; / thiosulphuric acid)
jNahry;g+upff
; kpyj;jpd; cg;Gfs; kl;LNk cWjpahdit. mj;Jld; jNahry;g+upff
; kpykhdJ
xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;Fk; mNjNghy; jho;j;jYf;Fk; cl;gl;Lf; fe;jfj;ijAk; mj;Jld;
fe;jftPnuhl;irl;ilAk; tpisTfshf cUthf;f KbAk;. jNahry;g+upf;fkpyk; xU
nkd;dkpykhFk;. ePu;f;fiurypy; ry;g+upf;fkpykhdJ gpupifAw;Wf; fe;jfj;ij cila
tpisTfis cUthf;f KbAk;.
H2S2O3(aq) S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
jNahry;g+upf; mad; xU jho;j;Jk; fUtpahfj; nraw;glf; $baJ.
2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) S4O62-(aq) + 2I-(aq)
jNahry;g+upf;fkpyj;jpdJk; jNahry;g+upf; madpdJk; fl;likg;Gfs; fPNoAz;L. ,t;tpU
fl;likg;GfspYk; ikaj;jpYs;s fe;jfmZtpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz; +4 ck; mNjNghd;W
xU me;jj;jpYs;s fe;jf mZtpw;Fg; g+r;rpaKk; mikAk;.
cU: 4.16 jNahry;g+upf;fkpyk; kw;Wk; jNahry;Ngw;W mad;
4.7 $l;lk; 17 %yfq;fs;
myrd;f s; jhf;F jpwd; $bad. mj;Jld; Nru;i tfshf kl;LNk ,aw;i fapy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd. GNshupdhdJ kpfTk; kpd;ndjpupay;G $ba %yfk; mj;Jld; -1
kw;Wk; 0 xl;rpNaw;w epiyfis kl;LNk fhl;LfpwJ. GNshupd; jtpu;e;j myrd;fs; -1
Kjy; +7 tiuapyhd vy;yh xl;rpNaw;w epiyfspYk; Nru;itfisAk; mNefkhf
28
cUthf;ff;$bad. vdpDk; GNuhkpdpw;F +7 xl;rpNaw;w epiy cWjpaw;wJ. cau;

kpdn
; djpuj
; j
; d;ikAk; rpwpa mZthiuAk; fhuzkhf GNshupdhdJ Vida %yfq;fspy;
cau; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfistplTk; cWjpahf mikaf;$baJ.
$l;lj;jpy; fPoN; ehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ myrd;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wj; jpwd; Fiwe;J nry;fpwJ.

GNshupd; kpf typikahd xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahFk;. myrd;fspd; jhf;Fjpwd; $l;lj;jpy;
fPoN
; ehf;fpf; Fiwe;J nry;fpwJ. myrd;fspd; ,lg;ngau;r;rpj; jhf;fq;fisg; gad;gLj;J
tjd; %yk; ,jid tpsf;f KbAk;.
Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)

Br2(aq) + 2I-(aq) 2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)
miwntg;gepiyapy; GNshupDk; FNshupDk; KiwNa ntspwpa kQ;rs; kw;Wk; ntspwpa

gr;ir epw thAf;fshFk;. GNuhkpdhdJ Mtpg;gwg;Gila> nrq;fgpyj; jputkhfTk;
mabdhdJ kpDkpDg;ghd fUCjhj; jpz;kkhfTk; mikAk;.
GNshupd; mZf;fspd; gpizg;gpyPLglhj Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspd; ,ilNaahd js;Sif

fhuzkhf F2 ,d; gpizg;Gr; rf;jp (155 kJ mol-1) MdJ Cl2 ,d; gpizg;Gr; rf;jp (240 kJ
mol-1) ,Yk; ghu;ff ; f; FiwthdjhFk;. ,JNt FNshupdpd; cau;jhf;FjpwDf;Ff; fhuz
khFk;. $l;lk; 17 ,y; fPo;Nehf;fpg; gpizg;Grf;jpfs; xOq;fhff; Fiwfpd;wd.
(Cl2 = 240 kJ mol-1, Br2 = 190 kJ mol-1, I2 = 149 kJ mol-1).
ml;ltiz 4.12 $l;lk; 17 ,d; %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
F Cl Br I **At
jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
mikg;G [He]2s22p5 [Ne]3s23p5 [Ar]3d104s24p5 [Kr]4d105s25p5 [Xe]4f 145d106s26p5
te;ju;thyJ Miu/ pm 135 180 195 215 -
madhiu X/ pm 133 181 196 220 -
gq;fPl;LMiu/pm 71 99 114 133 -
cUFepiy/ °C -220 -101 -7.2 114 -
nfhjpepiy/ °C -188 -34.7 55.8 184 -
ngsypq;fpd;
kpd;ndjpu;jd;ik 4.0 3.2 3.0 2.7 -
,yj;jpud; Vw;wy;
X(g) + e X(g) -328 -349 -325 -295 -
** jw;Nghija f.ngh.j. cau;juk; ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; cs;slq;ftpy;iy
29
4.7.2 $l;lk; 17 ,d; vspa Nru;itfs;
Ijurd; Viyl;Lfs;
Ijurd; Viyl;Lfs; ePupy; mkpyj; jd;ikahdit. HF MdJ cau;thd Ijurd;

epiyia Mf;ff;$baJ MapDk; HF xU thAthf (nfhjpepiy 200C) miwntg;gepiy
apYk; tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk; mikAk;.
ePu;f;fiurypy; Ijurd; Viyl;Lfspd; mkpy ,ay;G
HF ,w;F@ HF(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)

kw;iwa Ijurd; Viyl;Lfs; (HCl, HBr and HI);
HX(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + X-(aq)
ePUlfj;jpy; HF xU nkd;dkpyk;. mNjrkak; Vida Ijurd; Viyl;Lfs; td;ikahd

mkpyq;fs; MFk;. HF MdJ cau;e;j gpizg;Gr;rf;jp (typikahd gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;G)
cilaJ. ,jdhy; ePu py; gpupifAw;W cldbahf H+ mad;f is toq;F tJ
fbdkhfpd;wJ. Ijurd; Viyl;Lfspd; mkpy typikahdJ $l;lk; 17 ,y; fPo;Nehf;fp
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 4.13 $l;lk; 17 ,d; Ijurd; Viyl;Lfspd; Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l ,ay;Gfs;

HF HCl HBr HI
cUFepiy/ °C -84 -114 -89 -51
nfhjpepiy / °C 20 -85 -67 -35
gpizg;G ePsk;/ pm 92 127 141 161
gpizg;gpd; gpupifr;rf;jp/ kJ mol-1 570 432 366 298
nts;sp Viyl;Lf;fs;
Viyl;Lfis (FNshiul;L> GNuhikl;L> kw;Wk; maill;Lfis) ,dq;fhz;gjw;F

nts;sp Viyl;L tPo;gbTfspd; epwq;fisg; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. rpy Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l
,ay;Gfs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.14 $l;lk; 17 %yfq;fspd; nts;sp Viyl;Lfs;
nts;sp epwk; mNkhdpahtpy; fiujpwd;
Viyl;Lf;fs;
AgCl nts;is Ijhd mNkhdpahf;fiurypy; fiufpwJ.
AgBr ntspu; kQ;rs; nrwpe;j mNkhdpahf;fiurypy; fiufpwJ.
AgI kQ;rs; Ijhd kw;Wk; nrwpe;j mNkhdpahf; fiurypy; fiufpwJ.
30
FNshupddJ xl;irl;LfSk; xl;Nrh mkpyq;fSk;
FNshupdhdJ NtWgl;l xl;rpNaw;w epiyfSld; ntt;NtW xl;irl;LfisAk; xl;Nrh

mdad;fisAk; cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. FNshupdJ njupT nra;ag;gl;l ngNuhl;irl;Lfs;
ml;ltiz 4.15 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.15 FNshupdJ xl;irl;LfSk; xl;Nrh mdad;fSk;
xl;rpNaw;w xl;irl;bd; xl;rp mdad;fspd; xl;Nrh mdad;fspd;
epiy #j;jpuk; #j;jpuk; fl;likg;G
+1 Cl2O ClO-
+3 ClO2-
+5 ClO3-
+6 ClO3, Cl2O6
+7 Cl2O7 ClO4-
FNshupd; ehd;F tif xl;Nrh mkpyq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. FNshupd; mZtpd;

xl;rpNaw;w vz; mjpfupg;Gld; mkpy typikahdJ mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. xl;Nrh mkpyq;fspd;
fl;likg;Gfs; kw;Wk; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; ml;ltiz 4.16 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.16 FNshupdJ xl;Nrh mkpyq;fspd; fl;likg;Gfs;
HOCl HClO2 HClO3 HClO4
xl;rpNaw;w epiy +1 +3 +5 +7
fl;likg;G
FNshupdJ xl;rpakpyq;fspd; xl;rpNaw;w typik gpd;tUkhW khWgLfpd;wJ.

HOCl > HClO2 > HClO3 > HClO4
HOCl, HClO2, HClO3, HClO4 ,y; FNshupdJ xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; +1, +3, +5 kw;Wk; +7.
cau; xl;rpNaw;wepiyf;FupaJ typikahd mkpyKkhf mikAk;. MfNt mkpy typik
khWjy; HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4.
31
Viyl;Lf;fs;
ngUk;ghyhd gq;fPl;L Viyl;Lfs; ePUld; cf;fpukhfj; jhf;fkilAk; Mdhy; CCl4

ePu;g;gFg;giltjpy;iy ngUk;ghyhd; GNshiul;LfSk; NtW rpy Viyl;LfSk;
rlj;Jtkhdit.
$l;lk; 14> 15 %yf FNshiul;Lfs; msT ePUld; gpd;tUkhW jhf;fkilfpd;wd.
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) 4HCl(aq) + SiO2(s)
PCl5(s) + H2O(l) POCl3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
$l;lk; 14> 15 ,d; %yf FNshiul;Lfs; kpif ePUld; gpd;tUkhW jhf;fkilfpd;wd.

SiCl4 (l) + 3H2O(l) 4HCl(aq) + H2SiO3(aq)
NCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + 3HOCl(aq)
PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)
AsCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) H3AsO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
SbCl3(aq) + H2O(l) SbOCl(s) + 2HCl(aq)
BiCl3(aq) + H2O(l) BiOCl(s) + 2HCl(aq)
4.7.3 FNshupdpd; jhf;fq;fs;
GNshupid tpl FNshupd; jhf;Fjpwd; Fiwe;jJ. FNshupd; thA xU typikahd

xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahFk;. FNshupd; typikahd xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahf nraw;gLk;
rpy jhf;fq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
2Cu(s) + Cl2(g) 2CuCl(s)
2CuCl(s) + Cl2(g) 2CuCl2(s)
Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl2(s)
2FeCl2(s) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
kpif mNkhdpah>8NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) N2(g) + 6HCl(g)
kpif FNshupd;> 3Cl2(g) + NH3(g) 3HCl(g) + NCl3(l)
FNshupdpd; ,Utoptpfhuj; jhf;fk;
FNshupdhdJ ePUlDk; %yq;fSlDk; jhf;fKWk;NghJ xNurkaj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wy;>

jho;j;jy; ,uz;bw;Fk; cl;gLfpd;wJ.
ePUld; FNshupdpd; jhf;fk;.
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq)
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; g+r;rpa xl;rpNaw;wepiyapYs;s FNshupd; (Cl2) , +1 (HOCl) f;F xl;rpNaw;wKk;
-1 epiyf;F (Cl-) jho;j;jYk; milfpwJ.
32
Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;Lld; jhf;fk;.

Ijhd Fspu; Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;Lld;.
Cl2(g) + Fspu;> Ijhd 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ijhd #lhd / nrwpe;j #lhd Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;Lld;
80 0C f;F Nky;
3Cl2(g) + nrwpe;j 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
xl;Nrh mdadpd; jhf;fq;fs;
ClO MdJ> jho; ntg;g epiyapy; cWjpahdJ mj;Jld; cau; ntg;gepiyapy;

,Utoptpfhuj;jpw;F cl;lgl;L Cl , ClO3 I cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. vt;thwhapDk; BrO ck;
IO ck; jho;ntg;gepiyfspy; cWjpahd mj;Jld; ,Utoptpfhuj;jpw;F cl;glKbAk;.
cgFNshiul;bd; (Hypochloride) ,Utoptpfhuj; jhf;fq;fs;
cgFNshiul;bd; ,Utoptpfhuj;jpy; FNshiul;L kw;Wk; FNshNuw;W cUthtjidg;

gpd;tUkhW vOj KbAk;.
3ClO- ClO3- + 2Cl-
mkpy epge;jidfspd; fPo; HOCl MdJ ClO fhu Clfj;jpy; ,Utoptpfhuk; Kjd;ik
ahdJ.
4.8 $l;lk; 18 %yfk;

$l;lk; 18 %yfq;fs; ahTk; jhf;Fjpwdw;w XuZ thAthFk;. Xe kl;Lk; Fwpg;gplj;jF
tPrr
; pDs; Nru;itfis Mf;Fk;. Nru;ff ; g;gLk; ,yj;jpud;fs; xU Gjpa Xl;bYs;s Xgpww
; ypy;
epug;gg;gLtjdhy; $l;lk; 18 ,d; vy;yh %yfq;fspdJk; ,yj;jpuNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siwfs;
Neu;g;ngWkhdKilad.
He Ne Ar Kr Xe
jiuepiy
,yj;jpudpiy
mikg;G 1s2 [He]2s22p6 [Ne]3s23p6 [Ar]3d104s24p6 [Xe]4d105s25p6
mZMiu/ pm 99 160 192 197 240
1k; madhf;frf;jp
kJ mol-1 2373 2080 1520 1350 1170
,yj;jpud; Vw;wy;
ntg;gTs;Siw/
kJmol-1 48.2 115.8 96.5 96.5 77.2
33
4.8.2 $l;lk; 18 %yfq;fspd; vspa Nru;itfs;
nrddpd; Nru;itfs; +2, +4, +6 , +8. nrdd; MdJ GNshupDld; Neubj; jhf;fKWfpwJ.
nrddpd; rpy Nru;itfs;ml;ltiz 4.18 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.18 Xe ,d; rpy Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l Nru;itfs;
xl;rpNaw;w epiy Nru;itfs; fl;likg;G
+2 XeF2
+4 XeF4
+6 XeF6
+6 XeO3
+8 XeO4
34
4.9 s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspdhy; fhl;lg;gLk; Mtu;j;jdg; Nghf;Ffs;
xU %yfj;jpd; tYtsNthl;L ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ig mjd; Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiz

apYs;s epiyiaf; nfhz;L vjpu;T $w KbAk;.
$l;l vz; 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
tYtsT XL ,yj;jpud;
epiyaikg;G ns1 ns2 ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5 ns2np6
4.9.2 cNyhf ,ay;G
kw;iwa %yfq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ jho;e;j madhf;f rf;jpfisAilad. MfNt

cNyhfq;fs; ,yFthf ,yj;jpuid ,oe;J Neuad;fis Mf;ff;$bad.$l;lj;jpy;
fPo;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ> mZthiu mjpfupg;Gld; madhf;frf;jp Fiwe;J nry;fpwJ.
MfNt cNyhf elj;ijahdJ $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fp mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
mj;Jld; Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;fhf mZthiu FiwfpwJ. mj;Jld; madhf;f rf;jp

mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. MfNt cNyhf elj;ij Fiwfpd;wJ. %d;whk; Mtu;j;jkhdJ
cUFepiyapy; xU xOq;fhd mjpfupg;igf; fhl;b gpd; FiwitAk; fhl;LfpwJ.
ngUkstpy; fhzg;gLk; %yf tbtk; xj;j mZf;fs; ,ilNaahd gpizg;G tif
kw;Wk; cUFepiy Nghd;w %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; fPNo
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.19 ngUkstpy; fhzg;gLk; %yf tbtk; xj;j mZf;fs; ,ilNaahd

gpizg;G tif kw;Wk; cUFepiy Nghd;w %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd
%yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;.
Na Mg Al Si P4 S8 Cl2 Ar
cUFepiy/ °C 98 649 660 1420 44 119 -101 -189
gpizg;G tif M M M NC C C C -
cNyhfg;gpizg;G - M, tiyg;gpd;dy; gq;fPL - NC, gq;fPL - C
35
mkpy> %y> mj;Jld; <upay;G elj;ijfs;
%d;whk; Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;fhf %yfq;fspd; mjpAau; xl;rNyw;w epiyf;Fupa

xl;irl;LfspYs;s gpizg;G tif NtWghL fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz 4.20 %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd %yf xl;irl;Lfspd; xg;gPL
Na2O(s) MgO(s) Al2O3(s) SiO2(s) P4O10(s) SO3(g) Cl2O7(l)
xl;rpNaw;w vz; +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
gpizg;G tif I I I NC C C C
elj;ij typik B Am kpf nkd;ik nkd;ik A typik

B A A A
madpf; - I, tiyg;gpd;dy; - NC, gq;fPl;L - C
%yk; - B, <upay;G - Am, mkpyk; - A
,urhad elj;ijia xg;gpLtjw;F mjpAau; xl;rpNaw;w epiyapYs;s xl;irl;Lfs;

fUjg;gLfpd;wd.elj;ijahdJ ,lJGwk; td;%yKk; tyJGwk; td;dkpyKk; fhzg;gl
KbAk;. njhlupd; eLtpy; <upay;G elj;ijia fhzKbAk;.
4.9.3 ePu;> mkpyq;fs; kw;Wk; fhuq;fSld; %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd xl;irl;Lfspd;

jhf;fq;fs;
Nrhbak; kw;Wk; kfdPrpaj;jpd; xl;irl;Lf;fs;ePUld; jhf;fKw;W Ijnuhl;irl;Lfis

cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq)
MgO(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2
,t;tpU xl;irl;LfSk; %yq;fshjyhy; mkpyq;fSld; jhf;fp cg;Gk; ePUk; cUthf;fg;
gLk;.
Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
mYkpdpak; xl;irl;lhdJ <upay;Gilajhifahy; mkpyq;fSld; mNjNghd;W %yq;

fSlDk; jhf;fKw;W cg;Gfis cUthf;Fk;.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq)
SiO2 MdJ nkd;dkpykhjyhy; td;fhuq;fSld; jhf;fKWk;. mj;Jld; SiO2 MdJ
ePUld; jhf;fkw;wJ.
SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3(aq)
36
P4O10, SO3, mj;Jld; Cl2O7 vd;gd mkpy ,ay;Gilad. mj;Jld; ePupy; fiuf;fg;gLk;NghJ
mkpyq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,j;jhf;fq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
Cl2O7 (l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(aq)
mj;Jld; ,t;nthl;irl;Lfs; fhuq;fSld; jhf;fp cg;igAk; ePiuAk; jUfpd;wd.
P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l)
SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Cl2O7 (l) + 2NaOH 2NaClO4(aq) + H2O(l)
4.9.4 Ijnuhl;irl;Lf;fs;> kw;Wk; Ijiul;Lf;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; mkpy> %y

kw;Wk; <upay;G elj;ijfs;
%d;whk; Mtu;jj
; dj;jpy; Ijnuhl;irl;Lfspd; Nghf;Ffs; mNj Mtu;jj; d xl;irl;Lfis
xj;jd. %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd Ijnuhl;irl;Lfspd; xg;gL P fis fPo; cs;s ml;ltiz
fhl;LfpwJ.
ml;ltiz 4.21 %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd Ijnuhl;irl;Lfspd; xg;gPL
NaOH Mg(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Si(OH)4 P(OH)5 S(OH)6 Cl(OH)7
cWjpahd epiy H2SiO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 HClO4
xl;rpNaw;w vz; +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
gpizg;G tif I I C C C C C
elj;ij td;ik B B Am kpf nkd;ik nkd;ik td;ik kpf td;ik

A A A A

Mtu;jj; dj;jpd; FWf;fhf> %d;whk; Mtu;jj

; d Ijiul;Lf;fspd; elj;ijahdJ td;%yq;
fspypUe;J td;dkpyq;fl;F khWifailfpd;wJ. njhlupd; eLtpy; miktJ <upay;igf;
fhl;Lk;.
37
ml;ltiz 4.22 %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd Ijiul;Lfspd; xg;gPL

NaH(s) MgH2(s) (AlH3)x(s) SiH4(g) PH3(g) H2S(g) HCl(g)
xl;rpNaw;w vz; +1 +2 +3 -4 -3 -2 -1
ePu;f;fiury;fspd;
elj;ijfs; td;ik B nkd;ik B Am kpf nkd;ik N nkd;ik A td;ik A
gpizg;G tif I I NC C C C C

Nrhbak; kw;Wk; kfdprpak; Ijiul;Lfs; ePUld; jhf;fp td;fhuf; fiuriyj; jUk;.

NaH(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
MgH2(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H2(g)
AlH3(s) + 3H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2(g)
PH3 MdJ ePupy; rpwpjsT fiue;J eLepiyf; fiuriyj; jUk;. H2S kw;Wk; HCl vd;gd
mkpyj;jd;ikahdit mj;Jld;>
H2S(g) + H2O(l) HS- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) Cl- (aq) + H3O+(aq)
4.9.5 %d;whk; Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;Nf Viyl;Lfspd; ,ay;G
Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;Nf ,lkpUe;J tykhf kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik mjpfupg;gjdhy;>

FNshiul;Lfspd; ePu;g;gFg;Gj; jpwd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. njhlu;ghd jhf;fq;fs; fPNo
jug;gl;ls;sd. s-njhFg;G FNshiul;Lfs; mad; jd;ikiaAk; p- njhFg;G FNshiul;Lfs;
gq;fPl;L ,ay;igAk; cilad.
ml;ltiz 4.23 %d;whk; Mtu;j;jd FNshiul;Lfspd; xg;gL
P
NaCl(s) MgCl2(s) AlCl3(s) SiCl4(l) PCl5(s) SCl2(g)
xl;rpNaw;w vz; +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +2
gpizg;G tif I I C C C C
ePu;f;fiurypd;
elj;ij N kpfnkd;ik A A A A A
madpf; - I, gq;fPl;L - C
%yk; - B, <upay;G - Am, mkpyk; - A, eLepiy - N
38
%d;whk; Mtu;j;jd %yfq;fspd; ePUldhd jhf;fq;fs;.
AlCl3(s) + H2O(l) [Al(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)
2SCl2(g) + 3H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) + S(s) + 4HCl(aq)
$l;lk; 15 ,ay;Gfis $l;lj;jpy; fPo;Nehf;fpa khw;wq;fis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s

gad;gLj;jKbAk;. xU $l;lj;jpy; fPoN; ehf;fp madhf;frf;jp FiwfpwJ mj;Jld; cNyhf
elj;ij mjpfupf;fpwJ. $l;lk; 15 gw;wpa jug;gl;l jfty;fisg; gad;gLj;jp $l;lj;jpy;
fPo;Nehf;fp cNyhf ,ay;Gfs; mjpfupg;Gld; madhf;f rf;jp khWiffs; ,ilNaahd
njhlu;Gfspd; ,izg;gpid mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;. N kw;Wk; P ,uz;Lk; my;YNyhfq;fs;
mj;Jld; mkpy xl;irl;Lfis Mf;Ffpdw ; d. vt;thwhapDk; > As kw;Wk; Sb xl;irl;Lfs;
<upay;Gf;Fupad. gpRkj;jpd; xl;irl;Lfs; %ykhFk;.
39
d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
$l;lq;fs; 3 njhlf;fk; 12 tiuapyhd %yfq;fs; xd;whfr; Nru;j;J d njhFg;G

%yfq;fs; vdg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,Wjp ,yj;jpud;
d Xgpw;wypy; epug;gg;gLfpwJ. ,k;%yfq;fs; jhz;ly;> jhz;lypy;yhj %yfq;fs; vd
,U tiffshfg; ngauplg;gl;Ls;sd.
4.10 jhz;ly; %yfq;fs;
%yf epiyapy; my;yJ cWjpahd xU madpyhtJ gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d cgrf;jp

Aila d njhFg;G %yfq;fs; jhz;ly; %yfq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. MfNt d 10
,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ig kl;Lk; cila mad;fis cUthf;Fk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
jhz;lypy;yhj %yfq;fshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd.
c+k;: Zn ,d; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G : [Ar]3d104s2
Zn2+,d; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G : [Ar]3d104s0
Sc ,d; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G : [Ar]3d14s2
Sc3+ ,d; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G : [Ar]3d04s0
Zn, Sc Mfpa ,uz;Lk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fs; (,Wjp ,yj;jpud; 3d Xgpw;wypy;
epug;gg;gLfpd;wJ) vdpDk; Zn jhz;lypy;yhj %yfkhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. fhuzk; %yf
epiyapYk; Zn2+ ,Yk; gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d cgrf;jp kl;lk; ,y;iy. ScI jhz;ly;
%yfkhff; fUjyhk;. fhuzk; Sc %yf epiyapy; gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d - cgrf;jp
kl;lj;ij cilaJ.
ml;ltiz 4.24 ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj
; dj;jpYs;s d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfspd; xg;gL
P
$l;lk; 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
%yfk; Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
ngsypq;fpd;
kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.6
mZthiu/pm 162 147 134 128 127 126 125 125 128 137
gq;fPl;L Miu/pm 144 132 122 118 117 117 116 115 117 125
madhiu(M2+)/pm - 100 93 87 81 75 79 83 87 88
gpujhd $l;l %yfq;fspYk; ghu;ff ; jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fspd; mZMiu Mtu;j;jdk;

topNa khwy; FiwT. ml;ltiz 4.23 ,y; fhl;bathW Mtu;j;jdk; topNa jhz;ly;
cNyhfq;fspd; mZMiu rpwpjstpy; Fiwe;J gpd;G mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. Mtu;j;jdk;
topNa> xt;nthU d ,yj;jpud; Nru;ff ; g;gl fU Vw;wKk; xt;nthd;why; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; kj;jpapy; (Sc njhlf;fk; Ni tiu) mZ Miufs; Fiwtjw;F fhuzk;
fU Vw;wj;jpd; mjpfupg;gpdhyhd ftu;rr ; p tY ,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd js;SifapYk;
Kidg;ghf cs;sJ MFk;. vdpDk; Mtu;jj ; dj;jpd; Kbtpy; (Cuck; Znck;) mZf;fspd;
40
Miufs; mjpfupf;fpd;wd. fhuzk; d Xgpw;wy;fspy; ,yj;jpud;fs; Nrhbahf;fg;gl;ljdhy;

,yj;jpud;fSf;fpilapyhd js;Sif mjpfupg;gpdhyhFk;.
4.10.1 ,Uf;if
3d njhlupy; (ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj

; d d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;) ,lg;Gwkhf cs;s %yfq;fs;
,aw;ifapy; nghJthf cNyhf xl;irl;LfshfTk;. fw;wad;fs;> md;dad;fSld;
,ize;Jk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
rpy cjhuzq;fs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.

ml;ltiz 4.25 ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfqfs; rpytw;wpd; ,Uf;if.
%yfk; cjhuzk;
Ti FeTiO3(,y;kidw;W)> TiO2(c&j;ijy;)
Fe Fe2O3 (Vkw;iww;), Fe3O4 kfdiuw;W> FeCO3 (rpjiuw;W)
Cu CuFeS2 (nrg;Gf; fe;jff;fy;)
4.10.2 ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
xl;rpNaw;w epiyfSk; madhf;f rf;jpfSk;
ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfq;fspy; Sc ck; Zn ck; jtpu;e;j Vida

%yfq;fs; gy xl;rpNaw;w epiyfspYs;s cWjpahd fw;wad;fisj; Njhw;Wtpff ; f;$bad.
gy xl;rpNaw;w epiyfSf;Ff; fhuzk; gpizg;gpy; NtWgl;l vz;zpf;if ,yj;jpud;fs;
gq;nfLj;jyhFk;. Zn (+2) ck; Sc (+3) ck; xU xl;rpNaw;w epiyiaAila maid
khj;jpuk; Njhw;Wtpg;gd. ,t;tad;fspy; gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d Xgpw;wy;fs; ,y;iy.
ml;ltiz 4.26 ,y; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wepiyfSk;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. Sc MdJ Sc3+ mad;fis khj;jpuk; Njhw;WtpfF; k;. Sc jtpu Vidait
ahtw;wpYk; +2 xl;rpNaw;w vz;izf; fhzyhk;. fhuzk; madhf;fj;jpd;NghJ 3d
Xgpw;wy;fspYs;s ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;gl Kd;G 4s Xgpw;wy;fs; ,yj;jpud;fs; ePf;fg;
gLfpd;wd. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk; ,Wjp Xl;bYs;s 4s Xgpw;wypd; ,uz;L ,yj;jpud;fs; 3d
Xgpw;wypYs;s ,yj;jpud;fspYk; Fiwe;j gad;gL fU Vw;wj;ij mDgtpf;fpd;wd.
3d104s1 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gf; fhuzkhf Cu (+1) xl;rpNaw;w vz;izg; nghJthfj; Njhw;W

tpf;fyhk;. Mdhy; Cr MdJ 3d 54s1 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;igf; nfhz;bUe;jhYk; Cr+
kpf mupjhff; fhzg;gLk;. mj;Jld; cWjpaw;wJ.
xU d njhFg;G %yfk; fhl;lf;$ba cau; rhj;jpakhd xl;rpNaw;w vz; 4s, 3d

,yj;jpud;fspd; $l;Lj; njhifahFk;. jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fSk; khWgl;l xl;rpNaw;w
epiyfis p njhFg;G %yfq;fisg; Nghd;W Njhw;Wtpf;ff;$bad. mj;Jld; xl;rpNaw;w
epiyfSf;fpilNa khw;wj;ijf; fhl;lf;$ba jpwid cilad. MfNt mit
xl;rpNaw;Wk;> jho;j;Jk; fUtpfshfj; njhopw;glyhk;.
41
Kjy; Ie;J %yfq;fSk; rhj;jpakhd cr;r xl;rpNaw;w epiyia 4s, 3d ,yj;jpud;fs;

KOtijAk; ,og;gjhy; milfpdw ; d. Mtu;jj; dj;jpy; tyJGwk; Nehf;fp 3d ,yj;jpud;fs;
$Ljyhf epug;gg;gl> mZtpd; fUNtw;wk; mjpfupg;gjdhy; 3d Xgpw;wy;fs; $Ljyhd
rf;jpAilajhf tUfpd;wd. ,J d ,yj;jpud;fs; mfw;wg;gLtijf; fbdkhf;Ffpd;wJ.
,k;%yfq;fspd; kpfg; nghJthd xl;rpNaw;wepiy 4s ,yj;jpud;fis ,og;gjdhy; +2
MFk;.
jhf;Fjpwd;
s njhFg;G %yfq;fs; ePUld; cf;fpukhfj; jhf;fKw;whYk; d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;

ePUld; jhf;fKWtjpy;iy. d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; cau;e;j fU Vw;wk; fhuzkhf 4s
,yj;jpud;fs; s njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; ghu;f;ff; fUTld; ,Wf;fkhfg; gpize;Js;sd.
d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kjyhk; madhf;frf;jp s, p njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ngWkhdq;
fSf;F ,ilapYs;sJ.
ml;ltiz 4.26 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gk; xl;rpNaw;w epiyfSk;.

%yfk; jiuepiy ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs;
3d 4s
1 2
Sc [Ar]3d 4s +3
Ti [Ar]3d24s2 (+2), +3, +4
V [Ar]3d34s2 (+2), (+3), +4, +5
Cr [Ar]3d54s1 +2, +3, (+4), (+5), +6
Mn [Ar]3d54s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7
Fe [Ar]3d64s2 +2, +3, +4, (+5), (+6)
Co [Ar]3d74s2 +2, +3, (+4)
Ni [Ar]3d84s2 +2, (+3), (+4)
Cu [Ar]3d104s1 +1, +2, (+3), (+4)
Zn [Ar]3d104s2 +2
* milg;Gf;FwpapDs; Fiwe;j nghJthd xl;rpNaw;w epiyfs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj
; d d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; madhf;fr; rf;jpfs; mNj Mtu;jj ; dj;jpYs;s
s njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; cau;thdit. d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kjyhk; madhf;f
rf;jpfs; Mtu;j;jdj;jpy; ,lkpUe;J tyk; nry;yr; rpwpjsthy; mjpfupf;fpd;wd. s, p
njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; ghu;ff ; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspy; Mtu;jj ; dj;jpd; topNa Kjyhk;
madhf;f rf;jpapd; khWif FiwT. ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj ; dk; topNa fU Vw;w mjpfupgg ; pdhy;
4s ,yj;jpud;fs; kPjhd ftu;r;rp mjpfupf;f ,t;thtu;j;jd d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jp mjpfupf;fNtz;Lk; vd vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ. vdpDk; vy;yh
d njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; Nkyjpf ,yj;jpud;fs; 3d Xgpw;wypy; Nru;f;fg;gLtjdhy;>
Mtu;j;jdj;jpy; ,lkpUe;J tyk; nry;y> ,t; d ,yj;jpud;fs; 4s ,yj;jpud;fisf;
fUtpd; cs;Nehf;fpa ftu;rr; papypUe;J kiwf;fpd;wd. ,t;tpU Kuzhd tpisTfspdhy;
d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; madhf;frf;jp Mtu;j;jdj;jpd; FWf;Nf rpwpjsthy; mjpfupf;
42
fpd;wJ. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;l ml;ltizapy; ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj

; d d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
mLj;jLj;j madhf;fr; rf;jpfs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.27 ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jd d njhFg;G cNyhfq;fspdJk; K, CatpdJk;
mLj;jLj;j madhf;fr; rf;jpfs;.**
%yfk; 1k; madhf;f 2k; madhf;f 3k; madhf;f
rf;jp / kJ mol-1 rf;jp / kJ mol-1 rf;jp / kJ mol-1
K 418 3052
Ca 589 1145 4912
Sc 631 1235 2389
Ti 658 1310 2652
V 650 1414 2828
Cr 653 1496 2987
Mn 717 1509 3248
Fe 759 1561 2957
Co 758 1646 3232
Ni 737 1753 3393
Cu 746 1958 3554
Zn 906 1733 3833
** cs;NsAs;s Xgpw;wypypUe;J xU ,yj;jpud; mfw;wg;gLtjd; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk;

rf;jp mjpfupg;ig tpsq;Ftjw;F K apw;F Kjy; ,U madhf;fr; rf;jpfs; khj;jpuk;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
xNu Mtu;j;jdj;jpy; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kjyhk; madhf;f rf;jpfs; s njhFg;G

%yfq;fspYk; cau;T. ,J s njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; ghu;ff
; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd;
Fiwthd jhf;Fjpwid tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
d njhFg;G %yfq;fs; ahTk; cNyhfq;fs;> Vnddpy; d njhFg;G %yfq;fspy; 4s

,yj;jpud;fs; fw;wad;fis cUthf;f ,yFthf ,of;fg;glyhk;. $l;lj;jpy; fPoN
; ehf;fpr;
nry;y d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; cNyhf ,ay;G mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
ehd;fhk; Mtu;jj
; dj;jpYs;s d njhFg;G %yfq;fs; ahTk; cau; cUFepiy> nfhjpepiy
fisAila jpz;kq;fs;. s njhFg;G p njhFg;G %yfq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ d njhFg;G
%yfq;fspd; cUFepiy> nfhjpepiyfs; kpfTk; cau;T. d njhFg;G %yfq;fs;
kj;jpkkhd jhf;FjpwDilait.
3d0, 3d10 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gfs; cila mad;fs; jtpu;e;j d njhFg;G cNyhfr;

Nru;itfs; rpwg;gpay;ghd epwq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,jd; fUj;J jhz;ly; cNyhf
mad; rpf;fy;fs; epwKila Nru;itfis cUthf;fyhk;. ngUk;ghyhd d njhFg;G
cNyhf mad;fs; rpf;fy; Nru;itfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd.
43
kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik
fPOs;s ml;ltiz d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; kpd;ndjpu;jj ; d;ikiaj; jUfpwJ. ,jid

ehd;fhk; Mtu;j;jdj;jpYs;s d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik NtWghl;il
tpsq;Ftjw;F cgNahfpf;fyhk;. mZvz;Zld; kpd;ndjpu;j; jd;ik mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
vdpDk; Mn, Zn Mfpad mtw;wpd; cWjpahd ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;Gf; fhuzkhf ,g;Nghf;fp
ypUe;J tpyFfpd;wd. cau;ej; fU Vw;wk; fhuzkhf> d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; kpd;ndjpu;
jd;ik> s njhFg;G %yfq;fspYk; ghu;ff ; cau;thdit.
%yfk; Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.6
xU mZ khWgl;l xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisf; fhz;gpf;Fk;nghOJ> cau;e;j xl;rpNaw;w

epiy> cau;e;j kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik cilaJ.
Cf;fy; ,ay;Gfs;
gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;lJk;> ntWikahdJkhd d Xgpww ; y;fis mNdf jhz;ly; cNyhfq;

fSk; mtw;wpd; Nru;itfSk; cilajdhy; mit Cf;fpfshfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wd.
,J d Xgpw;wy;fis> ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;f my;yJ toq;f VJthf;Ffpd;wJ. ,e;j
,ay;G mtw;iw Cf;fpfspd; gad;jU $Wfshf;Ffpd;wJ. IjurNdw;wj;jpw;F Pd,
mNkhdpahit iejurd; xl;irl;lhf khw;w Pt/Rh, SO2 I SO3 Mf xl;rpNaw;w V2O5
vjPdpd; gy;gFjpahf;fj;jpw;F TiCl3 / Al(C2H5)6 vd;gd d njhFg;G %yfq;fis mtw;wpd;
Nru;itfis Cf;fpahfg; gad;gLj;Jtjw;fhd rpy cjhuzq;fs; MFk;. mw;ifNyw;wk;>
VirNyw;wk; Nghd;w gpurpj;jkhd rpy Nrjdj; jhf;fq;fs; jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;
Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspd; epwq;fs;
mNdf jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspd; ePuf ; f

; iury;fs; kpdf
; he;jj; jpUrpaj;jpd; fl;GydhFk;
gFjpapypUe;J fjpu;tr P iy cwpQ;Rtjdhy; gy;NtW epwq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,e;jj;
jpwd; ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d cgrf;jpg; gbfs; ,Ug;gjdhyhFk;.
,.jw;F khwhf s njhFg;G cNyhf mad;fs; epwkw;wit. fhuzk; ,t;tad;fs;
g+uzkhf epug;gg;gl;l cgrf;jpg;gbfis cilad. gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz ePu;f;fiurypy;
rpy jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspdJk; xl;Nrh mdad;fspdJk; epwq;fisf; fhz;gpff ; pdw
; J.
cjhuzkhf [Co(H2O)6]2+ nkd; r ptg;G epwKilaJ. [Mn(H2O)6]2+ ,sk; n kd; r ptg;G
epwKilaJ. ,jw;F khwhf Sc3+, Zn2+ ePu;f;fiury;fs; epwkw;wit. fhuzk; gFjpahf
epug;gg;gl;l Xgpw;wy;fs; ,y;iy. mj;Jld; d0 my;yJ d10 epiyaikg;Gilait ePu;f;
fiury;fspy; cs;sNghJ epwkw;wit. MnO4-, CrO42- vd;gtw;wpd; epwq;fs; d Xgpw;wy;
fspilNa ,yj;jpud;gupkhw;wj;jpdhy; my;y. ml;ltiz 4.28 ,y; njupT nra;ag;gl;l
rpy xl;Nrhmd;dad;fspd; epwq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
44
ml;ltiz 4.28 ePu;f;fiury;fspy; d njhFg;G cNyhf mad;fspdJk; xl;Nrh-

md;dad;fspdJk; epwq;fs; cNyhf mad;fspw;Fg; gf;fj;jpy;
milg;Gf;FwpapDs; 3d, 4s ,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;if fhl;lg;gl;
Ls;sJ.
mad; epwk; mad; epwk;
3+ 0 0 3+ 5 0
Sc (d s ) epwkw;wJ Fe (d s ) fgpy kQ;rs;
Ti4+(d0 s0) epwkw;wJ Fe2+(d6 s0) nkd;gr;ir
Cr3+(d3 s0) Cjh Co2+(d7 s0) nkd;rptg;G
Mn2+(d5 s0) nkd;rptg;G Ni2+(d8 s0) gr;ir
Cu2+(d9 s0) ePyk;
Cu+(d10 s0) epwkw;wJ
Zn2+(d10 s0) epwkw;wJ
xl;Nrhmd;dad; epwk; xl;Nrh md;dad; epwk;
- 2-
MnO 4
Cjh CrO 4
kQ;rs;
2- 2-
MnO 4
gr;ir Cr O2 7
nrk;kQ;rs;
4.10.3 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; xl;irl;Lfs;
Kjy; ehd;F %yfq;fSk; tYtsT ,yj;jpud;fs; KOtijAk; mfw;Wtjdhy;

xl;irl;Lfisj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wd. gpujhd $l;l %yfq;fisg; Nghyd;wpj; jhz;ly;
%yfq;fs; tpj;jpahrkhd xl;rpNaw;w epiyfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. rpy d njhFg;G
%yfq;fs; ,U NtWgl;l xl;rpNaw;w vz; cNyhfj;ijAila xl;irl;Lfisj;
Njhw;Wtpf;fyhk;. Mn3O4 Tk; Fe3O4 Tk; ,U fyg;G xl;irl;LfSf;F cjhuzq;fshFk;.
(,U xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisAilatw;why; cUthf;fg;gl;ld.) Mn3O4 MdJ Mn(II), Mn(III)
vd;gtw;wpd; fyitahFk;. Fe3O4 Tk; Fe(II), Fe(III) vd;gtw;wpd; fyitahFk;.
4.10.4 rpy njupT nra;ag;gl;l d njhFg;G xl;irl;Lfspd; ,urhadk;
FNuhkpak;> kq;fdPR xl;irl;Lfs;
xU xl;irl;bd; ,ay;Gfs; xl;rpNaw;w vz;zpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. gpizg;Gtif xl;rpNaw;w

vz;zpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. cNyhf xl;irl;Lfspd; mkpy-%y elj;ijiag; gpizg;Gtif
khw;wk; tpsf;FfpwJ. cau; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisAila Nru;itfs; gq;fPl;Lg;gpizg;G
rpwg;gpay;Gfis cilad. mit mkpyj;jd;ik cilad. jho;ej ; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fis
cila Nru;itfs; mad;gpizg;Gr; rpwg;gpay;Gfis cilad. mit %yj;jd;ik
cilad.
45
ml;ltiz 4.29 FNuhkpak; xl;irl;Lfspd; mkpy-%yj; jd;ik

xl;irl;L mkpy-%yj;jd;ik xl;rpNaw;w vz;
CrO nkd;%yk; +2 jho;e;j xl;rpNaw;wepiy
Cr2O3 <upay;G +3 kj;jpkkhd xl;rpNaw;wepiy
CrO2 nkd;dkpyk; +4 kj;jpkkhd xl;rpNaw;wepiy
CrO3 mkpyk; +6 cau; xl;rpNaw;wepiy
nghJthf cNyhfk; jho;e;j xl;rpNaw;w epiyapw; fhzg;gbd; xl;irl;L %ytpay;G

cilaJ. cNyhfk; kj;jpkkhd xl;rpNaw;wepiyapy; fhzg;gbd; xl;irl;L <upay;G
cilaJ. cau;e;j xl;rpNaw;wepiyapYs;s Nyhf xl;irl;Lfs; mkpy,ay;Gilad.
,J ml;ltizfs; 4.29> 4.30 vd;gtw;wpy; Nru;itfs; Vd; jho;e;j xl;rpNaw;wepiyfsp
Ys;sit $Ljyhf cNyhf ,ay;Gilait> cau;e;j xl;rpNaw;w epiyapYs;sit
$Ljyhf mNyhf ,ay;Gilait vd;gij tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 4.30 kq;fdPR xl;irl;bd; mkpy-%y ,ay;G

xl;irl;L mkpy-%y ,ay;G xl;rpNaw;w vz;
MnO %yk; +2 jho;e;j xl;rpNaw;wepiy
Mn2O3 nkd;%yk; +3
MnO2 <upay;G +4 kj;jpkkhd xl;rpNaw;wepiy
MnO3 nkd;dkpyk; +6
Mn2O7 mkpyk; +7 cau;e;j xl;rpNaw;wepiy
njupT nra;ag;gl;l FNuhkpaj;jpd; xl;Nrhmd;dad;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
eLepiy my;yJ %y Clfq;fspy; kQ;rs; epwKila FNuhNkw;W mad; epyTk;.

(fhzg;gLk;). mkpy epge;jidfspd; fPo; mJ nrk;kQ;rs; epwKila ,UFNuhNkw;W
madhf khw;wg;gLk;.
2CrO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq) Cr2O72- (aq) + H2O(l)
gFjpahf epug;gg;gl;l d cgrf;jpgg; bfs; ,y;yhjNghJk; (Cr +6 xl;rpNaw;wepiyapy); FNuhNkw;W>

,UFNuhNkw;W ,uz;Lk; Cr ,w;Fk;; O ,izapfSf;FkpilNa ,yj;jpuNdw;wk; ,l
khw;wj;jpdhy; epwq;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. vdpDk; ,j;Njhw;wg;ghl;bw;fhd tpsf;fk;
jw;Nghija ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy.
Cr6+ MdJ Cr3+ Mfj; jho;j;jg;gly; mkpy Clfj;jpy; kl;Lk; epfOk;. mkpy Clfj;jpy;
CrO42- mad;fs; ,UgFjpakhf;fg;gl;L Cr2O72- mad;fshf khw;wg;gLk;. MfNt mkpy
Clfj;jpy; Cr6+ MdJ Cr2O72- Mf kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;.
46
FNuhkpaj;jpd; xl;Nrhmd;dad;fspd; rpy Kf;fpakhd jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fq;fs; fPNo

jug;gl;Ls;sd.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3H2S(g) + 8H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3S(s) + 7H2O(l)
Cr2O72-(aq) + 3SO2(g) + 2H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3SO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
Cr2O72-(aq) + 6Fe2+(g) + 14H+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 6Fe3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
Cr2O72-(aq) + conc.14HCl(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cl2(g) + 8Cl-(aq) + 7H2O(l)
CrO42- ,y; Cr ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; +6. MfNt CrO42- xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfj; njhopw;
glyhk;. mkpy epge;jidfspd; fPo; Cr(VI) MdJ Cr(III) Mfj; jho;j;jg;glyhk;.
8H+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) + 3e Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
kq;fdPR xl;irl;Lfs;> mjd; xl;Nrhmd;dad;fspdJ jhf;fq;fs;
KMnO4 xU Cjhepwj; jpz;kk;. MnO4- ,d; epwj;jpw;Ff; fhuzk; kj;jpa Mn mZtpw;Fk;

O ,izapfspw;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,yj;jpud; ,lkhw;wr; nrad;KiwahFk;. mkpy
epge;jidfspd; fPo>; Ngu;kq;fNdw;W mad; td;ikahd xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahfj; njhopw;
glyhk;. MnO2 tpdJk; KMnO4 ,dJk; epwq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.31 MnO2 , KMnO4 vd;gdtw;wpd; epwq;fs;
Nru;it epwk;
MnO2 fUq;fgpyk; / fWg;G
KMnO4 Cjh
MnO4- ,d; rpy Kf;fpa jho;j;Njw;Wj; jhf;fq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.

mkpy epiyikapd; fPo;@
2MnO4-(aq) + 5H2O2(l) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5O2(g) + 8H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + 5H2S(g) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5S(g) + 8H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + 5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq)+ 4H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + 10I-(aq) + 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5I2(aq) + 8H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + 5NO2-(aq) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5NO3-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + conc. 16HCl (aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5Cl2(g) + 6Cl-(aq) + 8H2O(l)
2MnO4-(aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) + 16H+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
,j;jhf;fq;fs; ahtw;wpYk;> mkpy epge;jidfspd; fPo; MnO4- MdJ Mn2+ Mfj; jho;jj
; g;gl;
Ls;sJ.
Ijhd fhu epiyikapd; fPo;@
2MnO4-(aq) + I-(aq) + H2O(l) 2MnO2(s) + IO3-(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
2MnO4-(aq) + 3SO32-(aq) + H2O(l) 2MnO2(s) + 3SO42-(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
47
4.10.5 jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fspd; ,izg;Gr; Nru;itfs;
jhz;ly; cNyhf mad;fs; ,izg;Gr; Nru;itfis cUthf;Fk;. ,t;tpizg;Gr;Nru;itfs;

rpf;fy; mad;fis cilad. ,r;rpf;fy; mad;fs; xU kj;jpa cNyhf mad; mjidr;
#o ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ,izapfshy; Mf;fg;gl;ld. (kj;jpa cNyhf
maDld; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l gpizg;Gfis cUthf;Fk; ,izapfSk; cz;L)
cjhuzkhf [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2 MdJ [Ni(NH3)6]2+ rpf;fy; madhfTk; Cl- IAk; cilaJ.
(cU 4.17). 

 
 
[Ni(NH3)6]Cl2 =   2Cl-
 
 
 
tpisT mad;
rpf;fy; mad; (counter ion)
cU: 4.17 xU ,ize;j Nru;it
,e;j cjhuzj;jpy; mNkhdpah %yf;$Wfs; kj;jpa mad; Ni2+ ,w;F mkpd; ,izap
fshfg; gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. gpdt
; Uk; rkd;ghl;il cgNahfpj;J ,yFtpy; rpf;fyadpd;
Vw;wj;ijj; jPuk
; hdpf;fyhk;.
rpf;fypd; Vw;wk; = kj;jpa cNyhf mZ + ,izapfs; ahtw;wpdJk; Vw;wk;

my;yJ
madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;
kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;fisj; jPu;khdpj;jy;
xU ,ize;j frpf;fypd; kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj; jPuk

; hdpf;f
gpd;tUk; Kiwia cgNahfpf;fyhk;.
cjhuzk; 6.1
[Ni(H2O)3Cl3]- vd;Dk; rpf;fyadpYs;s kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;izj;
Jzpf.
tpil:
rpf;fypd; Vw;wk; = kj;jpa cNyhf mZ + ,izapfs; ahtw;wpdJk; Vw;wk;
my;yJ
madpd; xl;rpNaw;w vz;
rpf;fyadpd; Vw;wk; = - 1
,izapfspd; Vw;wk; = %d;W H2O %yf;$Wfs;: 3× 0 = 0,
%d;W Cl mad;fs;: 3( -1) = -3
rkd;ghl;il cgNahfpj;jy;;
-1 = Ni ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz; + 0 + (-3)
Ni ,d; xl;rpNaw;w vz = +2
48
4.10.6 vspa rpf;fy; mad;fs;> Nru;itfs; vd;gtw;wpd; ngauPL
xU cNyhf rpf;fypd; ngau; > kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;wepiy> ,izapfspd;

tiffs;> vz;zpf;if Nghd;w rpf;fy; gw;wpa jfty;fis mspf;fpd;wJ. rpf;fy; madpd;
ngaiu vOJtjw;F IUPAC apdhy; tpje;Jiuf;fg;gl;l tpjpfs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
,izapfisg; ngauply;
rpff
; y; madpy; kiw Vw;wKila ,izapapd; ngauhdJ md;dadpd; ngaupd; ,Wjpapy;
cs;s vOj;ij ePff ; p ‘O’ vd;Dk; vOj;ij ,Wjpapy; Nru;fF
; f. eLepiyahd %yf;$Wfs;
,izapfshfj; njhopw;gLk;NghJ nghJthf %yf;$wpd; ngau; toq;fg;gLk;. vdpDk;
rpy tpjptpyf;Ffs; cz;L. mit jw;Nghija f.ngh.j.(c.j) ,urhadtpay; ghlj;
jpl;lj;jpy; fye;Jiuahlg;gltpy;iy.
mdad; ,izapfs; eLepiy ,izapfs;

Cl chlorido NH3 ammine
Br bromido H2O aqua
CN cyanido CO carbonyl
OH hydroxido
xU Fwpgg ; pll
; ,izapapd; vz;zpfi
; f Kw;Nru;fi
; fahff; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. gad;gLj;jg;gl;l
Kw;Nru;f;iffshtd>
di – ,uz;L, tri– %d;W, tetra – ehd;F, penta –Ie;J, hexa – MW> Vidait.
rpf;fy; fw;wad;fisg; ngauply;
rpf;fyadpd; ngau; ,ilntspapd;wp xU nrhy;yhf rpwpa Mq;fpy vOj;Jfis (lower

case English letters) khj;jpuk; cgNahfpj;J vOjg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. cNyhf madpd;
xl;rpNaw;w vz;> cNyhfj;jpd; ngaupd; ,Wjpapy; ngupa Nuhkd; vz;fspdhy; Fwpff
; g;gLk;.
cjhuzk;: [Ni(NH3)6]2+ hexaamminenickel(II) ion

[Cu(NH3)4]2+ tetraamminecopper(II) ion
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ hexaaquachromium(III) ion
rpf;fy; mdad;fs;
kiwNaw;wKila rpf;fy; mad;fSf;F (rpf;fy; mdad;fs;) cNyhfj;jpd; ngaupw;Fg;

gpd;dhy; gpw;Nru;f;if “ate” gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;: [CuC14]2- tetrachloridocuprate(II) ion
[CoCl4]2- tetrachloridocobaltate(II) ion
49
ml;ltiz 4.32 md;dad; rpf;fy;fspy; cNyhfq;fSf;F cgNahfpf;fg;gLk; ngau;fs;
cNyhfk; md;dad; rpff

; y;fspy; cNyhfk; md;dad; rpff
; y;fspy;
cgNahfpf;fg;gLk; ngau; cgNahfpf;fg;gLk; ngau;
Cr chromate Co cobaltate
Cu cuprate Fe ferrate
Mn manganate Ni nickelate
Ag argentate Hg mercurate
Au aurate
rpf;fy; Nru;itapd; ngaupy; Kjypy; fw;wad; ngaUk; mjw;Fg; gpd;dhy; ,uz;lhtjhf

md;dad; ngaUk; fhzg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. ,t;tpU ngau;fSk; rpwpa ,ilntspapdhy;
Ntwhf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;: [Ni(NH3)6]Cl2 - hexaamminenickel(II) chloride
Na2[CoCl4] - sodium tetrachlorocoboltate(II)
,izg;G vz; / <jypizg;G vz;
kj;jpa cNyhf madpw;Fk; ,izapfSf;Fk; ,ilapy; cUthf;fg;gLk; ,ize;j

gpizg;Gfspd; vz;zpf;if ,izg;G vz; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. rpy ,izapfs;
kj;jpa cNyhf maDld; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l ,ize;j gpizg;Gfis cUthf;ff;$ba
jdhy; kj;jpa cNyhf madpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l ,izapfspd; vz;zpf;if ,izg;G
vz; vd tiuaWg;gJ gpioahdjhFk;. ,izg;G vz; gUkd;> Vw;wk;> ,izapd;
jd;ik> kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G vd;gtw;wpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
ml;ltiz 4.33 d njhFg;G mad;fspd; nghJthd ,izg;G vz;fs;

M+ ,izg;G vz; M2+ ,izg;G vz; M3+ ,izg;G vz;
Cu+ 2, 4 Mn2+ 4, 6 Sc3+ 6
Fe2+ 6 Cr3+ 4,6
2+ 3+
Co 4, 6 Co 4,6
Ni2+ 4, 6
2+
Cu 4, 6
Zn2+ 4, 6
4.10.7 rpf;fy;fspd; epwq;fisg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
jhz;ly; cNyhf mZf;fSk; mad;fSk; epwKs;s rpf;fy;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;fyhk;.

,e;jr; rpf;fy;fspd; epwk; gpd;tUk; fhuzpfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. ,e;jf; fhuzpfspd;
tpisitg; gpujpgypf;Fk; cjhuzq;fs; ml;ltiz 4.34 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
1. kj;jpa cNyhf mad;
2. kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;wepiy
3. ,izapfspd; jd;ik
50
ml;ltiz 4.34 jhz;ly; cNyhf mad; rpf;fy;fspd; epwq;fs; jq;fpAs;s fhuzpfs;

1. kj;jpa cNyhf mad;
Mn(II) Fe(II) Co(II) Ni(II) Cu(II)
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ [Fe(H2O)6]2+ [Co(H2O)6]2+ [Ni(H2O)6]2+ [Cu(H2O)6]2+
nkd;rptg;G ,sk;gr;ir nkd;rptg;G gr;ir ,sePyk;
2. kj;jpa cNyhf madpd; xl;rpNaw;wepiy

Mn(II) Mn(III) Fe(II) Fe(III)
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ [Mn(H2O)6]3+ [Fe(H2O)6]2+ [Fe(H2O)6]3+
,sk;rptg;G Cjh ,sk;gr;ir kQ;rs;
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ ,d; epwk; md;dadpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
3. ,izapfspd; jd;ik
H2O NH3 Cl-
2+
[Co(H2O)6] [Co(NH3)6]2+ [Co(Cl)4]2-
nkd;rptg;G kQ;rs; Nru;e;j fgpyk; ePyk;
epwKs;s Nru;itfis cUthf;Fk; Mw;wy; jhz;ly; cNyhf %yfq;fspd; jdpjJ

; tkhd
,ay;ghFk;. rpy nghJthd cNyhfr; rpf;fy;fspd; epwq;fs; ml;ltiz 4.33 ,y;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 4.35 cNyhfr; rpf;fy;fs;> epwq;fs;
cNyhfk; ,izapapd; jd;ik
-
H2O(l) OH (aq) NH3(aq) Cl-(aq)
Cr [Cr(H2O)6]3+ Cr(OH)3 Cr(OH)3

Violet Blue-green ppt Blue-green ppt
Mn [Mn(H2O)6]2+ Mn(OH)2 Mn(OH)2 [MnCl4]2-

Pale pink White/ cream White/ cream Greenish yellow
colour ppt colour ppt
Fe [Fe(H2O)6]2+ Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)2

Yellow-brown Pale-green Dirty green ppt
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ Fe(OH)3 Fe(OH)3 [FeCl4]-
Dirty green ppt Reddish-brown ppt Reddish-brown ppt Yellow
Co [Co(H2O)6]2+ Co(OH)2 [Co(NH3)6]2+ [Co(Cl)4]2-

Pink Pink ppt Deep-blue yellowish-brown
With excess [Co(NH3)6]3+
Brownish-red
51
cNyhfk; ,izapapd; jd;ik

H2O(l) OH-(aq) NH3(aq) Cl-(aq)
Ni [Ni(H2O)6]2+ Ni(OH)2 [Ni(NH3)6]2+ [NiCl4]2-

Green Green ppt Blue Yellow
Cu [Cu(H2O)6]2+ Cu(OH)2 [Cu(NH3)4]2+ [CuCl4]2-

Pale blue Blue ppt Deep blue Yellow
Zn [Zn(H2O)6]2+ Zn(OH)2 [ZnCl4]2- [Zn(NH3)4]2+

Colourless White ppt Colourless Colourless
With excess
OH-
[Zn(OH)4]2-
Colourless
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;
Cjhepw [Cr(H2O)6]3+ NH3 ePuf

; f
; iurYld; ePyk;-gr;ir Cd;gir tPog
; bthf khw;wg;gLfpdw
; J.
[Cr(H2O)6]3+ + 3NH3 (aq) Cr(OH)3(s) + 3NH4+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
[Co(H2O)6]2+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

nkd;rptg;G epw [Co(H2O)6]2+ ePuf
; f
; iury; td;%yj;Jld; (NaOH) nkd;rptg;Gepw tPogbthf
khWfpd;wJ.
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) Co(OH)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
Co(OH)2 xU nkd;rptg;G epw tPo;gbT.
NH3 cld;@
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 6NH3 (aq) [Co(NH3)6]2+(aq) + 6H2O(l)
Muk;gj;jpy; nkd;rptg;Gepw [Co(H2O)6]2+ kl;Lg;glj;jg;gl;l msT nrwpe;j NH3Ald;

nkd;rptg;G epw tPo;gbT Co(OH)2 I cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. NkYk; nrwpe;j NH3 I Nru;f;f
kQ;rs;epw [Co(NH3)6]2+ rpf;fy; mad; cUthfpd;wJ. vdpDk; jd;xl;rpNaw;wj;jpdhy;
(auto - oxidation) [Co(NH3)6]2+ rpf;fy; fgpyepw [Co(NH3)6]3+ Mf khw;wg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy;
fiury; kQ;rs;-fgpykhf fhl;rpaspf;fpd;wJ.
nrwpe;j HCl cld; nkd;rptg;Gepwf; fiury; ePyepwf; fiuryhf khWfpd;wJ.

[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) [CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
52
[Ni(H2O)6]2+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

xU td;fhuj;Jld; gr;ir epw [Ni(H2O)6]2+ fiury; gr;ir epw tPo;gbthf khWfpd;wJ.
[Ni(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) Ni(OH)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
kpif NH3(aq), cld; gr;ir epw [Ni(H2O)6]2+ fiury; fLk; ePy epwf; fiuryhf khWfpdw
; J.
[Ni(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 6NH3 (aq) [Ni(NH3)6]2+(aq) + 6H2O(l)
nrwpe;j HCl cld; gr;ir epwf;fiury; kQ;rs; epwf; fiuryhf khWfpd;wJ.

[Ni(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) [NiCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

td;fhuj;Jld; nkd;rptg;G epw [Mn(H2O)6]2+ ePuf
; f
; iury; nts;is tPog
; bthf khWfpdw
; J.
[Mn(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) Mn(OH)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
NH3 ePu;f;fiurYld; nkd;rptg;G epwf;fiury; nts;is tPo;gbthf khWfpd;wJ.

[Mn(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) Mn(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

td;fhuj;Jld; kQ;rs; epw [Fe(H2O)6]3+ ePuf
; f
; iury; nrq;fgpy epw tPog
; bthf khWfpd;wJ.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3OH- (aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H2O(l)
NH3 ePu;f;fiurYld; kQ;rs; epw [Fe(H2O)6]3+ ePu;f;fiury; nrq;fgpy epw tPo;gbthf

khWfpd;wJ.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3NH3(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NH4+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

td;fhuj;Jld; ePy epw [Cu(H2O)6]2+ ePu;f;fiury; ePy epw tPo;gbthf khWfpwJ.
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l msT NH3 ePu;f;fiurYld; ePy epwf;fiury; ePy epw tPo;gbthf

khWfpd;wJ
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
kpifahd NH3 ePu;f;fiurYld; ePy epwf;fiury; fLk;ePy epwr; rpf;fyhf khWfpd;wJ

[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 6H2O(l)
nrwpe;j HCl cld; ePy epwf; fiury; kQ;rs; epwf;fiuryhf khWfpd;wJ.

[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) [CuCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l)
53
[Zn(H2O)6]2+ ,d; jhf;fq;fs;

kl;Lg;gLjjg;gl;l msT td;fhuj;Jld;> epwkw;w [Zn(H2O)6]2+ ePu;f;fiury; nts;is epw
tPo;gbthf khWfpd;wJ.
[Zn(H2O)6]2+(aq) +2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + 6H2O(l)
kpifahd td;fhuj;Jld; nts;is epw tPog ; bT epwkw;w njspthd fiuryhf khWfpdw

; J.
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
epwkw;w fiury; xU nts;is epw tPo;gbthf khWfpd;wJ. gpd;G kpifahd fhuj;Jld;

tPo;gbT fiue;J epwkw;w fiury; Njhd;Wk;.
4.10.8 d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
1. jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fs; rpwe;j flj;jpfs;.(Au, Ag and Cu), mj;Jld; thl;lj;jF>

ePl;lj;jF> ,ay;Gilad. gsgsg;ghdit. jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fs; xNukhjpupahd
mZg;gUkd;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; mit xd;whff; fyf;fg;gl;Lf; fyg;G
cNyhfq;fis cUthf;fyhk;. ,f;fyg;G cNyhfq;fs; gioa fhyj;jpypUe;J
gy;NtW NjitfSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. fyg;G cNyhfq;fspd; cw;gj;jp
cNyhfq;fspd; ,ay;Gfis khw;wyhk;.
2. fjpuj
; n
; jhopwg ; pd; rkjhdp 60Co gue;j mstpy; fjput
; hl;l kUj;Jtj;jpy; Nfhghy;ww ; r
P y;
Kjyhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
3. jhz;ly; cNyhf mZf;fSk; mad;fSk; Cf;fy; ,ay;GfisAila Nru;itfis
tpUj;jp nra;tjw;F cjTfpdw
; d. ,r;Nru;itfs; gue;j mstpy; NtWgl;l ifj;njhopy;
fspy; Cf;fpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
4. jhz;ly; cNyhfq;fs; NtWgl;l epwq;fisAila Nru;itfis cUthf;fyhk;.
,r;Nru;itfs; g+R(paint)jahupgg
; py; epwg;nghUl;fshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpdw
; d. mit
epwKs;s fz;zhbfs; Nghj;jy;fs;> jahupg;gpYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
5. Ni, Cd Nghd;w d njhFg;G %yfq;fs; kPskpd;Ndw;wg;glf;$ba kpd; f yq; f s;
jahupg;gpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
6. ,it xspNthy;ww ; apy; fyq;fspYs;s (Photo valtaic cell) fl;kpak; njYiul;L
(CdTe), nrg;G ,e;jpak; ,Ury;igl;L Nghd;w Nru;itfs; jahupg;gpy; gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd. #upaf; fyk; xspNthy;ww ; apy; fyj;jpw;F xU cjhuzkhFk;.
4.10.9 njupT nra;ag;gl;l d njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; fw;wad;fis ,dq;fhz;g

jw;fhd gupNrhjidfs;.
1. Fe2+
K3[Fe(CN)6] cld; fLk; ePy epw tPog ; bT KFe[Fe(CN)6] cUthjy; Fe2+I ,dq;fhzg;
gad;gLj;jyhk;
Fe2+(aq) + K3[Fe(CN)6](aq) KFe[Fe(CN)6](s) + 2K+(aq)
54
2. Fe3+
K4[Fe(CN)6] cld; gpurpad;-ePy epwrpf;fy; Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 cUthjy; Fe3+I ,dq;
fhzg; gad;gLj;jyhk;
4Fe3+(aq) + K4[Fe(CN)6](aq) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3(s) + 4K+(aq)
rpwpjsT mkpykhf;fg;gl;l NH4SCN fiurYld; rptg;G epwr; rpf;fy;

2+ 3+
[Fe(SCN)(H2O)5] cUthjy; Fe I ,dq;fhzg; gad;gLj;jyhk;
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ + NH4SCN(aq) [Fe(SCN)(H2O)5]2+ + NH4+(aq)
3. Cr3+
Cr3+ I kQ;rs; epwf; fiury; CrO42- Mf xl;rpNaw;wy;.
Cr3+ fiurypDs; kpifahd Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ,l;L gpdG
; rpy kpyy
; pyw
P w
; u;fs;
2¯
6% Ijurd; ngnuhf;irl;ilr; Nru;f;f kQ;rs; epwf; fiury; CrO4 cUthFk;.
Cr3+(aq) + 3NaOH Cr(OH)3(s) + 3Na+(aq)
2Cr(OH)3(s) + 3H2O2(aq) + 4OH-(aq) 2CrO42-(aq) + 8H2O(l)
55
crhj;Jiz E}y;fs; (Reference)
Atkins, P. Overton, T. Shriver and Atkins’ Inorganic Chemistry, 5th Edition, 2010.
Brown, T. E. LeMay, H. E. Bursten, B. E. Chemistry: The Central Science, 13th Edition, 2015.
Prakash, S. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2000.
Sodhi, G. S. Principle of Inorganic Chemistr, 2nd Edition, 2015.
Svehla, G. Vogel’s Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, 6th Edition, 1987.
Tuli, G. D. Madan, R. D Malik, W. U Selected Topics in Inorganic Chemistry, 5th Edition, 2014.
NOMENCLATURE OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY (IUPAC Recommendations 2005).
Rayner-Canham, Geoff Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry, 6th Edition, 2013.
Lee, J. D. Concise inorganic chemistry, 5th Edition, 1996.
56
tsE}
y;
Nrjd ,urhad tp
ay;
f.ngh.j (cau; juk;)
,urhadtpay;
juk; 12
tsE}y;
Nrjd ,urhadtpay;
myF 7 : Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs;
myF 8 : IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrd;Nru; IjNuhfhgd;fSk;
myF 9 : xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
myF 10 : iejurd; cila Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
www.nie.lk
,urhadtpay;
tsE}y;
juk; 12

tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
,yq;if.
ntspaPL: mr;rfk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk
,yq;if.
ii
gzpgg
jukhd fy;tp tpUj;jpfhff; fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; gbepiy

tha;gG
; f;fis vLj;J tUfpd;wJ. nghUj;jkhd ghlq;fSf;fhd ts-E}y; jahupj;jYk;
,t;thwhd Kd;ndLg;Gfspy; xd;whFk;.
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfj;jpdhy; ntw;wpfukhf mKy;gLj;jg;gl;l juq;fs; 12 kw;Wk; 13

,w;Fupa ghlj;jpll
; k; kw;Wk; Mrpupau; topfhl;bAld; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;l ,t;thrpg;GE}y;
Nkyjpfkhf tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
vq;fsJ ek;gpf;ifapd;gb kjpg;ghd ghlj;jpl;lj;jpw;F mtrpakhd Mjhuj;jz;lhf ,k;

Nkyjpfkhd E}y; nghUj;jkhd ghlmzpapy; fw;wYf;F mDruiz toq;Fk;.
,e;jj; Jizr;rhjdj;ij cq;fs; iffspy; fpilf;fr; nra;tjw;Ff; fy;tprhu; tsg;

gq;fspg;ig toq;fpa Njrpa fy;tp epWtf mjpfhupfs; kw;Wk; ntspthupg; Gyikrhu;
tsthsu;fs; MfpNahUf;F vdJ ghuhl;Lf;fisj; njuptpj;Jf; nfhs;fpNwd;.
fyhepjp.(jpUkjp) up. V. Mu;. [. FzNrfu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk.
iii
gzpgg
2017 y; fiyj;jpl;l kWrPuikg;G ,yq;ifapd; f.ngh.j (c.j) fy;tpj; njhFjpapy;

eilKiwapy; cs;sJ. mjhtJ Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;l fiyj;jpl;lk; mKy;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,jd; tpisthf f.ngh.j (c.j) ,y; ngsjpftpay;> ,urhadtpay; kw;Wk; capupay;

ghlq;fspd; cs;slf;fk;> tbtk;> fiyj;jpl;lf; $Wfs; vd;gdtw;wpy; kPsha;T
nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,j; njhlu;r;rpahd khw;wj;jhy; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapay;>
kjpgg
; L
P kw;Wk; fzpg;gl
P b
; y; Fwpgg; plj;jf;f khw;wq;fs; vjpu;ghu;ff
; g;gl;ld. fiyj;jpll
; j;jpy;
ghlkl;l mstpy; ngUkstpy; Fiwf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; xOq;fpYk;
gy;NtW khw;wq;fs; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. gioa fiyj;jpl;lj; Jizahfpa Mrpupa
MNyhrid topfhl;bf;F khw;wl P hf MrpupaUf;fhd ts E}y; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Mrpupau; MNyhrid topfhl;b fw;f Ntz;bait vd vjpu;ghu;ff

; g;gLfpdw
; ghltplaj;ij
Neu;Nfhl;L tbtpy; nfhz;Ls;sd. MapDk; Gjpa Mrpupau; ts E}ypy; vt;tpjkhd
ghltplaKk; cs;slf;fg;gltpy;iy. ,Ug;gpDk; fw;wy; nraw;ghLfs; kw;Wk; kjpg;gl P ;L
eltbf;iffSf;fhd NkNyhl;lkhd tpsf;fq;fs; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Mrpupau; ts
E}y; jpl;lkhd ghlg;gug;G vy;iyiaf; fw;ww; NgWfspd; %yk; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
midj;Jf; fhuzpfisAk; KOikahfr; Rl;bf; fhl;l Mrpupau; ts E}y; NghjhJ.
vdNt ghlcs;slf;fj;ij vspjhf tpsf;Ftjw;F ts E}y; Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. ,tw;iwg;
G+uzg;gLj;jNtz;ba Njitf;Nfw;g ,e;jg; Gj;jfk; cq;fSf;fhfj; jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Kd;ida fiyj;jpl;l eilKiwapy; cau; ju tpQ;Qhdg; ghl Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F

mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;l epak ru;tNjr Mq;fpynkhopg; Gj;jfq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. Mdhy;
ghltplak; njhlu;ghd Fog;gepiyAk; cs;@u; fiyj;jpll ; vy;iynjhlu;ghdgpur;rpidfSk;
,q;Ffhzg;gl;ld. me;jg; Gj;jq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jjy; Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; khztu;fSf;Fk;
,yFthdtplakhf ,Uf;ftpy;iy.
,t; ts E}y; khztu;fs; jkJjha; nkhopapy; cs;@u; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpw;F cl;gl;ljhff;

fw;gjw;fhd tha;gG
; f; fpl;bAs;sJ. mj;Jld; Mrpupau;fs; kw;Wk; khztu;fs; Mfpa
,U jug;gpdu;fSf;Fk; fiyj;jpl;l vjpu;ghu;gpw;F mikthf ek;gfkhd jfty;fisg;
ngwKbfpd;wJ. Vida gpuRupg;G epiyaq;fs;> Nkyjpf tFg;Gf;fis ehlNtz;ba
mtrpakpy;iy.
,e;jg; Gj;jfk; epGzj;Jt Mrpupau;fs; kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof tpupTiuahsu;fshy;

jahupf;fg;gl;Lg; gpd;du; fiyj;jpl;lf; FO>Njrpa fy;tp epWtf fy;tprhu; mYtyfu;
rig kw;Wk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtf Nguit vd;gdtw;wpdhy; mDkjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
vdNt ,e;E}y; cau; epakj;jpw;F cupj;jhd mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;l cs;sPlhFk;.
jpU. A. D. A. B rpy;th
gzpg;ghsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
iv
fiyj;jpl;lf; FO
topfhl;ly;:
fyhepjp. (jpUkjp). up. V. Mu;. N[. FzNrfu>
gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
Nkw;ghu;it:
Kd;dhs; gzpg;ghsu;> tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
ghlj; jiyikj;Jtk;:

jpU.L. K. tLNf>
jpU. V. ,uh[{Njtd;>
jpUkjp. G. G.P. S. ngNuuh

vOj;jhsu; FO:
Nguhrpupau;. A.M . mgaNrfuu - vkpNul;]; Nguhrpupau;> ,urhadj;Jiw>
Nguhrpupau;.G.M.K.B. Fzn\uj; - rpNu\;l Nguhrpupau;> ,urhadj;Jiw> gpujp
cgNte;ju;> ,yq;if jpwe;j gy;fiyf; fofk;.
Nguhrpupau;. t[puh Gyfg;gpl;ba - Nguhrpupau;> ,urhadj;Jiw>
UFZg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

v
n`huz.
Gdpj gPwN
mDruiz:
jpU. wQ;rpj; jatd;r
vi
cs;slf;fk;
gf;fk;

cs;slf;fk; vii - xi
myF 7: Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs;
1.1 md;whl tho;f;ifapy; Nrjd ,urhadk; 1 - 3
1.1.1 fhgd; Vd; ngUksT vz;zpf;if Nrjdr; Nru;itfisg;
gue;j fl;likg;G Ntw;WikAld; cUthf;Ffpd;wJ?
fhgdpd; xg;gw;w jd;ik
1.2 njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fs; njhlu;ghd Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; 4 - 7

gy;tifik
1.2.1 gy;ypd mZf;fisAila njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisf;
nfhz;l Nru;itfspd; ,dq;fs;
1.2.1.1 mw;fNfhy;fs;
1.2.1.2 <ju;fs;
1.2.1.3 mypbifl;Lfs;
1.2.1.4 fPw;Nwhd;fs;
1.2.1.5 mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs;
1.2.1.6 fhnghl;rpypf;F mkpyq;fs;
1.2.1.7 mkpy Viyl;Lfs;> vRj;ju;fs;> Vikl;Lfs;
(fhnghl;rpypf;F mkpyq;fspd; ngWjpfs;)
1.2.1.8 mikd;fs;
1.3 Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL 8 - 22

1.3.1 IUPAC ngauPL
1.3.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;
1.3.3 fpisr; rq;fpypAila mw;Nfd;fspd; ngauPL
1.3.4 mw;fPd;> mw;ifd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ngauPL
1.3.5 IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; jtpu;e;j Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL
1.3.6 xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;l
; j;ijAila
Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL
1.4 rkgFjpr; Nru;T 23 - 28

1.4.1 fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpr; Nru;T
 rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
 epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
 njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
1.4.2 jpz;kj; Njhw;wr; rkgFjpar; Nru;T
 <u;ntspikar; rkgFjpaq;fs;
 vjpUUf;fs;
vii
myF 8: IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrd;Nru; IjNuhfhgd;fSk;
2.1 mypgw;wpf; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> 29 - 37
ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; gpizg;Gfspd; jd;ik
2.1.1 mw;Nfd; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
2.1.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
2.1.3 mw;fPd; kw;Wk; mw;ifd; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
2.1.4 mw;fPd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
2.1.5 mw;ifd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
2.2 fl;likg;Gf;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd;fs; kw;Wk; 28 - 46

mw;ifd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs;
2.2.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
2.2.1.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; FNshupNdw;wk;
2.2.2 mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
2.2.2.1 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; (HCl, HBr, HI) Nru;j;jy;
2.2.2.2 mw;fPd;fSf;Fs; GNuhkPidr; Nru;j;jy;
2.2.2.3 ry;g+upf; mkpyj;ijr; Nru;j;jYk;
$l;ly; tpistpd; ePu;g;gFg;Gk;
2.2.2.4 Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; Ijuridr; Nru;j;jy;
(IjuNdw;wk;)
2.2.2.5 mw;fPd;fSld; Ijhd Fspu; fhu KMnO4 ,d; jhf;fq;fs;
2.2.3 mw;ifd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
2.2.3.1 GNuhkPidr; Nru;j;jy;
2.2.3.2 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; Nru;j;jy;
2.2.3.3 ePiur; Nru;j;jy;
2.2.3.4 Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; Ijuridr; Nru;j;jy;
(IjurNdw;wk;)
2.2.4 KbTepiy Ijuridf; nfhz;Ls;s mw;ifd;fspd;
( C  C  H ) mkpyj;jd;ik
2.3 ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G 47 - 50
2.3.1 ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G
2.3.2 ngd;rPdpd; cWjpj;jd;ik
2.4 ngd;rPdpd; cWjpia cjhuzq;fs; %yk; tpsf;Ftjw;fhd

rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fs; 51 - 56
2.4.1 ngd;rPdpd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;lj; jhf;fq;fs;
2.4.1.1 iej;jpNuw;wk;
2.4.1.2 gpuPly; - fpuht; (Friedel - Crafts) ,d; mw;ifNyw;wk;
2.4.1.3 gpuPly; - fpuht; ,d; VirNyw;wk;
2.4.1.4 myrNdw;wk;
2.4.2 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;fhd jil
2.4.3 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; IjurNdw;wj;jpw;fhd jil
viii
2.5 xU gpujpaPl;Lg; ngd;rPdpYs;s gpujpaPl;Lj; njhFjpfspd;
jpirg;gLj;Jk; ,ay;G 56 - 57
2.5.1 xNjh> guh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
2.5.2 nkw;wh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
2.6 mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; jhf;fq;fSk; 57 - 59
2.7 gpizg;G cz;lhjy; gpizg;G ciljy; Neuj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; 60 - 61

mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
myF 9: xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;

3.1 mw;fNfhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; ,ay;GfSk; jhf;fq;fSk; 64 - 68
3.1.1 Xu; Ijupf; mw;fNfhy;fisg; ghFgLj;Jjy;
3.1.2 ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs;
3.1.3 mw;fNfhy;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.1.3.1 O - H gpizg;G gpstiljYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.1.3.2 C- O gpizg;G gpstiljYld; <LgLk; fUehl;lg;
gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
3.1.3.3 ePf;fy; jhf;fk;
3.1.3.4 mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.2 gPNdhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; ,ay;GfSk; jhf;fq;fSk; 69 - 70

3.2.1 gPNdhy;fspd; mkpyj;jd;ik
3.2.2 O - H gpizg;G gpsT miljYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.2.3 C- O gpizg;G ciljypdhy; epfo Kbahj fUehl;lg;
gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
3.3 gPNdhy;fspYs;s ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; jhf;Fjd;ik 71 - 71

3.3.1 GNuhkPDld; gPNdhypd; jhf;fk;
3.3.2 gPNdhypd; iej;jpNuw;wk;
3.4 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> 72 - 79

,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.4.2 my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;.
3.4.3 fUehl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fs;
3.4.3.1 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpDs;
HCN Ir; Nru;j;jy;.
3.4.3.2 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;.
3.4.3.3 2> 4- ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; IjurPDld; jhf;fk;
(2> 4- DNP my;yJ gpubapd;(Brady) Nrhjidg;nghUs;)
3.4.3.4 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; ed;xLf;fy;
jhf;fq;fs;
ix
3.4.3.5 ,ypj;jpak; mYkPdpak; Ijiul;L (LiAlH4) my;yJ
Nrhbak; NghNuh Ijiul;L (NaBH4) ,dhy;
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;iwj; jho;j;jy;.
3.4.6 Zn(Hg) / nrwpHCl ,dhy; my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs;
vd;gdtw;iwj; jho;j;jy; (fpikd;rdpd; jho;j;jy;)
3.4.7 my;bifl;Lf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.4.7.1 njhydpd; (Tollen) Nrhjidg;nghUspdhy; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.4.7.2 gPypq;fpd; (Fehling) fiuryhy; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.4.7.3 mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W my;yJ
mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; gukq;fNdw;W
vd;gdtw;why; xl;rpNaw;wk;.
3.5 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; 80 - 84

jhf;fq;fs;
3.5.2 -COOH $l;lj;jpd; jhf;Fjpwd; tiffis / khjpupfis
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
>C=O $l;lj;JlDk; kw;Wk; mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs;
vd;gdtw;wpd; -OH $l;lj;JlDk; xg;gpLjy;.
3.5.2.1 O-H gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.5.2.2 C-O gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.5.2.3 LiAlH4 cld; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; jho;j;jy;.
3.6 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfspd; jhf;fq;fs; 85 - 89

3.6.1 mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.1.1 Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ePu;f;fiurYld; jhf;fk;
3.6.1.2 ePUld; jhf;fk;
3.6.1.3 mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.1.4 mNkhdpah kw;Wk; Kjy; mikd;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.2 vRj;ju;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.2.1 Ijhd fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fSld; jhf;fk;.
3.6.2.3 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld; jhf;fk;
3.6.2.4 LiAlH4 My; jho;j;jy;.
3.6.3 Vikl;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.3.2 LiAlH4 cld; jho;j;jy;
x
myF 10: iejurd; cila Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
4.1 Kjy; mikd;fs; mdpyPd; Mfpatw;wpd; ,ay;Gfs;> jhf;fq;fs; 91 - 93
4.1.1 mikd;fspd; ghFghL
4.1.2 mdpyPdpd; ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; jhf;Fjpwd;
4.1.3 Kjy; mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3.1 mw;ify; Viyl;LfSld; mkPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3.2 my;Bifl;Lfs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gtw;Wld;
mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3.3 mkpyf; FNshiul;Lfs; cld; mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.1.3.4 ieju]; mkpyj;Jld; (NaNO2/HCl) mikd;fspd; jhf;fk;
4.2 mikd;fspd; %yj;jd;ik 94 - 95

4.2.1 mikd;fs; vjpu; my;fNfhy;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
4.2.2 Kjy; mypgw;wpf; mkPd;fs;> mdpyPd; vd;gtw;wpd; %yj;jd;ik
4.2.3 Vikl;LfSld; xg;gpl;l mkPd;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
4.3 mNuhkw;wpf; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fq;fs; 96 - 98

4.3.1 <uNrhdpak; $l;lk; NtW mZtpdhy; my;yJ
xU $l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaplg;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;
4.3.1.1 ePUld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fspd; jhf;fk;
4.3.1.2 cgnghRguR mkpyj;Jld; (H3PO2) <uNrhdpak;
cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
4.3.1.3 CuCl, CuBr vd;gtw;Wld; <uNrhdpak;
cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
4.3.1.4 CuCN cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
4.3.1.5 KI cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
4.3.3 <uNrhdpak; mad; ,yj;jpud; ehbahfj; njhopw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;
xi
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 7 Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs;
1. Nrjd ,urhadj;jpd;
mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fs;
cs;slf;fk;
1.1 md;whl tho;f;ifapy; Nrjd ,urhadk; 1.3 Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL
1.1.1 fhgd; Vd; ngUksT vz;zpf;ifr; 1.3.1 IUPAC ngauPL
Nrjdr; Nru;itfisg; gue;j fl;likg;G 1.3.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;
Ntw;WikAld; cUthf;Ffpd;wJ? 1.3.3 fpisr; rq;fpypAila mw;Nfd;fspd;
fhgdpd; xg;gw;w jd;ik ngauPL
1.3.4 mw;fPd;> mw;ifd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd;
1.2 njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fs; njhlu;ghd Nrjdr; ngauPL
Nru;itfspd; gy;tifik 1.3.5 IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; jtpu;e;j Nru;itfspd;
1.2.1 gy;ypd mZf;fisAila njhopw; IUPAC ngauPL
ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisf; nfhz;l 1.3.6 xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l njhopw;ghl;Lf;
Nru;itfspd; ,dq;fs; $l;;lj;ijAila Nru;itfspd; IUPAC
1.2.1.1 mw;fNfhy;fs; ngauPL
1.2.1.2 <ju;fs;
1.2.1.3 mypbifl;Lfs; 1.4 rkgFjpr; Nru;T
1.2.1.4 fPw;Nwhd;fs; 1.4.1 fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpr; Nru;T
1.2.1.5 mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs;  rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
1.2.1.6 fhnghl;rpypf;F mkpyq;fs;  epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
1.2.1.7 mkpy Viyl;Lfs;> vRj;ju;fs;>  njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
Vikl;Lfs; 1.4.2 jpz;kj; Njhw;wr; rkgFjpar; Nru;T
(fhnghl;rpypf;F mkpyq;fspd;  <u;ntspikar; rkgFjpaq;fs;
ngWjpfs;)  vjpUUf;fs;
1.2.1.8 mikd;fs;
1
mwpKfk;
Nrjd ,urhadkhdJ fhgd; Nru;itfspd; ,urhadkhFk;. ,r;Nru;itfspy;> %yf;$wpd;

td;$l;il my;yJ KJnfYk;ig cUthf;FtJ fhgd; mZf;fs; MFk;. fhgDld;
Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; nghJthf IjuridAk; nfhz;Ls;sd. rpy Fwpg;gpl;l Nrjdr;
Nru;itfspy; xl;rprd;> iejurd;> fe;jfk;> nghRguR> myrd;fs; MfpadTk; fhzg;gL
fpdw
; d. ,r;Nru;itfs; ,aw;ifahfNth my;yJ njhFg;gpwF ; upadthfNth fhzg;glyhk;.
vy;y h capUs;s mq;fpfspYk; Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; mj;jpahtrpakhd $wpid
cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mDNrgj; njhopw;ghLfspy; kj;jpa gq;fpid tfpf;fpd;wd. czT>
gpshj;jpf;Fg; nghUl;fs;> Jzp> moFr; rhjdg; nghUl;fs;> kUe;Jg; gjhu;j;jq;fs;
Nghd;w md;whl tho;f;iff;Fj; Njitahd gjhu;j;jq;fspy; mj;jpahtrpakhd $wpid
cUthf;Ffpd;wd. Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; Vida %yfq;fs; cUthf;Fk; Nru;it
fSld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ fhgd; %yfk; cUthf;Fk; Nru;itfspd; tifAk; vz;zpfi ; fAk;
kpf mjpfk;.
1.1 md;whl tho;f;ifapy; Nrjd ,urhadk;
vkJ ,Uf;ifapd; xt;nthU epiyapYk; Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; ,ize;Js;sd.

cjhuzkhf:
czTf;$Wfs; : fhNghitjNuw;Wfs;> nfhOg;Gfs;> Gujq;fs;
gpshj;jpf;Fg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; : PVC, nghypjj; d
P >; nghyp]i
; uupd>; nghypnaRj;ju;fs;>
ieNyhd;
kUe;Jfs; : gurpw;wNkhy;> m];gpupd;> ngdprpypd;> mnkhf;rpypd;
vupnghUl;fs; : ngw;Nwhy;> Bry;> kz;nzz;nza;> LP thA
1.1.1 fhgd; Vd; ngUksT vz;zpf;if Nrjdr; Nru;itfis gue;j

fl;likg;G Ntw;WikAld; cUthf;Ffpdw
; J? fhgdpd; xg;gw;w jd;ik
fhgd; – fhgd;> fhgd; – Ijurd; gpizg;Gfs; Nrjdr; Nru;itfspy; fhzg;gLk;

jiyikahd gpizg;GfshFk;. ,U fhgd; mZf;fSf;fpilNa typikahd xw;iwg;
gpizg;Gfs;> ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gfs;> Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gfs; cUthfyhk;. C apw;Fk;
H apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd rpwpa kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik NtWghLk; C–H gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfs;
cUthf;fj;jpw;F topNfhYfpd;wJ. mjd; tYtsT Xl;bYs;s 4 ,yj;jpud;fs;>
fhgd; – fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gfs;> Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gfs; cs;slq;fyhf
4 gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfs; cUthf cjTfpd;wd. ,f;fhuzq;fspdhy;> fhgd; ePl;ly;>
fpisr; rq;fpypfs;> tisaq;fs; Mfpatw;iw cUthf;ff;$bajhfTs;sJ. ,J
gytpjkhd fhgd; td;$Lfs; cila Nru;itfis cUthf;Ftjw;F topNfhYfpd;wJ.
fhgdpw;F O, N, S, P myrd;fs; Mfpatw;WlDk; gpizg;Gfis cUthf;ff;$bajhf
,Ug;gjhy;> Vuhskhd gy tifahd Nrjdr; Nru;itfisg; gue;j tPrR ; ila %yf;$w;W
epiwfspy; Njhw;Wtpf;ff;$bajhf cs;sJ. Mtu;j;jd ml;ltizapy; C cs;s mNj
ehd;fhk; $l;lj;jpYs;s Si cld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ> C–C, C–H gpizg;Gfs; KiwNa
2
Si–Si, Si–H gpizg;GfspYk; mjpfsT gpizg;Gr; rf;jpfis cilad. NkYs;s

fye;JiuahlYld; njhlu;Gila rpy gpizg;Gr; rf;jpfs; ml;ltiz 1.1 ,y;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 1.1: C, Si cld; njhlu;Gila rpy gpizg;Gfspd; gpizg;Gr; rf;jpfs;

gpizg;G gpizg;Gr; rf;jp / kJ mol-1
C–C 346
C=C 610
CaC 835
C–H 413
Si–Si 226
Si–H 318
1.1.2 njhopwg
; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fs; njhlu;ghd Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; gy;tifik
rpy Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; C, H I khj;jpuk; $W %yfq;fshfTilad. ,it IjNuhf;

fhgd;fs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. fl;likg;G mbg;gilapy; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; mypgw;wpf;F>
mNuhkw;wpf;F vd miof;fg;gLk; ,uz;L gpujhd $l;lq;fshfg; gpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
jpwe;j fhgd; rq;fpypfs; khj;jpuk; cila IjNuhfhgd;fs; rf;fukw;w mypgw;wpf;F
IjNuhfhgd;fs; vdTk;> rf;fu fhgd; rq;fpypfisAilad rf;fu (alicyclic) IjNuhf;
fhgd;fs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. mypgw;wpf;F IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fd P f
; s;>
mw;ifd;fs; vdg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. rf;fu Xuplg;ghlw;w  ,yj;jpud;fspd; Kfpypdhy;
cWjpahf;fg;gl;l rf;fu Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; mNuhkw;wpf;F Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; vd
miof;fg;gLk;. C6H6 vd;Dk; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk; ngd;rPd; vspa
mNuhkw;wpf;F IjNuhfhgd; Nru;itahFk;. IjNuhf; fhgd;fspd; ghFghL cU 1.1 ,y;
xt;nthU tiff;Fupa nghJthd cjhuzq;fSld; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;
 
mNuhkw;wpf;F mypgw;wpf;F
IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;
ngd;rd
P ;
 
rf;fukw;w rf;fu
(mypirf;fpspf;F)
   rf;fuvf;Nrd;
mw;Nfd; mw;fPd; mw;ifd;
(xU rf;fumw;Nfd;)
GNuhg;igd;
vNjd; GNuhg;gd
P ;
cU 1.1 IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ghFghL
3
Fwpg;G: jw;Nghija f.ngh.j. (c/j) ghlj;jpll

; j;jpy; rf;fu mw;Nfd;fs;> rf;fu mw;fd
P f
; s;>
rf;fu mw;ifd;fs; cs;slf;fg;gltpy;iy.
Nru;itfs; mtw;wpd; %yf;$wpfspYs;s njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fSf;Nfw;g ghFgLj;jg;

gLfpd;wd. xU %yf;$wpd; jhf;fq;fs; vq;F mNdfkhf eilngWfpd;wNjh mt;
tZf;fspd; $l;lk; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lkhFk;. fhgd; – fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G>
fhgd; – fhgd; Kk;ikg; gpizg;G jtpu> xU njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; iejurd;> xl;rprd;
Nghd;w xd;W my;yJ xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l gyjug;gl;l mZf;fis cilaJ. nghJthd
njhopwg
; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fs;> mtw;wpwn
; fhj;j mikg;nghj;j njhlu;fspd; ngau;fs; ml;ltiz
1.2 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 1.2: Nrjdr; Nru;itfspYs;s njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fs;
4
Fwpg;G: IUPAC ngauPlL

; Kiwapy; mw;fd
P f
; s;> mw;ifd;fs;> <ju;fs;> mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs;
njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fshff; fUjg;gLtjpy;iy.
1.2.1 gy;tif (gyjug;gl;l) mZf;fisAila njhopwg

; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fisf;
nfhz;l Nru;itfspd; njhFjpfs;
1.2.1.1 mw;fNfhy;
xU Ijnuhl;rpy; $l;lk; (–OH), xU mw;ify; $l;lj;jpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;lijf; nfhz;l

Nru;itfs; mw;fNfhy;fs; cU 1.2 ,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
nkijy; mw;fNfhy; vijy; mw;fNfhy; INrh - GNuhg;igy; mw;fNfhy;

methyl alcohol ethyl alcohol iso - Propyl alcohol
cU 1.2 mw;fNfhy;fSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
Fwpg;G: xU mw;NfdpypUe;J xU Ijurd; mZit mfw;Wtjd; %yk; xU mw;ify;

$l;lk; Kiwikahfg; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
1.2.1.2 <ju;fs;
xU xl;rprd; mZtpw;F ,U mw;ify; $l;lq;fs; ,ize;Js;s Nru;itfs; <ju;fs;

MFk;. rpy cjhuzq;fs; cU 1.3 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
,Unkijy; <ju; vijy; nkijy; <ju; ,Uvijy; <ju;

dimethyl ether ethyl methyl ether diethyl ether
cU 1.3 <ju;fSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
5
1.2.1.3 my;Bifl;L
xU fhgidy; $l;lj;jpw;F (C=O) xU H mZ ,izf;fg;gl;lijf; nfhz;l Nru;itfs;

my;Bifl;Lfs; rpy cjhuzq;fs; cU 1.4 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
Nghky;Bifl;L mrw;wy;Bifl;L ngd;ry;Bifl;L

formaldehyde acetaldehyde benzaldehyde
cU 1.4 my;Bifl;LfSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
1.2.1.4 fPwN
; whd;fs;
xU fhgidy; $l;lj;jpw;F (C=O) mw;ify; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lj;jpd; ,U fhgd;

mZf;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;lijf; nfhz;l Nru;itfs; fPw;Nwhd;fs; MFk;. cU 1.5 ,y;
rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
mrw;Nwhd; vijy; nkijy; fPw;Nwhd; mrw;NwhgPNdhd;

acetone ethyl methyl ketone acetophenone
cU 1.5 fPw;Nwhd;fSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
1.2.1.5 mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs;
xU myrd; mZ xU mw;ify; $l;lj;jpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;lijf; nfhz;l Nru;itfs;

mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs; MFk;. cU 1.6 ,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
nkijy; maill;L vijy; GNuhikl;L INrh - GNuhg;igy; FNshiul;L

methyl iodide ethyl bromide iso - propyi chloride
cU 1.6 mw;ify; Viyl;LfSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
Fwpg;G: xU myrd; mZ mNuhkw;wpf;F tisaj;jpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l Nru;itfs;

Viuy; Viyl;Lfs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
6
1.2.1.6 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpy (COOH) $l;lj;ij cila Nru;itfs; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;

MFk;. cU 1.7 ,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
Nghkpf; mkpyk; mrw;wpf; mkpyk; ngd;Nrhapf; mkpyk;

formic acid acetic acid benzoic acid
cU 1.7 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
1.2.1.7 mkpy Viyl;Lfs;> vRj;ju;fs;> Vikl;Lfs; (fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfs;)
COX $l;lj;ij> ,q;F X vd;gJ myrd; mZ cila Nru;itfs; mkpy Viyl;Lfs;

MFk;. COOR $l;lj;ij cila Nru;itfs; vRj;ju;fs; MFk;. CONH2 $l;lj;ij
cila Nru;itfs; Vikl;Lfs; MFk;. cU 1.8 ,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
mrw;iwy; FNshiul;L vijy; mrw;Nww;W mrw;Nwikl;L

acetyl chloride ethyl acetate acetamide
cU 1.8 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; ngWjpfSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
Fwpg;G: mkpy Viyl;Lfs;> vRj;ju;fs;> Vikl;Lfs; vd;gd COOH $l;lj;jpYs;s OH

$l;lj;ij KiwNa myrd;> OR, NH2 $l;lq;fspdhy; gpujpaL
P nra;J ngwg;gl;ld.
1.2.1.8 mikd;fs;
mNkhdpahtpYs;s H mZf;fis mw;ify; $l;lq;fs; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lq;fspdhy;

gpujpaPL nra;tjdhy; Kiwikahfg; ngWk; Nru;itfs; mikd;fs; MFk;. cU 1.9
,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
vijy;mikd; vijy;nkijy;mikd; %nkijy;mikd; mdpyPd;

ethylamine ethylmethylamine trimethylamine aniline
cU 1.9 mkPd;fSf;Fr; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
7
1.3 Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL
,g;nghOJ gpuNahfj;jpYs;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; Kiwikahd ngauPl;bw;Fupa xU

njhFjp tpjpfs;> gy ru;tNjr kfhehLfs; %yk; ngwg;gl;ld. ,it J}a> gpuNahf
,urhad ru;tNjr rq;fj;jpd; tpjpfs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd (IUPAC tpjpfs;). vdNt
,g;ngauPlL
; Kiw IUPAC ngauPlL; Kiw vd miof;fg;gLfpdw ; J. ngUksT nghJthd
Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; IUPAC ngauPl;Lld; nghJthd ngau;fspdhy; (Kiwikahdjy;y)
mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. ,g;gFjpapd; Kbtpy; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
1.3.1 IUPAC ngauPL
IUPAC ngauPl;L Kiwik mjpfsT vz;zpf;ifahd tpjpfspdhy; Msg;gLfpd;wJ.

vkJ fye;Jiuahlypy; mNdf nghJthd tifr; Nrjdr; Nru;itfisg; ngauplg;
gad;gLj;Jk; kpf Kf;fpakhdtw;iw tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;F vk;ik kl;Lg;gLj;jpf;
nfhs;Nthk;. IUPAC njhFjpapd; kpf Kf;fpakhd mk;rk; ahnjdpy;> jug;gl;l xU
Nrjdr; Nru;itf;F xU ngaiu kl;Lk; toq;Ftjw;Fk;> jug;gl;l xU IUPAC ngaupw;F
xU fl;likg;ig kl;LNk vOJtjw;Fk; mDkjpf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;.
,e;j Kiwikapy;> O, N myrd;fs; Nghd;w gy;tifahd mZf;fisAila Nru;itfs;

ahTk; xj;j IjNuhf;fhgdpypUe;J ngwg;gl;ljhff; fUjg;gLk;. vdNt Muk;gj;jpy;
IUPAC Kiwik ngauPlb ; w;Nfw;g vt;thW IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; ngauplg;gLtjhfg; ghu;gN
; ghk;.
1.3.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;
epuk;gpa IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; ahtw;wpdJk; ngau;fs; –ane vd;w gpwN

; ru;fi
; fAld; KbTilAk;.
IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaupd; jz;L ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypapYs;s fhgd; mZf;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. jz;Lf; fw;wy; Nrjd ,urhadj;jpy; vz;Ztijf; fw;wy;
Nghd;wpUf;Fk;. 6 fhgd; mZf;fs; tiu jz;Lg; ngau;fs; ml;ltiz 1.3 ,y;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 1.3: MW fhgd; mZf;fs; tiu nfhz;Ls;s IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; jz;Lg;

ngau;fs;
rpwpjsT Nkyjpf rpf;fyhd IjNuhf;fhgd;fisf; fUj Kd;G> mw;ify; $l;lq;fis

ehk; vt;thW ngauplyhk; vdg; ghu;g;Nghk;.
8
xU mw;NfdpypUe;J xU H mZit ehk; Kiwikahf mfw;Wk;nghOJ xU mw;ify;

$l;lk; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ. xU mw;ify; $l;lj;jpd; ngau; –yl vd;Dk; gpw;Nru;f;ifAld;
KbTWk;. fpisaw;w IjNuhf;fhgdpd; KbTepiy H mZ mfw;wg;gLk; nghOJ> fpisaw;w
mw;ify; $l;lk; cUthf;fg;gLk;. ml;ltiz 1.4 ,y; rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 1.4: mw;ify; $l;lq;fspd; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
1.3.3 fpisr;rq;fpypAila mw;Nfd;fspd; ngauPL
fpisr;rq;fpyp cila mw;Nfd;fis ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypf;F mw;ify; $l;lq;fs;

,izf;fg;gl;l IjNuhf;fhgd;fshff; fUjyhk;. gpdt
; Uk; cjhuzq;fis vLj;J fpisr;
rq;fpyp cila mw;Nfd;fisg; ngaupLk; gbKiwfisf; ftdpg;Nghk;.
gb 1: kpf ePz;l njhlu;r;rpahd fhgd; mZf;fisAila rq;fpypia ,dk; fz;L

IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaiug; ngWf.
5 C rq;fpyp
6 C rq;fpyp
5 fhgd; mZf;fs; - pentane 6 fhgd; mZf;fs; - hexane
Fwpg;G: Nru;it 1 ,y; fhgd; mZf;fspy; xd;wpw;F xU nkijy; $l;lk; ,izf;fg;

gl;Ls;sJ. Nru;it 2 ,y; fhgd; mZf;fspy; xd;wpw;F xU vijy; $l;lk;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. IjNuhf;fhgd; rq;fpypapy; xU H mZit ,lk;ngau;fF ; k;
$l;lk; gpujpaPl;Lf; $l;lk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. MfNt Nru;it 1 ,y; nkijy;
$l;lk;> Nru;it 2 ,y; vijy; $l;lk; gpujpaPLfshf cs;sd.
9
gb 2: ePz;l njhlu;r;rpahd fhgd; rq;fpypapYs;s gpujpaPl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila C mZ

,opT vz;izg; ngwf;$bathW ePzl ; njhlu;rr
; pahd fhgd; rq;fpypia vz;zpLf.
Fwpg;G: Nru;it 1 ,d; fhgd; rq;fpyp tyg;gf;fj;jpypUe;J ,lg;Gwkhf vz;zplg;gl;Ls;sJ.

,r;Nru;itapd; fhgd; rq;fpyp ,lg;Gwj;jpypUe;J tyg;gf;fkhf vz;zplg;gl;lhy;
nkijy; $l;lj;ijAila fhgd; mZtpw;F vz; 4 toq;fg;gLk;. ,t;ntz; 2
,Yk; cau;thdJ.
gb 3: gpujpaPl;bd; epiyiaf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;F NkNy gb (2) Ig; gad;gLj;jpg;

ngw;w vz;iz cgNahfpf;Ff. gpujpaPl;Lf; $l;lj;jpd; ngaiu mjd; epiyiaf;
Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lk; vz;Zld; vOjp mjidj; njhlu;e;J IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaiu
(ngw;whu; IjNuhf; fhgdpd; ngau;) vOJf. nrhw;fspypUe;J vz;fs; (-) (hyphen)
,dhYk; vz;fs; (,) (comma) ,dhYk; Ntwhf;fg;gLk;.
2-methylpentane 3-ethythexane
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gpujpaPLfs; cs;s nghOJ> kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpyp
apy; mtw;wpd; epiyfisf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lk; vz;fs; kpff; Fiwe;j vz;fisg; ngwy;
Ntz;Lk;. IUPAC ngaupy; gpujpaL
P fspd; ngau;fs; Mq;fpy muprR
; tL xOq;fpy; vOjg;gLk;.
NkYk; ,U cjhuzq;fis ehk; fUJNthk;.
,uz;L my;yJ ,uz;bw;F Nkw;gl;l gpujpaPLfs; xj;jjhff; fhzg;gbd; mit> di- (2),
tri- (3), tetra- (4) vd;Dk; Kw;Nru;fi
; ffspdhy; FwpjJ
; f; fhl;lg;gLk;. xt;nthU gpujpal
P b
; w;Fk;
mjd; epiyia kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypapy; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;F vz; toq;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
10
1.3.4 mw;fPd;> mw;ifd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ngauPL

mw;fPd;fs; fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fSilad. IUPAC ngauPl;bw;Nfw;g
gpw;Nru;f;if -ane MdJ mw;fPd;fspd; ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgdpy; (parent hydrocarbon)
,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpd; epiyiaf; FwpfF; k; vz;Zld; gpwN; ru;fi
; f -ene ,dhy; gpujpaplg;gLk;.
rpy cjhuzq;fis vLj;J mw;fd P f
; spd; ngauplypy; rk;ge;jg;gLk; gbfis ehk; ghu;gN; ghk;.
gb 1: fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ig cs;slf;Fk; kpf ePz;l njhlu;r;rpahd

fhgd; rq;fpypia ,dk; fhz;f. ,f;fhgd; rq;fpypia ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G
fhgd; mZf;fs; jho;e;j vz;fisg; ngwf;$bathW ,yf;fkpLf.
gb 2: ePzl
; fhgd; rq;fpypapYs;s fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpfi
; fiag; gpujpepjpgg
; Lj;Jk;
ngaiu gpw;Nru;f;if -ene cld; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpd; epiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk;
jho;e;j vz;iz vOjp IUPAC ngaiu cUthf;Ff.
gb 3: gpujpaPLfs; fhzg;gLk;NghJ> mit Kw;Nru;f;iffshf> ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ig

Aila kpf ePzl ; fhgd; rq;fpypapy; mtw;wpd; epiyfisf; Fwpf;Fk; vz;fSld;
vOjg;gLk;.
11
fhgd; rq;fpypia ,U gf;fq;fspypUe;Jk; vz;zpLk;nghOJ ,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpw;F

xNu njhFjp vz;fs; fpilf;fg; ngwpd>; gpujpaL
P fSf;F kpff; Fiwe;j vz;fs; fpilf;FkhW
vz;zply; Ntz;Lk;.
mw;ifd;fs; fhgd; - fhgd; Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gfis cilad. ,it mw;Nfdpd;

gpw;Nru;f;if -ane I gpw;Nru;f;if -yne ,dhy; gpujpapl;Lg; ngauplg;gLk;.
,g;nghOJ ehk; IUPAC Kiwg;gb IjNuhf;fhgd;fis ngaupLtjd; mbg;gilf;

nfhs;iffisr; RUf;fkhff; $WNthk;. ,J njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisf; nfhz;l
Nru;itfisg; ngaupLtjw;F m];jpthukhfTs;sJ.
(i) vy;yhr; Nru;itfSk; kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypAila IjNuhf;fhgdpypUe;J ngwg;

gl;ljhff; fUjg;gLk;.
(ii) ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf; fhzg;gbd;> ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G
my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;G cs;slq;FkhW kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpyp njupT
nra;ag;gLk;.
(iii) nghUj;jkhd gpw;Nru;fi
; f (-ane, -ene my;yJ -yne) fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if
iaf; Fwpf;Fk; jz;Lg; ngaupw;F (ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd;) Nru;f;fg;gLk;.
(iv) ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gfs; my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gfs; fhzg;glhtpbd;> gpujpaL
P fisf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; fhgd; mZf;fSf;F kpff; Fiwe;j rhj;jpakhd vz;fs; toq;fg;
gLk;.
12
(v) ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf; fhzg;gbd; mjw;F kpff; Fiwe;j
rhj;jpakhd vz; toq;fg;gLk;.
(vi) gpujpaL
P fspd; ngau;fs; ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaupwF
; Kd;dhy; Kw;Nru;fi
; fahf
Mq;fpy mupr;Rtl;L xOq;fpy; vOjg;gLk; / itf;fg;gLk;.
1.3.5 IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; jtpu;e;j Nru;itfspd; IUPAC ngauPL
,g;gFjpapy; Vida njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisAila Nru;itfspd; ngauPL (ml;ltiz

1.2) fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;. ,JTk; ehk; Vw;fdNt fye;Jiuahba nfhs;iffisg; gpdg
; w;Wk;.
Nkyjpfkhf vkf;F ,g;nghOJ xU tFg;Gg; ngau; (gpw;Nru;f;if)> %yf;$wpYs;s
njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;Fj; NjitahfTs;sJ.
rpy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fspd; tFg;Gg; ngau;fis (gpw;Nru;f;iffs;) (ml;ltiz 1.5)

ehk; vLj;J> xU njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila Nru;itfisg; ngauplypy; ,e;jf;
nfhs;iffis vt;thW gpuNahfpf;fyhk; vdf; fw;Nghk;.
ml;ltiz 1.5: rpy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fspd; tFg;Gg; ngau;fs;
gpd;tUk; Nru;itfisg; ngauplypy; rk;ge;jg;gl;Ls;s gbfis ehk; ,g;nghOJ ghu;gN

; ghk;.
(1) njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila kpf ePz;l njhlu;r;rpahd fhgd; rq;fpypia

,dq;fz;L> njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila C mZtpw;F kpfr; rhj;jpakhd
,opT vz; ngwf;$bathW fhgd; rq;fpypapd; fhgd; mZf;fis vz;zpLf.
13
(2) epuk;gpajh my;yJ ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ Kk;ikg; gpizg;ig cilajh

vdTk; fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiar; Rl;bf; fhl;lfpd;wJkhd ngw;whu;
IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaiu ca;j;jwpf.
(3) IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaupd; ,Wjp vOj;J ‘e’ (ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd; ngau;) ia

mfw;wp> njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ij ,dq;fhZk; gpw;Nru;f;ifia mjd; epiyia
vLj;Jf; fhl;Lk; vz;Zld; Fwpg;gpl;Lr; Nru;itapd; ngaiu vOJf.
NkNy ngwg;gl;l IUPAC ngau;fs; fPNoAs;s jfty;fisj; jUfpd;wd.

(i) kpf ePz;l njhlu;r;rpahd fhgd; rq;fpypapYs;s C mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if
(pent, but)
(ii) fhgd; rq;fpypapd; epuk;gpa jd;ik (-an-)
(iii) %yf;$wpy; fhzg;gLk; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk;> mjd; epiy (1-ol, 2-ol my;yJ
2-one).
Fwpg;G: mw;fNfhy;fspd; Ijnuhl;rpy; $l;lk; (OH)> fhgd; rq;fpypapd; vf; fhgd; mZtpYk;>
KbT epiyf; fhgd; cl;gl epiyg;gLj;jg;glyhk;. Mdhy; fPwN ; whd;fspd;
fhgidy; $l;lk; (C=O) fhgd; rq;fpypapd; KbTepiyf; fhgd; mZtpy;
epiyg;gLj;jg;gl KbahJ. MfNt mw;fNfhy;fs;> fPwN ; whd;fs; vd;gtw;iwg;
ngaupLk;nghOJ njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;jpd; epiyiaf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lk; vz;
Fwpg;gplg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
my;Bifl;Lfs;> fhnghl;rpypf;F mkpyq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; fhgidy; $l;lk; vg;nghOJk;

fhgd; rq;fpypapd; KbTepiyf; fhgdpy; epiyg;gLj;jg;gLk;. vdNt mtw;wpd; epiyiaf;
Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lk; vz; mtrpakpy;iy.
14
gpd;tUk; cjhuzq;fis ehk; vLg;Nghk;.
(1) njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypia ,dq;fz;L> fhgd;

rq;fpypapd; fhgd; mZf;fisj; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;jpd; C mZ vz; 1 Ig;
ngWkhW vz;zpLf.
(2) C mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaAk;> epuk;gpajh my;yJ ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ

Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sjh vdf; fhl;Lk; ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgidg;
ngWf.
(3) IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaupd; ,Wjp vOj;J ‘e’ (ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd; ngau;) I mfw;wp>
njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ij vOJf. my;Bifl;L njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk;> fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; vg;nghOJk; vz; 1 Ig; ngWtjhy;> ,tw;wpd; ngaupy;
vz; Fwpg;gplg;gLtjpy;iy.
,g;nghOJ ehk; kpf ePz;l fhgd; rq;fpypapy; mw;ify; gpujpaPLfs; ,izf;fg;gl;l rpy
cjhuzq;fis vLg;Nghk;. my;Bifl;L> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fs;
vg;nghOJk; fhgd; rq;fpypapd; KbT epiyapy; epiyg;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;gij epidT
$u;f. vdNt ,t;tpuz;L njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fspd; C apw;F vz;zpLk;nghOJ vz; 1
toq;fg;gLk;.
NkYs;s cjhuzq;fisg; ngaupLk;nghOJ rk;ge;jg;gLk; gbfisg; ghu;g;Nghk;.

(1) njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAila kpf ePzl; njhlu;r;rpahd fhgd; rq;fpypia ,dq;
fhz;f. njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;jpd; C mZ vz; 1 ngWkhW fhgd; rq;fpypapd;
fhgd; mZf;fis vz;zpLf.
15
(2) C mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaAk;> epuk;gpajh my;yJ ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ

Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sjh vdf; fhl;Lk; ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgidg;
ngWf.
(3) gpujpaPl;Lf; $l;lq;fis mtw;wpd; epiyfSld; ,dk; fhz;f.
(4) IjNuhf;fhgd; ngaupd; ,Wjp vOj;J ‘e’I mfw;wp (ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd; ngau;)
njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ij ,dq;fhZk; gpw;Nru;f;ifiar; Nru;j;Jr; Nru;itapd;
IUPAC ngaiug; fl;bnaOg;Gf. gpujpaPLfspd; ngau;fis mtw;wpd; epiyfSld;
Kw;Nru;fi
; fahf itf;f. gy gpujpaPLfs; cs;snghOJ mit Mq;fpy mupr;Rtl;L
xOq;fpy; itf;fg;gLk;.
NkYk; ,U cjhuzq;fis vLg;Nghk;.
VNjDk; fhgd; mZtpy; itf;ff;$ba njhopwg; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fisAila (mw;fNfhy;fs;>

fPw;Nwhd;fs; Nghd;wit) Nru;itfspd; fhgd; rq;fpypfs;> njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; kpf
,opthd rhj;jpakhd vz;izg; ngwf;$bathW vz;zplg;gLk;. fye;Jiuahlg;gl;l
Vida gbfs; IUPAC ngaiuf; fl;bnaOg;gg; gpd;gw;wg;gLk;.
16
NkYk; rpy cjhuzq;fis vLg;Nghk;.
Nru;itapy; xU ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G my;yJ xU Kk;ikg; gpizg;G (xU gd;ikg;

gpizg;G) fhzg;gbd;> kpf ePz;l rq;fpyp njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk;> gd;ikg; gpizg;G
Mfpa ,uz;ilAk; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jd;gb ngw;whu; IjNuhf;fhgd; xU mw;fPd;
my;yJ xU mw;ifd; MFk;. fye;Jiuahlg;gl;l Vida gbfs; IUPAC ngaiuf;
fl;bnaOg;gg; gpd;gw;wg;gLk; rpy cjhuzq;fis ehk; ghu;g;Nghk;.
17
1.3.6 xd;wpwF
; Nkw;gl;l njhopwg
; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fisAila Nru;itfspd;
IUPAC ngauPL
gy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisAila mNdf Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; cs;sd. Nru;itfs;

mtw;wpd; njhopwg; hl;Lf; $l;lj;jpwN ; fw;gg; ngauplg;gLtJ gw;wp ePqf; s; Kd;ida fye;Jiu
ahlypy; fw;wij kPl;Lg; ghu;ff ; . IUPAC ngauPl;Lj; njhFjpapy; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fs;
Kd;Dupik xOq;fpy; xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. xU %yf;$wpy; ,uz;L njhopw;ghl;Lf;
$l;lq;fs; cs;snghOJ> Kd;Dupik $ba njhopwg ; hl;Lf; $l;lj;jpwN
; fw;gg; ngauplg;gLk;.
Kd;Dupik $ba njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; gpujhd (jiyikapyhd) njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. gpd;jq;Fk; kw;iwa njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; xU gpujpaPlhff; fUJk;
nghOJ> Kw;Nru;f;ifahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; NtnwhU ngau; toq;fg;gLk;. fhgd; rq;fpyp
ahdJ gpujhd njhopwg ; hl;Lf; $l;lk; rhj;jpakhd ,opT vz;izg; ngWkhW vz;zplg;gLk;.
rpy njhopwg
; hl;Lf; $l;lq;fspd; tFg;Gg; ngau;fSk; gpujpaL P fspd; ngau;fSk; Kd;Dupik
xOq;fpy; ml;ltiz 1.6 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
18
ml;ltiz 1.6: rpy njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fspd; mtw;wpd; Kd;Dupik xOq;fpy;

tFg;Gg; ngau;fs;> gpujpaPLfspd; ngau;fs;
Fwpg;G: mw;fd
P ; (C=C) “ene” vdTk;> mw;ifd; (CC) “yne” vdTk; gpw;Nru;f;if gad;
gLj;jg;gLk;.
19
20
21
xU Nru;itapd; (IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; jtpu;e;j) IUPAC ngaiuf; fl;bnaOg;Gtjw;fhd

gbKiwahd topia ,g;nghOJ ehk; RUf;fkhfg; ghu;g;Nghk;.
(1) Kd;Dupik xOq;fpy; kpf cau;e;j ,lj;ij tfpf;Fk; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijAk;
(jiyikj; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk;) (ml;ltiz 1.6) VjhtJ ,ul;il my;yJ
Kk;ikg; gpizg;GfisAk; cila kpf ePzl ; IjNuhf;fhgd; rq;fpypia ,dq;fhz;f.
(2) IjNuhf;fhgd; rq;fpypia vz;zpLf:

(a) jiyikj; njhopwg ; hl;Lf; $l;lk; kpfj; jho;ej
; rhj;jpakhd vz;izg; ngWkhW
(b) ntt;NtW jpirfspy; IjNuhf;fhgd; rq;fpypia vz;zpLk;NghJ jiyikj;

njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; rkkhd vz;izg; ngwpd;> gd;ikg; gpizg;gpw;F
kpfj; jho;e;j vz;izg; ngWkhW vz;zpLk; jpir njupT nra;ag;gLk;.
(c) ntt;NtW jpirfspy; IjNuhf;fhgd; rq;fpyp vz;zplg;gLk;NghJ jiyikj;

njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lk; rkkhd vz;izg; ngw;W> gd;ikg; gpizg;Gfs; fhzg;
glhtpbd;> gpujpaPLfSf;F kpfj; jho;e;j vz;fs; nfhLf;FkhW vz;zpLk;
jpir njupT nra;ag;gLk;.
(3) C mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;Nfw;g toq;fg;gl;l ngaiu cgNahfpjJ ; IjNuhf;fhgd;

ngaiug; ngWf. mj;Jld; epuk;gpa my;yJ epuk;ghj; jd;ik mjd; epiy vz;Zld;
(ane, ene my;yJ yne) Fwpg;gpl;l gpw;Nru;f;ifiag; ngWf.
(4) jiyikj; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk; gpw;Nru;f;ifiar; Nru;f;f.
(5) gpujpalP L
; f; $l;lq;fisf; FwpfF
; k; Kw;Nru;fi
; ffis mtw;wpwF
; upa epiy vz;fSld;
Nru;ff; .
22
(6) gpd;G IUPAC ngaiug; gpd;tUkhW fl;bnaOg;Gf.
Kw;Nru;f;if + IjNuhf;fhgd; ngau; + gpw;Nru;f;if

gpujpal
P L
; f; $l;lq;fs; C mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if jiyikg; gpujhd
mtw;wpd; epiy Ald; epuk;gpa my;yJ $l;lj;jpd; tFg;Gg;
vz;fSld; epuk;ghj; jd;ik mjd; epiy ngau;
iaf; Fwpf;Fk; vz;Zld;
mjw;fhd gpw;Nru;f;if
nghJg; ngau;fs;
Kiwikahd ngauPlL ; Kiw tpUj;jpahf;fg;gl Kd;G gad;gLj;jpa Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd;

nghJg; ngau;fs; ,g;nghOJk; ,urhad tpQ;Qhdpfspdhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLtjhy;
,g;ngau;fis mwpe;jpUj;jy; ed;W. rpy nghJthd Nru;itfspd; nghJg; ngau;fSk;
mtw;wpd; IUPAC ngau;fSk; ml;ltiz 1.7 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz 1.7: rpy nghJthd Nru;itfspd; nghJg; ngau;fSk; mtw;wpd; IUPAC

ngau;fs;
1.4 rkgFjpar; Nru;T
xNu %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijAila ntt;NtW Nru;itfspd; ,Uf;if rkgFjpar;

Nru;T MFk;. xNu %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ijAila ntt;NtW Nru;itfs; rkgFjpaq;fs;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. rkgFjpaq;fisf; fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fs;> jpz;kj; Njhw;wr;
rkgFjpaq;fs; vd cggpupTfshfg; gpupf;fyhk;.
1.4.1 fl;likg;G rkgFjpar; Nru;T
mikg;Gf; $w;W mZf;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;l tpjj;jpy; xd;wpypUe;J kw;iwaJ NtWgLk;

rkgFjpaq;fs; fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. vdNt mit NtWgl;l
fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuq;fs; cilad. fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fspd; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
ml;ltiz 1.8 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
23
ml;ltiz 1.8: fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fspd; rpy cjhuzq;fs;
fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fs; nghJthf rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs;> epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs;>

njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs; vd cggpupTfshfg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;j
cggpupTfs; gpuj;jpNafkhdjy;y> Nkw;nghUj;jyhk;.
xNu %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;F NtWgl;l IjNuhf;fhgd;

rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs;:
rq;fpypfis cilad rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs; MFk;. (cU 1.10)
cU 1.10 C5H12O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;fhd rq;fpypr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs;: xNu fhgd; rq;fpypapy; xNu njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lj;jpdJk;

my;yJ gpujpaPLfspd; epiy NtWgl;l rkgFjpaq;fs; epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs; MFk;.
(cU 1.11)
1-propanol 2-propanol 1-butyne 2-butyne

C3H8O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;fhd C4H6 %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;fhd
epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs; epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
cU 1.11 epiyr; rkgFjpaq;fSf;F cjhuzq;fs;
njhopw;ghl;Lr; rkgFjpaq;fs;:xNu %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuKila Nru;itfspy; NtWgl;l

njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lq;fisAilait njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs; MFk;
(cU 1.12).
24
1-propanol ethylmethylether propanal propanone
C3H8O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ij C3H6O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;ij

ciladtw;Wf;Fupa njhopw;ghl;Lf; ciladtw;Wf;Fupa njhopw;ghl;Lf;
$l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
cU 1.12 njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpaq;fSf;F cjhuzq;fs;
rq;fpypr; rkgFjpar; Nru;T> epiyr; rkgFjpar; Nru;T> njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; rkgFjpar;

Nru;T vd;gd Nkw;nghUe;jyhk;. C4H8O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;F tiuag;gl;l
rkgFjpaq;fisg; ghu;f;f (cU 1.13)
cU 1.13 C4H8O %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuj;jpw;Fupa fl;likg;Gr; rkgFjpaq;fs;
1.4.2 jpz;kj; Njhw;wj; rkgFjpar; Nru;T

Kg;gupkhz ntspapy; gpizg;Gfspd; xOq;fhf;fk; kl;Lk; xd;wpypUe;njhd;W NtWgl;l
fl;likg;Gila Nru;itfspd; ,Uf;if jpz;kj;Njhw;w rkgFjpar; Nru;T vdg;gLk;.
jpz;kj; Njhw;wr; rkgFjpaq;fs; xNu fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuj;ijAilad. mit xNu
,izg;ig cilad. mtw;wpd; mikg;Gf;$w;W mZf;fs; xNu xOq;fpy; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sd. Mdhy; Kg;gupkhz ntspapy; mZf;fs; my;yJ $l;lq;fs; xOq;FgLj;jg;
gl;l tpjj;jpy; NtWgl;ld. vdNt mtw;wpd; fl;likg;Gfs; xNu %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk;>
xNu fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuk; Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;bUe;jhYk; xd;wd; kPJ xd;W Nkw;nghUe;j
khl;lh. Mb - tpk;gkhf cs;s jpz;kj; Njhw;wf; fl;likg;GfisAila jpz;kj;
Njhw;wr; rkgFjpaq;fspd; Nrhb vjpUUf;fs; MFk;. Mb - tpkg
; khf ,y;yhj fl;likg;Gfs;
cila jpz;kj; Njhw;wr; rkgFjpaq;fspd; Nrhb <u;ntspikar; rkgFjpaq;fshFk;.
NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l ntt;NtW tifr; rkgFjpaq;fs;> mtw;wpd; ghFghL cU 1.14

,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
25
rkgFjpaq;fs;
fl;likg;Gr; jpz;kj; Njhw;wr;

rkgFjpaq;fs; rkgFjpaq;fs;
rq;fpypr; epiyr; njhopw;ghl;Lf; $l;lr; <u;ntsp ikar;

rkgFjpaq;fs; rkgFjpaq;fs; vjpUUf;fs;
rkgFjpaq;fs; rkgFjpaq;fs;
cU 1.14 rkgFjpaq;fspd; ghFghL
<u;ntsp ikar; rkgFjpar; Nru;T
Nfj;jpufzpj rkgFjpar; Nru;T> <u;ntsp ikar; rkgFjpar; Nru;T fhzg;gLk; xU

re;ju;gg
; khFk;. xU C=C ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G xU  - gpizg;igAk; xU  - gpizg;igAk;
cilaJ. gpizg;Gf; fhuzkhf ,U fhgd; mZf;fSk;  - gpizg;Gg; gw;wpr;
RahjPdkhfr; Roy KbahJ. mw;fPd; fhgd; mZf;fs; ,uz;Lk;> mtw;Wld; ,ize;j
ehd;F mZf;fSk; xNu jsj;jpYs;sd. Nfj;jpu fzpj rkgFjpaq;fs; fhzg;gLtjw;F
,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpd; xt;nthU fhgd; mZTld; ,izf;fg;gl;l ,U $l;lq;fSk;
xNu khjpupahf / xj;jdthf ,Uj;jyhfhJ. ,t;thwhd re;ju;g;gj;jpy; ,U fhgd;
mZf;fSf;F ,izf;fg;gl;l $l;lq;fs; ntspapy; xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l tpjj;jpy;
NtWgLkhW ,U Nru;itfs; fhzg;glf;$ba rhj;jpak; cz;L. ,t;tpU Nru;itfSk;
xd;wd; Nknyhd;W Nkw;nghUe;j khl;lh. fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;G mr;R gw;wpr; Rod;W
xd;wpypUe;J kw;iwajw;F khw;wg;gl KbahJ ( - gpizg;G fhuzkhf). ,t;thwhd
Nru;itfs; Nfj;jpufzpj rkgFjpaq;fs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd.
cjhuzkhf>
Mfpait <u;ntspikar; rkgFjpaq;fshFk;. fhuzk; fl;likg;Gfs; xd;wd; Nknyhd;W

Nkw;nghUe;jkhl;lh.
vdpDk;>
Mfpad xj;jd. fhuzk; fl;likg;Gfs; xd;wd; Nknyhd;W Nkw;nghUe;jyhk;.
26
rpR - jpuhd;R (xUgf;fj;Jf;Fupa - FWf;F) ngauPL
xNu ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G ntt;NtW fhgd; mZf;fspy; ,izf;fg;gl;l ,U $l;lq;fspd;

Nfj;jpufzpj njhlu;igf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;F mw;fPd;fspy; rpR> jpuhd;R nrhw;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. C=C ,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpw;$lhf %yf;$wpd; jsj;jpw;Fr;
nrq;Fj;jhfr; nry;Yk; xU jsj;ijf; fUJf (cU 1.15 Ig; ghu;ff ; ). ,U $l;lq;fSk;
,j;jsj;jpd; xNu gf;fj;jpy; fhzg;gbd; njhlu;G rpR MFk;. ,jid cU 1.15 ,y;
mtjhdpf;f. ,U H - mZf;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W rpR MFk;. ,U nkijy; $l;lq;fSk;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W rpR MFk;.
%yf;$wpd; jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhd jsk;
%yf;$wpd; jsk;
cU 1.15 cis-2-butene
,U $l;lq;fSk; jsj;jpw;F vjpu;g; gf;fq;fspy; fhzg;gbd; njhlu;G jpuhd;R MFk;.

Ca ,Ys;s nkijy; $l;lk; Cb ,Ys;s nkijy; $l;lj;jpw;Fj; jpuhd;R epiyapYs;sJ
(cU 1.16).
cis-2-butene ,d; Nfj;jpufzpj rkgFjpak; trans-2-butene, ,jpy; ,U nkijy; $l;lq;fSk;

xd;Wf;nfhd;W jpuhd;R epiyapYs;sd (,uz;L H mZf;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W jpuhd;R
epiyapYs;sd).
%yf;$wpd; jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhd jsk;
%yf;$wpd; jsk;
cU 1.16 trans-2-butene
vjpUU rkgFjpar; Nru;T

xd;Wf;nfhd;W Mb - tpkg ; q;fshf cs;s rkgFjpaq;fs; vjpUUf;fs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd
(cU 1.17 Ig; ghu;ff
; ). ehd;F ntt;NtW $l;lq;fs; xU fhgd; mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;
gl;lijf; nfhz;l xU Nru;it vjpUUr; rkgFjpar; Nru;itiaf; fhl;Lk;. ,t;thwhd
xU fhgd; mZ rkr;ruP w;w fhgd; mZ my;yJ ifuy; fhgd; mZ vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ.
xU vjpUUit cila fiurypD}L jsKidthf;fg;gl;l xspiar; nrYj;Jk;nghOJ>
27
Kidthf;fj; jsk; RoYk;. xU vjpUU Kidthf;fj; jsj;ij xU jpirapy; Row;Wk;.

kw;i wa vjpUU vjpu;j;jpirapy; Row;Wk;. vjpUUf;f s; Kidthf;fj; jsj;ijr;
Row;Wtjdhy; xsp capu;gG ; s;s rkgFjpaq;fshf mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. jsKidthf;fg;gl;l
xspapd; jsj;ijr; Row;Wk; Nru;itfs; xsp capug
; G
; s;s Nru;itfs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd.
Mb
cU 1.17 bromochlorofluoromethane ,d; vjpUUf;fs;
xt;nthd;wpdJk; Mb tpk;gq;fs; Nkw;nghUe;jkhl;lhjd vd;gij mtjhdpf;f.
Fwpg;G: xd;Wf;nfhd;W Mb tpk;gq;fshf ,y;yhj jpz;kj; Njhw;wr; rkgFjpaq;fs;

<u;ntsprkgFjpaq;fs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. vdNt Nfj;jpufzpj rkgFjpaq;fs;
<u;ntspikar; rkgFjpaq;fshFk;.
28
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 8 IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrd;Nru; IjNuhfhgd;fSk;
2. IjNuhfhgd;fSk; myrd;Nru;
IjNuhfhgd;fSk;
cs;slf;fk;
2.1 mypgw;wpf; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> 2.2.4 KbTepiy Ijuridf; nfhz;Ls;s

ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; gpizg;Gfspd;
jd;ik mw;ifd;fspd; ( C  C  H ) mkpyj;jd;ik
2.1.1 mw;Nfd; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; 2.3 ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G
2.1.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; 2.3.1 ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G
fl;likg;Gf;fs; 2.3.2 ngd;rpdpd; cWjpj;jd;ik
2.1.3 mw;fPd; kw;Wk; mw;ifd;
IjNuhfhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; 2.4 ngd;rPdpd; cWjpia cjhuzq;fs; %yk;
2.1.4 mw;fPd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs; tpsf;Ftjw;fhd rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fs;
2.1.5 mw;ifd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs; 2.4.1 ngd;rPdpd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;lj;
jhf;fq;fs;
2.2 fl;likg;Gf;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mw;Nfd;fs;> 2.4.1.1 iej;jpNuw;wk;
mw;fPdf
; s; kw;Wk; mw;ifd;fspd; ,urhadj; 2.4.1.2 gpuPly; - fpuht; (Friedel - Crafts) ,d;
jhf;fq;fs; mw;ifNyw;wk;
2.2.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; 2.4.1.3 gpuPly; - fpuht; ,d; VirNyw;wk;
2.2.1.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; FNshupNdw;wk; 2.4.1.4 myrNdw;wk;
2.2.2 mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; 2.4.2 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;fhd
2.2.2.1 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; (HCl, jil
HBr, HI) Nru;j;jy; 2.4.3 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; IjuNdw;wj;jpw;fhd
2.2.2.2 mw;fPd;fSf;Fs; GNuhkPidr; jil
Nru;j;jy;
2.2.2.3 ry;g+upf; mkpyj;ijr; Nru;j;jYk; 2.5 xU gpujpaPl;Lg; ngd;rPdpYs;s gpujpaPl;Lj;
$l;ly; tpistpd; ePu;g;gFg;Gk; njhFjpfspd; jpirg;gLj;Jk; ,ay;G
2.2.2.4 Cf;fpf;Fupa Ijurdpd; $l;ly; 2.5.1 xNjh> guh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
(IjuNdw;wk;) 2.5.2 nkw;wh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
2.2.2.5 mw;fPd;fSld; Ijhd Fspu; fhu
KMnO4 ,d; jhf;fq;fs; 2.6 mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk;
2.2.3 mw;ifd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; jhf;fq;fSk;
2.2.3.2 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; Nru;jj ; y; 2.7 gpizg;G cz;lhjy; gpizg;G ciljy; Neuj;jpd;
2.2.3.3 ePiur; Nru;j;jy; mbg;gilapy; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg;
2.2.3.4 Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; Ijuridr; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
Nru;j;jy; (IjuNdw;wk;)
29
mwpKfk;
fhgidAk; IjuridAk; khj;jpuk; nfhz;Ls;s Nru;itfs; IjNuhfhgd;fshFk;. mypgw;wpf;

IjNuhfhgd;fis mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd;fs;> mw;ifd;fs; vdg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sjhf
Vw;fdNt ehk; fye;JiuahbAs;Nshk;. fhgd;> Ijurdpw;F Nkyjpfkhf xd;W my;yJ
xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l myrd; mZf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s Nru;itfs; myrd;Nru; IjNuh
fhgd;fshFk;.
2.1 mypgw;wpf; IjNuhfhgd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs;

kw;Wk; gpizg;Gf;fspd; jd;ik
mw;Nfd; IjNuhfhgd;fs; epuk;gpa IjNuhfhgd;fshFk;. ,r;Nru;itfspy; fhgd; - Ijurd;>

fhgd; - fhgd; xw;iwg; gpizg;Gf;fs; khj;jpuk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. vspa mw;Nfd; IjNuh
fhgd; nkNjdhFk; (CH4). mj;Jld; ,J xU fhgd; mZit khj;jpuk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
ehd;F Ijurd; mZf;fs; ,f; fhgd; mZtpw;F ehd;F xw;iwg; gpizg;Gf;fshy;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,uz;L fhgd; mZf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s mw;Nfd; vNjdhFk;
(C2H6). vNjdpy; ,U fhgd; mZf;fSk; xw;iwg; gpizg;gpy; xd;Wld; xd;W gpizg;ig
Vw;gLj;jpAs;sd. mj;Jld; ,f; fhgd; mZf;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; %d;W Ijurd;
mZf;fSld; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;jpAs;sd. %d;W fhgd; mZf;fis cila mw;Nfd;
Gnuhg;NgdhFk; (C3H8). vNjdpd; #j;jpukhdJ nkNjdpypUe;J CH2 My; tpjj
; pahrg;gLtij
ftdpf;ff;$bajhf cs;sJ. Gnuhg;Ngdpd; #j;jpuKk; vNjdpd; #j;jpuj;jpypUe;J CH2
My; tpj;jpahrg;gLfpd;wJ. Nru;itfspd; njhlupy; mLj;jLj;j ,U cWg;gpdu;fspd;
%yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; CH2 myfhy; tpj;jpahrg;gl;lhy;> mt;thwhd Nru;itfspd; njhlu;
mikg;nghj;j njhlu; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
mikg;nghj;j njhluhdJ xNu ,urhad ,ay;GfisAk; xNu nghJr; #j;jpuj;ijAKila

Nru;itfspd; njhlu; xd;wpy; mLj;jLj;j cWg;gpdu;fs; CH2 myfhy; tpjj; pahrg;gLtJkhd
Nru;itfspd; njhluhFk;. mw;Nfd;fspd; nghJr; #j;jpuk; CnH2n+2 ( n = 1, 2, 3, ….) MFk;.
mj;Jld; rf;fu mw;Nfd;fs; jtpu;e;j Vida mw;Nfd;fs; ,g; nghJr;#j;jpuj;ijg;
gpd;gw;Wtd.
2.1.1 mw;Nfd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
mw;Nfd; %yf;$whdJ Kidtw;wJ my;yJ kpfTk; Fiwthd KidTs;sJ. ,U

Kidtw;w %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd ftu;rr ; p tpir fiyT tpirfs;(dispersion) MFk;.
mNjrkak; njhlupy; Kjy; rpy cWg;gpdu;fs; miwntg;gepiyapy; thAf;fshFk;.
cau; cWg;gpdu;fs; jputq;fs; my;yJ jpz;kq;fshFk;. njhlupy; fPNo nry;Yk;NghJ
%yf;$Wfspd; Nkw;gug;G mjpfupg;gjd; tpisthff; fiyT tpirfSk; mjpfupj;Jr;
nry;Yk;. vdNt ,J Nkw;$wpa mw;Nfd;fspd; ngsjPf epiyfspd; NtWghl;bw;F
30
Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;tjhFk;. mj;Jld; ,jd; tpisthf fpisf;fg;glhj mw;Nfd;fspd;

%yf;$w;W epiw mjpfupgG
; ld; nfhjpepiyfSk; cUFepiyfSk; mjpfupfF
; k; (ml;ltiz
2.1).
ml;ltiz 2.1 Neu;rr
; q;fpyp mw;Nfd;fs; rpytw;wpd; nfhjpepiyfs;> cUFepiyfs;>
mlu;j;jpfs; vd;gd fhgd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupg;Gld; rPuhf mjpfupg;
igf; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
methane CH4 -183 -162

nkNjd;
ethane CH3CH3 -172 -88.5
vNjd;
propane CH3CH2CH3 -187 -42
Gnuhg;Ngd;
butane CH3(CH2)2CH3 -138 -0.5
gpa+w;Nwd;
pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 -130 36 0.626
ngd;Nud;
hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 -95 69 0.659
xf;Nrd;
heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 -90.5 98 0.659
vg;Nud;
octane CH3(CH2)6CH3 - 57 126 0.659
xf;Nud;
nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 - 54 151 0.718
nehNdd;
decane CH3(CH2)8CH3 - 30 174 0.730
nlf;Nfd;
mw;Nfd;fspd; fhgd; rq;fpyp fpisf;fg;gLk;NghJ> %yf;$Wfspd; Nkw;gug;G Fiwtilt

jhy;> ,jd; fhuzkhf fiyT tpirfs; Fiwtiltjhy; nfhjpepiyfs; FiwtilAk;.
ml;ltiz 2.2 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;s juTfspypUe;J Ie;J fhgd; mZf;fis cila
mw;Nfd;fspd; nfhjpepiyfs; fpisf;fg;gLk; fhgd; rq;fpyp mjpfupgG
; ld; Fiwtiltijf;
fhzf;$bajhf cs;sJ.
ml;ltiz 2.2 rkgFjpa ngd;Nud;fspy; fpisf;fg;gLjy; ,lk;ngWk;NghJ
nfhjpepiyfs; Fiwtiljy;.
Pentane 36
ngd;Nud;
2-methylbutane 28
2-kPijy;gpa+w;Nwd;
2.2-dimethylpropane 9
2>2-,UkPijy;Gnuhg;Ngd;
31
2.1.2 mw;Nfd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
vspa mw;Nfd; nkNjdpd; (CH4) gpizg;Gf;fisf; fUJf. fhgd; mZthdJ ehd;F

Ijurd; mZf;fSld; ehd;F gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. gq;fPl;Lg;
gpizg;ghdJ ,U ntt;NtW mZf;fspd; xU ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s ,U
Xgpw;wy;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; cUthfpd;wJ. fhgd; mZ jiuepiyapy; xU
,yj;jpuidf; nfhz;Ls;s ,U p - Xgpw;wy;fis khj;jpuk; nfhz;Ls;sjhy; (px, py)
xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhf ,U gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;f Ntz;Lk;.
(C mZtpd; jiuepiy ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;ig Qhgfg;gLj;jy; (1s2 2s2 2p2). 2s Xgpw;w
ypYs;s ,U ,yj;jpud;fSk; Nrhbaw;wjhf;fg;gLtjw;F> xU ,yj;jpud; pz Xgpw;wypw;F
cau;j;jg;gLk;. vdNt fhgd; mZthdJ jdp ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s ehd;F
Xgpw;wy;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sjhy; ehd;F Ijurd; mZf;fSld; ehd;F gpizg;Gf;fis
cUthf;Fk;. ,yj;jpud;fisr; Nrhbaw;wjhf;Ftjw;Fk;> ,yj;jpuid cau;j;Jtjw;Fk;
Njitg;gLk; rf;jpahdJ Nkyjpfkhf ,U gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Fk;NghJ ntsp
tplg;gLk; rf;jpahy; <Lnra;ag;gLk;.
vt;thwhapDk; ,t;thwhd Nkw;nghUe;Jifapd; tpisthy; CH4 %yf;$wpy; %d;W

gpizg;Gf;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W / xd;Wld; xd;W nrq;Fj;jhfTk; kw;Wk; xU C–H
gpizg;ghdJ ve;j xU jpiriaAk; nfhz;bUf;fkhl;lhJ. ,J nkNjd; %yf;$whdJ
,U tiffshd C–H gpizg;Gf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sjhf Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;yyhk;.
CH4 ,y; ehd;F gpizg;Gf;fSk; rkkhdit vd;Dk; fUj;ij tpsf;Ftjw;F 2s
Xgpww
; Yk; %d;W 2p Xgpww
; y;fSk; xd;Wld; xd;W fyf;fg;gl;L ehd;F rkkhd Xgpww
; y;fis
ehd;Kfpapd; cr;rpia Nehf;fpajhf cUthf;Fk; vdf; fUjg;gLk; (cU 2.1).
cU 2.1 fhgd; mZtpd; sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; tbtKk; xOq;fikg;Gk;
Xgpww ; y;fs; fyf;fg;gl;L Gjpa Xgpww

; y;fs; cUthf;fg;gLjy; fyg;ghf;fk; vd;W ngauplg;gLk;.
Gjpa Xgpw;wy;fisj; J}a mZ Xgpw;wy;fspypUe;J NtWgLj;Jtjw;F mtw;iwf;
fyg;ghf;fg; gl;l Xgpw;wy;fs; vd;W nrhy;yg;gLk;. nkNjdpy; mZtpd; ehd;F fyg;G
Xgpw;wy;fSk; sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. ,it C mZtpd; s -
Xgpw;wYk; %d;W p - Xgpw;wy;fSk; fyf;fg;gl;L cUthf;fg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd C
mZf;fs; sp3 fyg;G fhgd; vd;W Fwpg;gplg;gLk; (referred). sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd;
rf;jpahdJ s - Xgpw;wypdJk; p - Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; rf;jpf;FkpilNa ,Uf;Fk; (cU
2.2).
32
rf;jp
cau;jJ
; jy;
fyg;ghf;fk;
jiuepiy mUl;ba epiy SP3 fyg;ghf;fk;
cU 2.2 nkNjdpYs;s 4 fhgd; mZtpd; fyg;ghf;fj;ij

tiuglj;jpd; %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;
nkNjdpy; fhgd; mZtpd; sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; ehd;F H mZf;fspd;

s - Xgpw;wy;fs; xt;nthd;WlDk; Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;Fl;gl;L ehd;F C–H gpizg;Gf;fis
cUthf;Fk;. VjhtJ ,U C–H gpizg;Gf;fspw;F ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk; 109.50 MFk;.
mj;Jld; nkNjdpd; ehd;F Ijurd; mZf;fSk; ehd;Kfpapd; cr;rpapy; itf;fg;gLk;
(located).
cU 2.3 nkNjd; (CH4) %yf;$wpd; ehd;Kfp tbtk;
ve;jnthU Nrjdr; Nru;itapYs;s vy;yhf; fhgd; mZf;fSk; ehd;F NtW mZf;fSld;

,izf;fg;gLk;NghJ mit sp3 fyg;ghf;fj;jpw;Fl;gl;l fhgd; mZf;fs; vdf; fUjg;gLk;.
mw;Nfdpy; fhgd; - Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs;> fhgd; mZtpd; sp3 - fyg;G Xgpw;wYk;
Ijurd; mZtpd; 1s - Xgpw;wYk; Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;Fl;gLtjhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;.
mNjrkak; (while) fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;Gf;fs;> ,U fhgd; mZf;fspd; sp3 - fyg;G
Xgpw;wy;fs; Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;Fl;gLtjhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; (cU2.4).
sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd;
Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif
cU 2.4 C–C kw;Wk; C–H gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Fk; Xgpw;wy;fspd;

Nkw;nghUe;Jifiaf; fhl;Lk; vNjdpd; fl;likg;G
33
,U fhgd; mZf;fspd; sp3 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs;> Xgpw;wy;fspd; jpirapd; topNa

Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;Fl;gl;L fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;ig cUthf;Ffpd;wd. ,t;thwhd
Nkw;nghUe;Jif Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. mj;Jld; ,jd;
tpisthf σ - gpizg;G cUthFk;.
2.1.3 mw;fPd; kw;Wk; mw;ifd; IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
mw;fdP ; kw;Wk; mw;ifd; IjNuhfhgd;fs; ,uz;Lk; epuk;ghj Nru;itfshFk;. mw;fd

P ;fs;
Fiwe;jJ xU fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; mNjNtis
mw;ifd;fs; Fiwe;jJ xU fhgd; - fhgd; Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. xU
,ul;ilg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJk; kw;Wk; NtW njhopw;gLk; $l;lq;fisf;
nfhz;buhjJkhd rf;fukw;w mw;fPd;fs; CnH2n vd;Dk; nghJr; #j;jpuj;ijAila
mw;fPd;fspd; mikg;nghj;j njhliu cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. xU Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf;
nfhz;Ls;sJk; NtW njhopw;gLk; $l;lq;fisf; nfhz;buhjJkhd mw;ifd;fs;
CnH2n-2 vd;Dk; nghJr; #j;jpuj;ijAila mw;ifd;fspd; mikg;nghj;j njhliu
cz;lhf;Ftd.
mw;fPd;fspYs;s fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gk; mw;ifd;fspYs;s fhgd; - fhgd;

Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gk; mw;Nfd;fspYs;s fhgd; - fhgd; xw;iwg; gpizg;gpYk; td;ikahdJk;
gpizg;G ePsk; FiwthdJkhFk; (ml;ltiz 2.3).
ml;ltiz 2.3 fhgd; - fhgd; xw;iw> ,ul;il kw;Wk; Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fspd;

gpizg;Gr; rf;jpfSk; gpizg;G ePsq;fSk;
mw;fPd;fspd; nfhjpepiyfs; mNj fhgd; vz;zpf;ifAila mw;Nfd;fspd; nfhjpepiy

fspw;F kpfTk; xj;jjhff; fhzg;gLk;. vjPd;> Gnuhg;gPd; kw;Wk; rkgFjpa gpa+w;wd P ;fs;
miwntg;gepiyapy; thAf;fshFk;. Vida mw;fd P f
; s; vy;yhk; jputq;fshFk;. mw;Nfd;fs;
khjpup mw;fPd;fspd; nfhjpepiyfSk; %yf;$w;W epiw mjpfupg;Gld; mjpfupf;Fk; (chain
length). mw;fPd;fspd; %yf;$Wfspd; gUkd; mjpfupg;Gld; %yf;$w;wpil ftu;r;rp tpir
fSk; mjpfupfF ; k; mw;ifd;fspd; KidTj;jpwd; (polarity) Fiwthdjhifahy;> mtw;wpd;
ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; mtw;iw xj;j mw;Nfd;fs; kw;Wk; mw;fd P f
; spd; ngsjPf ,ay;GfspwF ;
kpfTk; mz;kpj;jjhff; fhzg;gLk;.
34
2.1.4 mw;fPd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
vjPd; (C2H4) xU kpf vspa mw;fPdhFk;. ,J fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;igf;

nfhz;Ls;sJ. vjPdpDs; xt;nthU fhgd; mZTk; sp2 fyg;gpw;Fl;gl;ljhFk;. mj;Jld;
,k; %d;W xNukhjpupahd (equivalent) / rkkhd sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fSk; xNu jsj;jpYk;
rkgf;f Kf;Nfhzpapd; %d;W cr;rpfis Nehf;fpa tz;zk; ,Uf;Fk; (xU 2.5).
fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpw;wy; ,j;jsj;jpw;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf (900) ,Uf;Fk;.
fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpw;wy;
2
sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs;
cU 2.5 fhgd; mZtpd; sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; fyg;gpyPLglhj

p - Xgpw;wypdJk; tbtKk; xOq;fikg;Gk;
2s Xgpw;wYld; ,U 2p Xgpw;wy;fs; fyg;gpyPLgLtjhy; %d;W sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fs;

cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpw;wy; tpLtpf;fg;gLk; (cU 2.6).
rf;jp
cau;jJ
; jy; fyg;ghf;fk;
jiuepiy mUl;ba epiy SP2fyg;ghf;fk;
cU 2.6 vjPdpYs;s C mZtpd; sp2 fyg;ghf;fj;ij

tiugl %yk; vLj;Jf; fhl;ly;
vjPdpy; xt;nthU C mZTk; ,U sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fisg; gad;gLj;jp ,U C–H

gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Fk;. xt;nthU C mZtpYk; kPjpahfTs;s sp2 fyg;G Xgpww ; iyg;
gad;gLj;jp Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; fhgd; - fhgd; ó - gpizg;G cUthf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. xt;nthU fhgd; mZtpYk; fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpw;wy; xd;Wf;nfhd;W
rkhe;jukhf ,Uf;Fk;. mit gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; kw;WnkhU fhgd; -
fhgd; gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk;. Xgpw;wy;fspd; gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy;
cUthf;fg;gLk; ,g;gpizg;G  - gpizg;G vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. vy;yh mw;fPd;fSk;
xU ó - gpizg;igAk; xU  - gpizg;igAk; cila fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sd. - gpizg;G ó - gpizg;gpYk; eypthdJ (cU 2.7).
35
p - Xgpw;wy;fspd; gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif
sp2 fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspd; Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif
cU 2.7 C–C , C–H gpizg;Gf;fis cUthf;Fk; fhgd; mZf;fspdJk;

Ijurd; mZf;fspdJk; Xgpw;wy;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jifiaf;
fhl;Lk; vjPdpd; fl;likg;G
,ul;ilg; gpizg;ig cUthf;Fk; ,uz;L fhgd; mZf;fSk;> mtw;wpwF ; ,izf;fg;gLk;

2
ehd;F Ijurd; mZf;fSk; xNu jsj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. sp fyg;G fhgdpwF; ,izf;fg;gl;l
0
ve;j ,U mZf;fspw;Fkpilg;gl;l Nfhzk; 120 MFk; (cU 2.8).
cU 2.8 vjPd; (C2H4) %yf;$wpd; jsKf;Nfhzp tbtk;
2.1.5 mw;ifd;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
vijd; xU vspa mw;ifdhFk;. ,J fhgd; - fhgd; Kk;ikg; gpizg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.

vijdpYs;s xt;nthU fhgd; mZTk; sp fyg;gpw;Fl;gl;ljhFk;. kw;Wk; ,t;tpU rkkhd
sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W vjpuhd jpirfis Nehf;fpa tz;zk; xNu
Neu;Nfhl;by; ,Uf;Fk; (cU 2.9). fyg;gpyPLglhj ,U p - Xgpw;wy;fSk; kw;Wk; ,U sp
fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhf (900) ,Uf;Fk;.
fyg; g pyP L glhj p -Xgpw; w y; f s;

(xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;F j;jhdit
kw;Wk; ,U sp fyg;G Xgpww
; y;fspwF ; k;
nrq;Fj;jhdit)
sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy; sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;
cU 2.9 fhgd; mZtpd; sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; fyg;gpyPLglhj

,U p - Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; tbtKk; xOq;fikg;Gk;
36
C mZtpd; 2s Xgpw;wYk; xU 2p Xgpw;wYk; fyg;gpw;Fl;gl;L ,U sp fyg;G Xgpw;wy;fis

cUthf;Ffpd;wd. fyg;gpy; <Lglhky; ,U 2p Xgpw;wy;fs; tplg;gLk; (cU 2.10).
rf;jp
cau;jJ
; jy; fyg;ghf;fk;
C mZtpd;
C mZtpd; C mZtpd;
SP2fyg;ghf;fk;
jiuepiy mUl;ba epiy
cU 2.10 vijdpy; fhgd; mZtpd; sp fyg;ghf;fj;ij

tiuG %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;ly;
vijdpy; xt;nthU fhgd; mZTk; xU sp fyg;G Xgpw;wiyg; gad;gLj;jp xt;nthU

C–H gpizg;ig cUthf;FfpwJ. xt;nthU C mZTk; kPjpahfTs;s sp fyg;G Xgpww ; iyg;
gad;gLj;jp> Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; fhgd; - fhgd; ó - gpizg;ig cUthf;F
fpwJ. xt;nthU fhgd; mZtpdJk; fyg;gpyPLglhj ,U p - Xgpw;wy;fspdJk; gf;fthl;L
Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; kw;iwa ,U fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;Gf;fs; cUthfpd;wd (,U
- gpizg;Gf;fs;). vy;yh mw;ifd;fSk; xU ó - gpizg;igAk; ,U  - gpizg;Gf;
fisAKila fhgd; - fhgd; Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd (cU 2.11).
p ; y;fspd; gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif ( - gpizg;G)
- Xgpww
sp fyg;G Xgpww
; y;fspd; Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jif (ó - gpizg;G)
cU 2.11 fhgd; mZf;fspd; Xgpw;wy;fspd; Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy;

cUthf;fg;gLk; C–C kw;Wk; C–H gpizg;Gf;fisf; fhl;Lk;
vijdpd; fl;likg;G
vijdpy; Kk;ikg; gpizg;ig cUthf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,U fhgd; mZf;fSk;>

mtw;wpw;F Neubahf ,izf;fg;gLk; ,U Ijurd; mZf;fSk; xNu Neu;Nfhl;by;
,Uf;Fk; sp fyg;G> fhgd; mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gLk; ,U mZf;fSf;fpilapyhd
Nfhzk; 1800 (cU 2.12).
cU 2.12 vijd; (C2H2) %yf;$wpd; Neu;Nfhl;L tbtk;
37
2.2 fl;likg;Gf;fspd; mbg;gilapy; mw;Nfd;fs;> mw;fPd;fs; kw;Wk;

mw;ifd;fspd; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs;
Nrjdj; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ gpizg;G ciljy;
ve;jr; Nrjdj; jhf;fKk; gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gf;fs; ciljYlDk; cz;lhjYlDk;

epfo;fpwJ. gpizg;G ciljy; ,U ntt;NtW topfspy; eilngwyhk;.
(i) gy;ypdg; gpsT

gy;ypdg; gpstpy; gpizg;gpy; <LgLk; ,U ,yj;jpud;fSk; ,U mZf;fspy; xU
mZtpy; njhlu;e;J ,Uf;Fk; (kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik $ba mZ). ,jd; tpisthf
Neu; Vw;wKs;s Jzpfi ; ffSk; (fw;wad;) kiw Vw;wKs;s (mdad;) Jzpfi
; ffSk;
cz;lhf;fpd;wd.
fw;wad; mdad;
jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfis vOJk; nghOJ gy;ypdg; gpsT tise;j mk;Gf;Fwpapdhy;

fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. ,J xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspd; miritr; Rl;bf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
fw;wad; mdad;
(ii) Xupdg; gpsT

Xupdg; gpstpy; gpizg;gpyPLgLk; ,U ,yj;jpud;fSk; rkkhfg; gpupf;fg;gLk;. mjd;
fhuzkhf xt;nthU ,yj;jpuDk; xt;nthU mZtpy; njhlu;e;J fhzg;gfpd;wJ.
,jd; tpisthf xU Nrhbaw;w ,yj;jpuidf; nfhz;Ls;s ,U eLepiyahd
Jzpf;iffs; cz;lhFk;. ,t;thwhd Jzpf;iffs; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; vd
miof;fg;gLk;.
RahjPd %ypfq;fs;
(eLepiyahdit)
jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfis vOJk; nghOJ Xupdg; gpsT xU Nrhb J}z;by;fspdhy;

(kPd;gpbf;f cgNahfpf;Fk; nfhf;fp) fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ. xt;nthU J}z;bYk; xU
jdp ,yj;jpudpd; miritf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;LfpwJ / Rl;bf; fhl;LfpwJ.
RahjPd %ypfq;fs;
(eLepiyahdit)
38
2.2.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
mw;Nfd;fspy; vy;yhg; gpizg;Gf;fSk; C–C my;yJ C–H gpizg;Gf;fshFk;. C–C

kw;Wk; C–H gpizg;Gf;fspd; KidTj; jd;ik Fiwthifahy;> mw;Nfd; cau;
NeNuw;wKila (,yj;jpud; Fiw) my;yJ kiw Vw;wKila (,yj;jpud; nrwpT)
mZf;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fhJ. vdNt mit rhjhuz KidTr; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fshd
OH-, CN-, H+ vd;gdtw;Wld; rhjhuz epge;jidfspy; (normal conditions) jhf;fkila
khl;lhjd.
2.2.1.1 mw;Nfd;fspd; FNshuPNdw;wk;

mw;Nfd;fs; rhjhuz KidTr; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; jhf;fkilahtpbDk;> mit
RahjPd %ypfq;fSld; C–H gpizg;Gf;fspd; Xupdg; gpstpdhy; jhf;fkilAk;
Nghf;Filad. cjhuzkhf mw;Nfd;fs; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fshd FNshuPd; kw;Wk;

GNuhkPd; RahjPd %ypfq;fSld; (Cl, Br) jhf;fkiltd. ,r; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; Cl2
kw;Wk; Br2 ,d; Xupdg; gpstpdhy; cUthf;fg;gLtd. Cl2 my;yJ Br2 cld; uv fjpu;tr
P r
; p
dhy; mjid mila KbfpwJ. vdNt kPNjd; uv fjpupd; Kd;dpiyapy; Cl2 cld;
jhf;f kile;J FNshNukPNjd; CH3Cl, CH2Cl2, CHCl3, CCl4 fyitiaf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,t;
tpisTfs; njhlu;r;rpahd (,iltplhj) jhf;fq;fspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;. ,q;F xU
jhf;fj;jpd; tpisT njhlu;r;rpahd jhf;fj;jpy; mLj;jLj;j jhf;fq;fspd; njhlf;fg;
nghUshFk;. ,t;thwhd jhf;fq;fs; rq;fpypj; jhf;fq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiw fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ,U FNshuPd; mZf;fspw;fpilapyhd

gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;gpd; Xupdg; gpsthy; FNshuPd; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; cUthFjy;
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; Kjy; gbahFk;. ,J rq;fpypf;Fupa njhlf;fg;gb vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
rq;fpypf;Fupa njhlf;fg; gb
FNshuPd; RahjPd %ypfk; nkNjDld; jhf;fkile;J kPijy; RahjPd %ypfj;ij

cUthf;Fk; (CH3) . ,k; kPijy; RahjPd %ypfk; kw;nwhU FNshuPd; (Cl2) %yf;$Wld;
jhf;fkile;J CH3Cl IAk; Cl IAk; nfhLf;Fk;. ,g;gbapy; cUthf;fg;gLk; FNshuPd;
RahjPd %ypfk; CH4 %yf;$Wld; my;yJ CH3Cl %yf;$Wld; jhf;fkile;J fPNo
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;s njhlu;j; jhf;fq;fspy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW mtw;wpwF
; upa fhgd; RahjPd
%ypfq;fis cUthf;Fk;.
39
rq;fpyp tpUj;jpahf;fw; gbfs;
rq;fpyp tpUj;jpahf;fw; gbfs;
,g;gbfs; rq;fpypf;Fupa tpUj;jpahf;fw; gbfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. ,r; rq;fpypf;Fupa

tpUj;jpahf;fw; gbfspy; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; my;yJ cUthf;fg;gLk;.
vdNt CH4 ,Ys;s vy;yh H mZf;fSk; Cl ,dhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk; tiu
jhf;fj; njhlu; epWj;jg;glhky; njhlu;e;J eilngWk;. nkNjdpd; RahjPd %ypf
FNshuPNdw;wj;jpy;> ,j;jhf;fj; njhlupy; cUthf;fg;gLk; fhgd; RahjPd %ypfq;fs;
jhf;ff;$ba ,ilepiyfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.
rq;fpyp Kbthf;fj; jhf;fq;fspd; %yk; rq;fpypj; jhf;fk; epWj;jg;glyhk;. rq;fpypj;

jhf;fq;fspd; nghOJ mNdf rq;fpyp Kbthf;fy; jhf;fq;fs; eilngwyhk;. ,r; rq;fpyp
Kbthf;fy; jhf;fq;fspy; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Mdhy; cUthf;fg;gLt
jpy;iy. xU rpy rq;fpyp Kbthf;fy; jhf;fq;fs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
rq;fpyp Kbthf;fy; gbfs;
mw;Nfd;fspd; RahjPd %ypf FNshuPNdw;wj;jpy; (kw;Wk; GNuhkPNdw;wk;) tpisTfspd;

fyit ngwg;gLk;. Ma;Trhiyapy; FNshNuh my;yJ GNuhNkh IjNuhfhgd;fspd;
njhFg;gpd; gad;ghL kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
40
2.2.2 mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpy; eilngWk;. fhgd; -

fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G xU σ - gpizg;ghYk; kw;Wk; xU π - gpizg;ghYk;
cz;lhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mw;fPdpy; fhgd; - fhgd; σ - gpizg;gpd; jsj;jpw;F NkyhfTk;
fPohfTk; π - ,yj;jpud; Kfpy; cs;sjhy; mw;fPdpd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ghdJ ,yj;jpud;
nrwpT $ba ,lkhFk;. vdNt ,J xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;ff;$ba Jzpfi ; ffisf;
ftuf;$bajhFk;. ,t;thwhd Jzpfi ; ffs; ,yj;jpud; Fiw Jzpf;iffshFk;. mj;Jld;
,it ,yj;jpudhbfs; vd;Wk; mwpag;gLk;.
,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gila C mZf;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; %d;W mZf;fSld; khj;jpuk;

gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtjhy;> mit epuk;ghjit MFk;. vdNt jhf;fj;jpdN; ghJ ,d;DnkhU
mZ ,t;tpU fhgd; mZf;fspy; xt;nthd;WlDk; ,izf;fg;glyhk;. vdNt ,t;thwhd
mw;fPd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; ,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fshFk;.
2.2.2.1 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; Nru;j;jy; (HCl, HBr, HI)

Ijurd; Viyl;L %yf;$wpd; ,yj;jpud; Fiwthf cs;s KidT IjurdhFk;
(cjhuzk;:- Hδ+– Brδ–). ,J ,yj;jpudhbahfj; njhopw;gl;L Muk;gj;jpy; ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;Gld; jhf;fkilAk;. jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ H-Br gpizg;G cile;J Br- I tpLtpf;Fk;.
vdNt Ijurd; H+ Mfj; jhf;fp π - gpizg;gpypUe;J ,U ,yj;jpud;fisg; gad;gLj;jp
fhgDld; gpizg;ig cz;lhf;Fk;.
,t;thwhd ,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fspy; ,ilepiyahf fhNgh fw;wad;fs;

cz;lhFk;. (fhNghfw;wad;fs; ,yj;jpud; Fiwthd NeNuw;wKila %d;W tYtsTs;s
fhgd; Jzpf;iffshFk;).
vjPDld; HBr ,d; $l;ly; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd nghwpKiwiaf; fUJf. ,j;jhf;fk; ,U

gbfspy; Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;yg;gLk;.
gb 1:
fhNghfw;wad;
gb 2:
NeNuw;wKila fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;gLk; Ijurd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;F Vw;g

fhNghfw;wad;fs; Kjy;> top kw;Wk; Gil fhNghfw;wad;fs; vd tifg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
41
fhNghfw;wad;fspd; cWjpapd; xOq;F gpd;tUkhW fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Gilf; topf; Kjy; kPijy;

fhNghfw;wad; fhNghfw;wad; fhNghfw;wad; fhNghfw;wad;
fhNghfw;wad;fspd; NeNuw;wKila fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;gLk; mw;ify; $l;lq;fs;

mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ fhNghfw;wad;fspd; cWjp mjpfupf;fpwJ. ,jw;fhd fhuzk; NeNuw;w
Kila fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l mw;ify; $l;lq;fs; ,yj;jpud;fis C–C gpizg;G
%yk; NeNuw;wKila fhgdpwF ; js;StjhyhFk;. ,jd; tpisthf NeNuw;wk; eLepiyg;
gLj;jg;gLtjhy; mad; (fhNghfw;wad;) cWjpahf;fg;gLk;. rkr;ruP w;w mw;fd
P f
; s; Ijurd;
Viyl;Lf;fSld; ,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk;NghJ ,yj;jpudhb (H+)
gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;jpa gpd;G ,U ntt;Ntwhd fhNghfw;wad;fs; cUthf;fg;glyhk;.
,t;tpU fhNghfw;wad;fspy; cWjp $baJ ,yFthf cUthFk;. cjhuzkhf Gnuhg;gd P ;
HBr $l;ly; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.
$basT tpisT
C1 ,y; GNuhj;jpuNdw;wk;
C2 ,y; GNuhj;jpuNdw;wk;
Fiwe;jsT tpisT
,yj;jpudhb kpf $basT Ijurd; mZf;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;l fhgd; mZTld; ,izAk;

NghJ kpf cWjpahd fhNghfw;wad; ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,J khu;f ;Nfhdpf;Nfhtpd;
(Markovnikov’s rule) tpjpf;fhd tpsf;fkhFk;. ,J $WtJ rkr;rPuw;w mw;fPd;fSld;
xU GNuhj;jpf; mkpyk; (HX) Nru;f;fg;gl;lhy; H kpf $basT Ijurd; mZf;fs;
,izf;fg;gl;l fhgDld; NrUk;.
Gnuhg;gD
P ld; HBr ,d; $l;ly; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd nghwpKiw gpd;tUkhW fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
gb 1:
kpf cWjpahd fhNghfw;wad;

gb 2:
42
jhf;f Clfj;jpy; guxl;irl;Lf;fs; cs;sNghJ ,t;tpjpf;F (anti-Markovnikov addition)

Kuzhf Ijurd; GNuhikl; NrUk;. (mjhtJ H, Fiwe;jsT Ijurd; mZf;fs;
,izf;fg;gl;l C cld; NrUk;). guxl;irl;Lf;fs; Kd;dpiyapy; Ijurd; GNuhikl;bw;Fk;
mw;fdP f
; Sf;Fkhd jhf;fkhdJ NkNy tpgupff ; g;gl;Ls;sthW mad; nghwpKiw my;yhJ
RahjPd %ypfg; nghwpKiw %yk; eilngWtJ ,jw;fhd fhuzkhfpwJ. ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;
fhd nghwpKiwf;Fupa tpgupg;G vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gltpy;iy. guxl;irl;L Kd;dpiyapy; HCl
kw;Wk; HI Nru;f;fg;gLtjw;fhd jpir khw;wkilatpy;iy vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
(guxl;irl;L)
2.2.2.2 mw;fPd;fSf;Fs; GNuhkPidr; Nru;j;jy;

GNuhkPd; Kidthf;fkw;w %yf;$W. Mdhy; mw;fd P f
; Sldhd jhf;fj;jpdN; ghJ KidTj;
jd;ik J}z;lg;gLfpwJ. GNuhkPd; %yf;$whdJ ,yj;jpud; nrwpTila ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;ig mZFk;NghJ> ,U KidT J}z;lg;gl;L π - gpizg;gpw;F mUfpYs;s Br
mZg; gFjp NeNuw;wj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. jhf;fj;jpd; Kjy; gbapy; ,t; Br mZ
(Neu;j;jhf;fKila) ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gld; jhf;fkile;J GNuhNkhdpak; maid
cUthf;Fk;. ,J Br ,y; NeNuw;wj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s %d;W mZf;fisAila rf;fu
,ilepiyahFk;. kw;Wk; Br– ck; cUthFk;. jhf;fj;jpd; ,uz;lhtJ gbapy; GNuhikl;L
mad; Br– fUehbahfj; njhopw;gl;L> Br+ ,w;F ,izf;fg;gl;l C mZf;fspy; xd;Wld;
gpizg;ig cz;lhf;FfpwJ. Br+ cld; cUthf;fg;gl;l fhgd; mZtpd; gpizg;G
,g;gbapd;NghJ cilf;fg;gl;L kPz;Lk; jpwe;j rq;fpypr; Nru;it ngwg;gLk;.
nghwpKiw gpd;tUkhW:
gb 1:
GNuhNkhdpak; mad;
,ilepiy tpisT
gb 2:
2.2.2.3 ry;g+upf; mkpyj;ijr; Nru;j;jYk; $l;ly; tpistpd; ePu;g;gFg;Gk;

mw;fd
P f
; s; Fspu; nrwpej
; ry;g+upf; mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fkile;J mw;ify; Ijurd; ry;Ngw;iw
cUthf;Fk;. ,j; jhf;fk; ,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fkhFk;. mj;Jld; HBr ,d;
$l;ly; jhf;fk; khjpup fhNghfw;wad; ,ilepiy %yk; ,j;jhf;fk; Kd;ndLj;Jr;
nry;yg;gLk;.
43
kpf cWjpahd fhNghfw;wad;
,j;jhf;fkhdJ thAepiy mw;fi P d Fspu; nrwpej; ry;g+upf; mkpyj;jpD}lhfr; nrYj;Jtjd;

%yk; my;yJ jput mw;fPid Fspu; nrwpe;j ry;g+upf; mkpyj;Jld; fyf;Ftjd; %yk;
epiwNtw;wg;gLk;. mw;ify; Ijurd; ry;Ngw;Wf; fiuriy ePUld; Ijhf;fp ntg;gNkw;wpdhy;>
mit ePu;g;gFg;gpyPLgl;L Muk;g mw;ify; Ijurd; ry;Ngw;wpYs;s mNj mw;ify;
$l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s mw;fNfhiyf; nfhLf;Fk;.
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rpy cjhuzq;fisf; fUJf.
nrwp.
ntg;gk;
nrwp.
ntg;gk;
nrwp.
ntg;gk;
,j;njhlu; tupirj; jhf;fq;fspd; ,Wjp tpisT mw;fNfhyhf ,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;.

,jid khu;f;Nfhdpf;Nfh tpjpg;gb mw;fPdpw;Fs; ePiur; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; ngwyhk;.
mw;fPdpw;F Ijhd ry;g+upf; mkpyj;jpd; Kd;dpiyapy; ePiur; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; ,Nj
tpisTfisg; ngwyhk;. vdpDk; vjPdpwF; s; Neubahf ePiur; Nru;gg
; jd; %yk; vjNdhiyj;
jahupj;jy; Ma;Trhiy epge;jidfspy; fbdkhFk;.
2.2.2.4 Cf;fpf;Fupa Ijurdpd; $l;ly; (IjurNdw;wk;)

mw;fdP f
; s; Ez;J}shf;fg;gl;l Pt my;yJ Pd my;yJ Ni Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; IjurDld;
jhf;fkile;J mw;Nfd;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
Ez;J}shf;fg;gl;l
Pt my;yJ Pd
my;yJ Ni
44
2.2.2.5 mw;fPd;fSld; Ijhd Fspu; fhu KMnO4 ,d; jhf;fq;fs;
mw;fdP f
; s; Ijhd Fspu; fhu KMnO4 cld; jhf;fkile;J ,U Xy;fis (fpisf;Nfhy;fs;)
cUthf;Fk;. ,j;jhf;fk; eilngWk;NghJ gukq;fNdw;wpd; Cjh epwk; mfw;wg;gl;L
fgpy epw MnO2 tPo;gbT ngwg;gLk;. ,j;jhf;fk; epuk;ghj; jd;ikia gupNrhjpg;gjw;Fg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; (fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fs;> Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fs;). ,J
epuk;ghj; jd;ikf;Fupa Ngaupd; gupNrhjid vdg; ngauplg;gl;Ls;sJ. vdpDk; ,yFtpy;
xl;rpNaw;wkilaf;$ba gjhu;jj ; q;fshd my;bifl;Lf;fs; Nghd;wit ,g; gupNrhjidf;F
tpilaspf;Fk;.
2.2.3 mw;ifd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
mw;ifd;fs; xU ó - gpizg;igAk; ,U - gpizg;Gf;fisAKila fhgd; - fhgd;

Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mw;fPd;fSld; jhf;fkile;j Nrhjidg;
nghUl;fSld; mw;ifd;fSk; ,yj;jpu ehl;l $l;ly; jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLf;$bad. ,U
 - gpizg;Gf;fSk; xt;nthd;whfj; jdpj;jdpahfj; jhf;fkilaf;$bad.
2.2.3.2 Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;fisr; Nru;j;jy;
2.2.3.3 ePiur; Nru;j;jy;
mw;ifd;fs; Hg2+, Ijhd H2SO4 Kd;dpiyapy; xU %yf;$W ePUld; jhf;fkile;J

<Ndhiyf; nfhLf;Fk;. fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;gpYs;s fhgd; mZtpw;F
,izf;fg;gl;l OH $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s %yf;$W <Ndhy; vd;W mwpag;gLk;.
(<Ndhy;)
45
<Ndhy;fs; cWjpaw;wit. mj;Jld; cldbahf kpf cWjpahd fPw;Nwh mikg;gpw;F

kWrPuhf;fg;gLk;; (my;bifl;Lf;fs; my;yJ fPw;Nwhd;fs;).
my;bifl;Lf;fs;
(fPwN
; wh Nru;it> Vidait)
mw;ifd;fspw;Fk; ePupw;Fkhd $l;ly; jhf;fk; khu;f;Nfhdpf;Nfh tpjpf;F mika

eilngWtijg; Gnuhg;igd; jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
(<Ndhy;)
fPw;Nwhd; (fPw;Nwh Nru;it)
2.2.3.4 Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; Ijuridr; Nru;j;jy; (IjuNdw;wk;)
mw;ifd;fs; IjurDld; Pt my;yJ Pd my;yJ Ni Nghd;w Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy;

jhf;fkile;J mw;Nfd;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
,j;jhf;fj;jpdN
; ghJ jhf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo; mw;ifd; Kjypy; mw;fd
P hfj; jho;jj; g;gl;L
,J NkYk; mw;Nfdhfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;. jhf;Fjpwd; Fiwe;j Cf;fpiag; gad;gLj;jp
mw;fPd; epiyapy; (stage) epw;ghl;lyhk;. fpa+dypdhy; (quinoline) (er;Rg;gLj;jg;gl;l)
Vtyfw;wg;gl;l BaSO4 ,y; gbag;gl;l Pd Cf;fp mjpfkhf mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
FapdyPd;
2.2.4 Kbtplj;jpy; Ijuridf; nfhz;Ls;s mw;ifd;fspd; mkpyj;jd;ik
Kk;ikg; gpizg;G fhgd; mZf;fs; sp fyg;gpw;Fl;gl;ljhFk;. Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;

fhgdpy; <Lgl;Ls;s C-H gpizg;ghdJ fhgd; mZtpd; sp fyg;G Xgpw;wYk; H ,d; s-
Xgpw;wYk; Neu;Nfhl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jiff;Fl;gl;L cUthf;fg;gLk;. sp fyg;G Xgpw;wyhdJ
sp2 my;yJ sp3 fyg;G Xgpww
; y;fspYk; $basT s ,ay;igf; (50% s - ,ay;G) nfhz;Ls;s
jhy; mw;ifd;fspYs;s C-H gpizg;gpYs;s gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fs; (C  C  H )
mw;fPd;fs; kw;Wk; mw;NfdpYs;s C-H gpizg;gpYs;s gpizg;G ,yj;jpud;fspYk;
ghu;f;ff; fhgd; mZtpd; fUtpw;Ff; fpl;lthff; fhzg;gLk;. vdNt Kk;ikg; gpizg;Gf;
fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l H ,d; mkpy ,ay;ghdJ mw;fd P f
; s; kw;Wk; mw;Nfd;fspYs;s
46
C-H gpizg;gpd; H ,Yk; $lthFk;. vdpDk; mw;ifd;fspw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l KbT

epiy H ,d; mkpy ,ay;G ePu; kw;Wk; mw;fNfhy;fspYk; FiwthFk;.
mw;ifd;fspYs;s KbTepiy H MdJ H+ khjpup td;%yq;fshd NaNH2 kw;Wk;

jhf;F jpwDila cNyhfq;fshd Na vd;gtw;Wld; jhf;fkilaf;$baJ. tpisthf
Ts;s mrw;wpiyl;L mdad; cWjpahdJ. Vnddpy; gpizg;gpyPLglhj ,U ,yj;jpud;
fSk; (vjpNuw;wKilaJ) fhgd; fUtpw;F (NeNuw;wk;) mUfpYs;sjhFk;.
KbTepiyapy; H If; nfhz;Ls;s mw;ifd;fs; ( C  C  H ) rpy ghukhd cNyhf

mad;fshd Ag+ kw;Wk; Cu+ cld; jhf;fkile;J ePupy; fiuahj cNyhf mw;wpiyl;ilf;
nfhLf;fpd;wd. ,t;tpU jhf;fq;fSk; KbTepiy H If; nfhz;Ls;s mw;ifd;fis
,dk; fhzg; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
2.3 ngd;rPdpd; gpizg;gpd; ,ay;G
ngd;rdP pd; %yf;$w;Wr; #j;jpuk; C6H6 MFk;. vdNt ,J xU epuk;ghj Nru;it vd;gijf;
Fwpf;Fk;. rhjhuz epge;jidfspd; fPo; ngd;rPd; epuk;ghikf;Fupa gupNrhjidf;F tpil
aspg;gjpy;iy. vdNt mw;fPd; my;yJ mw;ifd; vd;gdtw;wpd; fl;likg;gpw;F xj;j
fl;likg;igf; nfhz;bUf;fhJ.
2.3.1 ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G
nff;FNy ngd;rPdpw;F Kd;nkhope;j fl;likg;ghdJ xd;Wtpl;l xd;W> %d;W ,ul;ilg;

gpizg;Gf;fisAk; %d;W xw;iwg; gpizg;Gf;fisAKila> fhgd; mZf;fspd; MW
cWg;gpdu;fisAila tisaj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sjhFk;.
cU 2.13 1865 ,y; nff;FNyapdhy; Kd;nkhopag;gl;l ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;G
47
,f; fl;likg;ghdJ mNuhkw;wpf; rkgFjpaj;jpwF; upa Nru;itfspd; njhlu;Gfs; rk;ge;jkhff;

fpilf;ff;$ba rhd;Wfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. ve;jnthU xU gpujpaPl;Lg;
ngd;rPdpw;Fk; (C6H5X, X = -CH3, -C2H5, -OH, -Cl, -Br, -CHO Nghd;wd) rkgFjpaq;fs;
fhzg;glhjhifahy; ngd;rPdpYs;s MW fhgd; mZf;fSk; xNu khjpupahdit
(rkkhdit) vd;gijf; FwpfF ; k;. vdNt ngd;rdP pd; ve;jnthU fhgd; mZtpy; gpujpaL P k;
vg;NghJk; xU jdpr; Nru;itiaf; nfhLf;Fk;. %d;W rkgFjpa ,U gpujpal P L
; g; ngd;rd
P f
; s;
cs;sjhff; fhzg;gl;Ls;sJ. nff;FNy ,f; fl;likg;Gf;fis 1> 2-,U gpujpaPL>
1> 3- ,U gpujpaPL> 1> 4- ,U gpujpaPL vdg; ngaupl;lhu; (cU 2.14). gpd;G ,it XNjh>
nkw;wh kw;Wk; guh rkgFjpaq;fs; vdg; ngauplg;gl;ld.
1> 2-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rPd; 1> 3-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rPd; 1> 4-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rPd;

(XNjh-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rdP ;) (nkw;wh-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rPd;) (guh-GNuhNkhFNshNuhngd;rPd;)
cU 2.14 %d;W rkgFjpa ,U gpujpaPl;Lg; ngd;rPd;fs;
vdpDk; ,f; fl;likg;Gf;fs; Fwpg;ghff; fhl;LtJ> gpujpaPl;Lf; fhgd; xw;iwg; gpizg;G

my;yJ ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ghy; NtWgLj;jg;gLtjpy; jq;fpAs;sjw;Nfw;g ,U NtWgl;l
XNjh - ,U gpujpal
P L
; g; ngd;rd
P f
; s; rhj;jpakhdit. ,Jtiu ngd;rd P pd; ,U ntt;Ntwhd
XNjh rkgFjpaq;fs; fhzg;glhjhifahy;> nff;FNy ngd;rd P ; %yf;$whdJ rkepiyap
Ys;s ,U rkkhd fl;likg;Gf;fshy; vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk; vd Kd;nkhope;jhu; (cU
2.15). vdNt xw;iw kw;Wk; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fs; njhlu;e;J epiyfis jkf;Fs;Ns
khw;wp mikf;fpd;wd.
cU 2.15 Kd;nkhopag;gl;l 1-GNuhNkh -2-FNshNuh ngd;rPdpd;

,U fl;likg;Gf;fSf;fpilNaahd tpiuthd rkepiy
,k; Kd;nkhopT ngd;rPd; ,U rhj;jpakhd fl;likg;Gf;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ vd

tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. kw;Wk; ,it ,uz;Lk; miwntg;gepiyapy; ,Uf;fpd;wd. MapDk;>
ngd;rPdpw;F ,t;tpjkhd ,U fl;likg;Gf;fs; njhlu;e;J ,Ug;gjw;fhd gupNrhjidr;
rhd;Wfs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gltpy;iy.
48
NkYk;> ngd;rPdpy; mjhtJ mLj;jLj;j ,U fhgd; mZf;fSf;fpilapyhd gpizg;G

ePsk; rkkhdit. ngd;rPdpy; fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;G ePsk; 1.39  10-10 m MFk;. ,J
fhgd; - fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G ePsj;jpw;Fk; (1.34  10-10 m) fhgd; - fhgd; xw;iwg;
gpizg;G ePsj;jpw;Fk; (1.54  10-10 m) ,ilg;gl;ljhFk;.
NkYk; cU 8.16 ,y; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sthW ngd;rPd pd; fl;likg;ghdJ ,U

fl;likg;Gf;fspdJk; gupTf; fyg;ghff; fUjg;gl;lJ.
cU 2.16 ngd;rPdpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
trjpf;fhf ngd;rPdpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW vOjg;gLk;.
gupTf; FwpaPl;bw;Fk; (,Ujiy mk;G) rkepiyf; FwpaPl;bw;Fkpilapyhd NtWghl;ilf;

Fwpg;G vLf;fTk;. rkepiyapy; fl;likg;Gf;fshy; fhl;lg;gLk; Nru;itfs; cz;ikahf
,Uf;fpd;wd. mNjrkak; gupTf; fyg;gpd; vz;zf;fUtpy; fl;likg;Gf;fshy; fhl;lg;gLk;
ve;jnthU Nru;itAk; cz;ikahf ,Ug;gjpy;iy. cz;ikahd %yf;$iw vLj;Jf;
fhl;Ltjw;fhd ve;jnthU KiwAk; ,y;yhjgbahy; mit mt;thW tiuag;gLfpd;wd.
xt;nthU gupTf; fl;likg;Gk; Nru;itapd; cz;ikahd fl;likg;gpw;Fg; gq;fspg;Gr;
nra;fpdw; J. mj;Jld; kpf cWjpahd fl;likg;G cz;ikahd fl;likg;gpw;Ff; $basT
gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;wJ. NkYk; ngd;rPdpd; ,U fl;likg;Gf;fisAk; vLj;jhy;> mit
rk cWjpia cilad. mj;Jld; rk gq;fspg;igAk; nra;fpd;wd.
ngd;rdP pYs;s vy;yhf; fhgd; mZf;fSk; sp2 fyg;gpw;F cl;gl;ljhFk;. kw;Wk; xt;nthU
fhgd; mZTk; fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpw;wiyf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,t; ,U gf;fj;jpYKs;s
fyg;gpyPLglhj p - Xgpww
; y;fs; Nkw;nghUe;Jifapy; <Lglf;$bad (cU 2.17). ,jdhy;
rf;fu Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud; KfpyhdJ vy;yh MW fhgd; mZf;fSf;Fk; nghJthf
cUthf;fg;gLk;. vdNt ngd;rPdpd; cz;ikahd fl;likg;ghdJ nff;FNyapd; ,U
fl;likg;Gf;fspdJk; fyg;ghFk; vdf; fUjg;gLk;. Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud;fis cila
ngd;rd P pd; cz;ikahd fl;likg;ghdJ> nff;FNyapd; fUJNfhs; Kiwapyhd %d;W
,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fisAila ngd;rPdpd; fl;likg;gpYk; cWjpahdJ. Xuplg;ghLs;s
gpizg;Gf;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tiuag;gl;l kuGKiwahd fl;likg;Gf;fisg; gad;gLj;jp>
Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud;fis tpgukhf tpsf;Ftjw;Fg; guptpd; vz;zf;fU gad;gLj;jg;
gl;lJ.
49
cU 2.17 ngd;rPdpy; fhgd; mZf;fspd; p - Xgpw;wy;fspd;

gf;fthl;L Nkw;nghUe;Jifapdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;
rf;fu Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud; Kfpy;
2.3.2 ngd;rPdpd; cWjpj;jd;ik
ngd;rPd; %yf;%wpd; cWjpia tpsf;Ftjw;F epak IjurNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siwfspd;

juTfs; cjTfpd;wd.
+ H2 H  =  120 KJ mol-1
+ 3H2 H  =  208 KJ mol-1
rf;fu vf;rPdpd; epak IjurNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siw (xU ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gila MW

cWg;gpdu;fisAila rf;fu IjNuhfhgd;) (H  )  120 KJ mol-1 Mdgbahy;> mw;fd
P f
; s;
khjpup %d;W ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fis ngd;rPd; nfhz;bUe;jhy; epak IjurNdw;w
ntg;gTs;Siw (H  )  3 120 KJ mol-1 Mf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy; ngd;rPdpd;
epak Ijur Ndw;w ntg;gTs;Siw (H  )  208 KJ mol-1 Mff; fhzg;gl;lJ. ,J
vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gl;l %d;W ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fspd; IjurNdw;wj;jpYk;  152 KJ mol-1
Fiwthff; fhzg;gl;lJ (cU 2.18). vdNt ngd;rPdhdJ nff;FNy fl;likg;gpYk;
(360  208)  152 KJ mol-1 ,w;Fr; rkkhd ngWkhdj;jhy; cWjpahf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk;
rf;fu Xuplg;ghlw;w MW ig ,yj;jpud;fs; ,t;TWjpf;Ff; fhuzkhFk;. kw;Wk; ,J
ngd;rd
P pd; gupthy; cWjpahf;fg;gLk; rf;jp (mNuhkw;wpf; cWjpahf;fk;) vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gL
fpd;wJ.
50
fUJNfhs; Kiwahd rf;fu vf;rh %tPd;
152 KJ mol-1
gupTr; rf;jp
ngd;rd
P ;
rf;jp (KJ mol-1)
-360 KJ mol-1 -208 KJ mol-1
rf;fu vf;Nrd;
cU 2.18 ngd;rPdpdJk; fUJNfhs; Kiwahd rf;fu vf;rh %tpdJk;

epak IjuNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siwfs;
2.4 ngd;rPdpd; cWjpia cjhuzq;fs; %yk; tpsf;Ftjw;fhd

rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fs;
ngd;rd P ; %yf;$wpd; jsj;jpwF

; ,U gf;fq;fspYk; (NkYk; fPOk;) jsu;thfg; gpizf;fg;gl;l
Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud; Kfpiyg; ngd;rPd; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,J ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd;
,yj;jpud; nrwpitf; $l;Ltjhy;> mw;fPd;fs; khjpup ,yj;jpudhbfspw;Fj; jhf;Fjd;ik
cilajhFk;. ,t; Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud;fshy;> ngd;rPd; Nkyjpf cWjpiaf; fhl;Lt
jhff; fye;Jiuahb cs;Nshk;. MfNt ngd;rPdpd; rf;fu Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud;
Kfpiy cs;slf;ff;$ba jhf;fq;fspy; ngd;rPd; ,yFthf <LglhJ. vdNt ngd;rPdpd;
rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fs; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fshFk;. kw;Wk; mw;fPdf
; s;
khjpup ,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fspy; <LglhJ.
2.4.1 ngd;rPdpd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpal

P ;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
ngd;rd
P pd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpal
P L
; j; jhf;fq;fspy; ngd;rd
P ; tisaj;jpwF
; ,izf;fg;gl;l
Ijurd; mZf;fs; ,yj;jpudhbfshy; (E+) gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk;.
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; Kjw;gbahdJ ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpYs;s fhgd; mZtpw;Fk; ,yj;jpu

dhbf;Fk; (E+) ,ilNa gpizg;ig cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; fhNghfw;waidf; (VuPdpak;
mad; - arenium ion) nfhLg;gjhFk;. ,g;gbahdJ mw;fPdpw;Fk; HBr ,w;Fkpilapyhd
,yj;jpudhl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fj;jpd; Kjw;gbia kpfTk; xj;jjhFk;.
51
,t;thW cUthf;fg;gLk; ,ilepiyf; fhNghfw;wad;> NeNuw;wk; ,U ig gpizg;GfSld;

,ize;J Xuplg;ghlw;wjhf;fg;gLtjhy; cWjpahf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J gpd;tUkhW guptpdhy;
fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
MapDk; ngd;rPdpypUe;J NkNy cs;s fhNghfw;wad;fspw;Fg; NghFk;NghJ rf;fu

Xuplg;ghlw;w ig ,yj;jpud;fs; cilfpd;wd. mj;Jld; mNuhkw;wpf; cWjpahf;fw; rf;jpAk;
,of;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,ilepiyf; fhNghfw;wad; mw;fPd;fs; khjpup fUehbfSld; jhf;f
kile;J $l;ly; tpisTfisf; nfhLg;gjpYk; ghu;ff ; g; GNuhj;jpuid ,oe;J rf;fu
Xuplg;ghlw;w ,yj;jpud; Kfpiy kPz;Lk; epiyepWj;Jtjw;Fr; rf;jp uPjpapy; rhjfkhf
cs;sJ.
GNuhj;jpud; rhjhuzkhfj; jhf;ff; fyitapYs;s VjhtnjhU fhuj;jpdhy; ( B:- ) vLf;fg;

gLk;. ,t;thwhf KbthdJ> ngd;rd P ; tisaj;jpYs;s H mZ E ,dhy; gpujpaplg;gLk;.
2.4.1.1 iej;jpNuw;wk;
ngd;rd
P ; nrwpe;j HNO3 / nrwpe;j H2SO4 fyitAld; jhf;fkile;J iej;jpNuh ngd;ri
P df;
nfhLf;Fk;. ,J H mZ iej;jpNuh $l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaplg;gLtjdhy; cUthFk;.
nrwpe;j HNO3 / nrwpe;j H2SO4
,j; jhf;fj;jpy; ,yj;jpudhb +NO2. ,J jhf;ff; fyitapy; ry;g+upf; mkpyj;jpdhy;

iej;jpupf; mkpyj;jpypUe;J ePufw;wg;gLk;NghJ cUthf;fg;gLk;.
52
+
NO2 ngd;rPDld; jhf;fkilAk;. ,Wjpg; gbapy; %ykhfj; njhopw;gLk; Ijurd;ry;Ngw;
madpdhy; (,Ury;Ngw; mad;) GNuhj;jpud; mfw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.4.1.2 gpul
P y; - fpuht; ,d; mw;ifNyw;wk;
ngd;rPd; mw;ify; Viyl;Lld; ePuw;w AlCl3 Nghd;w Y}ap mkpy Kd;dpiyapy; jhf;f
kile;J mw;ify; ngd;rPidf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,jpy; ngd;rPdpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l H mZ
mw;ify; $l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaplg;gLk;.
RCl / ePuw;w AlCl3
Kjy;> top kw;Wk; Gil mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; (gFjp 8.6 Ig; ghu;ff
; Tk;.) Nghd;wtw;wpy;
jhf;fj;jpd; ,yj;jpudhb R+ MFk;. ,J mw;ify; Viyl;bw;Fk; Y}ap mkpyj;jpw;F
kpilapyhd jhf;fj;jpy; Kjw; gbahf cUthf;fg;gLk;.
,Wjpg;gbapy; GNuhj;jpud; AlCl4- ,dhy; mfw;wg;gLk;.
cjhuzj;ijg; ghu;ff
; Tk;.
ePuw;w AlCl3
53
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiw gpd;tUkhW:
mw;ify;> Viyl;bypUe;J fhNghfw;wad; cUthf;fg;gLtij ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; Kjy;gbahf

ehk; ghu;ff
; yhk;. ,uz;lhtJ gbapy; ngd;rPDk; fhNghfw;waDk; xd;Wld; xd;W jhf;fp
jhf;fkile;J VuPdpak; maid (arenium ion) cUthf;FtjhFk;. ,Wjpg; gbapy; GNuhj;jpud;
mfw;wg;gl;L mt;tpistpd; mNuhkw;wpf; cWjp jpUk;gg; ngwg;gLk;.
Kjy; mw;ify; Viyl;L RX I vLj;jhy; (c+k;: CH3Cl)> ngd;rPd; %yf;$Wld; jhf;f

kiltJ R+ Jzpf;ifahf ,Uf;f KbahJ. Mdhy; RCl %yf;$W AlCl3 cld; <jw;
gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtjhy; Kidthf;fkilAk;. ,jdhy; jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ RCl gpizg;G
gpstiltjhy; R+ ngd;rPd; %yf;$wpw;F khw;wg;gLk;.
rhj;jpakhd nghwpKiw gpd;tUkhW:
+ AlCl4  + AlCl3 + HCl
xU gpujpal
P L
; ngd;rd
P py>; gpujpal
P L
; j; njhFjp myrdpYk; ghu;ff
; td;ikahf ,yj;jpuidf;
ftUk; jd;ik (Vtyfw;Wk; jd;ik) cilajhapd; gpuPly; - fpuht; mw;ifNyw;wk;
eilngwhJ (c+k;: iej;jpNuh ngd;rPd;.)
54
2.4.1.3 gpul
P y; - fpuht; ,d; VirNyw;wk;
ngd;rPd; mkpyFNshiul;Lf;fSld; ePuw;w AlCl3 Nghd;w Y}ap mkpyk; Kd;dpiyapy;

jhf;fkile;J Viry; ngd;rPidf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,jpy; H mZ Viry; $l;lj;jpdhy;
gpujpaplg;gLk;.
RCOCl / ePuw;w AlCl3
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; Virypak; mad; (RCO+) ,yj;jpudhbahFk;. ,J gpdt

; UkhW jhf;fj;jpd;
Kjw;gbapy; AlCl3 ck; Viry; FNshiul;Lk; jhf;fkile;J cUthFk;. ,J gpd;tUkhW:
,uz;lhtJ gbapy; Virypak; mad; ngd;rPDld; jhf;fkile;J VuPdpak; (arenium)

maidf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,Wjpgg
; bapy; GNuhj;jpud; mfw;wg;gl;L mNuhkw;wpf; cWjp jpUk;gg;
ngwg;gLk;.
2.4.1.4 myrNdw;wk;
ngd;rPd; Cl2 my;yJ Br2 cld; FeCl3 , FeBr3 my;yJ AlCl3 my;yJ AlBr3 Nghd;w Y}ap
mkpyk; Kd;dpiyapy; ePuw;w epge;jidfspd; fPo; jhf;fkile;J FNshNuh ngd;rPid
my;yJ GNuhNkh ngd;rPidf; nfhLf;Fk;. ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpy; H mZ myrd;
mZthy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk;.
ePuw;w FeCl3
NkYs;s jhf;fj;jpy; Mw;wy;tha;e;j ,yj;jpudhb Cl+ MFk;. ,J jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ

rpf;fypypUe;J ngd;rd
P ; tisaj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;. ,Wjpg;gbapy; GNuhj;jpud; mfw;wg;gl;L
mNuhkw;wpf; cWjp jpUk;gg; ngwg;gLk;.
55
2.4.2 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;fhd jil
ngd;rPdpd; cWjpahy; rhjhuz xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfs; Nghd;w H+ / KMnO4 ,dhy;

xl;rpNaw;wj;jpwF
; l;glhJ. MapDk; mw;ify; njhFjpapy; gpujpaL
P nra;ag;gl;l ngd;rd
P pYs;s
mw;ify; njhFjp H+ / KMnO4 ,dhy; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj; njhFjpahf xl;rpNaw;w
kilAk;. ,t; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;F H+ / K2Cr2O7 IAk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
Kjy; kw;Wk; top mw;ify; $l;lq;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkilAk; epge;jidfspd; fPo; Gil

mw;ify; njhFjpfs; xl;rpNaw;wkilahJ. kpf typikahd epge;jidfspd; fPo; Gil
mw;ify; njhFjp xl;rpNaw;wkilayhk;. mj;Jld; ,jd; tpisthfg; ngd;rd
P ; tisaKk;
gpstilAk;.
2.4.3 ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; IjurNdw;wj;jpw;fhd jil
mw;fPd;fs; khjpup ngd;rPd; ,yj;jpudhl;lw; $l;lw;whf;fj;jpw;F ,yFthf <LglhtpbDk;>

mw;fPd;fSld; xg;gpLifapy; ,J IjurDld; jFe;j Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; cau; ntg;g
epiyfspy; $l;lj; jhf;fjpyPLgLk;.
,uNdapd; Ni
(Raney Ni gQ;R Nghd;w epf;fy;)
2.5 xU gpujpal
P ;Lg; ngd;rPdpYs;s gpujpaPl;Lj; njhFjpfspd;
jpirg;gLj;Jk; ,ay;G
xU gpujpaPl;Lg; ngd;rPd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fj;jpyPLgLk;NghJ> KjyhtJ

gpujpaPl;Lj; njhFjpapd; ,ay;gpy; ,uz;lhtJ gpujpaPl;Lj; njhFjp Nru;f;fg;gLk; ,lk;
jPuk
; hdpf;fg;gLk;. gpujpaPl;Lj; njhFjpfis ,uz;L mbg;gil tiffshfg; gpupf;fyhk;.
56
2.5.1 XNjh> guh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
c+k;: -OH, -R, -NH2, -NHR, -OCH3 myrd;fs;.

myrd;fs; jtpu;e;j Vida XNjh> guh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs; ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpy;
,yj;jpud; nrwpitg; ngd;rd
P pYk; ghu;ff
; mjpfupff
; r; nra;tjhy;> ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpal
P L
; j;
jhf;fq;fspw;F ngd;rPd; tisaj;ij VTk;.
nrwpe;j HNO3 / nrwpe;j H2SO4
XNjh guh
2.5.2 nkw;wh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs;
c+k;: -NO2, -CHO, -COR, -COOH, -COOR

nkw;wh jpirg;gLj;Jk; njhFjpfs; ngd;rd P ; tisaj;jpy; ,yj;jpud; nrwpitf; Fiwg;gjd;
%yk; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspw;F ngd;rPd; tisaj;ij Vtyfw;Wk;.
CHO
nrwpej
; HNO3 / nrwpej
; H2SO4
nkw;wh
2.6 mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; jhf;fq;fSk;
myrd; mZitf; nfhz;Ls;s fhgd; mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s H mZf;fspd;

vz;zpf;iff;F Vw;g mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; Kjy;> top kw;Wk; Gil vd tifg;gLj;jg;
gl;Ls;sd.
Kjy; mw;ify; Viyl;L top mw;ify; Viyl;L Gil mw;ify; Viyl;L
mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; Kidthf;fKs;s Nru;itfshFk;. ,it KidTj;jd;ik

ciladthf ,Ug;gpDk;> ,tw;wpd; (mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd;) ePu;f;fiujpwd; kpfTk;
FiwthdjhFk;. ,it ePUld; Ijurd; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;jhik ,jw;fhd xU
fhuzkhFk;.
fhgd; mZ rhu;ghf myrd; mZ cau; kpd;ndjpu;j; jd;ik cilajhy;> fhgd;

myrd; gpizg;G Kidthf;fkilfpdw ; J. ,jd; tpisthf mf;fhgd; mZtpy; ,yj;jpud;
gw;whf;Fiw Vw;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt ,e;epiyapy; fUehb jhf;FtJ rhj;jpakhdjhFk;.
57
fUehbfs; %yq;fs;> ,yj;jpud; nrwpT $badthFk;. ,it xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisg;

gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;Fiw fhgd; mZTld; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtd.
-
xU rpy rhjhuz cjhuzq;fs;: OH, - OR, - NH 2 , - CN, RC  C - , H 2 O, NH 3
mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fshtd fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;

fshFk;. fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ> fhgd; mZthdJ fUehbAld;
Gjpa gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jk;. myrd; mZthdJ Viyl;L madhf ntspNaWk;.
NtW rpy cjhuzq;fs;:
NaOH (aq)
fUehb xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy;> H+ cld; gpizg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtjd;

%yk; vf;fUehbAk; %ykhfj; njhopw;glf;$baJ. vdNt mw;ify; Viyl;L OH-, OR-
Nghd;w Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; jhf;fkilAk;NghJ ePff ; y; jhf;fj;jpy; <Lglf;$bad
vd;gijf; fPNo cs;s jhf;fg; nghwpKiwahy; fhl;lyhk;.
j
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; OH- njhFjp> fhgd; mZTld; fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLtjw;Fg; gjpyhf>
%ykhfj; njhopw;gl;L myridf; nfhz;Ls;s fhgd; mZtpw;F mLj;j fhgd;
mZtpYs;s Ijurid mfw;;Wfpd;wJ. myridf; nfhz;Ls;s fhgd; mZtpw;F
mLj;j fhgd; mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l IjurdhdJ> C - X gpizg;gpd; KidTj;
jd;ikapdhy; Fiwe;j mkpyj;jd;ik cilaJ. ,jdhy; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspy;
gpujpalP L; j; jhf;fq;fSk; ePff ; y; jhf;fq;fSk; xd;Wld; xd;W Nghl;bapLk; jhf;fq;fshFk;.
gpujpal
P L; j; jhf;fj;jpw;Fk; ePff; y; jhf;fj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd rkepiyahdJ jhf;fj;jpwF; g;
58
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fiug;ghdpdhy; nry;thf;F nrYj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. Ma;Trhiyapy; gpujpaL P

Njitg;gbd; KOH ePu;ff ; iury; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ePf;fy; jhf;fk; Njitg;gbd; vjNdhy;
Nru; KOH gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
mw;fNfhy;Nru; KOH
mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; cyu; <ju; Clfj;jpy; Mg cld; jhf;fkile;J fpupdhl;bd;

Nrhjidg; nghUl;fis cz;lhf;Fk;. fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fs; Nrjd cNyhf
Nrhjidg; nghUl;fshFk; (organometallic reagents.)
cyu; <ju;
mw;ify; Viyl;L fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;nghUis cUthf;Fk;NghJ> Muk;gj;jpy;

myrdpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l fhgd; mZtpd; KidTj;jd;ik fPNo fhl;lg;gl;ls;sthW
khw;wkilAk;.
Mg
cyu; <ju;
,jdhy; ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;FiwAila fhgd; mZ ,yj;jpud; nrwpTila fhgd;

mZthf khw;wg;gLk;. Mg mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l mw;ify; $l;lkhdJ> C - Mg
gpizg;gpYs;s xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisg; gad;gLj;jp td;%ykhfTk; mj;Jld; td;fUehb
ahfTk; njhopw;glf;$baJ. vdNt nkd;dkpyj; jd;ikAila H mZf;fisAila
Nru;itfspd; Kd;dpiyapy; my;yJ ePupd; Kd;dpiyapy; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;
nghUl;fisj; jahupf;fNth> gad;gLj;jNth KbahJ.
fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg;nghUspd; td;%y ,ay;ghdJ gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fspd; %yk;

fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
NkNy cs;s gl;baypy; filrpj; jhf;fkhdJ fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUspw;Fk;

Kidaj;ijAila mw;ifdpwF
; khd (Terminal alkyne, -C  C-H) jhf;fkhFk;. cz;lhf;fg;
59
gl;l tpisTk; ,d;DnkhU fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUs; vd;gijf; Fwpg;gplTk;. ,j;

jhf;fj;ij mrw;wypdpf; (acetylenic) fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fs; jahupf;fg;
gad;gLj;jyhk;.
2.7 gpizg;G cz;lhjy;> gpizg;G ciljy; gbfspd; Neuj;jpd;

mbg;gilapy; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpal
P ;Lj;
jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ gpizg;Gf;fs; cilf;fg;gl;L Gjpa gpizg;Gf;fs; cUthf;fg;gLk;.

mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; fhgd; - myrd; gpizg;G
cilf;fg;gLtijAk; kw;Wk; fhgd; - fUehbg; gpizg;G cz;lhf;fg;gLtijAk;
cs;slf;fpajhFk;. mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspd;
nghwpKiwfspd; fw;wypy;> gpizg;G ciljy; kw;Wk; gpizg;G cz;lhjy; gbfspw;
fpilapyhd Neu ,ilNtisahff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
C - X gpizg;G ciljYk; fUehbAld; Gjpa gpizg;G cUthjYk; xNu Neuj;jpy;

eilngw;why;> mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; xU gbj;
jhf;fkhf eilngWk;. mjd;gb mw;ify; GNuhikl;bw;Fk; Ijnuhl;iry; madpw;Fkhd
jhf;fj;jpy;> xUgbj; jhf;fkhdJ gpd;tUkhW nfhLf;fg;gLk;.
C - X gpizg;G ciljy; Kjypy; eilngw;Wg; gpd;G fhgd; - fUehb Gjpa gpizg;G

cUthfpdhy;> mw;ify; Viyl;bd; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; ,U gbfspy;
eilngWk;.
mjd;gb ,U gbfspy; eilngWk; jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW nfhLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
gb 1
fhNghfw;wad;
gb 2
,U gbfspy; eilngWk; jhf;fkhdJ fhNghfw;wad; ,ilepiy Clhf eilngWfpdw ; J.

cUthf;fg;gLk; fhNghfw;wadpd; cWjpiaf; fUjpdhy;> Gil mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs;
(R1, R2, R3 - mw;ify;) kpf cWjpahd fhNghfw;waid cUthf;f KbAkhjyhy; fUehl;lg;
60
gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; ,U gbfspy; Kd;ndLj;J nry;fpd;wJ. Kjy; mw;ify;

Viyl;Lf;fspd; (R1, R2 = H, R3 = H my;yJ mw;ify;) fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
xU gbapD}lhf Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;yg;gLk;. Vnddpy; mtw;wpdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;
Kjy; fhNghfw;wad; cWjp Fiwe;jjhyhFk;. nghJthf ,Utpjkhd jhf;fg; ghij
fisAk; top mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspdhy; xU mstpw;F eilngwr; nra;a KbAk;.
Mdhy; ,J jhf;f epge;jidfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
itidy; kw;Wk; gPidy; fhNghfw;wad;fs; cWjpaw;wd. vdNt itidy; Viyl;Lf;fSk;>

Viuy; Viyl;Lf;fSk; ,Ugbj; jhf;fg; ghijfspD}lhfj; jhf;fkilahjd. NkYk;
mit xUgbj; jhf;fg; ghijapD}lhfTk; jhf;fkilahjd. Vnddpy; C - X gpizg;gpd;
,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gj; jd;ikapdhy; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspYk; td;ikahdJ MFk;.
,jidg; gpd;tUk; gpuptpy; fhl;lyhk;.

itidy; FNshiul;bd; gupTf; fl;likg;G
FNshNuhngd;rPdpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
61
62
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 9 xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
3. xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s
Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
cs;slf;fk;
3.1 mw;fNfhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; 3.4.6 Zn(Hg)/nrwpHCl ,dhy; my;bifl;Lf;fs;
,ay;GfSk; jhf;fq;fSk; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; Zn(Hg) / nrwp HCl
3.1.1 Xu; Ijupf; mw;fNfhy;fisg; ,dhy; jho;j;jy; (fpikd;rdpd; jho;j;jy;)
ghFgLj;Jjy; 3.4.7 my;bifl;Lf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.1.2 ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; 3.4.7.1 njhydpd; (Tollen) Nrhjidg;
3.1.3 mw;fNfhy;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; nghUspdhy; xl;rpNaw;wk;
3.1.3.1 O - H gpizg;G gpstiljYld; 3.4.7.2 gPypq;fpd; (Fehling) fiuryhy;
<LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.1.3.2 C- O gpizg;Gg; gpstiljYld; xl;rpNaw;wk;
<LgLk; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; 3.4.7.3 mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; ,U
jhf;fq;fs; FNuhNkw;W my;yJ mkpykhf;fg;gl;l
3.1.3.3 ePf;fy; jhf;fk; nghw;whrpak; gukq;fNdw;W vd;gdtw;
3.1.3.4 mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk; why; xl;rpNaw;wk;.
3.2 gPNdhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; ,ay;GfSk; 3.5 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;>
jhf;fq;fSk; ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.2.1 gPNdhy;fspd; mkpyj;jd;ik 3.5.1 ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs;
3.2.2 O - H gpizg;Gg; gpsT miljYld; 3.5.2 -COOH $l;lj;jpd; jhf;Fjpwd; tiffis/
<LgLk; jhf;fq;fs; khjpupfis my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs;
3.2.3 C- O gpizg;G ciljypdhy; epfo vd;gdtw;wpd; >C=O $l;lj;JlDk; kw;Wk;
Kbahj fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
jhf;fq;fs; -OH $l;lj;JlDk; xg;gpLjy;.
3.5.2.1 O-H gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk;
3.3 gPNdhy;fspYs;s ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;Fjd;ik 3.5.2.2 C-O gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk;
3.3.1 GNuhkPDld; gPNdhypd; jhf;fk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.3.2 gPNdhypd; iej;jpNuw;wk; 3.5.2.3 LiAlH4 cld; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;
3.4 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; fspd; jho;j;jy;.
fl;likg;Gf;fs;> ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs;
3.4.1 ngsjPf ,ay;Gfs; 3.6 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.4.2 my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPwN ; whd;fspdJk; 3.6.1 mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;fq;fs;. 3.6.1.1 Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ePu;f;fiur
3.4.3 fUehl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fs; Yld; jhf;fk;
3.4.3.1 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; 3.6.1.2 ePUld; jhf;fk;
vd;gdtw;wpDs; HCN Ir; 3.6.1.3 mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;
Nru;j;jy;. Wld; jhf;fk;
3.4.3.2 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl; 3.6.1.4 mNkhdpah kw;Wk; Kjy; mikd;fs;
fSld; jhf;fq;fs;. vd;gtw;Wld; jhf;fk;
3.4.3.3 2> 4- ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; 3.6.2 vRj;ju;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
IjurPDld; jhf;fk; 3.6.2.1 Ijhd fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fSld;
(2> 4- DNP jhf;fk; my;yJ jhf;fq;fs;
gpubapd; (Brady) Nrhjidg; 3.6.2.2 Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ePu;f;fiur
nghUs;) Yld; jhf;fk;
3.4.4 my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPwN ; whd;fspdJk; 3.6.2.3 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld;
ed;xLf;fy; jhf;fq;fs; jhf;fk;
3.4.5 ,ypj;jpak; mYkPdpak; Ijiul;L 3.6.2.4 LiAlH4 My; jho;j;jy;.
(LiAlH4) my;yJ Nrhbak; NghNuh 3.6.3 Vikl;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
Ijiul;L (NaBH4) vd;gtw;wpdhy; 3.6.3.1 Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ePu;f;fiur
my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPwN ; whd;fspdJk;
jho;j;jy;. Yld; jhf;fk;
63
mwpKfk;
nghJthd xl;rpridf; nfhz;Ls;s Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs;>

<ju;fs;> fhgidy; Nru;itfs; (my;bifl;Lf;fSk;> fPw;Nwhd;fSk;)> fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpyq;fs; kw;Wk; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfs; (vRj;ju;fs;> Vikl;L; f;fs; kw;Wk;
mkpy Viyl;Lf;fs;) vd;gdtw;iw cs;slf;Ffpd;wd. mypgw;wpf; fhgd; mZtpw;F
,izf;fg;gl;l -OH $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s Nru;itfs; mw;fNfhy;fs; vdpDk; gPNdhy;fs;
mNuhkw; Nru;itfs; MFk;. ,jpy; ngd;rd P ; fUtpw;F -OH $l;lk; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs;> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; kw;Wk; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg;
ngWjpfs; vy;yhk; fhgidy; (C=O) $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sd. ,r; Nru;itfspd;
tiffs; fhgidy; fhgdpwF ; ,izf;fg;gLk; ,U $l;lq;fspd; jd;ikapd; mbg;gilapy;
xd;wpypUe;J xd;W NtWgLk;.
3.1 mw;fNfhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; ,ay;GfSk; jhf;fq;fSk;

sp3 fyg;G fhgd; mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l -OH $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;s Nru;itfs;
mw;fNfhy;fshFk;. xU -OH $l;lj;ijAila mw;fNfhy;fs; xU Ijpupf; mw;fNfhy;fs;
vd miof;fg;gLk;. vdpDk; ,uz;L> %d;W> ehd;F Nghd;w kw;iwait> -OH $l;lq;fis
cilait. ,U Ijpupf; mw;fNfhy;fs;> % Ijpupf; mw;fNfhy;fs;> ehIjpupf; mw;fNfhy;fs;
Kjypad vd miof;fg;gLk;. mNdf -OH $l;lq;fisAila mw;fNfhy;fs; nghJthf
gy;Ijpupf; (polyhydric) mw;fNfhy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. vkJ fye;Jiuahly;
gpujhdkhf xU Ijpupf; mw;fNfhy;fSld; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
3.1.1 Xu; Ijupf; mw;fNfhy;fisg; ghFgLj;Jjy;
Xu; Ijpupf; mw;fNfhy;fSk; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs; khjpup -OH $l;lj;ijf; (fhgpNdhy;

fhgd; - carbinol carbon atom) nfhz;Ls;s fhgd; mZtpwF
; ,izf;fg;gLk; H mZf;fspd;
vz;zpf;iff;F Vw;g Kjy; (2H mZf;fs;)> top (1H mZ) kw;Wk; Gil (H mZf;fs;
,y;iy) vdg; ghFgLj;JtJ jq;fpAs;sJ.
fhgpNdhy; fhgd; mZ
Kjy; mw;fNfhy; top mw;fNfhy; Gil mw;fNfhy;
mw;fNfhy;fspy; -OH gpizg;ghdJ R  O δ-  H δ+ Mf Kidthf;fkile;Js;sJ. vdNt

mw;fNfhy; %yf;$Wfspw;fpilNa %yf;$w;wpil Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs; cUthf;fg;
gLfpd;wd. (cU 3.1).
64
cU 3.1 vjNdhypy; %yf;$Wfspw;fpilapyhd H - gpizg;G
,r;rhu; td;ikahd %yf;$w;wpil Ijurd; gpizg;ghy; mw;fNfhy;fspd; nfhjpepiyfs;>

xg;gplf;$ba rhu; %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTila mw;Nfd;fs; kw;Wk; <ju;fspYk; cau;thd
ngWkhdq;fis cilad. (ml;ltiz 3.1) mw;Nfhy;fspd; mikg;nghj;j njhlupy;
NkypUe;J fPoN; ehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ nfhjpepiyfs; mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk;. mw;Nfd;fs;
khjpup %yf;$wpd; mw;ify; njhFjp fpisf;fg;gLk;NghJ nfhjpepiy Fiwtpw;F
toptFf;fpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 3.1 xg;gplf;$ba rhu; %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTila mw;Nfd;fs;> <ju;fs;>

mw;Nfhy;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; nfhjpepiyfs;.
Nru;it fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuk; rhu;%yf;$w;Wj; jpzpT nfhjpepiy /0C
vjNdhy; CH3CH2OH 46 78
,UkPijy; <ju; CH3OCH3 46 -25
Gnuhg;Ngd; CH3CH2CH3 44 -42
1-Gnuhg;gNdhy; CH3CH2CH2OH 60 97
2-Gnuhg;gNdhy; (CH3)2CHOH 60 83
<ijy; kPijy; <ju; CH3CH2OCH3 60 11
gpa+w;Nwd; CH3CH2CH2CH3 58 0
1-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 74 118
2-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3 74 99
2-kPijy; -2-Gnuhg;gNdhy; (CH3)3COH 74 82
,U <ijy; <ju; CH3CH2OCH2CH3 74 35
ngd;Nud; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 72 36
1-ngd;uNdhy; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 88 138
<ijy;Gnuhg;igy; <ju; CH3CH2CH2OCH2CH3 88 64
vf;Nrd; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 86 68
Fiwthd rhu;%yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTila mw;fNfhy;fs; ePupy; fiuAk;. ePu; %yf;$WfSld;

-OH $l;lk; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fis Vw;gLj;Jtjd; fhuzkhf mw;fNfhy;fs; ePupy;
fiufpdw
; d. ePupy; fiutjw;F mw;fNfhy; %yf;$wpd; Kidthf;fkw;w mw;ify; njhFjp
jilahf cs;sJ. Neu;r; rq;fpyp mw;fNfhy;fspd; mikg;nghj;j njhlupy; NkypUe;J
65
fPohf -OH $l;lj;jpw;Fr; rhu;ghf Kidthf;fkw;w mw;ify; njhFjpfspd; gUkd;

gbg;gbahf mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wd. ,jd; tpisthf mw;fNfhy;fspd; ePu;f; fiujpwd;
gbg;gbahff; FiwtilAk; (ml;ltiz 3.2).
ml;ltiz 3.2 rpy Neu;r;rq;fpyp mw;fNfhy;fspd; nfhjpepiyfSk; fiujpwDk;

(ePupy;)
mw;fNfhy; fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuk; nfhjpepiy /0C fiujpwd; (g/100g H2O)
nkjNdhy; CH3OH 65 
vjNdhy; CH3CH2OH 78 
1-Gnuhg;gNdhy; CH3CH2CH2OH 82 
1-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3(CH2)2CH2OH 118 7.9
1-ngd;uNdhy; CH3(CH2)3CH2OH  
1-vf;rNdhy; CH3(CH2)4CH2OH  
1-vg;uNdhy; CH3(CH2)5CH2OH  
1-xf;fuNdhy; CH3(CH2)6CH2OH  
- ve;j tpfpjj;jpYk; fiuaf;$bad.
3.1.3 mw;Nfhy;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
-OH gpizg;Gg; gpstiljy;> C - O gpizg;G gpstiljy; vd;gd cs;slf;fpajhf Nkw;

nfhs;sg;gLk; mw;fNfhy;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;.
3.1.3.1 O-H gpizg;G gpstiljYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
(m) Nrhbaj;Jld; jhf;fk; (kw;Wk; NtW fhu cNyhfq;fs;)

O - H gpizg;gpd; Kidthf;fk; fhuzkhf mw;fNfhy;fs; mkpy elj;ijiaf;
fhl;LtJld;> Nrhbaj;Jld; jhf;f kile;J Ijurd; thAit ntspNaw;WtJld;
Nrhbak; mw;nfhl;irl;Lf;fisAk; cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. mw;nfhl;irl;L mad; xU
td;fUehbAk; mj;Jld; xU td;%yKk; MFk;.
vdpDk; Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;Lld; fzprkhf (............) jhf;fkile;J Nrhbak;

mw;nfhl;irl;ilf; nfhLg;gjw;F mw;fNfhy;fspd; mkpyj;jd;ik Nghjpajhf ,y;iy.
fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s rkepiy Kf;fpakhf mw;fNfhy; gf;fk; ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt
mw;fNfhy;fs; ePupYk; mkpyj;jd;ik Fiwthdit.
66
(M) fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fk;. (mw;fNfhy;fspd; VirNyw;wj;jhy; vRj;jiuf;

nfhLj;jy;.)
mw;f Nfhy; f s; fhnghlrpypf; mkpyq;f Sld; jhf;f kile; J vRj;j u;f isf;
nfhLf;fpd;wd. (vRj;juhf;fy; jhf;fk;). ,t; vRj;juhf;fy; jhf;fj;jpy; nrwpe;j
ry;g+upf; mkpyk; Cf;fpahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
nrwpe;j H2SO4 / ntg;gk;
3.1.3.2 C-O gpizg;Gg; gpstiljYld; <LgLk; fUehl;lg; gpujpal

P L
; j; jhf;fq;fs;
(m) Ijurd; Viyl;Lf;f;Sld; jhf;fq;fs; (HBr my;yJ HI)

mw;fNfhy;fs; HBr my;yJ HI cld; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj
; ; jhf;fj;jpy; <Lgl;L
mij xj;j mw;ify; GNuhikl;Lf;fis my;yJ mw;ify; maill;Lf;fisf;
nfhLf;Fk;. mkpy Kd;dpiyapy; (HBr my;yJHI) O mZtpd; GNuhj;jpuNdw;wk;>
-OH $l;lj;ij ey;y ntspNaWk; $l;lkhf (H2O) khw;Wk;.
; j; jhf;fkhFk;. ,j;jhf;fj;jpy; Br- fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLk;.

,J fUehl;lg; gpujpaPlL
H2O ntspNaWk; $l;lkhFk;.
mw;fNfhy;fs; HCl cld; Y}ap mkpyq;fs; my;yJ mkpyq;fs; Kd;dpiyapy;
khj;jpuk; jhf;fkilAk;.
Kjy; top> Gil mw;fNfhy;fis Y}f;fhrpd; Nrhjidahy; NtWgLj;jyhk; vd;Dk;
nra;ifiag; gad;gLj;jTk; ,j; jhf;fj;jpy; ROH, RCl Mf khw;wg;gLk;. Y}ap
mkpykhd ZnCl2 Cf;fpahf ,j;jhf;fj;jpy; njhopw;gLfpdw ; J. mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fs;
ePupy; fiuahj fhuzj;jhy;> jhf;fk; njhlUk;NghJ jhf;ff; fyit GfhuhfTk;
fyq;fyhfTk; khWk;. Nrhjidg; nghUl;fisf; fye;j gpd;G> fyq;fs; Njhd;W
tjw;fhd Neuj;ij Kjy;> top> Gil mw;fNfhy;fis NtWgLj;Jtjw;F gad;
gLj;jyhk;. NkNyAs;s fUehl;lg; gpujpal
P L
; j; jhf;fk; jug;gl;l jhf;f epge;jidfspd;
fPo; ,U gbfspy; eilngWfpd;wd. Gil mw;fNfhy;fs; cWjpahd ,ilepiy
fhNghfw;waid cz;lhf;Ftjhy;> Gil mw;fNfhy;fs; kpff; Fiwe;j Neuj;jpy;
fyq;fis cz;lhf;Fk;. top mw;fNfhy;fs; fyq;fiy cz;lhf;Ftjw;F ePz;l
Neuj;ij vLf;Fk;. Kjy; mw;fNfhy;fs; kpf nkJthfj; jhf;fkilAk;.
67
(M) nghRguR %Viyl;Lf;fSld; jhf;fk;. (PCl3my;yJ PBr3 )

mw;fNfhy;fs; PCl3 clDk; PBr3 clDk; jhf;fkile;J KiwNa mw;ify;
FNshiul;Lf;fisAk; mw;ify; GNuhikl;Lf;fisAk; nfhLf;Fk;.
(,) nghRguR Iq;FNshiul;Lld; jhf;fk;

mw;fNfhy;fs; PCl5 cld; jhf;file;J mw;ify; FNshiul;Lf;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;
NkNy (M) ,Yk; (,) ,Yk; tpgupf;fg;gl;l mw;fNfhypw;Fk; nghRguR Viyl;Lf;

fSf;Fkhd jhf;fq;fSk; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fshFk;. ,jpy; Viyl;L
mad; fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
3.1.3.3 ePf;fy; jhf;fk;

mw;fNfhy;fis nrwpe;j H2SO4 cld; ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ my;yJ mYkpdhTld; cau;
ntg;gepiyf;F ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ ePf;fy; jhf;fj;jpw;Fl;gLk;. mw;fNfhypypUe;J xU
%yf;$W ePufw;wg;gLk; NghJ> jhf;fkhdJ mw;fNfhy;fspd; ePufw;wyhFk;. ,j; jhf;fj;jpd;
NghJ mw;fPd; tpisthf cUthf;fg;gLk;.
nrwpe;j H2SO4 / ntg;gk;

+ H 2O
my;yJ
ePuw;w Al2O3 / ntg;gk;
3.1.3.4 mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;

mw;fNfhy;fs; rpy xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfSld; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;Fl;glyhk;. mw;fNfhy;
Kjy;> top my;yJ Gil vd;gjpy; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpd; tpisT jq;fpAs;sJ. mw;fNfhy;fspd;
xl;rpNaw;wk; H+/KMnO4 my;yJ H+/K2Cr2O7 my;yJ H+/CrO3 cld; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glyhk;.
(m) Kjy; mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;

Kjy; mw;fNfhy;fs; NkNy cs;s xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfSld; mij xj;j
my;bifl;bD}lhf fhnghl;rpypf; mkpykhf xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;.
my;yJ
my;yJ
68
xl;rpNaw;wj; jhf;fkhdJ gpupbdpak; FNshNuhFNuhNkw;W [C5H5NH]+[CrO3Cl] (PCC)

gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ my;bifl; cUthFk; epiyapy; epWj;jg;gLk;.
(M) top mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;

top mw;fNfhy;fs; NkNy cs;s Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpwF
; l;gl;L
fPw;Nwhd;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
my;yJ
my;yJ
my;yJ
(,) Gil mw;fNfhy;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;

Kjy;> top mw;fNfhy;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkilAk; epge;jidfspd; fPo; nghJthf
Gil mw;fNfhy;fs; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;Fl;glhJ.
3.2 gPNdhy;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fSk; ,ay;GfSk; jhf;fq;fSk;
3.2.1 gPNdhy;fspd; mkpyj;jd;ik
mNuhkw;wpf; Nru;itfspy; ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpYs;s fhgd; mZtpw;F OH $l;lk;

Neubahf ,izf;fg;gLk;NghJ gPNdhy;fs; vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. ePu;f;fiurypy; mw;f
Nfhy;fSk; gPNdhy;fSk; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW $l;lw;gpupif milfpd;wd.
gPNdhy;fs; mw;fNfhy;fspYk; mkpyj;jd;ik $bait MFk;. ,J Fwpg;gJ> NkNy

cs;s rkepiyapy;> rkepiyg;Gs;sp MdJ gPNdhy;fspw;F mw;fNfhy;fspYk; ghu;ff ;
tyJ gf;fk; Nehf;fpf; $lthff; fhzg;gLk;. ,jw;fhd fhuzk; vd;dntdpy;> gPNdhy;
rhu;ghd gPndhf;irl;L madpd; cWjpahdJ mw;fNfhy; rhu;ghd mw;nfhl;irl; madpd;
cWjpapYk; $lthFk;. ,jidg; gPNdhypdJk; mjd; mdadpdJk; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;
fisf; fUJtjdhy; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;.
69
gPNdhypd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
gPndhf;irl; madpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
cU 3.2 gPNdhypdJk; gPndhf;irl; madpdJk; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
gPNdhy; khjpup my;yhJ mdadpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fspy; Vw;wg; gpupT ,y;iy

vd;gjhy; mdad; gupthy; cWjpahf;fg;gLtJ gPNdhy; gupthy; cWjpahf;fg;gLtjpYk;
$lthFk; (cU 3.2). mw;fNfhy; my;yJ mjd; mdadpw;F ,t;thwhd gupthy; cWjp
ahf;fg;gLk; jd;ik ,y;iy vd;gjhFk;.
3.2.2 O-H gpizg;Gg; gpsT miljYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
gpd;tUk; cjhuzq;fs; %yk; gPNdhy;fspd; cau; mkpyj;jd;ikia cWjpg;gLj;jyhk;.

mw;fNfhy;fs; khjpup my;yhJ gPNdhy;fs; NaOH cld; jhf;fkile;J Nrhbak; gPndhf;
irl;ilf; nfhLf;Fk;. vdpDk; gPNdhy;fspdJ my;yJ mw;fNfhy;fspdJ mkpyj;
jd;ik NaHCO3 cld; jhf;fkile;J CO2 thAit ntspNaw;Wtjw;F NghJkhdjhf
,y;iy.
3.2.3 C-O gpizg;G ciljypdhy; epfoKbahj fUehl;lg; gpujpal

P ;Lj;
jhf;fq;fs;
mw;fNfhy;fs; khjpup my;yhJ gPNdhy;fs; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspy; <Lgl
khl;lhjd. xU gb my;yJ ,U gbj; jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfs; eilngw Kbahjd.
fhuzk;:
(m) xl;rprd; mZtpYs;s jdprN ; rhb ,yj;jpud;fs; Xuplg;ghlw;W ngd;rd
P ; tisaj;jpDs;
2
nry;tjhy; C - O gpizg;G ePsk; (sp fyg;ghf;f mZ) Fiwf;fg;gLtJld;
td;ikahf;fTk; (,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gj; jd;ik) gLk;. ,ijg; gupT %yk; fhl;lyhk;.
(M) gPidy; fw;wad; cWjpaw;wJ.
70
3.3 gPNdhy;fspYs;s ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; jhf;Fjd;ik
gPNdhypYs;s ngd;rPd; tisaj;Jld; O mZtpDs;s jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; Xuplg;

ghlw;Wf; fhzg;gLtjhy; gPNdhypYs;s ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; ,yj;jpud; nrwpthdJ
ngd;rPdpYk; $lthFk;. vdNt gPNdhypYs;s ngd;rPd; tisakhdJ ,yj;jpudhl;lr;
Nrhjidg; nghUl;fspwF; g; ngd;rd
P pYk; $ba jhf;Fj; jd;ik cilajhFk;. gPNdhypYs;s
O-H $l;lkhdJ ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fspy; xNjh kw;Wk; guh epiyfis
gPNdhypYs;s O-H $l;lk; rhu;ghfj; jpirg;gLj;Jk;. gPNdhypd; ,yj;jpudhl;lg; gpujpaPlL
; j;
jhf;fq;fis xj;j epge;jidfspy; ngd;rd P pd; mNj jhf;fq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ ,yj;ju
dhbfspw;F gPNdhypd; ngd;rPd; tisakhdJ $ba jhf;Fjd;ik cilaJ vd;gJ
njspthfpd;wJ. gpd;tUk; cjhuzq;fisf; fUJf.
3.3.1 GNuhkPDld; gPNdhypd; jhf;fk;
gPNdhy; GNuhkPd; ePUld; tpiuthfj; jhf;fkile;J 2> 4> 6 - %GNuhNkh gPNdhiyf;

nfhLf;Fk;. Mdhy; ngd;rPd; GNuhkPd; ePUld; jhf;fkilahJ.
jhf;fkpy;iy
,j;jhf;fj;ij GNuhkPd; ePUld; eilngwr; nra;Ak;NghJ 2> 4> 6 - %GNuhNkh gPNdhy;

ntz;zpw tPo;gbthfg; ngwg;gLk;.
3.3.2 gPNdhypd; iej;jpNuw;wk;

gPNdhypd; iej;jpNuw;wk; 20 0C ,y; Ijhd HNO3 clNdNa eilngWk;. vdpDk; ngd;rd
P pd;
iej;jpNuw;wj;jpwF
; cau; ntg;gepiy> nrwpe;j HNO3 / nrwpe;j H2SO4 fyit Njitg;gLk;.
Ijhd HNO3
nrwpej
; HNO3 / nrwpej
; H2SO4
gPNdhy;fSld; gpuPly; - fpuht; ,d; mw;ify; Vw;wj; jhf;fq;fis eilngwr; nra;a

KbahJ. Vnddpy; gPNdhy;fspw;Fk; gpuPly; - fpuht; (Friedel-Crafts) ,d; Cf;fpf;FkpilNa
rpf;fy; cUthtjhyhFk; vd;gJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ.
71
3.4 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;>

,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs;.
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPwN
; whd;fs; ,uz;Lk; fhgidy; ( >C=O) vd;Dk; njhopwg
; Lk; $l;lj;ijf;
nfhz;Ls;sd. my;bifl;Lf;fspy; fhgidy; fhgd;> H mZTlDk; mw;ify; my;yJ
Viuy; (mNuhkw;wpf;) $l;lj;JlDk; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. vdpDk; vspa my;bifl;lhd
Nghky;bifl;by; (nkjdy;) cs;s 2 H mZf;fSk; fhgidy; fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sd. fPwN
; whd;fspy; fhgidy; fhgdpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l $l;lq;fs; xt;nthd;Wk;
xd;wpy; mw;ify; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lkhFk;. fhgidy;> fhgd; mZthdJ sp2 fyg;ghf;f
khFk;. mj;Jld; ,jw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l %d;W mZf;fSk; xU jsj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;
(jsKf;Nfhzp) fhgd; xl;rprd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ghdJ xU  - gpizg;igAk; xU
 - gpizg;igAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
%yf;$WfSf;f pilNa ,UKidT - ,UKidT ,ilj;jhf;f k; ,Ug;gjdhy;>

my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; nfhjpepiyfs; mij xj;j xg;gplf;$ba rhu;
%yf;$w;Wj;jpzpTila mw;Nfd;fspYk; $lthFk;. vdpDk; mit %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa
H - gpizg;Gf;fis cz;lhf;fhikapdhy;> mtw;wpd; nfhjpepiyfs; xg;gplf;$ba rhu;
%yf;$w;Wj;jpzpTila mw;fNfhy;fspYk; FiwthFk; (ml;ltiz 3.3).
72
ml;ltiz 3.3 xg;gplf;$ba rhu; %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTfisAila my;bifl;Lf;fs;>

fPw;Nwhd;fs;> mw;fNfhy;fs; kw;Wk; mw;Nfd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
nfhjpepiyfSk; ePu;f; fiujpwd;fSk;
Nru;it fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuk; rhu;%yf; nfhjpepiy ePu;f;fiujpwd;

$w;Wj; /0 C g/100 mL)*
jpzpT
vjdy; CH3CHO 44 21 
vjNdhy; CH3CH2OH 46 78 
Gnuhg;Ngd; CH3CH2CH3 44 -42 ,y;iy
Gnuhg;gdy; CH3CH2CHO 58 49 16
Gnuhg;gNdhd; CH3COCH3 58 56 
1-Gnuhg;gNdhy; CH3CH2CH2OH 60 97 
2-Gnuhg;gNdhy; (CH3)2CHOH 60 83 
gpa+w;Nwd; CH3CH2CH2CH3 58 0 ,y;iy
gpa+w;wdy; CH3CH2CH2CHO 72 76 7
2-gpa+w;wNdhd; CH3COCH2CH3 72 80 26
1-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 74 118 7.9
2-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3 74 99 29
ngd;Nud; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 72 36 ,y;iy
ngd;udy; CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO 86 103 1
2-ngd;uNdhd; CH3COCH2CH2CH3 86 102 6
1-ngd;uNdhy; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 88 138 2.3
vf;Nrd; CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 86 68 ,y;iy
 - ve;j tpfpjj;jpYk; fyf;Fk; jfTilad.
MapDk; my;bifl;Lf;fSk; fPw;Nwhd;fSk; ePUld; %yf;$w;wpil H- gpizg;ig

Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; gq;Fgw;wf;$bad (cU 3.3). vdNt Fiwthd rhu;%yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTila
my;bifl;Lf;fSk; fPw;Nwhd;fSk; ePupy; fiuaf;$bad (ml;ltiz 3.3).
R
C O H
R H
O
cU 3.3 my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; ePUldhd %yf;$w;wpil H- gpizg;G
3.4.2 my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; jhf;fq;fs;
cau; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik cila O mZtpdhy; fhgidy; $l;lkhdJ Kidthf;f

Kila $l;lkhFk;. vdNt C mZthdJ ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;Fiw cilajhf ,Ug;gjhy;
fUehbAld; jhf;fkilaf; $bajhFk;. vdNt C mZthdJ %d;W mZf;fSld;
khj;jpuk; ,izf;fg; gl;Ls;sjhy; epuk;ghj; jd;ik cilajhFk;. vdNt ,J fUehbAld;
73
Gjpa gpizg;ig cz;lhf;ff; $baJ. ,r;nra;ifapdN ; ghJ  - ,yj;jpud;fs; O mZtpwF;

,lkhw;wg;gLtjdhy; vjpNuw;wj;ijg; ngWk;. ,t; vjpNuw;wkhdJ> NeNuw;wKs;s
Jzpf;iffs; ,iztjhy; eLepiyg;gLj;jg;gLk; (ngUk;ghYk; xU GNuhj;jpud;). vdNt
my;bifl;Lf; fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fs; fUehl;lf; $l;ly;
jhf;fq;fshFk;.
3.4.3 fUehl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fq;fs;
3.4.3.1 my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPwN

; whd;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; HCN ,d; jhf;fk;
my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPwN

; whd;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; HCN Ij; jhf;fkilatply; fUehl;lf;
$l;ly; jhf;fkhFk;. ,J fhgidy; Nru;itiaAk; Nrhbak; raidl;L ePuf ; f
; iuriyAk;
nfhz;Ls;s fyitf;Fs; Ijhd fdpgn ; ghUs; mkpyj;ijr; Nru;gg
; jd; %yk; elj;jg;gLk;.
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; CN- mad; fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLk;.
raNdhIjuPd;
3.4.3.2 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;
fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fspy; C - Mg gpizg;ghdJ gpdt

; UkhW Kidthf;fkilAk;.
vdNt fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUspYs;s R- njhFjp> R - Mg gpizg;gpYs;s ,yj;jpud;

NrhbAld; Nru;e;J fUehbahf fhgidy; fhgDld; jhf;fkilAk;. ,J mw;nfhl;irl;L
kfdPrpak; Viyl;L cUthtjw;F Kd;ndLj;Jr; nry;Yk;.
gb 1
mw;nfhl;rp kfdPrpak; GNuhikl;L

mw;nfhl;rp kfdPrpak; GNuhikl;bd; ePu;g;gFg;G mij xj;j mw;fNfhiyf; nfhLf;Fk;.
,J mkpy ePu;f;fiurypdhy; elj;jg;gLk;.
gb 2
74
KOj;jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW:
Nghky;bifl; jtpu;ej
; kw;w vy;yh my;bifl;Lf;fSk; top mw;fNfhy;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
vdpDk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUs;fSld; Gil mw;fNfhy;fisf;
nfhLf;Fk;. Nghky;bifl; Kjy; mw;fNfhiyf; nfhLf;Fk;.
ePuw;w epge;jidfspd; fPo; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUisj; jahupj;J> my;bifl;Lf;fs;>

fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fkila tplg;gLk;. vdNt mw;nfhl;irl;L kfdPrpak;
Viyl;L jahupj;jYk; mjd; ePu;g;gFg;Gk; ,U ntt;Ntwhd gbfshFk;.
3.4.3.3 2>4 - ,U iej;jpNuh gPidy; IjurPDld; jhf;fk; (2,4 - D.N.P my;yJ

gpubapd; Nrhjidg; nghUs; - Brady’s reagent)
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; my;bifl; my;yJ fPw;NwhDld; 2>4 - ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; IjurPdpd;

fUehl;lf; $l;ly; Kjypy; eilngWk;. gpd;G ,ilepiy tpistpypUe;J ePu; %yf;$W
mfw;wg;gl;L> ,Wjp tpisthf 2>4 - ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; IjuNrhd; cz;lhFk;.
H H H
fUehl;lf; $l;ly;
H H H
ePufw;wy;
2>4 - ,Uiej;jpNuh gPidy; IjuNrhd;

(fLk; kQ;rs; my;yJ nrk;kQ;rs; tPog
; bT)
,j;jhf;fk; NkNy fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW ,Ugbfspy; eilngWk;. fUehl;lf; $l;lypdhy;

Kjypy; ngwg;gLk; Ijnuhl;rp tpisit jhf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo; NtWgLj;j KbahJ.
kw;Wk; ePufw;wg;gl;L ,Wjp tpisitf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,j;jhf;fk; my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk;
fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;iw ,dk; fhzg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
3.4.4 my;bifl;Lf;fspdJk; fPw;Nwhd;fspdJk; jd;xLf;fy; jhf;fk;
fhgidy; fhgdpwF
; Neubahfg; gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;s fhgDf;F ,izf;fg;gl;l H mZf;fs;
(  H) fhgidy; njhFjpapd; td;ikahd ,yj;jpud; toq;Fk; jd;ikapdhy; mkpyj;
jd;ikahf khWk;. ,t;   H MdJ> GNuhj;jpudhf ,Ug;gjhy; fhuj;jpdhy; mfw;wg;gLk;.
75
,t;   H MdJ fhuj;jpdhy; GNuhj;jpudhfr; RUf;fg;gl;bUf;fyhk;. ,t;thW cUthf;fg;

gLk; fhgddad; fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW guptpdhy; cWjpahf;fg;gLk;.
+ H 2O
,f; fhgddad; fUehbahfj; njhopwg; lf;$baJ. kw;Wk; ,J madhf;fkilahj fPwN ; whd;

%yf;$wpd; fhgidy; njhFjpapd; fhgd; mZitj; jhf;Fk;. Mifahy;   H If;
nfhz;Ls;s my;bifl;Lf;fSk; fPwN
; whd;fSk; fhu Cf;fpfF
; upa jd;xLf;fy; jhf;fq;fspy;
<Lglf;$bad.
rpy cjhuzq;fisg; ghu;g;Nghk;.
KOj;jhf;fk; MdJ>
NaOH (ePu;)
NaOH ePu;f;fiury; Kd;dpiyapy; mrw;Nwhdpd; xLq;fy; jhf;fk;
76
KOj;jhf;fk; MdJ>
NaOH (ePu;)
NkNy ngwg;gl;l $l;ly; tpisTfshdJ mkpyq;fSld; ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ ,yFthf

ePufw;wYf;Fl;gLk;.
3.4.5 ,ypj;jpak;> mYkPdpak; Ijiul;L (LiAlH4) my;yJ Nrhbak;

NghNuhIjiul;L(NaBH4) vd;gdtw;wpdhy; my;bifl;Lf;fisAk;
fPw;Nwhd;fisAk; jho;jj
; y;.
my;bifl;Lf;fs; LiAlH4 cld; my;yJ NaBH4 cld; Kjy; mw;fNfhy;fshfj; jho;j;jg;

gLk;. vdpDk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; top mw;fNfhy;fshfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;. ,j; jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;
fspy; LiAlH4 kw;Wk; NaBH4 ,uz;Lk; Ijiul;L (H-) maidf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,t; Ijiul;L
mad; fUehbahff; fhgidy; fhgDld; jhf;fkilAk;. vdNt ,j; jho;jj ; y; jhf;fq;fs;>
fUehl;lf;$l;ly; jhf;fq;fshff; fUjg;gLk;.
1. LiAlH4 / <ju;
2. H+/ H2O
1. LiAlH4 / <ju;
2. H+/ H2O
NaBH4 / nkjNdhy;
NaBH4 / nkjNdhy;
LiAlH4I ePu; my;yJ nkjNdhy; Kd;dpiyapy; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ jhf;Fjd;ik $baJ

vd;gijf; Fwpg;gplTk;.
77
3.4.6 my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;iw Zn(Hg) / nrwp

HCl ,dhy; jho;jj
; y;. (fpskd;rdpd; jho;jj
; y;; - Clemmenson)
,j;jho;j;jy; jhf;fj;jpy; C=O $l;lkhdJ nkjyPd; $l;lkhfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;. ,t;thwhf

my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; ,uz;Lk; IjNuhfhgd;fshf khw;wg;gLk;.
Zn(Hg) / nrwp HCl
Zn(Hg) / nrwp HCl
3.4.7 my;bifl;Lf;fspd; xl;rpNaw;wk;
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfshd mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W>

my;yJ mkpykhf;fg;gl;l FNuhkpf; xl;irl;L my;yJ mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak;
gukq;fNdw;W kw;Wk; nkd; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfshd njhydpd; Nrhjidg; nghUs;
(Tollen’s reagent)> gPypq;fpd; firy; (Fehling solution) Nghd;wtw;wpdhy; fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpyq;fshf xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;. mkpy Clfj;jpy; my;bifl;Lf;fs; fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpyq;fshf xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;. vdpDk; njhydpdJk;> gpypq;fpdJk; fiury;fs;
fhukhjyhy;> tpisT fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj;jpd; cg;G MFk;. ,r;Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld;
fPw;Nwhd;fs; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;F cl;glkhl;lhjd.
3.4.7.1 njhydpd; (Tollen) Nrhjidg; nghUspdhy; xl;rpNaw;wy;.
njhydpd; Nrhjidg; nghUshdJ> Ag+I [Ag(NH3)2]+ vd;w mikg;gpy; nfhz;Ls;s

fiuryhFk;. my;bifl;Lf;fisf; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fshf xl;rpNaw;Wk;NghJ> Ag+
mad;fs; cNyhf nts;spahfj; jho;j;jg;gl;Lr; Nrhjidf; Fohapy; nts;sp Mbiaf;
nfhLf;Fk;.

nts;sp
Mb
njhydpd; Nrhjidg; nghUspdhy; my;bifl;Lf;fis xl;rpNaw;wy; my;yJ nts;sp

Mbg; gupNrhjid my;bifl;Lf;fisAk; fPwN
; whd;fisAk; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W NtWgLj;J
tjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
78
3.4.7.2 gPypq;fpd; (Fehling) fiurypdhy; xl;rpNaw;wy;.
NaOH ePu;f;fiurypYs;s nfhg;gu; (II) jhj;jNuw;W fiuryhdJ gPypq;fpd; fiury; vd;W

mwpag;gLk;. ,J fLk; ePyf;fiuryhFk;. ,r; Nrhjidg; nghUspDs; rpy Jspfs;
my;bifl;ilr; Nru;j;J ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ> fiurypd; ePyepwk; gbg;gbahf mfw;wg;gl;L>
nrq;fl;br; rptg;G epw Fg;gpu]; xl;irl;L tPo;gbT cz;lhFk;.
(jhj;jNuw;W)
(nrq;fl;br; rptg;G tPog

; bT)
my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;iw gPypq;fpd; fiurYld; jhf;fkila

tpLjdhy; xd;wpypUe;J xd;iw NtWgLj;jyhk;.
3.4.7.3 mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W my;yJ mkpykhf;fg;gl;l

FNuhkpf; xl;irl;L my;yJ mkpykhf;fg;gl;l nghw;whrpak; gukq;fNdw;W
,dhy; xl;rpNaw;wy;.
my;bifl;Lf;fis xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfshd mkpy nghw;whrpak; ,UFNuhNkw;W my;yJ

mkpy FNuhkpf; xl;irl;L my;yJ mkpy nghw;whrpak; gukq;fNdw;W cld; jhf;fkila
tpLtjhy;> mit mNj fhgd; vz;zpfi ; fAila fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fshf xl;rpNaw;wg;
gLk;.
my;bifl;L Kd;dpiyapy; H+/ KMnO4 ,d; nkd;rptg;G epwk; epwkw;wjhf khWk;. MapDk;
H+/ Cr2O72- ,d; nrk;kQ;rs; epwk; gr;ir epwkhf khWk;. ,r; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp my;bifl;Lf;fisAk; fPwN ; whd;fisAk; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W NtWgLj;jyhk;.
fPw;Nwhd;fs;> C=O $l;lj;jpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l H mZitg; nfhz;bUf;fhjgbahy;>

mit ,t; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfSld; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;F cl;glkhl;lhjd.
MapDk; fPwN
; whd;fis td; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfs; Nghd;w nghw;whrpak; gukq;fNdw;Wld;
ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ xl;rpNaw;wg;glyhk;. ,t; xl;rpNaw;wj;jpd;NghJ fhgd; - fhgd; gpizg;G
ciltjd; tpisthf fPw;Nwhd; gpsT milAk;.
79
3.5 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; fl;likg;Gf;fs;> ,ay;Gfs;> jhf;fq;fs;
C=O kw;Wk; OH $l;lq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;w fhnghl;rpy; (COOH) $l;lj;ij cila

Nru;itfs; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fshFk; (cU 3.4). OH $l;lq;fisAila NtW
Nrjdr; Nru;itfspYk; ghu;ff; f; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; nghJthf mkpyj;jd;ik
$baitahFk;. Mdhy; rhjhuz fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fspYk; nkd;ikahdit.
cU 3.4 fhnghl;rpy; $l;lj;jpd; fl;likg;G
fhnghl;rpy; $l;lkhdJ KidTj; jd;ikAila njhopw;gLk; $l;lkhFk;. C=O kw;Wk;

OH $l;lq;fspd; Kidthf;fj;jpdhy;> ,it %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;
fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; ,U gFjpa fl;likg;Gf;fis
cUthf;ff; $bad. ,jpy; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpy %yf;$Wfs; Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fshy;
Nrhbfshf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ (cU 3.5).
cU 3.5 H - gpizg;ghy; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; ,U gFjpaf; fl;likg;G
,f; fhuzq;fspdhy; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;> mtw;iw xj;j rhu; %yf;$w;Wj;jpzpTila

mw;fNfhy;fs;> my;bifl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; fPwN
; whd;fs; vd;gtw;wpYk; ghu;ff
; cau; nfhjpepiy
fisf; fhl;lf;$bad (ml;ltiz 3.4).
80
ml;ltiz 3.4 xj;j rhu; %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTfisAila rpy fhnghl;rpypf;

mkpyq;fs;> mw;fNfhy;fs;> my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gd
tw;wpd; nfhjpepiyfs;.
Nru;it fl;likg;Gr; #j;jpuk; rhu;%yf;$w;Wj; jpzpT nfhjpepiy /0C
nkjndhapf; mkpyk; HCO2H 46 100

vjNdhy; CH3CH2OH 46 78
vjdy; CH3CHO 44 20
vjndhapf; mkpyk; CH3COOH 60 118
1-Gnuhg;gNdhy; CH3CH2CH2OH 60 97
2-Gnuhg;gNdhy; (CH3)2CHOH 60 83
Gnuhg;gdy; CH3CH2CHO 58 49
Gnuhg;gNdhd; (CH3)2C=O 58 56
Gnuhg;gndhapf; mkpyk; CH3CH2CO2H 74 141
1-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 74 118
2-gpa+w;wNdhy; CH3CH(OH)CH2CH3 74 99
gpa+w;wdy; CH3CH2CH2CHO 72 75
gpa+w;wNdhd; CH3COCH2CH3 72 80
fhnghl;rpy; $l;lkhdJ ePUld; H - gpizg;Gf;fis Vw;gLj;jf;$baJ. vdNt C1

njhlf;fk; C4 tiuapyhd fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; ePupy; ed;whff; fiutd. fhgd;
mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; fiujpwd;
Fiwfpd;wd. mNuhkw;wpf; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; ePupy; fiuahjd. kw;Wk; jpz;kg;
gspqF
; g; gjhu;jj
; q;fshf cs;sd. mNdfkhf vy;yh fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fSk; Nrjd
fiug;ghd;fspy; fiufpd;wd.
3.5.2 - COOH $l;lj;jpd; jhf;Fjpwd; tiffis / khjpupfis

my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; >C=O
$l;lj;JlDk; kw;Wk; mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
- OH $l;lj;JlDk; xg;gpLjy;.
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj;jpd; -OH $l;lKk; mw;fNfhy;fs;> khjpup C - O gpizg;G kw;Wk;

O - H gpizg;G ,uz;Lk; gpsTgLjYld; rk;ge;jg;gLk; jhf;fq;fspy; <Lglf;$baJ.
81
3.5.2.1 O-H gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; mkpyj;jd;ikahdit. vdNt mit fhu cNyhfq;fshd

Nrhbak;> nghw;whrpak;> fhuq;fshd NaOH, KOH kw;Wk; %yq;fshd Na2CO3 > NaHCO3
vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fkilAk;.
mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs;> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; Nrhbak;> Nrhbak;

Ijnuhl;irl;L> Nrhbak; fhgNdw;W> Nrhbak; ,UfhgNdw;W vd;gdtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fis
xg;gpLjy;. ml;ltiz 3.5 ,y; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz 3.5 mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs;> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld;

Nrhbak;> Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L> Nrhbak; fhgNdw;W> Nrhbak;
,UfhgNdw;W ,dJ jhf;fq;fs;.
jhf;fq;fs;
Nru;it cNyhf Na NaOH (aq) Na2CO3 (aq) my;yJ
NaHCO3(aq)
H2 thA ntspNaWk;. jhf;fkpy;iy jhf;fkpy;iy

RO Na cUthFk;.
- +
H2 thA ntspNaWk;. NaOH (aq) ,y; fiuAk;. jhf;fkpy;iy

C6H5O- Na+ cUthFk;. C6H5O- Na+ ePu;f;fiury;
cUthFk;.
H2 thA ntspNaWk;. NaOH (aq) ,y; fiuAk;. CO2 thA ntspNaWk;.

RCOO- Na+ ePu;f;fiury; RCOO- Na+ ePu;f;fiury; Na2CO3 (aq) my;yJ
cUthFk;. cUthFk;. NaHCO3(aq) ,y;
fiue;J RCOO- Na+
ePuf
; f
; iury; cUthFk;.
,jpypUe;J mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; kw;Wk; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspdJ mkpy

typikfspd; NtWghL gpd;tUkhW:
mw;fNfhy;fs; < gPNdhy;fs; < fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; ePu; Clfj;jpy; gpd;tUkhW rkepiyapy; cs;sd.
82
NkNy cs;s rkepiyapd; rkepiyg; Gs;spahdJ gPNdhy;fspdhy; milag;gLk; xj;j

rkepiy rhu;ghff; $Ljyhf tyJ gf;fk; Nehf;fp efu;j;jg;gLk;. fhnghl;rpNyw; mad;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyk; rhu;ghf cWjpahf;fg;gLtJ gPNdw; mad; gPNdhy; rhu;ghf cWjp
ahf;fg;gLtjpYk; $lthFk;. gPndhf;irl; mad;> gPNdhy;fs; (cU 3.2) khjpup
fhnghl;rpNyw; mad;> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyk; ,uz;Lk; gupthy; cWjpahf;fg;gLfpd;wd
(cU 3.6).
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyj;jpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs; fhnghl;rpNyw; mdadpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
cU 3.6 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyk; fhnghl;rpNyw; mdad;

vd;gdtw;wpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gf;fs;
fhnghl;rpNyw; mdad; gupthy; cWjpahf;fg;gLtJ fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyk; gupthy; cWjp

ahf;fg;gLtjpYk; $lthFk;. Vnddpy; mkpyk; khjpup my;yhky; mdadpd; gupTf;
fl;likg;Gf;fspy; Vw;wg;gpupT ,y;iy vd;gjhyhFk; (cU 3.6).
gPndf;irl; madpy; xl;rprd; kw;Wk; fhgd; mZf;fspd; vjpNuw;wk; Xuplg;ghlw;Wf;

fhzg;gLtJ Nghyy;yhJ> ,U rkkhd kpd;ndjpu;jj ; d;ik cila xl;rprd; mZf;fSf;
fpilNa vjpNuw;wk; Xuplg;ghlw;Wf; fhnghl;rpNyw; mad; cWjpahf;fg;gLtjhy; fhnghl;rpypf;
mkpyk; cau; mkpyj;jd;ik cilaJ vd;Dk; cz;ikia tpsf;fyhk;.
3.5.2.2 C-O gpizg;G gpsTgLjYld; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fs;
(m) fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; PCl3 my;yJ PCl5 cld; jhf;fkile;J mNj fhgd;
vz;zpf;ifAila fhnghl;rpypf; mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fisf; nfhLf;fpd;wd.
(M) mw;fNfhy;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;

fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; mw;fNfhy;fSld; mkpy Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; jhf;fkile;J
vRj;ju;fisf; nfhLf;fpd;wd.
nrwp H2SO4 / 
83
MapDk; NkNy cs;s jhf;fkhdJ vspa fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fk; Nghy;

Njhd;wpdhYk; (OH, OC2H5 ,dhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gly;) cz;ikahf Kjypy; C2H5OH
%yf;$whdJ C=O ,w;F FWf;Nf fUehl;lf; $l;lypy; <Lgl;L ehd;KfpfF; upa ,ilepiy
iaf; nfhLf;Fk;. jhf;fj;jpd; mkpy epge;jidfspd; fPo; ,t; ,ilepiy %yf;$W
,oe;J vRj;jiuf; nfhLf;Fk;.
Fwpg;G: jaTnra;J gFjp 3.6 ,Ys;s fye;Jiuahliyg; ghu;ff

; Tk;.
3.5.2.3 LiAlH4 cld; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; jho;j;jy;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; td; / rf;jptha;e;j jho;j;Jk; fUtpahd LiAlH4 cld; jhf;f

kile;J mw;fNfhy;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;. fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fSk; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;
mkpyg; ngWjpfSk; LiAlH4 ,Yk; td;ik Fiwe;j jho;j;Jk; fUtpahd NaBH4 ,dhy;
jho;j;jYf;Fl;glhJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;fTk;.
84
3.6 fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfspd; jhf;fq;fs;
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfspdJk; kw;Wk; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspdJk; jhf;fq;fis

mij xj;j my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fSld; xg;gpLkhW
mwpTWj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
my;bifl;L f;f spdJk; fPw ;Nwhd;f spdJk; fhnghl; r pypf; mkpyq; f spdJk; mkpyg;
fUehl;lf; $l;ly; ngWjpfspdJk; fUehl;lg; gpujpaPL
HX HX my;yJ X-
X - fUehb X - fUehb
Z = H; my;bifl;
Z = mw;ify; my;yJ
Viuy;:- fPw;Nwhd;
Z = OH; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyk;
Z = Cl; mkpy FNshiul;
Z = OR; vRj;ju;
Z = NH2; Vikl;
cU 3.7 my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;ghd jhf;fq;fis

mij xj;j fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs;> mtw;wpd; ngWjpfs; vd;gdtw;wpd;
jhf;fq;fSld; xg;gpLjy;.
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; jhf;fq;fspd; Kf;fpa NtWghL khWgl;lJ.

fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfs;> fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fs; vd;gdtw;wpYs;s Z $l;lkhdJ
ntspNaWk; $l;lkhfj; njhopwg ; Lfpdw
; J. mjhtJ C - Z gpizg;gpd; gy;ypdg; gFg;gpwF
; upa
gpsT rk;ge;jg;gLk; jhf;fq;fspy; Z MdJ gpizg;gpYs;s xU Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fSld;
ntspNaWk;.
fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fisAk;> mkpyg;ngWjpfisAk; vLj;jhy; jhf;fj;jpd; Kjy; gb>

fUehbahdJ mkpyq;fs;> mkpyg; ngWjpfs; vd;gdtw;wpd; fhgidy; fhgidj; jhf;fp>
fhgd;> xl;rprd;  - gpizg;ig cilj;J ehd;KfpfF
; upa ,ilepiyiaf; nfhLg;gjhFk;.
,jidj; njhlu;e;J Z MdJ fhu my;yJ eLepiy epge;jidfspy; Z- MfTk; mkpy
epge;jidfspy; ZH MfTk; ,of;fg;gLtjhy; fhgd;> xl;rprd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;G kPs
cUthf;fg;gLk;.
,t;thwhf fhgd; mZ Kf;Nfhz Nfj;jpu fzpj tbtj;ij (js Kf;Nfhzp Nfj;jpu

fzpj tbtk;) kPz;Lk; milAk;. g+uz jhf;fj;jpy; fUehbapdhy; Z gpujpaplg;gLk;.
my;bifl;Lf;fs;> fPwN
; whd;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; H, mw;ify;> Viuy; njhFjpfs; ntspNaWk;
njhFjpfshf ele;J nfhs;s Kbahjhifahy;> ,j;jhf;fg; ghij fpilf;fg; ngwkhl;lhJ.
85
3.6.1 mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs; Nrhbak; Ijnuhl;irl;L ePu;f;fiurYld; jhf;fkile;J mij

xj;j fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,J Nkyjpf NaOH cld; jhf;fkile;J
mtw;wpd; Nrhbak; cg;igf; nfhLf;Fk;.
ehd;Kfpf;Fupa
,ilepiy
NkYs;s jhf;fj;jpy; OH- fUehbahFk; kw;Wk; Cl- ntspNaWk; njhFjpahFk;.
3.6.1.2 ePUld; jhf;fk;
mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs; ePUld; NkNyAs;s jhf;fg; nghwpKiw khjpupj; jhf;fkile;J

mij xj;j fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fisf; nfhLf;Fk;.
+ HCl
3.6.1.3 mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fk;
mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs; mw;fNfhy;fs;> gPNdhy;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fkile;J KiwNa

mw;ify; vRj;ju;fs;> gPidy; vRj;ju;fs; vd;gdtw;iw cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd.
86
3.6.1.4 mNkhdpah kw;Wk; Kjy; mikd;fs; vd;gdtw;Wld; jhf;fq;fs;
mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs; mNkhahTld; jhf;fkile;J Kjy; Vikl;Lf;fis cz;lhf;F

fpd;wd.
mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fs; Kjy; mikd;fSld; jhf;fkile;J top Vikl;Lf;fis

cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd.
Fwpg;G: Vikl;Lf;fspy; ,U H mZf;fs; N mZtpw;F ,izf;fg;gLk; nghOJ Kjy;

Vikl;Lf;fs; vd tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. Kjy; Vikl;Lf;fspy; H mZthdJ mw;ifd;
njhFjpapdhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk; nghOJ> ,J top Vikl;Lf;fshfTk; kw;Wk; ,U
H mZf;fSk; ,U mw;ify; njhFjpfspdhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk; nghOJ> ,J Gil
Vikl;Lf;fshfTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
3.6.2 vRj;ju;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
3.6.2.1 Ijhd fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fSld; jhf;fq;fs;
vRj;ju;fs; Ijhd fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fSld; jhf;fkile;J mij xj;j fhnghl;rpypf;

mkpyq;fisAk; mw;fNfhy;fisAk; tpisTfshff; nfhLf;fpd;wd. ,j; jhf;fj;jpy; ePu;
fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ. kw;Wk; vRj;ju;fs; ePug
; ;gFg;gpwF
; s;shfpd;wd. ,j; jhf;fk;
gFjp 3.5.2.2 (b) ,y; nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sthW vRj;ju;fs; cUthFk;NghJ rk;ge;jg;gLk;
mNj ehd;Kfpf;Fupa ,ilepiy Clhfr; nry;fpwJ.
H+
87
3.6.2.2 NaOH ePu;f;fiurYld; jhf;fk;
vRj;ju;fs; NaOH ePu;f;fiurYld; jhf;fkilAk; nghOJ mij xj;j fhnghl;rpypf;

mkpyq;fspd; Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fisAk; mw;fNfhy;fisAk; cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. ,j;
jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiwahdJ mkpy FNshiul;Lf;fspw;Fk; NaOH ,w;Fkhd jhf;fg;
nghwpKiwia (gFjp 3.6.1.1) xj;jjhf cs;sJ.
3.6.2.3 fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld; jhf;fk;
vRj;ju;fs; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld; Gil mw;fNfhy;fisf; nfhLf;fpd;wd.

,j;jhf;fj;jpy; vRj;juhdJ Kjypy; fPw;Nwhdhf khw;wg;gLk;. gpd;G ,J cldbahf
kPz;Lk; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld; jhf;fkilAk;. tpisit ePu;g;gFf;Fk;NghJ
Gil mw;fNfhy; tpisthfg; ngwg;gLk;.
fPw;Nwhd;fs; fpupdhl;bd; Nrhjidg; nghUSld; vRj;ju;fspYk; tpiuthfj; jhf;f

kiltjhy;> ,j;jhf;fj;ij fPw;Nwhd; epiyapy; epw;ghl;LtJ rhjfkhdjy;y vd;gijf;
Fwpg;gplTk;.
3.6.2.4 LiAlH4 My; jho;j;jy;
vRj;ju;fs; LiAlH4 cld; jhf;fkilAk;. kw;Wk; jho;j;jYf;Fl;gl;L mw;fNfhy;fisf;

nfhLf;Fk;.
1. LiAlH4 / cyu; <ju;
88
3.6.3 Vikl;Lf;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
Vikl;Lf;fis NaOH ePu;f;fiurYld; #lhf;Fk;NghJ NH3 thA ntspNaw;wj;Jld;

mtw;iw xj;j fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fisAk; nfhLf;fpd;wd.
NaOH (ePu;)
Kjy; Vikl;Lf;fs; LiAlH4 cld; mtw;iw xj;j Kjy; mikd;fshfj; jho;jj

; g;gLfpdw
; d.
1. LiAlH4 / cyu; <ju;
89
90
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 10 iejurd; cila Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
4. iejurd; cila
Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;
cs;slf;fk;
4.1 Kjy; mikd;fs; mdpyPd; vd;gtw;wpd; 4.3 mNuhkw;wpf; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fq;fs;
fl;likg;G ,ay;Gfs;> jhf;fq;fs;
4.3.1 <uNrhdpak; $l;lk; NtW mZtpdhy;
my;yJ xU $l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaplg;gLk;
4.1.2 mdpyPdpd; ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd;
jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;Fjpwd;
4.1.3 Kjy; mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; 4.3.1.1 ePUld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fspd;
4.1.3.1 mw;ify; Viyl;LfSld; jhf;fk;
mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; 4.3.1.2 cgnghRguR mkpyj;Jld; (H3PO2)
4.1.3.2 my;Bifl;Lfs;>
fPw;Nwhd;fs; Mfpatw;Wld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs; 4.3.1.3 CuCl, CuBr vd;gtw;Wld; <uNrhdpak;
4.1.3.3 mkpyf; FNshiul;Lfs; cld; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
4.3.1.4 CuCN cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd;
4.1.3.4 ieju]; mkpyj;Jld;
jhf;fk;
(NaNO2/HCl) mikd;fspd;
jhf;fk; 4.3.1.5 KI cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd;
jhf;fk;
4.2 mikd;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
4.3.2 <uNrhdpak; mad; ,yj;jpud; ehbahfj;
4.2.1 my;fNfhy;fspd; xg;gpLifapy;
njhopw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;
mikd;;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
4.2.2 mypgw;wpf; Kjy; mikd;fs;> mdpyPd;
Mfpatw;wpd; %yj;jd;ik
4.2.3 mikd;fspd; %ytpay;ig
Vikl;Lf;fSld; xg;gply;
91
mwpKfk;
N cila nghJthd Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;> mkPd;fs;> Vikl;Lfis cs;slf;Fk;.
Vikl;Lfspd; jhf;fq;fs; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWkjpfspd; fPo; fye;Jiuahlg;gl;Ls;sJ.
fhuzk; fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyg; ngWjpfs; ahtw;wpYk; Viry; $l;lk; nghJthf cs;sJ.
,t;tyfpy; mikd;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;> jhf;fq;fs; mtw;wpd; fl;likg;Gj; njhlu;ghff;
fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;. mNkhdpahtpYs;s Ijurd; mZf;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf mw;ify;
my;yJ Viuy; $l;lq;fs; iejurDld; ,ize;Js;s Nru;itfshf mikd;fis
tiuaWf;fyhk;.
4.1 Kjy; mikd;fs;> mdpyd

P ; vd;gtw;wpd; fl;likg;G> ,ay;Gfs;>
jhf;fq;fs;
mw;ify; Viyl;Lfs;> mw;fNfhy;fs; Nghyd;wp mikd;fs; iejurd; mZTld;

,ize;Js;s mw;ify; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lq;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;Nfw;g Kjy;> top>
Gil mikd;fshfg; ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. mNkhdpahtpYs;s %d;W Ijurd; mZf;fspy;
xU Ijurd; mZtpw;Fg; gjpyhf xU mw;ify; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lk; ,ize;Js;s
Nru;itfs; Kjy; mikd;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. mNkhdpahtpy; ,U Ijurd; mZf;
fSf;Fg; gjpyhf ,U $l;lq;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; mw;ify; my;yJ Viuy; $l;lkhf
,izf;fg;gLk; nghOJ cs;s Nru;itfs; top mikd;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. %d;W
Ijurd; mZf;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf ,t;thwhd %d;W $l;lq;fs; ,izf;fg;gLk; nghOJ
cs;s Nru;itfs; Gil mikd;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
methylamine dimethylamine trimethylamine

nkijy;mikd; ,Unkijy;mikd; Kk;nkijy;mikd;
(Kjy; mikd;) (top mikd;) (Gil mikd;)
xU Viuy; $l;lkhtJ (mNuhkw;wpf;F tisak;) iejurd; mZTld; ,ize;j

Nru;itfs; mNuhkw;wpf; mikd;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. kpf vspa mNuhkw;wpf; mikdpy;
NH2 $l;lk; ngd;rPd; tisaj;Jld; ,ize;Js;sJ (mdpyPd;).
aniline N-methylaniline
mdpyPd; N- nkijy;mdpyPd;
(Kjy; mNuhkw;wpf; mikd;) (top mNuhkw;wpf; mikd;)
92
4.1.2 mdpyPdpd; ngd;rPd; tisaj;jpd; jhf;Fjpwd;
gPNdhiyg;Nghy;> mdpyd
P ; GNuhkPDld; ,yFtpy; jhf;fKw;W 2> 4> 6- %GNuhNkhmdpyiP dj;
jUk;. fhuzk; -NH2 $l;lk; ngd;rdP ; tisaj;ij VTfpd;wJ. ,yj;jpud; ehl;lg; gpujpaPL
epfOk;. Br2 ePUld; ,j;jhf;fj;ijr; nra;Ak;nghOJ nts;is epw tPo;gbT 2> 4>
6 - %GNuhNkhmdpyPd; epw tPo;gbthf mtjhdpf;fg;gLk;.
4.1.3 Kjy; mikd;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;
mkPdf
; spy; N mZ jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; fUehbfshf mkPdf
; s;
njhopw;glyhk;. gpd;tUtd Kjy; mikd;fs; NtWgl;l Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld;
fUehbahfj; njhopw;gLk; rpy jhf;fq;fshFk;.
4.1.3.1 mw;ify; Viyl;LfSld; mikd;fspd; jhf;fk;
Kjy; mikd;fs; mw;ify; Viyl;LfSld; jhf;fKw;W top mikd;fisj; jUk;.
,t;top mikd;fSk; N mZtpy; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy;

mw;ify; Viyl;Lld; NkYk; jhf;fKw;Wg; Gila mikd;fis cUthf;fyhk;. Gil
mkPdpYk; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; cs;sjhy;> cUthFk; Gil> mkPd; mw;ify;
Viyl;Lld; NkYk; jhf;fKw;W xU rJu;ff
; (quaternars) mNkhdpak; cg;G cUthfyhk;.
top mikd; Gil mikd; rJu;ff

; mNkhdpak; cg;G
MfNt Kjy; mikdpwF

; k; mw;ify; Viyl;Lf;fspwF
; k; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; tpisTfspd;
xU fyitiaj; jUk;.
93
4.1.3.2 my;Bifl;Lfs;> fPw;Nwhd;fs; Mfpatw;Wld; mikd;fspd; jhf;fk;
my;Bifl;Lfs;> fPwN; whd;fs; Mfpadtw;Wld; mikd;fs; fUehl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fj;ijj;

njhlu;e;J ePf;fy; jhf;fjpyPLgLk;. tpisTfs; ,kPd;fs; (imines) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
H2O tpd; ePf;fy;

fUehl;lf; $l;ly; jhf;fk;
,j;jhf;fk; 2> 4 - ,U iej;jpNuh gPidy; IjurPDld; (gpuhb Nrhjidg;nghUs;)

my;Bifl;Lfs; fPw;Nwhd;fspd; jhf;fj;ij xj;jJ.
4.1.3.3 mkpyf; FNshiul;LfSld; mikd;fspd; jhf;fk;
Kjy; mikd;fs; mkpyf; FNshiul;LfSld; jhf;fKw;W top Vikl;Lfisj; jUk;.
4.1.3.4 iejuR mkpyj;Jld; (NaNO2/HCl) mikd;fspd; jhf;fk;

Kjy; mikd;fs; iejuR mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fKw;W <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfis cUthf;Fk;.
mw;ify; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs; cWjpaw;wjhy; mit tpiuthf iejurd; thA ntsp
Naw;wj;Jld; mw;fNfhy;fshf khw;wkilAk;.
mw;ify; <uNrhdpak; FNshiul;L
mw;ify; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fspYk; ghu;ff

; > mNuhkw;wpf; mikd;fspypUe;J cUthFk;
mNuhkw;wpf; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs; $basT cWjpAilad. vdNt jho; ntg;gepiyfspy;
mNuhkw;wpf; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; fiury;fs; ngwg;glyhk;.
4.2 mikd;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
mypgw;wpf;F mikd;fs; %ytpay;Gilad. %yj;jpwd; mNkhdpahTld; xg;gplg;glf;

$baJ. fdpg;nghUs; mkpyq;fspd; my;yJ fhnghl;rpypf; mkpyq;fspd; ePu;ff
; iury;fs;
mikd;fis mtw;wpd; cg;Gf;fshf khw;Wk;. ,t;Tg;Gfs; Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fSld;
cldbahfj; jhf;fKw;W mikd;fis kPz;Lk; cUthf;Fk;.
94
4.2.1 mw;fNfhy;fSld; xg;gpLifapy; mikd;fspd; %yj;jd;ik
iejurdpd; kpd;ndjpu;j;jd;ik xl;rprdpYk; jho;T. vdNt iejurdpw;F xl;rprdpYk;

ghu;ff; j; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fis toq;Fk; Mw;wy; cau;T. kWgf;fkhf iejurdpd;
kpdn; djpuj; j
; d;ik xl;rprdpYk; FiwthftpUg;gjdhy; iejurd; mZtpwF
; NeNuw;wj;ijf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,ay;G xl;rprdpYk; ,yFthdJ. MfNt mikd; rhu;ghf mw;ify;
mNkhdpak; madpd; cWjpj;jd;ik mw;fNfhy; rhu;ghf mw;ify; xl;Nrhdpak; madpd;
cWjpj;jd;ikapYk; cau;T. vdNt mikd;fs; mw;fNfhy;fspYk; ghu;ff ; f; $basT
%ytpay;GilaJ.
4.2.2 mypgw;wpf;F Kjy; mikd;fs;> mdpyPd; Mfpatw;wpd; %yj;jd;ik
mypgw;wpfF
; Kjy; mikd;fs; mdpyd P pYk; %ytpay;G $bad. md;ydP py; iejurdpYs;s
jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; mNuhkw;wpf;F tisaj;jpDs; guptpdhy; Xuplg;ghlw;wjhfpd;wd
cU 4.1).
cU 4.1 mdpyPdpd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;
4.2.3 mikd;fspd; %ytpay;ig Vikl;LfSld; xg;gply;
Vikl;Lfs; mikd;fspYk; %ytpay;G Fiwthdit. fhuzk; Vikl;L $l;lj;jpd;

iejurdpd; jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fs; fhgidy; $l;lj;jpy; guptpdhy; Xuplg;ghlw;wit
ahfpd;wd. MfNt mkPdpYs;s jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fspYk; Fiwthfg; GNuhj;jid
Vw;Fk; jd;ikAilad (cU 4.2).
cU 4.2 Vikl;bd; gupTf; fl;likg;Gfs;
95
4.3 mNuhkw;wpf;F <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fq;fs;

mdpyPd; Nghd;w mNuhkw;wpf;F mikd;fs; iejuR mkpyj;Jld; (NaNO2/HCl) jhf;fKWk;
NghJ> mNuhkw;wpf;F <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs; cUthFk;. ,it miwntg;gepiyapy;
gpupifaile;J gPNdhy;fisj; jUk;.
Viuy; <uNrhdpak; FNshiul;L
mNuhkw;wpf;F <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs;> mypgw;wpf;F <uNrhdpak; cg;GfspYk; $Ljyhd

cWjpAilad. MfNt> ,j;jhf;fj;jpid jho; ntg;gepiyfspy; epfo;j;Jk;NghJ
mNuhkw;wpfF
; <uNrhdpak; cg;G gPNdhyhf khw;wkiljy; nkJthf;fg;glyhk;> <uNrhdpak;
cg;ig Ntwhf;fp vLf;fyhk;.
vdNt mNuhkw;wpf;F <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs;> Ijhd HCl my;yJ Ijhd H2SO4 Nghd;w
fdpgn; ghUs; mkpyj;jpd; Kd;dpiyapy; NaNO2 ePuf ; f
; iurYld; mNuhkw;wpf; mikd;fisj;
jho;ntg;gepiyapy; (0 – 5 °C) gupfupjJ
; j; jahupff
; g;gLk;. ,t;ntg;gepiyfspYk; <uNrhdpak;
cg;Gf;fs; nkJthfg; gpupifailtjdhy;> VjhtJ tpUg;gkhd jhf;fj;jpw;F <uNrhdpak;
cg;Gfspd; fiury;fs; jahupj;jTld; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
<uNrhdpak; cg;Gfs; ngUksT vz;zpf;ifj; jhf;fq;fspy; <LgLk;. mit ,U tFg;G

fshfg; gpupf;fg;glyhk;. <uNrhdpak; $l;lj;ij ( N 2 ) NtW mZtpdhy; my;yJ $l;lj;
jpdhy; gpujpaPL nra;jy;@ <uNrhdpak; mad; ,yj;jpudhbahfj; njhopwg
; l;L tpisnghUspy;
iejurid itj;jpUf;Fk; ,izg;Gj; jhf;fk;.
4.3.1 <uNrhdpak; $l;lk; NtW mZtpdhy; my;yJ xU $l;lj;jpdhy;

gpujpaplg;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;
mdpyPdpypUe;J Muk;gpj;J ntt;NtW tFg;Gfs; mNuhkw;wp Nru;itfisj; jahupf;f>

<uNrhdpak; cg;GfspypUe;J iejurid NtnwhU mZtpdhy; my;yJ $l;lj;jpdhy;
gpujpaPL nra;Ak; jhf;fq;fs; cjTfpd;wd.
96
4.3.1.1 ePUld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
<uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; ePuf

; f
; iury;fs; ntg;gNkw;wg;gLk;nghOJ gPNdhy;fs; cUthfpdw
; d.
4.3.1.2 cgnghRguR mkpyj;Jld; (H3PO2) <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;
<uNrhdpak; cg;Gf;fis cgnghRguR mkpyj;Jld; (H3PO2) gupfupfF

; k;nghOJ> <uNrhdpak;
$l;lk; xU H mZtpdhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk;.
4.3.1.3 CuCl, CuBr vd;gdtw;Wld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;

CuCl my;yJ CuBr cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfisj; jhf;fKwtpLk;nghOJ> xj;j
mNuhkw;wpfF
; Viyl;L cUthFk;. ,j;jhf;fj;ij Cu(I) Viyl;bw;Fg; gjpyhfr; nrg;Gj;J}s;>
Ijurd; Viyl;L (Cu/HCl my;yJ HBr) vd;gtw;Wld; epfo;j;jyhk;.
my;yJ
my;yJ
4.3.1.4 CuCN cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;

<uNrhdpak; cg;Gfis CuCN cld; jhf;fKwtpLk;nghOJ> iejurd; MdJ CN
$l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk;.
4.3.1.5 KI cld; <uNrhdpak; cg;Gfspd; jhf;fk;

<uNrhdpak; cg;Gfis KI cld; jhf;fKwtpLk;nghOJ> <uNrhdpak; $l;lk; I ,dhy;
gpujpaPL nra;ag;gLk;.
97
4.3.2 <uNrhdpak; mad; ,yj;jpud;ehbahfj; njhopw;gLk; jhf;fq;fs;
Viuy; <uNrhdpak; mad;fspy; N ,y; NeNuw;wk; fhzg;gLtjdhy; ,yj;jpud; ehbahfj;

njhopw;glyhk;. ,it gPNdhy;fSld; fhu epge;jidfspy; jhf;fKWfpd;wd. ngd;rPd;
<uNrhdpak; FNshiul;L NaOH ePu;f;fiury; Kd;dpiyapy; gPNdhYld; jhf;fKw;W xU
nrk;kQ;rs; epwr; Nru;itiaAk;> β - eg;NjhYld; (2 - eg;Njhy;) NaOH ePu;f;fiury;
Kd;dpiyapy; jhf;fKw;W xU rptg;G epwr; Nru;itiaAk; jUk;.
nrk;kQ;rs; epwk;
rptg;G epwk;
crhj;Jiz E}y;fs;:
Morrison, R. T and Boyd, R. N. (2010) Organic Chemistry: Pearson.
Solomons, T. W. G. and Fryhle C. B. (2011) Organic Chemistry:John Wiley and Sons Inc.
98
f.ngh.j (cau; juk;)
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ghlepGzj;Jtf; Fohkpw;Fk; vdJ tho;j;Jf;fisAk; kdkhu;e;j ghuhl;Lf;fisAk;
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,jd; tpisthf fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapaypy;> kjpg;gL
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topfhl;bapy; fw;ww; NgWfs;> Mrpupau;fSf;F fw;wy; topfhl;ly;> fzpg;gPLfs; kw;Wk;
kjpg;gPLfs; vd;gdtw;iw toq;fpAs;sd.


nkhopapy; tpsq;fpf; fw;gjw;F tha;g;gspf;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; cs;@u; fiyj; jpl;lj;jpw;F
; g;
jfty;fis khztu;fSk; Mrpupau;fSk; ngw;Wf; nfhs;s tha;g;gspf;fpd;wJ.

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fyhepjp. (jpUkjp). T. A. R. J. FzNrfu>
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vOj;jhsu; FO:
fyhepjp. W. M. A. T. gz;l hu - rpNu\;l tpupTiuahsu;> ,urhadtpayj;;Jiw>
Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;. (myF - 11>12>13)
fyhepjp. rpwp ]; f e; j uhah - rpNu\;l tpupTiuahsu;> ,urhadtpayj;;Jiw>
fsdp gy;fiyf;fofk;. (myF - 11)
fyhepjp. lf; \ pf; f h td; d pahuhr; r p - rpNu\;l tpupTiuahsu;> cgfuz epiyak;>
gpuNahf tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
= [atu;j;jdGug; gy;fiyf;fofk; (myF - 13)

= [atu;j;jdGug; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
Nguhrpupau; . Rje; j h ypadNf - gPlhjpgjp> gpuNahf tpQ;Qhd gPlk;>
= [atu;j;jdGug; gy;fiyf;fofk;.
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Gdpj gPw;Nwu;]; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G.
nry;t p. C. A. N. ngNuuh - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
nkhop ngau;g;G-
nry;tp. fyh ekr;rpthafk; - rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
,e;J kfspu; fy;Y}up> aho;g;ghdk;.
jpU.j.nry; t f; F khu; -rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
kj;jpa fy;Y}up> fpspnehr;rp.
jpU .N.tpf; N d]; t ud; -rpNu\;l Mrpupau;>
Gdpj NIrg; fy;Y}up> jpUNfhzkiy.
jpU. j. Kj; J f; F khurhkp>
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vi
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gf;fk;

myF - 11
1. 1 ,urhad ,af; f tpay; vz;z f;f U.............................................. 2
1.2 xU jhf;f j; j pd; jhf;f tP j k;. ......................................................... 5
1. 3 jhf; f tP j Kk; gP r khdKk; . ............................................................. 9
1. 4 jhf;f q;f spd; jhf;ftPjq;f isj; jPu ;khdpf;f g; gupNrhjid
El;gq;fs; (Experimental techniques)............................................................ 14
1. 5 xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk;
(nry; t hf; F r; nrYj;J k; ) fhuzpfs; . ........................................... 15
1. 6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;f spd; jhf;f tPjj;jpy; jhf;f j;i j Vw;gLj;Jk;
fhuzp fspd; tpisit (ellect) tpsf;f %yf;$w;W ,af;ff;
Nfhl;g hl;i lg; (NkhJiff; Nfhl;ghL) gad;g Lj;j y;. .................. 16
1.6.1 Nkhjy;; nfhs;if (Nfhl;ghL)....................................................................... 16
1. 7 nghUj;jkhd mstpy; jhf;f pfspd; nrwpitf; ifahStjd;
%yk; xU jhf;f j;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ijf;f l;Lg;gLj;jy;. .................. 25
1.7.1 xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $Wk; Kiwfs; ruhrup tPjk;
fzepiy tPjk; njhlf;f tPjk;................................................................... 25
1.7.2 jhf;f tPjj;jpy; nrwptpd; tpisT.................................................................. 27
1.7.3 g+r;rpa> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fSf;F nrwpTld;
jhf;ftPj khw;wj;Jf;fhd tiuglg; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;................................... 31
1.7.4 jhf;ftPj khwpyp kw;Wk; xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tupiriaj;

JzpAk; topfs; (jhf;ftPj tpjp)................................................................... 38
1. 8 jhf;f tPjj;jpy; ngs jPf jd;i kapd; (Nkw;gug;gsT)
nry; t hf; F ................................................................................... 48

1. 9 jhf; f q; f spy; Cf; f pfspd; nry; t hf; F ............................................ 48
vii
1.10 xU ,urhad jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f tPjj;ij tpgupg;gjw;F jhf;f
nghwp Kiwfspd; cgNahfk;. ................................................... 50
1.10.1 jhf;fnkhd;wpd; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwd;................................................................ 51
1.10.2 Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fSf;fhd cjhuzq;fs;............................................... 52
1.10.3 gy; gbj;jhf;fk;................................................................................................. 52
1.10.4 Kjd;ik jhf;fq;fspd; (elementry reactions) jhf;f tpjp............................ 54
1.10.5 jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfSk; jhf;f tpjpAk;...................................................... 55
1.10.6 njhlu;r;rpahd (Kjd;ik) jhf;fq;fs;.......................................................... 59
1.10.7 nghwpKiw xd;wpy; Kd; rkepiy ,Ug;gjw;fhd re;ju;g;gq;fs;............. 60
1.11 jhf;fj;jpd; rf;jp cs;tupg;glk;...................................................................... 63
myF 12
2.1 rkepiy vz; z f; f U.................................................................... 68
2.1.1 ngsjpfr; nrad;Kiwfspy; rkepiy............................................................. 71
2.1.2 ,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfspy; rkepiy............................................................ 72
2.1.3 ,urhad rkepiy tpjp kw;Wk; rkepiy khwpyp............................................ 73
2.1.4 xU jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy tpjp> rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhit............. 74
2.1.5 jhf;f j;jpd; msT............................................................................................. 75
2.1.6 ntt;NtW tbtpyhd rkepiy khwpypf; Nfhitfs;..................................... 77
2.1.7 thAj; njhFjpfspy; rkepiy khwpyp............................................................ 78
2.1.8 gy;y pdr; rkepiy............................................................................................. 82
2.1.9 gy;gbj; jhf;fq;fspw;Fr; rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhitfs;......................... 83
2.1.10 rkepiy khwpypapd; mbg;gilapy; jhf;fk; eilngWk;
jpiria vjpu;T $WjYk; fzpg;gPLfSk;..................................................... 85
2.1.11 rkepiyr; nrwpTfisf; fzf;fpLjy;............................................................ 90
2.1.12 rkepiyiag; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;................................................................. 95
2.2 ePu;f;fiury;fspy; mad; rkepiy.................................................................... 106
2.2.1 mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; (mj;Jld; cg;Gfs;).................................................... 107
2.2.2 ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbfs;....................................................................... 109
2.2.3 mkpyq;fs; %yq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; madhf;fk;............................................ 110
2.2.4 ePupd; madhf;f khwpyp mjd; mad; ngUf;fk;............................................ 111
2.2.5 pH msTj;jpl;lk;.............................................................................................. 112
2.2.6 nkd;dkpyq;fSk; mkpy madhf;f ($l;lg; gpupif) khwpyp........................ 115
2.2.7 nkd;%yq;fs; mtw;wpd; madhf;f khwpypfSk;........................................... 120
2.2.8 Ka, Kb vd;gtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd njhlu;G..................................................... 122
2.2.9 cg;Gfspd; ePu;g;gFg;G mtw;wpd; fiury;fspd; pH.......................................... 123
viii
2.2.10 xU nghJ maidf; nfhz;l ePu;f; fiury;fs;.......................................... 125
2.2.11 fdkhd epakpg;Gfs;....................................................................................... 129
2.2.12 ,U> gy; %y mkpyq;fs; ,U> gy;mkpy %yq;fs;................................... 144
2.2.13 mkpy - %yf; fhl;bfs;................................................................................ 148
2.3 jhq; f w; fiury; f s; . .................................................................. 152
2.4 fiujpwd; rkepiyfs; . .............................................................. 159
2.4.1 mad; kw;Wk; gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfspd; fiury;fs;...................................... 159
2.4.2 fiujpwd; kw;Wk; (fiujpwd; ngUf;fj; jpw;fhd fzpg;Gf;fs;.................... 161
2.4.3 fiujpwd; / fiujpwd; ngUf;ff; fzpj;jy;fs;........................................... 162
2.4.4 tPo;gbT Njhd;Wtij vjpu;T $wy;............................................................. 165
2.4.5 fiujpwidg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;............................................................... 169
2.4.6 pH ,d; tpisT.............................................................................................. 171
2.4.7 gz;gwpgFg;gpy; (fw;wad;) fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpd; gpuNahfk;.................... 175
2.5 mtj; i jr; rkepiy................................................................... 180
2.5.1 xU %ba nfhs;fyj;jpy; cs;s jputj;jpy; Mtpahjy;............................ 182
2.5.2 rkepiy (epuk;gy;) MtpaKf;fj;jpid msj;jy;........................................ 183
2.5.3 ntg;gepiyAld; epuk;gy; MtpaKf;fj; jpd; khWif................................. 184
2.5.4 nfhjpepiy..................................................................................................... 185
2.5.5 Mtpahjypy; ntg;gTs;Siw....................................................................... 187
2.5.6 gjq;fghjYk; gbjYk;................................................................................... 188
2.5.7 mtj;ij tiuGfs;....................................................................................... 190
2.6 Jtpj jputj; n jhFjpnahd; w pd; jput - Mtpr; rkepiy............... 194
2.6.1 ,yl;rpaf; fiury;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;.............................................................. 194
2.6.2 fyf;Fk; jftw;w jput - jputj; njhFjpfs;............................................. 204
2.7 gq; f P l ; L guk; g w; Fzfk; ........................................................... 205
3.1 flj;J jpwd; . .............................................................................. 210

3.1.1 fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;Jjpwid ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;............................... 213
3.2 rkepiyapy; kpd; t ha; f s;. ......................................................... 216

3.2.1 cNyhfk; - cNyhf mad; kpd;tha; ..................................................... 216
3.2.2 cNyhfk; - ePupy; fiuahj cg;Gf;fspd; kpd;tha; ............................... 224
3.2.3 thA kpd;tha;fs;.......................................................................................... 226
3.2.4 jho;j;Njw;w kpd;tha;fs;............................................................................... 227
3.3 kpd; ,urhad fyq;fs;. ........................................................... 230

3.3.1 kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fiuis mikj;jy; ................................................ 230
3.3.2 kpd;tha; mOj;jj;ij ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; ............................................ 237
3.3.3 ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fs;......................................... 237
ix
3.4 kpd; gFg;G ............................................................................... 240
3.4.1 ePiu kpd;gFj;jy;.......................................................................................... 240
3.4.2 nrk;G kpd;tha;fisg; gad;gLj;jp CuSO4 ePu; fiuriy
kpd;gFj;jy;................................................................................................... 242
3.4.3 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fisf; nfhz;L CuSO4 fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;....... 243
3.4.4 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp NaCl ePu;ff ; iuriy
kpd;gFj;jy;.................................................................................................... 243
3.4.5 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp NaCl jputk; (cUfp NaCl)
kpd;gFj;jy; ................................................................................................ 245
3.4.6 kpd;gFg;gpd; mstwpKiw gFg;G.............................................................. 246
3.4.7 fy;thdpf;fyj;jpidAk; kpd;gFg;Gf; fyj;jpidAk; xg;gpLjy;............... 250
x
f.ngh.j.(c/j),urhadk;: myF 11 ,urhad ,af;ftpay;
1. ,urhad ,af;ftpay;
cs;slf;fk;
1.1 ,urhad ,af;ftpay; vz;zf;fU 1.7.4 jhf;ftPj khwpyp kw;Wk; xU
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tupiriaj;
1.2 xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk;
JzpAk; topfs; (jhf;ftPj tpjp)
1.3 jhf;ftPjKk; gPrkhdKk;
1.8 jhf;f tPjj;jpy; ngs jPf jd;ikapd;
1.4 jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftPjq;fisj;
(Nkw;gug;gsT) nry;thf;F
jPu;khdpf;fg; gupNrhjid El;gq;fs;
(Experimental techniques) 1.9 jhf;fq;fspy; Cf;fpfspd; nry;thf;F
1.5 xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f 1.10 xU ,urhad jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f
tPjj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk; (nry;thf;Fr; tPjj;ij tpgupg;gjw;F jhf;f nghwp
nrYj;Jk;) fhuzpfs; Kiwfspd; cgNahfk;
1.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftPjj;- 1.10.1 jhf;fnkhd;wpd; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwd;
jpy; jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; fhuzp 1.10.2 Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fSf;fhd
fspd; tpisit (ellect) tpsf;f cjhuzq;fs;
%yf;$w;W ,af;ff; Nfhl;ghl;ilg;
(NkhJiff; Nfhl;ghL) gad;gLj;jy; 1.10.3 gy; gbj;jhf;fk;
1.6.1 Nkhjy;; nfhs;if (Nfhl;ghL) 1.10.4 Kjd;ik jhf;fq;fspd; (elementry

reactions) jhf;f tpjp
1.7 nghUj;jkhd mstpy; jhf;fpfspd;
nrwpitf; ifahStjd; %yk; 1.10.5 jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfSk; jhf;f
xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ijf; tpjpAk;
fl;Lg;gLj;jy; 1.10.6 njhlu;r;rpahd (Kjd;ik) jhf;fq;fs;
1.7.1 xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f 1.10.7 nghwpKiw xd;wpy; Kd;rkepiy
tPjj;ijf; $Wk; Kiwfs; ruhrup ,Ug;gjw;fhd re;ju;g;gq;fs;
tPjk; fzepiy tPjk; njhlf;f
1.11 jhf;fj;jpd; rf;jp cs;tupg;glk;
tPjk;
1.7.2 jhf;f tPjj;jpy; nrwptpd; tpisT
1.7.3 g+r;rpa> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj;
jhf;fq;fSf;F nrwpTld; jhf;ftPj
khw;wj;Jf;fhd tiuglg; gpujpepjpj;-
Jtk;
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mwpKfk;
cjhuzkhf Ke;ija myFfspy; (myF 4 kw;Wk; 5 Mfpait) %yf;$Wfspd;
elj;ijf;fhd mbg;gil mk;rq;fisAk; kw;Wk; mj;Jld; jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;Fj;
Njitahd rf;jpiaAk; tpgupf;fg;gl;ld. ,Ug;gpDk; jhf;fpfspdJk; tpisTfspdJk;
msTfisAk; mt;%yf;$Wfspd; jd;ikiaAk; ehk; mwpNthk;. vdpDk; 'jhf;fk;
vt;tsT tpiuthf eilngWfpd;wJ" vd;gij mstwpuPjpahf Nehf;ftpy;iy. mj;Jld;
xU jhf;fk; epfo;tjw;fhd (fhuzpfis) Njitfis jpUg;jpg;gLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,J
rk;ge;jkhf ,t; myfpy; jhf;f Ntfq;fSld; rk;ge;jg;gl;l ,af;ftpay; Jiwapy;
ftdk; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk;> mijg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;>
mtw;iw tpsf;Fk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; mit tpisthf khw;wk; milAk; nghOJ
gbg;gbahfj; jhf;fpfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; vd;gtw;iwAk; ehk; Muha;Nthk;. ,t; myF
jhf;ftPjk; gw;wpa rpy nghJf;fUj;Jf;fis mwpKfk; nra;tJld;> mtw;iw ghjpf;Fk;
Kf;fpa fhuzpfs; gw;wp fz;Nzhl;lk; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ. nrwpT> mKf;fk;> ngsjpfepiy>
Cf;fp> ntg;gepiy NkYk; jhf;ftpjpa+lhfj; jhf;ftPjj;ij Kd;itg; gJld; kw;Wk; mjd;
$Wfisj; jPu;khdpg;gNjhL> jhf;fq;fs; eilngWk; nghOJ nrwpT vt;thW khw;wk-
ilAk; vd;gijAk;> Miutho;Tf;fhyj;jpd; mu;j;jk; gw;wp Ak; fye;Jiu ahlg;gLk;.
NkYk; ehk; jhf;fg;nghwpKiwfs; gw;wpAk;> xU jhf;fk; vg;ghijfspD}L epfo;fpd;wJ
vd;gJ gw;wpAk;> jhf;fk; eilngWk; nghOJ jhf;fp %yf;$Wfspd; gpizg;G cile;J
tpisTfspy; gpizg;G cz;lhjiyg; glkhf;fy; %yKk; ehk; fye;JiuahLNthk;.
1.1 ,urhad ,af;ftpay; vz;zf;fU

ehk; myF 05 (rf;jpapay;) ,ypUe;J ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisf; Fwpj;Jg; ngw;Wf;
nfhz;l rpy NghridfspypUe;J> ,urhadtpay; vd;gJ Kf;fpakhf ,aw;if my;yJ
mf;fiw nfhz;l gjhu;j;jq;fspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fspy; rpuj;ij nfhz;Ls;sJ vd
tiuaiw nra;ayhk;. NkYk;> Xu; vspa Kiwr; rkd;ghl;bd; thapyhfr; rpj;jupf;fg;gLk;
,k;khw;wq;fNs ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; vdTk; fUjyhk;.
xU ,urhadj; jhf;fk; gw;wpf; fw;ifapy; ehk; fz;Lgpbf;f Kaw;rpg;gJ>
(a) xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; rhj;jpaf;$W: ,jid ntg;g,af;ftpay; nfhz;L vjpu;T
$wyhk;. cjhuzkhf> xU jhf;fj;Jld; njhlu;Gila rf;jpkhw;wkhdJ @ ntg;g
,af;ftpay; gupkhzq;fshd ∆H, ∆G, ∆S, Nghd;wtw;why;> khwh ntg;gepiyapy; mKf;
fj;jpy; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;. mj;Jld; khwh ntg;gepiy> mKf;fj;jpy; ∆G < 0 Mf
,Uf;Fk; jhf;fk; rhj;jpakhdJ vd;gJ ehk; mwpe;jnthd;whFk;. ,J> ,j;jhf;fk;
vj;jpirapy; epfOk; vd;gijAk; mwpaj; jUfpd;wJ.
(b) xU jhf;fj;jpd; tp];jPuzk; (Extent of reaction) : ,J vt;tsT J}uk; xU jhf;fk; eil
ngw;W tpUk;gpa tpisitf; nfhLf;Fk; vd;gij tpsf;FtJld;> ,jid ,urhadr;
rkepiy (myF 12) ,ypUe;J Jzpayhk;. NkYk; rkepiy khwpypapd; mwpTld;
,jid mstplTk; KbAk;.
,tw;Wld; Nru;j;Jj; jug;gl;l jhf;fnkhd;wpw;Fr; rkgq;F Kf;fpaj;JtKila kw;WnkhU
gf;fKk; vkf;Ff; fUtjw;Fz;L. mitahtd@ xU jhf;fk; vt;tsT Ntfkhf ,lk;ngWk;
/ jhf;fNtfk; kw;Wk; jhf;fNtfj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; vd;gdthFk;. ,e;j tof;fpy;>
VjhtnjhU mwpag;gl;l Gs;spia (tp];jPuzk;) mila xU jhf;fk; vLf;Fk; Neuk;
fw;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. NkYk;> vt;thW jhf;fp fs; tpisTfshf khw;wk; ngWfpd;wd:
mjhtJ> jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fg; nghwpKiwahdJ mwpag;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,t; midj;J
2
tpdhf;fSf;Fk; jhf;fNtf kw;Wk; jhf;fg;nghwpKiwapd; fw;if %yk; tpilaspf;ff;

$ba ,urhadtpaypd; xU fpisNa> ',urhad ,af;ftpay;" vd miof;fg;gLk;.
xU jhf;fkhdJ> njhFjpapd; jug;gl;l ntg;g mKf;f epiyapy; eilngWtjw;F> mJ
ntg;g ,af;ftpay; rhu;ghfTk;> ,urhad ,af;ftpay; rhu;ghfTk; rhjfkhf
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,it xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;Gila gjq;fshFk;. xU jhf;fkhdJ
jhd; tpUk;gpa tpistpd; msitg; ngWtjw;F> ntg;g ,af;ftpay; uPjpahfr; rhjfkhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld;> tpUk;Gk; fhy vy;iyapy;> jhf;fk; Kw;Wg; ngWtjw;F
,af;ftpay; uPjpahfr; rhjfkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf> fUj;jhf;fq;fs; kpf tpiuthf tpdhbapd; gpd;dq;fspy; (Fractions of a second)
eilngWfpd;wd. Mdhy;> fhuPak; itukhf khw;wk; ngWtjw;F kpy;ypad; fzf;fhd
tUlq;fs; Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk;> ,j;jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;Fg; ghupa
Vtw;rf;jpiaj; jhz;l Ntz;bAs;sNjahFk;. mj;Jld; ehk; ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk;
tpisitAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; %yf;$w;W kl;lj;jpy; njhluhf eil ngWk; epfo;Tfshd
mj;jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiwiaAk; fUj;jpw; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. MfNt jhf;f Ntfk; gw;wpa
fw;if> gy JiwfspYk; kpf Kf;fpa gq;if tfpf;fpd;wJ. rkepiy khwpypf; fhuzp
iaf; fUj;jpw;nfhs;Sjy;> ntg;g,af;ftpaypd; gupkhzk;. ,f;fhuzpfs; ,af;ftpay;
vspjhff; fPo;tUk; jpl;lk; 1.1 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ntg;g ,af;ftpay;
,urhad jhf;fj;ijf;
fl;Lg;gLj;jy;
,af;ftpay; tPjq;fs;
cU 1.1 ntg;g,af;ftpay; kw;Wk; ,af;ftpay; ghu;itapy; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisf; fl;Lg;

gLj;jy;
NkYk;> ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; fjp my;yJ Ntfj;ijj; Jzptjw;F khj;jpuky;yhky;>

jhf;f Ntfq;fis khw;wf;$ba epge;jidfisAk; ,af;ftpay; gw;wpa fw;ifah
dJ tpgupf;fpd;wJ. nrwpT> ntg;gepiy> mKf;fk; kw;Wk; Cf;fp Nghd;w fhuzpfs;
jhf;f Ntfj;ijg; ghjpf;fpd;wd. ,t; Ma;Tfspy;> jhf;fk; mile;j my;yJ cUthfpa
msT kw;Wk; mit Efug;gLk; my;yJ cUthFk; Ntfk; Nghd;w mstplf; $ba
gupkhzq;fspd; tprhuizahdJ> ngUk;ghu;itf;Fupa kl;lj;jpd; fPo; tUfpd;wJ.
%yf;$w;W kl;lj;ij Nehf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy; jpirKfk;> Ntfk; kw;Wk; NkhJif milAk;
%yf;$Wfspd; rf;jp Mfpatw;iw cl;gLj;Jk; jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfisf; fUj Ntz;Lk;.
vdpDk; ,r;rhuh khwpfis mstpLjy; rpwpJ fbdkhdJ.
,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfisf; fUJk;NghJ> ntbf;Fk; jhf;fq;fs; cs;spl;l ngUk;ghyhd
,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfs;> nrf;fdpd; xU gq;fpy; eilngWk;nghOJ@ ,Uk;G JUg;gp-
bj;jyhdJ ePz;l Neuk; vLf;ff; $Lk;. rpyNtis E}w;whz;Lfspy; $l Kw;Wg;ngWk;.
madpj; jhf;fq;fs; ePu;f;fiurypy;> cjhuzkhf> NaCl(ag) ,w;Fk; AgNO3 (ag) ,w;Fk;
,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ> kpfTk; FWfpa Neuj;jpy; (rpy Nkk; gl;l njhopDl;gj;jhy;
mstplf;$ba) nts;is epw nts;spf; FNshiul;L tPo;gbT cz;lhfpwJ.
,urhad ,af;ftpaypy; ,f;fl;lj;jpy;> ehk; kpf Ntfkhf my;yJ kpf nkJthf eil
ngWk; jhf;fq;fspd; Ntfk; gw;wp cz;ikahff; fw;gjpy;iy. tof;fkhf> xU ,urhadj;
jhf;fkhdJ> jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;> jhf;f %yf;$Wfspd; gpizg;Gfs; cilji-
yAk; tpisT %yf;$Wfspd; gpizg;Gfs; cz;lhjiyAk; cs;slf;fpapUf;Fk;. MfNt>
3
eype;j gpizg;G(fs;) ciljYf;Fl;gl;l jhf;fkhdJ> td;kahd ciljYf;F cl;gl;l

jhf;fj;jpYk; tpiuthf eilngWk; vd;gij ,yFthf tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sf; $bajhf
cs;sJ.
kpd;gF nghUl;fshfpa mad; Nru;itfs; ePu;f;fiurypy; Kw;whf madhf;fk; mile;jpUf;Fk;.
vdNt> ve;jnthU madpf; jhf;fj;jpYk; gpizg;Gfs; ciltjpy;iy. MfNt> madpf;
jhf;fq;fs; kpf tpiuthdit. gpizg;Gfspd; td;ikiag; nghWj;J> gy;NtW gpizg;G-
fis cs;slf;fpa gy;NtW jhf;fq;fs;> ntt;NtW Ntfj;jpy; eilngWfpd;wd. nghJthf>
jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; Fiwe;jsT kPs; xOq;fhf;fj;Jld; rk;ge;jg;gl;l jhf;fq;fs;>
kpFjpahd kPs; xOq;fhf;fj;Jld; rk;ge;jg;gl;l jhf;fq;fspYk; tpiuthf eilngWk;.
,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfspd;; Ntfk; gw;wpa fw;ifahdJ ,urhad ,af;ftpay; my;yJ
'jhf;f ,af;ftpay;" vdg;gLk;.
,urhadj; jhf;ftpayhdJ> ,urhadj; jhf;f Ntfj;jpd; kPJ nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk;
ntt;NtW gupNrhjid epge;jidfis tprhupg;gijAk; jhf;fq;fspd; nghwpKiw fs;
kw;Wk; khWepiyfs; / Vtw;rf;jpfs; gw;wpa jfty;fisAk; ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd;
rpwg;gpay;Gfis tpgupf;ff; $ba Nfj;jpufzpj khjpupapd; (jhf;ftPjr; rkd;ghl;bd;)
fl;Lkhdj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpAs;sJ. ,j;Jld;> jhf;fq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd;
Ntfq;fSf;fhd XusT mbg;gil tpsf;fq;fs; fPNo tpgupf;fg;gl;lthW njuptpj;jpUg;gJ
gpuNahrdkhdJ.
kpfTk; tpiuthd (fzepiy) jhf;fq;fs;
,j;jhf;fq;fs; kpfTk; tpiuthditahf ,Ug;gJld;> jhf;fpfs; xd;whf fyf;fg; gl;l
Tld;> jhf;fk; eilngWk;. mj;njhFjpapy; Vw;gLk; xU rpy khw;wq;fisAk; ehk;
mtjhdpf;f KbahjsT Ntfj;jpy; eilngw;WKbfpd;wd. ,j;jhf;fq;fs; madpf;
,dq;fis cl;gLj;Jfpd;wikahy;> ,it 'mad;fspd; jhf;fq;fs;" vdTk; miof;fg;
gLk;. md;wpAk;> Cf;fpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; eilngWk; gy jhf;fq;fs; kpfTk; tpiuthd
jhf;ftPjj;jpy; (10-12 ,ypUe;J 10-18 nrf;fd;fs; Neu msTNfhypy;) eil ngWfpd;wd.
NkYk;> ,j; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;fNtfj;ij tof;fkhd njhopy;El;gj;ijf; nfhz;L
JzptJ rhj;jpakw;wJ. vt;thwhapDk;> mjptpiue;j Nyru; ];ngf;l;Nuh];Nfhgp (Ultra - fast
Laser Spectroscopy) cld; $ba Nkk;gl;l njhopy;El;gkhdJ epiyaw;w mstp LjYld;
rk;ge;jg;gl;lJ. ,J> NkYk; vq;fis ,yj;jpud; gupkhw;wr; nray;Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;wTk;
mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
kpf tpiuthd jhf;fq;fSf;F vk;khy; fUjf;$ba rpy cjhuzq;fshtd @
cau;e;j nrwpTila nts;sp iej;jpNuw;W fiuriyAk; Nrhbak; FNshiul;Lf;
fiuriyAk; fye;jTld; AgCl tPo;T cz;lhfpd;wJ.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
td; mkpyk; xd;iw td; fhuj;Jld; fye;jTld; eLepiyahf;fkiljy;
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
kpf nkJthd jhf;fq;fs;

Fwpj;j rpy jhf;fq;fs; kpfTk; nkJthf Ntfj;jpy; epfo;fpd;wd. mt;thwdit miw
ntg;gepiyapy; xUNghJk; eilngwkhl;lhJ. MfNt> ,j;jhf;fq;fspd; ,af;ftpaiyf;
fw;gJ fbdkhdJ.
4
rpy cjhuzq;fshtd @
miw ntg;gepiyapy; IjurDf;Fk; xl;rprDf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk;: ,J cau; ntg;g
epiyapy;> ntbj;jYld; epfOk; (N1000K).
fhgDf;Fk; xl;rprDf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; (fw;fup jd;dpr;irahfg; gw;wp vupa
khl;lhJ> tspapy; jhf;fk; milahjpUf;Fk;)
kpjkhd jhf;fq;fs;
NkYs;s ,uz;L cr;rq;fSf;fpilNa miw ntg;gepiyapy; kpjkhd kw;Wk;
mstplg;glf;$ba Ntfq;fspy; eilngWk; gy vz;zpf;ifahd jhf;fq;fs;> Ma;T$l
epge;jidfspd; fPo; ,urhad ,af;ftpay; fw;ifiag; gbf;f mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
nghJthf mt;tif cjhuzq;fs; rpy fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ@
Ijurd; ngnuhl;irl;bd; gpupif : 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
iejurd; ngd;uh xl;irl;bd; gpupif : 2N2O5 2N2O4 + O2
v];jupd; ePu;g;gFg;G : CH3COOC2 H5 NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
ePu;f;fiurypy; Rf;Nuh]pd; Neu;khwhf;fk; : C12H22O11+ H2O C2H12O6 + C2H12O6
iejudPnuhl;irl;bw;Fk; fhgd;Xu; xl;irl;bw;Fk; NO2+ CO NO + CO2
iej;jpupf; mkpyk; kw;Wk; Nrhbak; ijnahry;Ngw;Wf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; :
Na2S2O3(aq)+ 2HNO3(aq) S(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(1)
ngupf; FNshiul;L kw;Wk; nghl;lhrpak; mNahilLf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; :
2l-(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) l2(aq)+ 2Fe2+ (aq)
IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyk; kw;Wk; fy;rpak; fhgNdw;Wf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; :
CaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(1) + CO2(g)
,urhadr; nray;Kiwfspd; jhf;ftPjkhdJ> mit ,lk;ngWk; epge;jidfs; khw;w
KWk; gl;rj;jpy; my;yJ mjpfupf;fg;glNth Fiwf;fg;glNth KbAk;. cjhuzkhf> miw
ntg;g epiyapy; kpf nkJthfj; jhf;fq;fs; @ CO + 2H 2 CH3OH, 4000C ntg;gepiy>
300 atm mKf;fk; kw;Wk; Cf;fp Mfpatw;wpd; NgZifapd; %yk; Jupjg;gLj;jg;gl KbAk;.
czTg; gjhu;j;jq;fspd; rpijitAk; mg;gjhu;j;jq;fisf; Fspu;rhjdg;ngl;b apy; Ngzp
itg;gjd; %yk; nkJthf;f KbAk;.
,urhad ,af;ftpaypd; fw;ifapy; vk;khy; Fwpj;jnthU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ij>
nfhLf;fg;gl;l epge;jidfspd; fPo; Cfpf;f KbtJld;> me;epge;jidfis Nkk;gLj;jp
my;yJ rupnra;J> jhf;fq;fis tpUk;gpa Ntfj;jpy; eilngw itf;fTk; KbAk;.
1.2 xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; (Rate of a reaction)

ntt;NtW jhf;fq;fs; ntt;NtW Ntfj;jpy; eilngwyhk;. nkJthf eilngWk;
jhf;fq;fs; jho; jhf;f tPjj;ijAk;> tpiuthf eilngWk; jhf;fq;fs; cau; jhf;f
tPjj;ijAk; cilad. NkNy $wg;gl;lJ Nghd;W cjhuzkhf fhgd; itukhf khWk;
jhf;fk;> ghiwfs; rpijtiljy; Nghd;wit nkJthf (slow) eilngWk;. ntbj;jy;
(explosions), fUjhf;fq;fs; kpfTk; tpiuthf eilngWk; jhf;fq;fs; cau; jhf;f tPjj;
ijf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
5
nghJthf xU jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jyhk;

jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
xU jhf;fk; eilngWk; nghOJ jhf;fpfs; nrythfpd;wd (mopfpd;wd) tpisTfs;
cUthfpd;wd. ,jd; tpisT> xU jhf;fj;jpd; fjp (Ntfk;) my;yJ xU jhf;fj;jpd; jh-
f;ftPjj;jpid xU myF Neuj;jpy; xU jhf;fp my;yJ xU tpistpd; mstpy; (amount)
(nrwpT) Vw;gLk; khw;wk; vd tiu aWf;fg;gLk;. mjhtJ@
i. khwh ntg;gepiyapy; VjhtJ xU jhf;fpapd; msT / nrwpT FiwAk; tPjk;
ii. VjhtJ xU tpistpd; msT / nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk; tPjk; khwh / epiyahd ntg;g
epiyapy;
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU fUJNfhl; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJtJld;> mt; (mikg;G) njhFjp
apd; fdtsT khwhjpUf;fpd;wJ vd mDkhdpf;f.
A → B
nghJthf> khwh ntg;gepiyapy; Neuj;Jld; msT khw;wj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; jhf;f

Ntfj;ijf; $WtJ kpfTk; trjpahdJ. (nrwpT @ gpd;tUk; gFjpfspy; tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gLk;)
NkNy jug;gl;l jhf;fj;jpid ehk; fUJNthk;. Neuk; ti (t=0 my;y) A apdJ Muk;g msT
(nA)i %y;fs;> rpy Neuk; tt d; gpd; A d; msT (nA)t %y;fs;. MfNt> (tt - ti) Neu ,il
ntspapy; A d; mstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; [(nA)t - (nA)i] %y;fs;.
([(nA )t- (nA )i]) ∆(nA)

/ A d; msT khw;wkilak; tPjk; A = =
(tt-ti ) ∆t

mNjNghd;W tpisT B f;F ehk; vOjyhk;
([(nB )t- (nB )i]) ∆(nB)

B d; msT khw;wkilak; tPjk; B = =
(tt-ti ) ∆t
NkNy ,Ug;gjpy; ∆(nA) jhf;fpapd; msT khw;wk; kiwFwpaPli
; l cilaJ. Vnddpy; ∆(nA)t < ∆(nA)i
ve;jnthU ,urhadr; nrad;KiwapYk; mstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; NeusthdJ
vd;gijf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. vdNt ,q;F jhf;fpapd; khw;wj;jpd; mstpw;F vjpu;
kiw (negative sign) FwpaPl;il cgNahfpf;fpd;Nwhk;.
mstpd; khw;wj;jpd; tPjk; vg;nghOJk; NeuhdJ. vdNt NkNy jug;gl;l jhf;fj;jpd; Ntfj;ij
gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
∆(nA) ∆(nB)
jhf;ftPjk; = - =
∆t ∆t
xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ij ,yFthf xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisT
fspd; khw;wj;Jld; njhlu;GgLj;jyhk; - jhf;fpfspd; Efu;T tPjk; my;yJ tpisTfspd;
cUthf;Fk; tPjk; vdTk; $wyhk;.
vspjhf tpsf;FNthkhapd; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfs; khw;wkilAk;
mstpy; jq;fpapUg;gJld;> mk;khw;wk; epfo vLf;Fk; Neuj;jpYk; rhu;e;Js;sJ.
A B vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;jpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; cU 1.2 y; vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;
gl;Ls;sJ Nghy tpsf;fg;glyhk;.
6
msT (n)
Neuk;
cU 1.2 jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; A B: Neuj;Jld; nA Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ> nB mjpfupj;Jr;
nry;fpd;wJ khwh ntg;gepiyapy;> Neuj;Jld; jhf;f tPjk; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ
vd;gijf; ftdj;jpw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
Nfj;jpufzpj uPjpahfg; ghu;f;Fk;NghJ> xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk;> gjhu;j;jj;jpd; ms tpy;

Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpd; fPo; fhy (Neu) ,ilntspahf ,Ug;gjhy;> ,g;ngWkhdj;ij (quality)
∆(nA) -∆(nB)
my;yJ vd cU 1.3 (a) y; rpj;jupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghd;W Fwpg;gplyhk;. mj;Jld;
∆t ∆t
nghJthf ,j;jhf;ftPjk; ruhrupj; jhf;ftPjk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. tof;fkhf Ntfk;
kpff; FWfpa Neu ,ilntspfspy; khw;wkilAk;. vdNt Neu ,ilntsp ∆t apy; jhf;f
tPjj;ijf; fzpg;gjw;F mt; Neu ,ilntspapy; cs;s xt;nthU Neuj;jpYk; fhzg;gLk;
jhf;ftPjq;fspd; ruhrup fzpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. jug;gl;l Neuj;jpy; jhf;ftPjk; (fzepiy
jhf;f tPjk;) cU 1.3 (b) , (c) Ak; KiwNa tpisT (B) apdJ jhf;fp (A) apdJk; Neuj;
Jld; msT khw;wj;jpw;fhd tiugpy; jug;gl;l Neuj;jpy; fPwg;gLk; njhlupfspd; rha;T
Neuj;Jld; khw;wj;ijj; jUfpd;wJ. A apd;> mstpd; khw;wtPjj;jpw;fhd gbj;jpwd; vjpu;
kiwahf ,Ug;gJld;> jhf;fpapd; msT Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ vd;gij Fwpf;fp-
d;wJ vd;gijf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. MfNt jhf;ftPjj;ijf; fzpf;Fk;nghOJ gbj;
jpwd; Kd;dhy; Xu; kiw FwpaPl;ilg; gad;gLj;Jfpd;Nwhk;. mj;Jld; ,q;F fhz;gJ Nghd;W
rha;T (gbj;jpwd;) Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;tjhy; jhf;ftPjk; Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J
nry;fpd;wJ vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ Vnddpy; jhf;fk; eilngWk; nghOJ jhf;fpfs;
(moptNj) Efug;gLtNj.
msT (n)
msT (n)
msT (n)
Neuk; Neuk; Neuk;
cU 1.3 A B vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; (a) jhf;ftPjk; fhy msT ∆t d; Nky; khw;wj;
jpd; msT tpgupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Neuj;Jld; tpistpd; mstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;jpw;Fk; (b)
mj;Jld; jhf;fp A Neuj;Jld; (c) w;fhd tistpw;F fPwg;gLk; njhlupapd; gbj;jpwd;
jhf;ftPj;jpid tiuaWf;fpd;wJ. (c) y; vjpu;kiwahd gbj;jpwd; Neuj;Jld; gjhu;j;jj;
jpd; msT Fiwe;J nry;tijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; (b)k; (c)Yk; njhlupfspd; gbj;
jpwd; Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;tJ jhf;ftPjk; Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ
vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
NkNy jhf;fNtfj;ij tpgupf;Fk; nghOJ gjhu;j;jj;jpd; msT (%y; vz;zpf;if)

msf;Fk; mstPlhff; nfhs;tjpdhy; kpfTk; mbg;gilahd myif (vz;zf;fUitf;
fUj;jpy; nfhs;fpd;Nwhk;. jhf;fk; eilngWk; nfhs;fydpd; fdtsit (v vdf; fUJ
7
tJld;) jhf;fk; eilngWk; nghOJ mjd; fdtstpy; khw;wk; Vw;gltpy;iy vdpd; mg;
nghOJ jhf;f Ntfj;ijj; jhf;fp my;yJ tpistpd; mstpy; xU myF Neuj;jpy; xU
myF fdtstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; vd tiuaWf;fyhk;. jhf;fk; eilngWk; njhFjpapd;
fdtsT (v) khwpypahf vOjyhk;.
mt;tz;zk; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijj; jhf;fp(fs;) my;yJ tpisT(fspd;) xU myF
Neuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; nrwpT khw;wk; vdj; njuptpf;fyhk;.
MfNt cU 1.2> 1.3 tiutpy; y mr;rpy; mstpw;Fg; gjpyhfr; nrwpit ,lyhk;. mj;Jld;
,dpNky;> xU jhf;fj;jpy; mstpd; khw;wj;jpw;Fg; gjpyhfr; nrwpT khw;wj;ijg; gad;gL-
j;JNthk;.
nrwpT
Neuk;
cU 1.4 A B jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f Ntfk; @ Neuj;Jld; nrwpT khw;wk; vd jhf;f
tPjj;ij tpsf;Fjy; Neuj;Jld; jhf;ftPjk; Fiwtile;J nry;tjw;Fr; rhd;whf
tisapapd; rha;T (gbj;jpwd;) Fiwe;J nry;Yjy; mikfpd;wJ.
,g;glj;jpy; jhf;fk; eilngw;Wf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; nghOJ jhf;fNtfk; Fiwtile;J
nry;tij ehk; ghu;f;fpd;Nwhk;> ,J jhf;ftPjk; Aapd; jhf;fkiltjw;Fr; nrwpT rhu;e;jJ
vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.[A] d; nrwpT cau;thf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ tistpd; nrwpT
nrq;Fj;jhfg; gbj;jpwd; kpf;f cau;thf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt jhf;fk; Ntfkhf eilngW
fpd;wJ. jg;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ jhf;fNtfk; Fiwtile;J nry;YJy; jhf;ftPjk;
nrwptpy; rhu;e;Js;sJ vd;gijf; fhl;Lk;.
jhf;ftPj myFfs;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; nrwpT khw;wkhf tiuaWf;fg;gLtjhy;> mjd; myF
mol dm-3 S-1 (Neuk; nrf;fdpy; msf;fg;gbd;). mt; myfpidf; fiurypy; eilngWk;
jhf;fq;fSf;F vspjpy; gpuNahfpf;fyhk;. thA mtj;ijj; jhf;fq;fisf; fUJk;nghOJ
nrwpTfisg; gFjp mKf;fq;fspy; msf;fNtz;Lk;. MfNt jhf;ftPjj;jpw;fhd myF
Pas-1 (my;yJ atm s-1) MFk;. NkYk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tJ jhf;ftPjk; ehk; ftdj;jpy;
vLf;Fk; jhf;fj;jpy; jug;gl;l khw;wj;jpy; eilngw vLj;j Neuj;jpd; kWjiyf;Fr; rkkhf
(tpfpj rkkhf) ,Uf;Fk;.
∆(CA) ∆(CB)
jhf;ftPjk; = - =
∆t ∆t
Vw;gl;l nrwpT khw;wk; xU khwpypahf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ> mt;khw;wj;jpw;fhd Neuk; t
MdJ ehk; vOJfpd;Nwhk;.
khwpyp
jhf;ftPjk; =
t
my;yJ
1
jhf;ftPjk; = α
t
8
1.3 jhf;ftPjKk; gPrkhdKk;

gFjp 1.2 y; fhl;bathW> khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU %ba tpiwg;ghd ghj;jpuj;jpy; eil
ngWk; A B vd;w vspa jhf;fj;jpw;Fj; jhf;f tPjj;ij (khwhf; fdtstpy;) A apd;
nrwpT FiwAk; tPjk; ∆(CA) my;yJ B apd; nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk; tPjk; ∆(CB) vd
∆t ∆t
vLj;Jf; $wyhk;. ,j; jhf;fj;jpy; ehk; fhz;fpNwhk; xU %y; A> xU %y; B I
nfhLf;fpd;wJ. vdNt ,U jhf;f Ntfq;fSk; rkk; vdf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
2A B
,q;F ,U %y; A mopAk; nghOJ xU %y; B cUthtjhy; A mopAk; Ntfk; B cUth-
Fk; Ntfj;jpYk; ,U klq;fhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. MfNt ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f Ntfj;ijg;
gpd;tUkhW $wyhk;.
1 ∆(CA) ∆(CB)
- =
2 ∆t ∆t
my;yJ mjidg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
1 ∆[A] ∆[B]
- =
2 ∆t ∆t
MfNt> nghJthd xU jhf;fj;jpw;F aA + bB cC + dD
1 ∆[A] 1 ∆[B] 1 ∆[C] 1 ∆[D]
jhf;ftPjk; - =- = =
a ∆t b ∆t c ∆t d ∆t
cjhuzk;; 1.1
jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; l dm3 tpiwg;ghd nfhs;fydpy; H2O2 gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpw;
fpzq;f gpupifAWtijf; fUJf.
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Nkw;gb jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ijj; jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gil
apy; vOJf.
tpil
cU 1.5 y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s gPrkhdj;jpw;fpzq;fj; jhf;fk; eilngWfpd;wJ vd mD
khdpj;J jhf;ff; fyitapYs;s xt;nthU $wpdJk; nrwpT khw;wj;jpw;Fk; Neuj;jpw;
Fk; tiuf.
jhf;fg; gPrkhdj;jpw;fpzq;f@ 2 %y;fs; H2O2(aq) 2 %y;fs; H2O(l) k; xU %y; O2 (g) IAk;
nfhLf;Fk; nfhs;fydpd; fdtsT 1.0 dm3:
Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; @ H2O2(aq) : H2O(l) : O2(g) = 2.0 : 0.0 : 0.0 mol dm-3
,Wjpr; nrwpTfs; @ H2O2(aq) : H2O(l) : O2(g) = 0.0 : 2.0 : 1.0 mol dm-3
9
cjhuzk;; 1.1
jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; l dm3 tpiwg;ghd nfhs;fydpy; H2O2 gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpw;
fpzq;f gpupifAWtijf; fUJf.
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Nkw;gb jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjj;ij jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gil
apy; vOJf.
tpil
cU 1.5 y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s gPrkhdj;jpw;fpzq;f jhf;fk; eilngWfpd;wJ vd mD
khdpj;J jhf;f fyitapYs;s xt;nthU $wpdJk; nrwpT khw;wj;jpw;Fk; Neuj;jpw;
Fk; tiuf.
jhf;f gPrkhdj;jpw;fpzq;f@ 2 %y;fs; H2O2(aq) 2 %y;fs; H2O(l) k; xU %y; O2 (g) IAk;
nfhLf;Fk; nfhs;fydpd; fdtsT 1.0 dm3:
Muk;g nrwpTfs; @ H2O2(aq) : H2O(l) : O2(g) = 2.0 : 0.0 : 0.0 mol dm-3
,Wjpr; nrwpTfs; @ H2O2(aq) : H2O(l) : O2(g) = 0.0 : 2.0 : 1.0 mol dm-3
nrwpT mol dm-3
Neuk;
cU 1.4 : jhf;fj;jpd; ,dq;fspd; nrwpT khw;wq;fs; 2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

jug;gl;Ls;s ntg;gepiyapy;
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;

1 ∆[H2O2] 1 ∆[H2O] ∆[O2] -∆[H2O2] [H2O] ∆[O2]
jhf;ftPjk; = = my;yJ = =2
2 ∆t 2 ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
NkNy fPwg;gl;l tiuGfs; jpUj;jkhd msTj;jpl;lj;jpy; gPrkhdj;jpw;fpzq;fTk;>
jhf;f tPjj;jpw;fp zq;fTk; fPwg;gl;lJ vd;gJ ftdpf;fNtz;baJ. MfNt
tiugpypUe;J t Neuj; jpy; jhf;fNtfq;fis (gbj;jpwd;) rupT vdf; fzpf;fyhk;
gpd;tUkhW>
∆[H2O2] (-2x) 2x ∆[H2O] 2x ∆[O2] x
jhf;ftPjk; =- = ; = >= =2
∆t ∆t tt ∆t t ∆t
,J jhf;fNtfj;jpd; tiutpyf;fzj;ijf; Fwpg;ghf czu;j;Jfpd;wJ. vdNt jhf;f
Ntfq;fis gupNrhjid uPjpahf Jzpayhk; my;yJ kjpg;gplyhk; vd;gijg; Gupe;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;.
10
cjhuzk;; 1.2
gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f Ntfq;fisj; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; Mfpatw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; vOJf.
(i) Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(ii) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
tpil
∆[Na2CO3 (aq)] 1 ∆[HCl] 1 ∆[NaCl] ∆[CO2(g)]
jhf;ftPjk; =- = =
∆t 2 ∆t 2 ∆t ∆t
∆[N2(g)] 1 ∆[H2(g)] 1 ∆[NH3]

jhf;ftPjk; =- =
∆t 3 ∆t 2 ∆t
cjhuzk;; 1.3
N2O5(g) gpd;tUkhW gpupifAk;
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; tpiwg;ghd %ba ghj;jpuj;jpy; xU Fwpj;j rkaj;jpy; N2O5
gpupifAWk; tPjk; 3x10 -7 mol dm-3 s-1 vd fhzg;gl;lJ. (i) NO2(g) (ii) O2(g) cUthFk;
tPjj;ij vOJf.
tpil
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
1 ∆[N2O5 (g)] 1 ∆[NO2 (g)] ∆[O2 (g)]
jhf;ftPjk; - = =
2 ∆t 4 ∆t ∆t
1 ∆[NO2(g)]
i. 1/2 × 3.0 × 10 mol dm s =
-7 -3 -1
4 ∆t
∆[NO2 (g)]
= 6.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t
∆[O2 (g)]
ii. 1/2 × 3.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1 =
∆t
∆[O2 (g)]
= 1.5 × 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t
11
cjhuzk;; 1.4
%ba tpiwg;ghd nfhs;fyd; xd;wpy; khwh ntg;gepiyapy; ,j; jhf;fk; eilngW-
fpd;wJ.
2NOBr(g) 2NO(g) + Br2(g)
NO(g) cz;lhFk; jhf;ftPjk; 2.0x10-4 mol dm-3 S-1 (i) jhf;ftPjk; (ii) NOBr(g) (mopAk;
Ntfk;) Efu;T tPjq;fis (kjpg;gpLf) vOJq;fs;.
tpil
ehk; vOjyhk; @
1 ∆[NOBr(g)] 1 ∆[NO(g)] ∆[Br2(g)]
jhf;ftPjk; - = =
2 ∆t 2 ∆t ∆t
i. / jhf;ftPjk; = 1/2 × 2.0 ×10-4 mol dm-3 s-1

= 1.0 ×10-4 mol dm-3 s-1
1 ∆[NOBr(g)]
ii. = 1.0 × 10-4 mol dm-3 s-1
2 ∆t
∆[NOBr(g)]
/ = 2.0 × 10-4 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t
cjhuzk;; 1.5
xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpy;> C2H4 rhu;ghfj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjk; 2.0 × 10-4 mol dm-3
s-1 jhf;fj;jpYs;s kw;iwa ,dq;fs; rhu;ghfj; jhf;ftPjj;ij kjpg;gpLf.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
tpil
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk;
∆[C2H4(g)] 1 ∆[O2(g)] 1 ∆[CO2(g)] 1 ∆[H2O(g)]
jhf;ftPjk; - = - = =
∆t 3 ∆t 2 ∆t 2 ∆t
∆[C2H4(g)]
= 0.20 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t
∆[CO2(g)] ∆[C2H4(g)]
=3× = 3 × 0.20 mol dm-3 s-1 = 0.60 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t ∆t
∆[CO2(g)] ∆[C2H4(g)]
=2× = 2 × 0.20 mol dm-3 s-1 = 0.40mol dm-3 s-1
∆t ∆t
∆[H2O(g)] ∆[C2H4(g)]
=2× = 2 × 0.20 mol dm-3 s-1 = 0.40 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t ∆t
12
Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpypUe;J jhf;ftPjk; Neubahfj; jhf;fpfs; kiwAk; tPjk; my;yJ

jhf;fpfs; cUthFk; tPjj;jpw;Fr; rkkhf ,Ug;gjpy;iy vd;gijf; fhzyhk;. ,J ehk;
Mu;tkhf cs;s Fwpj;j ,dj;jpd; gPrkhd Fzfj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
MfNt xU jhf;fk; khwh ntg;gepiyapy; khwhf; fdtstpy; eilngWk;nghOJ> xU
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; (jug;gLfpd;wJ) toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
1 ∆[J]
jhf;ftPjk; =
vj ∆t
Vj, J vd;Dk; gjhu;j;jj;jpd; gPrkhdf; FzfkhFk;. jhf;fpfSf;F Vj kiwahdJ> tpisTfSf;F

NeuhdJ.
cjhuzk;; 1.6
A 2B vd;w jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf. jhf;fk; 0.50 mol dm-3 jhf;fp A Ald; Muk;gpf;
fg;gl;L 0.00 mol dm-3 Mf 10 nrf;fdpy; tPo;r;rpailfpd;wJ. ,t;Neuj;jpy; B apd;
nrwpT 0.00 mol dm-3 ypUe;J 1.00 mol dm-3 Mf mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. gpd;tUkhW jhf;f
tPjj;ijf; fzpf;f.
tpil
ehk; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
1 ∆[A] ∆[A]
jhf;ftPjk; = =
vj ∆t ∆t

(0.00-0.50) mol dm-3
= -
10 s
= 0.05 mol dm-3 s-1
1 ∆[B] 1 (1.00 - 0.00) mol dm-3
jhf;ftPjk; = = ×
vj dt 2 10 s
= 0.05 mol dm-3 s-1
cjhuzk;; 1.7
300k y; khwhf; fdtsT fiurypy; Ad; nrwpitf; fz;fhzpg;gjd; %yk; Ad; gpupifiag;
gpd;gw;wyhk;. Muk;g (t=0 ,Uf;ifapy;) Ad; nrwpT 2.00 mol dm-3. 180 nrf;fdpd;
gpd;du; Ad; nrwpT 1.64 mol dm-3 Mff; Fiwe;J> gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;fj; jhf;fk;
eilngWfpd;wJ.
2A(aq) 4B(aq) + C(aq)
jhf;f tPjj;ijf; fzpf;f.
tpil
∆A = 1.64 – 2.00 = - 0.36 mol dm-3
/ ∆A = 0.36 mol dm-3
jhf;fj;jpw;fpzq;f
jhf;f tPjk; = ½ [∆[A]/∆t] = ½ × 0.36 mol dm-3/ 180 s
=1.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3 s-1
13
1.4 jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f tPjq;fisj; jPu;khdpf;fg; gupNrhjid El;gq;fs;

cjhuzk; 1.1 ypUe;Jk;> Vida fzpg;GfspypUe;Jk; jhf;ftPjq;fs; gupNrhjid
uPjpahfj; Jzpag;gLk; gupkhzkhFk; (msT). MfNt gupNrhjid uPjpahfj; jhf;f
tPjj;ij vt;thW Jzpayhk; vd;gij tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tJ mtrpak;. ,r;#oypy;
jhf;fp my;yJ tpistpd; nrwpit Neuj;jpd; Xu; nraw;ghlhf fz;fhzpg;gjd; %yk;
jhf;ftPjj;ij ehk; Jzpe;J nfhs;sKbAk;. mjhtJ xU Fwpj;j jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f
tPjj;ijj; Jzptjw;Fj; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT FiwtilAk; tPjj;ij my;yJ tpis tpd;
nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk; tPjj;ij khwh ntg;gepiyapy; nghUj;jkhd nrad;Kiwiag;
gpd;gw;WtJ mtrpak;. nra;Kiw El;gq;fs; njhlu;r;rpahdJ. (non distruptive) njhlu;r;rp
aw;wJ (rPu;Fiyf;Fk;) (distruptive) vd ,U tifg;gLj;jyhk;. njhlu;r;rpahd Kiwapy;
jhf;ff;fyitapy; tpiuthfj; Jzpaf;$ba ngsjPf ,ay;gpid mstpLtjd; %yk;
nray;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzkhff; fiurypy; eilngWk; jhf;fq;fspy; epwj;Jzpf;
iffs; <Lgl;bUg;gpd; mt; ,dj;jpd; nrwpit epw xspapay; khdpia cgNahfpj;J
mstplyhk; mad;fs; <Lgl;bUg;gpd; nrwpT khw;wj;ij kpd; flj;Jjpwd; mstPl;bd; %yk;
Jzpayhk;. thAf;fs; <LgLk; jhf;fq;fspy; khwhf;fdtstpy; mKf;f epge;jidapy;
mstPLfs; njhlu;e;J vLg;gjd; %yk; fz;fhzpf;fg;gLk;.
epw xspapay; khdp Kiw

jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; ,dq;fspy; Mff;Fiwe;jJ xU ,dkhapDk; epwKs;sjhf ,Ug; gpd;
cs;nsLf;fg;gLk; xU Fwpj;j miy ePsj;jpy; cl;fpufpf;FksT (cwpQ;RksT) Neuj;
jpd; xU nraw;ghlhf xU jhf;fp my;yJ xU tpistpd; cwpQ;ry; epwkhiyapypUe;J
nghUj;jkhd miyePsj;jpy; Neuj;jpd; nray;ghlhff; fz;fhzpf;fg;gLk;. cwpQ;rg;gLksT
mf;Fwpj;j ,dj;jpd; nrwptpw;F Neu;tpfpj rkdhFk;.
mj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ij Neur; nray;ghlhf cwpQ;ry; mstPLfspypUe;J fz;
fhzpf;fyhk;.
nkhj;j mKf;fkhw;wj;jpd; mstPl;il cs;slf;fpa nra;Kiw

ehk; mwpe;jJ Nghd;W tpiwg;ghd nfhs;fyd; xd;wpy; thA mtj;ijj; jhf;fk; xd;W
eilngWk; nghOJ ve;Neuj;jpYk; vy;yh thAj; jhf;fpfs; gFjp mKf;fq;fspd; $l;L
njhif nkhj;j mKf;fkhFk;.
vdNt jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdj;ij mwpe;jpUe;jhy; mjidg; gad;gLj;jp nkhj;j mKf;fj;-
jpd; nray;ghlhfj; jhf;fpfspd; FiwAk; tPjk; my;yJ tpisAs; cUthFk; tPjj;ijj;
Jzpa KbAk;.
kpd;flj;Jjpwd; / flj;Jjpwd; nra;Kiw

cjhuzkhfg; gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf@
R1COOR2(aq) + OH- (aq) R1COO-(aq) + R2OH(aq)
Ijnuhl;iry; mad;fspd; flj;Jjpwd; vjNdhNtw;W mad;fs; (R1 = C2H5) Nghd;w mad;
fspYk; kpfTk; cau;thdJ. mjDld; flj;Jjpwd; mad;fspd; nrwptpYk; rhu;e;Js;sJ.
Nkw;$wg;gl;l Kiwapy; flj;Jjpwd; Fiwe;J nry;tij mtjhdpg;gjhy; flj;Jjpwd;
mstPLfNs kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd Kiw.
xspapaw; Row;rp Kiw

tpisTfspd; xspapaw; Row;rp jhf;fpfspd; xspapaw; Row;rpapYk; NtWgl;ljhf
nfhz;l jhf;fq;fSf;F ,k;Kiw nghUj;jkhdJ.
14
cjhuzkhfr; Rf;FNuhrpd; ePu;gFg;gpd;NghJ> NtWgl;l xspapaw; Row;rpiaf; nfhz;l FSf;

NfhRk; cUthfpd;wJ. KidTkhdp vd miof;fg;gLk; cgfuzk; xspapaw; Row;rpia
msf;fg; gad;gLk;. xspapay; Row;rp nrwpTld; njhlu;Ggl;lJ. xspapaw; Row;rpapd;
mstPLfs; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;Jld; njhlu;GgLk;.
xspKwpTr; Rl;b Kiw (Refractive index method)
,r;nrad;KiwahdJ jput mtj;ijj; jhf;fq;fSf;Ff; Fwpg;ghfg; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.

jhf;ff; fyitapd; xspKwpTr; Rl;bj; jhf;fk; eilngWk;nghOJ tpistpd; msT
mjpfupf;fj; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT Fiwtiltjhy; khw;wkilfpd;wJ.
thA ntspNaWk; Kiw

xU jhf;fj;jpy; xU thA cw;gj;jp ,Ue;jhy;> mt;thAitr; Nrfupf;Fk;NghJ mjd;
fdtsT Neuj;jpd; xU nray;ghlhf mstplg;gLfpd;wJ. CaCO3(s) gpupif CO2 thAit
tpisthf;Ftjd; %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
,t;tifahd jhf;fq;fSf;F> cUthFk; CO2 d; fdtstpypUe;J jhf;ftPjk; Jzp
ag;gLfpd;wJ.
njhlu;r;rpaw;w El;gq;fs; ,urhadg; gFg;gha;T Kiw

,urhad Ma;T Kiwapy;> jhf;ff; fyitapypUe;J fyitapd; Njitahd khjpup vLj;Jf;
nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf vRj;jupd; ePu;gFg;gpd;NghJ tpLtpf;fg;gl;l mkpyj;ij
kjpg;gpLtjw;F> ,urhadg; gFg;gha;T Kiwikapy; jhf;fj;jpd; mikg;igg; ngWtjw;F
xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpy; fyitapypUe;J xU gFjp gpupj;njLj;J ve;j tpjkhd jhf;
fKk; mk;khjpupapy; gFg;gha;Tf;fpilNa Vw;glhJ vd;gij cWjpnra;a ntg;gepiyia
tpiuthf Fiwg;gjd; %yk; milag;gLk;.
1.5 xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;

xU rkd; nra;j rkd;ghL toikahf xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fkilAk;
jhf;fpfspd; mstpw;Fk; tpisTfs; cz;lhFk; mstpw;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig mstwp
uPjpahf tpgupg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ. ehk; fle;j gFjpfspypUe;J ngw;w mwptpypUe;J
rkd; nra;j rkd;ghL xd;W jug;gl;l jhf;fk; xd;wpd; tpiuTj; jd;ik
gw;wpa jfty;fs; vijAk; jUtjpy;iy. ,j;jfty;fis ,urhad ,af;ftpay;
my;yJ xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT> ntg;gepiy> ngsjPfj; jd;ik>
jhf;fpfspd; Nkw;gug;G> Cf;fy; ,ay;Gfs;> fiug;gpd; Nghd;w gy jug;gl;l fhuzp
fspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. xU jhf;fj;jpd; ,af;ftpaiyf; fw;gjd; %yk;> xU tpistpd;
tpUk;gpa msitg; ngWtjw;Fj; jhf;f epge;jidfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; tpjk; gw;wpa
Mo;e;j mwpitr; rhj;jpakhfpd;wJ.
xU ,urhadj; jhf;fNtfj;ij vt;thW> mjpfupf;fyhk; vd;w mwpit (rpe;jidia)
,yFtpy; ngwyhk;. xU fiurypd; nrwpit mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; my;yJ mKf;fj;ij
mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; my;yJ mKf;fj;ij mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; (thA mtj;ijia
nfhz;l jhf;fq;fSf;F) jhf;Fj; njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiyia cau;j;Jtjd; %yk;
jpz;kk; xd;wpd; Nkw;gug;ig mjpfupg;gjd; %yk;> xU Cf;fpia Nru;g;gjd; %yk;
jhf;f Ntfj;ij mjpfupf;fyhk;. NkYk; fiuaj;ijf; (jhf;fpia) fiug;gjw;Fg; gad;gLk;
fiug;ghDk; jhf;f Ntfj;ijg; ghjpf;fyhk;.
fPNo fye;Jiuahlg;gLk; NkhJjw; nfhs;ifia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L xU ,urh
adj; jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F mj;jpahtrpakhd mbg;gilj; Njitfisf; fUJtjd;
%yk;> ,J gw;wpa mwpitg; ngwyhk;.
15
1.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f tPjj;jpy; jhf;fj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;

fhuzpfspd; tpisit tpsf;f %yf;$w;W ,af;ff; Nfhl;ghl;ilg;
(NkhJiff; Nfhl;ghL) gad;gLj;jy;
1.6.1 Nkhjy; Nfhl;ghL
myF 4 ypUe;J ehk; mwpe;jJ Nghd;W (rlg;nghUspy; thAepiy) NkhJjw;
nfhs;if %yf;$Wfspd; miritAk; (motion) mtw;wpd; ,af;ftpaw; rf;jpiaAk;> mjd;
gpufhuk; vt;thW mKf;fk; xU njhFjpapy; khw;wKWfpd;wJ vd;gijAk; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
,g;nghOJ ehk; ,yFthf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sKbAk;> xU jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;Fj;
njhlu;e;J NkhJjy; Ntz;Lk;. vd;gijAk;> vy;yh NkhJifapd; NghJk; jhf;fpfs;
tpisTfshf khw;wkiltjpy;iy> xU gq;F khj;jpuNk khw;wKWfpd;wJ. ,J fUJtJ
vy;yh NkhJiffSk; tpisitf; nfhLg;gjpy;iy vd;gjhFk;. cjhuzkhf xU tspkz;ly
mKf;fj;jpYk;> 200C apYk; tspapd; 1cm3 ypUf;Fk; N2(g) O2(g) %yf;$Wfs; Vwj;jho
xU nrf;fDf;F 1027 NkhJiff;F cl;gLfpd;wd. ,k;NkhJifahTk; tpistpy; KbTWk;
vdpd; tspkz;lyk; Vwj;jho (almost) NO thAthf ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; kpf kpfr; rpwpjsT
jhd; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Fwpg;gpLtJ vd;dntdpy; midj;J NkhJiffSk; tpisit
cUthf;Ftjpy;iy vd;gjhFk;. vdNt xU jhf;fj;jpd; epfo;itj; jPu;khdpf;Fk; xNu xU
fhuzpahf Nkhjy;fs; ,Uf;fKbahJ.
MfNt xU ,urhadjhf;fk; eilngWtjw;Fg; gpd;tUk; epajpfs; eptpu;j;jp nra;ag;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
1. %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa Nkhjy;fis toptFf;Fk; njhlu;G Vw;gl Ntz;Lk;.
2. rf;jpj; jiliaj; jhz;Ltjw;F NkhJiffspd;NghJ %yf;$Wfs; Nghjpa rf;jp
iaf; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
3. jhf;fpfs; tpisthf khw;wg;gLtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd gpizg;Gfs; cilaf;$bathW
%yf;$Wfs; nghUj;jkhd jpirKfj;jpy; NkhJjy; Ntz;Lk;.
Nkhjy;
%yf;$w;W ,af;ftpaw; Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; td;ikahd
Nfhsq;fshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd. xU myF fdtstpy;> xU nrf;fdpy; jhf;ff;
fyitapy; Vw;gLk; Nkhjy;fspd; vz;zpf;if Nkhjy; mjpu;ntz; (Z) vd miof;fg;gL
fpd;wJ. mjd; mbg;gil tbtj;jpy; NkhJjy; nfhs;if xU gbj;jkhf;fq;fSld; nra
yhw;Wfpd;wJ> ,jpy; ,uz;L Jzpf;iffs; Nkhjp tpisTfis cUthf;fpd;wd: A + B
tpisTfs; ehk; ,U Jzpf;iffs; A kw;Wk; B Mfpa ,uz;Lk; kl;LNk xU ghj;-
jpuj;jpy; ,Ug;gjhf itj;Jf;nfhs;Nthk;.
cU 1.6 khwhf; fdtstpy; jhf;ff;fyitapy; A apdJ B apdJk; nrwpT mjpfupg; Gld; NkhJif
vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. (a) ,uz;L %yf;$Wfs; A Ak; ,uz;L %yf;$Wfs; B
Ak; ehd;F Nkhjy;fSf;F cl;gLk; mNJNghy; (b) %d;W %yf;$Wfs; A Ak; ,uz;L
%yf;$Wfs; B Ak; nkhj;jkhf (3 × 2) MW Nkhjy;fs; tpisthfpd;wJ. (c) apy;
,Ug;gJ Nghd;W 3 %yf;$Wfs; A apw;Fk; 3 %yf;$Wfs; B apw;FkpilNa 9 NkhJif
(3 × 3) tpisthfpd;wJ. Nkhjy; vz;zpf;ifapd; epfo;jfTfis ,t;thNw ca;j;jwpa
KbAk; midj;J Nkhjy;fSk; jhf;fj;jpd; tpisthf KbTwhjpUjpUf;fyhk;.
16
,uz;L A, ,uz;L B %yf;$Wfs; cs;sNghJ ehd;F A, B Nkhjy; rhj;jpak; vd;W glk;

1.6 fhl;Lfpd;wJ. ,NjNghd;W %d;W A kw;Wk; %d;W B %yf;$Wfs; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ
xd;gJ Nkhjy;fs; rhj;jpakhFk;. ,jpypUe;J ehk; fhz;gJ NkhJif epfo; jfT jhf;fp
%yf;$Wfspd; ngUf;fj;jpy; jq;fpapUf;fpd;wNjad;wp mtw;wpd; $l;Lj; njhifapyd;W
vd;gNjahFk;. NkhJiff; nfhs;if vt;thW jhf;ftPjk; xU myF fdtstpy; xU
myF Neuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; Nkhjy;fspy; jq;fpAs;sJ vd;gJld; nrwpT mjpfupg;Gj;
jhf;ftPjj;ij mjpfupf;fpd;wJ vd;gijAk; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. ,e;j Nkhjy; Njit
jpz;k ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; vdpy; jhf;fk; kpfTk; nkJthf epfOk;. Vnddpy; Nkw;
gug;gpy; cs;s %yf;$Wfs;> mZf;fs; khj;jpuNk kw;wtw;Wld; Nkhjiy Vw;gLj;j
yhk;. mjdhy;jhd; ,Uk;G JUg;gpbj;jy; kpfTk; nkJthf cs;sJ. ngUk;ghyhd
jhf;fq;fs; fiury; my;yJ thA mtj;ijapy; elhj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs;
RahjPd miritf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy;> %yf;$Wfs; vspjpy; njhlu;Gnfhs;s mDkjpf;
fpd;wd. vdNt Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU myFf; fdtstpy; xU myF Neuj;jpy;
mjpf vz;zpf;ifahd NkhJif Vw;gLtjhy; jhf;ftPjk; tpiuthdJ.
NkhJifj; jpirKfk;
,U %yf;$Wfs; gq;Fnfhs;Sk; jhf;fj;jpy; xd;whf mtu;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;G
nfhs;Sk;NghNj mit jhf;fKwyhk; vd;gij ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;. ,e;jr;
re;jpg;gpd;NghJ Kjypy; mit NkhjNtz;Lk;> gpd;dNu mit jhf;fKwyhk;. ,jd;
nghUs; %yf;$Wfs; Nkhjpf;nfhz;lhYk; midj;J Nkhjy;fSNk tpisthfhky;
my;yJ jhf;fj;Jl;glhJ ,Uf;fyhk;. jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; mD$ykhd jpirKfj;jpy;
NkhJjy; Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; tpUk;gpa tpisit cUthf;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd Vtw;
rf;jp nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. tpUk;gpa tpisit tpistpf;Fk; Nkhjy;fs; gaDs;s
Nkhjy;fs; vdg;gLk;. gaDs;s NkhJifapd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;f jhf;ftP jk; mjpfupf;
fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; nkhj;j NkhJifapd; vz;zpf;iff;F tpfpjhrhukhf cs;sJ.
cjhuzk;
fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;l BrNO ,d; xd;iwg; gpupifj; jhf;fj;ij ftdpAq;fs;.
2BrNO(g) 2NO(g) + Br2(g)
ehk; ,g;nghOJ BrNO d; ,U %yf;$Wfs; cU 1.7 y; rpj;jupf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; Kiwiag;
ghu;g;Nghk;. Br2(g) I tpisthf cUthf;f ,uz;L BrNO %yf;$Wfspd; Br mZT-
f;F KjypU Nkhjy;fspy; fhl;lg;gl;l mNjtupapy; mZfp NkhJjy; Ntz;Lk;. vt;th-
whapDk; mk;%yf;$Wfs; %d;whtjhf fhl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk; tuptiugpy; mZFk;NghJ
,U Br %yf;$Wfs; NkhJtjw;Fr; rhj;jpakpy;iy. vdNt ,t;NkhJif jpirKfk;
jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ tpisit cUthf;f KbahJ. vdNt ,k;NkhJifj; jpirKfk; jhf;
fj;jpd;NghJ tpisit cUthf;fkhl;lhJ. Mifahy; %yf;$Wfs; mZFk; jpir Vw;w
jhf (Kiwikahdjhf) ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; NkhJk; jpir jhf;f
tPjj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;jfpd;wJ.
17
%yf;$Wfs; tupirahf;fy;
2Br mZf;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W
jhf;f kila KbAk;. kw;Wk;
NO(g) gpupa KbAk;.
%yf;$Wfs; tupir
ahf;fk; Br mZf;fs;
nghUj;jkhd jpirapy;
,y;iy.
cU 1.7 NtWgl;l jpirKfq;fspy; BrNO %yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd NkhJif (a) kw;Wk;

(b) ,y; ,uz;L %yf;$Wfs; xOq;fhf tupirg;gLj;jg;gl;L Br2 %yf;$WfSk; NO
%yf;$WfSk; cUthfpd;wJ. (C) y; %yf;$Wfs; tupirg;gLj;jg;gl;bUg;gpDk; Br
mZf;fs; Nkhjpf;nfhs;sr; rhj;jpakhd gf;fq;fspYk; / jpirfspYk; ,y;iy. vdNt
tpisTfs; cUthfhJ.
vjPd;> HCl cld; jhf;fKw;Wf; FNshNuh vNjid cUthf;Fk; xU gbj;jhf;fnkhd;iw

fUJf.
CH2=CH2(g) + HCl(g) CH3CH2Cl(g)
,U %yf;$WfSf;FkpilNa Vw;gLk; NkhJifapd; tpisthf> C = C ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;gpDs; xU fhgd; mZTld; Ijurd; mZTk;> kw;iwa fhgd; mZTld;
FNshupd; mZTk; ,iztjhy; fhgd; fhgd; gpizg;G xw;iwg;gpizg;ghf khw;wg;
gLfpwJ HCl Ijurd; KidTf; fhgd; fhgd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;ig mZfpdhy;
khj;jpuNk ehk; tpUk;gpa tpisitg; ngwKbAk;. C = C I #o;e;J cau; ,yj;jpud; mlu;j;jp
cs;sJ. Cl mZf;fs; ,jid mZfpdhy;> Cl mZ js;sg;gLtjpdhy; tpisT cUthf
khl;lhJ. tpistpid cUthf;Fk; Nkhjy;fSk; kw;Wk; gpw rhj;jpakhd Nkhjy;fSk;
cU 1.8 y; xg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
H Cl
H
Cl H Cl
rhj;jpak; : Mk; ,y;iy ,y;iy ,y;iy
CH2=CH2(g) + HCl(g) CH3CH2Cl(g)

cU 1.8 CH2 = CH2 kw;Wk; HCl %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa Nkhjy;fspd; rhj;jpakhd
Nehf;Ffs; (a)y; HCl y; H mZ C = C ,ul;il gpizg;ig Nehf;fp jpirKfg;gLj;
jg;gl;Ls;sJ. C = C gpizg;G kiw Vw;wk; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; ,k;NkhJif tpisT
cUthtjw;Fr; rhjfkhf cs;sJ (b) y; HCl d; Cl mZ js;sg;gLtjhy; jhf;fk; eil
ngWtJ rhj;jpakd;W. (c) apYk; (d) apYk; tpisT cUthjy; rhj;jpakd;W.
Vtw;rf;jpj; jiliaj; jhz;Ljy;

,aq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; jhf;fp %yf;$Wfspd; Nghy;l;khd; %yf;$Wfspd; ,af;fr;
rf;jpg;guk;gy; ehk; mwpe;jnjhd;Nw. rpy %yf;$Wfs; mjpf rf;jp nfhz;bUf;Fk;. rpy
18
%yf;$Wfs; jho; rf;jpiaAk; gy ,ilepiyr; rf;jpiaAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. cU 1.9

Nghy;l;khd; tiuglk; xU njhFjp jhf;fpfSf;F ,uz;L ntg;gepiyapy; rf;jp guk;giyj;
jUfpd;wJ. Vtw;rf;jp Ea vd miof;fg;gLk;. jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F Njitahd ,opTr;
rf;jpapYk; $ba rf;jpia cila %yf;$WfNs tpisitf; nfhLf;ff; $bait. cau;
ntg;gepiyapy; ngupa gFjp mjhtJ ngupa gq;F %yf;$Wfs; jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw;rf;jp
iaj; jhz;Ltjhy;> mjpfsT tpidj;jpwd; cila gad;gL NkhJif Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
kw;Wk; xg;gpLk;NghJ cau; ntg;gepiy khjpupapy; jho; ntg;gepiy khjpupapYk; ghu;f;fj;
jhf;f tPjk; cau;thf ,Uf;Fk;.
,g;gug;gpy; cs;s %yf;$Wfs;
jhf;fk; miltjw;Fg; NghJkhd
msTr; rf;jpiaf; nfhz;by;iy
%yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dk;
ifahz;l %y;$Wfs; ,g;gug;gpy; cs;s %yf;$Wfs;

jhf;fk; miltjw;Fg; NghJkhd
msTr; rf;jpiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ
rf;jp
cU 1.9 NkhJifr; rf;jpfspd; guk;gy; kPJ ntg;gj;jpd; tpisT> cau; ntg;g

epiyapy; Vtw;rf;jpapYk; cau;rf;jpiaf; nfhz;l %yf;$w;Wg; gpd;dk; mjpfupg;gjhy;
cau; jhf;f tPjk; Vw;gl toptFf;fpd;wJ.
%yf;$WfSf;fpilapy; Vw;gLk; ,ilj;jhf;f tpiria Kwpabf;ff;$ba rhjfkhd

NkhJif Vw;gLk;nghOJ> Kjypy; Vtw;rpf;fy; vd miof;fg;gLk;. epiyaw;w $l;l%yf;
$W Kjypy; (rpf;fyhd khWk;epiy) cUthfpwJ. Vtw;rpf;fypd; tho;Tf;fhyk; kpfTk;
FWfpaJ. mj;Jld; tpisthf khw;wg;gLk; (my;yJ jhf;fpfshf gpupifAwyhk;). gps
tilAk; ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfspd; ,ay;Gfspy; Vtw;rf;jp (Ea) jq;fpAs;sJld; jhf;fj;
jpd; ntg;g cs;Siwapy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy. rf;jp tiuglk; BrNOg ,d; gpupifia
cjhuzkhff; nfhz;L cU 1.10 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J gw;wpa Nkyjpf tpguk;
gpd;du; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;.
cU 1.10 rf;jp tiuglj;jpy; Vtw;rf;jp EA tpupthf tiuag;gl;Ls;sJ
cjhuzkhf> BrNO d; gpupifj;jhf;fk; 2BrNO(g) → 2NO(g) +Br2(g) y; ,Uf;Fk; Br - N

gpizg;Gfs; cile;JxU Br - Br gpizg;G cUthf;fNtz;Lk;. Br - N gpizg;G cilf;f
Vwj;jho 243kJ mol-1 Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F ,r;rf;jp Njit.
NkhJif khjpupAUtpd; mbg;gilapy; ,r;rf;jp %yf;$Wfspd; ,af;fr;rf;jpapypUe;J
ngwg; gLfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; %yf;$Wfs; NkhJk;NghJ> ,af;fr; rf;jp gpizg;Gfis
cilj;J mZf;fs; kpd; xOq;fikf;Fk; mOj;jrf;jpahf khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
19
RUf;fkhf> ehk; ghu;f;Fk;NghJ xU ,urhadj; jhf;fk; Gwntg;g my;yJ mfntg;g jhf;fkhf

,Ug;gpDk; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfshf khw;wg;glKd; rf;jpj; jiliaj; jhz;lNtz;bAs;sJ.
jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; NghjpasT rf;jpiaf; nfhz;bUe;jhy; rf;jp tha;e;j NkhJifapd; gpd;
rf;jpj;jilapd; cr;rpia mile;J tyJ gf;f tistpd; gf;fkhfr; nrd;W ,Wjpahf tpisthf
khWfpd;wJ. jhf;fj;jpw;fhd Vtw;rf;jp jho;thf ,Ug;gpd; rf;jp tha;e;j / rhjfkhd Nkhjy;fs;
gpd;dk; cau;thf ,Ug;gJld; jhf;fk; tpiuthf eilngWk;. kWjiyahf> Vtw;rf;jp
cau;thf ,Ug;gpd; rf;jptha;e;j NkhJiffspd; gpd;dk; rpwpjhf ,Uf;Fk;. mj;Jld;
jhf;fk; nkJthf eilngWk;. ntg;gepiyia cau;j;Jk;nghOJ xU myF Neuj;jpy; xU
myF fdtstpy; ew;gad; mspf;f$ba NkhJiffspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk; vdNt
jhf;ftPjk; mjpfupf;Fk;;.
nrwptpd; tpisTfs;
A+B tpisTfs; vd;w tif ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; A Ak; B
Ak; (mZ my;yJ mad;fs;) xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;GgLk; nghOJ tpisTfshf khw;wg;
gLfpd;wJ. mit xd;Wld; xd;W njhlu;Gglhtpby; jhf;ftPjk; g+r;rpakhFk;. xU fd
myfpy; cs;s %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ mtw;wpw;fpilNa cs;s
NkhJiffs; mjpfupg;gjhy; jhf;f tPjk; mjpfupf;Fk;. ,J fUJtJ nghJthf jhf;fp
fspd; nrwpT mjpfupf;fj; jhf;f Ntfk; mjpfupf;Fk; vd;gJ jputq;fs;> thAf;fs; rk;ge;
jg;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT mjpfupf;fj; jhf;f Ntfk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. rpy
re;ju;g;gq;fspy; (casese) VjhtJ xU jhf;fpapd; nrwpT mjpfupg;Gj; jhf;fNtfj;jpy; vJ
tpj tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;Jtjpy;iy. (gpd;tUk; xU gFjpapy; ,J gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahlg;
gLk;). nrwptpd; tpisitr; nra;J fhl;lg;gLtjw;F jpz;k CaCO3 w;Fk; HCl w;Fkpilap
yhd jhf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
mkpyj;jpd; nrwpit khw;Wtjd; %yk; jhf;fNtfj;ij khw;wyhk; (fy;rpak; fhgNdw;Wr;
rpg;gpfspd; gUik khw;wyhk;). ,J jhf;fpfspd; ngsjPfj; jd;ikapd; fPO; tUk;. ,j;
jhf;fj;jpy; mtjhdpf;fg;gl;J. CaCO3 Jz;Lfs; ngupajhfTk;> NkyjpfkhfTk; ,Ug; gpDk;
xU rpW gq;F jpz;kk; khj;jpuk; jhf;fkilfpd;wJ. IjNuhFNshwpf; mkpyk; nrytope;J
Nghtjhy; jhf;ftPjk; Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ.
MfNt pH mstpLtjd; %yk; jhf;f tPjk; fz;fhzpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. fiurypd; pH msg;
gjd; %yk;> fy;rpak; fhgNdw;wpd; jpzpT Fiwit msg;gjd; %yk; my;yJ CO2
fdtsT mjpfupg;ig msg;gjd; %yk; jhf;ftPjj;ij mstplyhk;. ntspNaWk; CO2
,d; msit msg;gNj kpf vspjhd Kiw ahFk;. Vnddpy; xNu xU thA tpis
nghUshf CO2 kl;Lk; cUthtjhy; xU Fwpj;j gupNrhjid xd;wpy; njupe;j msT
CaCO3 I jdpj;jdpNa njupe;j fdtsT (100cm3) 0.5> 1.00> 2.00 moldm-2 jhf;fkila
tplg;gl;L cUthFk; CO2 d; fdtsitj; njhlu;e;J Neuj;Jld; fz;fhzpf;fg;gLk;
nghOJ gpd;tUk; ngWNgWfs; ngwg;gLk;.
20
CO2 Neuk;
Neuk;
cU 1.11 khwhf; fdtsT CO2(g) cUthtjw;fhd Neuk; jhf;fj;jpy; gad;gLk; HCl d; nrwpTld;
khw;wkiljy; nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
+ CO2(g)
Nkw;gb tiugpypUe;J ehk; ghu;f;fyhk; khwhf fdtsT CO2 thA cz;lhf vLf;Fk; Neuk; (t2.00
< t1.00 < t0.50 ) HCl d; nrwpT mjpfupf;ff; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. mjhtJ jhf;fNtfk; HCl d; nrwpT
mjpfupf;f mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. jhf;fNtfk; mjpfupg;gij NkhJjy; nfhs;if tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. cau;
nrwptpy; xU myF Nkw;gug;gpy; (CaCO3) xU myF Neuj;jpy; Vw;gLk; jhf;fpfSf;fp
ilapy; Vw;gLk; NkhJiffs; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. vdNt jhf;fNtfk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
jhf;fNtfk; nrwpT mjpfupf;f mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. vdpDk;> rpy tifahd jhf;fq;fspd;
(gy gbjhf;fk;) ,t; elj;ij ,Ug;gjpy;iy vd Nehf;fg;gl;lJ. cjhuzkhf ntt;NtW
jhf;f Ntfj;Jld; $ba njhlu;gbfspy; eilngWk; jhf;fk; xd;iwf; fUJk; nghOJ rpy
gbfs; tpiuthdJ rpy gbfs; nkJthdJ.
,U jhf;fpfs; A Ak; B Ak; jhf;fkile;J tpisT P I gpd;tUk; gbfspy; jUk; vdpy;>
A(aq) X(aq) : nkJthdJ
B(aq) + X(aq) P : tpiuT
Nkw;gb jhf;fj;jpy; nkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fNtfk; A, X I nfhLf;Fk;. nghJthd
gbapdhy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,JNt jhf;fNtfj;ij epu;zapUf;Fk; gbnad
tpgupf;fg;gLk;. Aapd; nrwpit mjpfupj;jhy;> Kd;du; tpgupj;jJ Nghd;W mg;gbapd; jhf;f
Ntfk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. vt;thwhapDk; Bapd; nrwpit mjpfupg;gpd; mg;gbapd; jhf;fNtfk;
mjpfupg;gpDk;> nkhj;jj; jhf;fNtfj;jpy; vt;tpj tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ Vnddpy; mg;gb
X cz;lhdTld; kpftpiuthf eilngWfpd;wJ. MfNt mJNghd;w gy;gbj; jhf;fq;f-
spy;> tpiuthfg; gbapy; jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk;. jhf;fp xd;wpd; nrwpit mjpfupf;Fk;nghOJ>
mJ jhf;fNtfj;jpd; xUtpj tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ. fUehl;lg; gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs;
,t;tifahd jhf;fq;fSf;F cjhuzkhf mikAk;.
mKf;fj;jpd; tpisT
thAj; jhf;fpfs; <LgLk; jhf;fpfspd; mKf;fj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ jhf;fNtfk; mjpfupf;
fpd;wJ. jpz;kq;fs; my;yJ jputq;fs; kl;Lk; <LgLk;. jhf;fq;fspy; mKf;f khw;wk;
jhf;fNtfj;jpy; vt;tpj khw;wj;ijAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ. cjhuzkhf Vtu; Kiwapdhy;
mNkhdpahtpd; ngUk;gb jahupg;gpy; kpfTk; cau; mKf;fj;ij cgNahfpg;gjd; %yk;
jhf;ftPjk; mjpfupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. jug;gl;l jpzpT thAtpd; nrwpit mjpfupg;gJ> rupahf
mt;thAtpd; nrwpit mjpfupg;gJ> rupahf mt;thAtpd; mKf;fj;ij mjpfupg;gJ ,jidg;
gpd;tUkhW ,yl;rpathAr; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
PV = nRT
21
xU nfhLf;fg;gl;l jpzpT thAtpw;F> ehk; NkNy ,Uf;Fk; rkd;ghl;bid kPs xOq;fhf;f

KbAk;.
P=n/VRT = CRT nfhLf;fg;gl;l fdtstpw;F khwh ntg;gepiyapy;> ,J (RT) xU khwpyp
khwh ntg;gepiyapy;. vdNt mKf;fk; nrwptpw;F Neu; tpfpjrkk;. mKf;fj;ij mjpfupf;
Fk; nghOJ ,U NtWgl;l Jzpf;iffSf;fpilapyhd NkhJif mjpfupf;fj; jhf;fNtfk;
mjpfupf;Fk; vd;gJ cz;ikahFk;.
jho; mKf;fk; cau; mKf;fk;
,U jhf;fpfSk; thAf;fs;
xU jhf;fp jpz;kk;
cU 1.12 mKf;fj;jpd; tpisT mKf;f mjpfupg;G thAj;jhf;fpfs; nrwpit mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
ntg;gepiyapd; tpisT
ntg;gj;jpd; tpisTkhw;wk; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ghjpf;Fk; vd;gJ tpsf;fkhdJ. NkNy
tpgupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghd;W kf;];nty; - Nghyw;];khd; %yf;$w;Wr; rf;jpg; guk;gy; tisapd;
%yk; ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;Gld; jhf;fpapd; rf;jp mjpfupf;Fk;. xU thAtpd; ntg;gepiy
mjpfupg;Gj; jhf;ftPjj;ij mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. miwntg;gepiyia mz;kpj;j ntg;gepiy
apy; eilngWk; ngUk;ghyhd jhf;fq;fSf;F (vy;yhj; jhf;fq;fSf;Fkd;W)
0
xt;nthU 10 C ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;gpw;Fk; jhf;ftPjk; ,ul;bg;gilfpd;wJ. jhf;fq;fs;
kpfTk; tpiuthdJ. cjhuzk; tPo;gbTj; jhf;fq;fs;> fiurypYs;s jhf;fp mad;fspypUe;J
fiuahj jpz;kj;ij cUthf;Fk; my;yJ xU mkpyj;jpypUe;J ngwg;gLk; Ijurd;
mad; xU fhuj;jpypUe;J ngwg;gl;L Ijnuhl;irl;L maDld; jhf;fKWk; jhf;fk;.
vdNt ,jpy; VjhtJ xd;iw ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT jhf;f
tPjj;jpy; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jhJ.
myF 4y; tpgupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghd;W (rlg;nghUl;fspd; thAepiy xU njhFjpapd; ntg;g
epiyia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ mjd; gFjpfshd %yf;$Wfs; my;yJ Jzpf;iffs; ruhrup
,af;frf;jp mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ (Jzpf;iffs; tpiuthf mirtJld; xU myF Neuj;
jpy; (xU fdtsT) mjpf (mbf;fb) NkhJifia Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wd. jhf;fkilt-
jw;Fj; Njitahd rf;jpiaf; nfhz;Ls;s %yf;$Wfspd; (gpd;dk; / gq;F) vz;zpf;if
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. (my;yJ NtW Kiwahf;fq;fspd; Vtw; rf;jpapYk; $ba rf;jp cs;s
%yf;$w;Wg; gpd;dk;)
,t; ,U fhuzpfSk; jhf;fNtfj;ij mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. vdNt vy;yh (mjpfkhd) jhf;fq;
fspd; jhf;fNtfKk; ntg;gepiy Fiwtilaj; jhf;ftPjk; FiwtilAk;. cjhuz
khff; Fsp&l;ly; capu; ,urhad jhf;fNtfj;ijf; Fiwg;gjhy; gf;wpuPahf;fspd; tsu;r;rp
ngUf;fkiljy; Fiwfpd;wJ.
NkYk; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fq;fs; rhj;jpakhd njhFjpfspy; xNu jhf;fpfs; ntt;NtW
tpisTfis ntt;NtW epge;jidfspy; juyhk;. cjhuzkhf Ijhd ry;g+upf;fkpyj;jpd;
Kd;dpiyapy; 1000C ,y; vjNdhy;> ,U vijapy; <juhf khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ.
22
(H2 SO4 )
2CH3CH2OH(aq) CH3CH2OCH2CH3(aq) + H2O(l)
100oC
vt;thwhapDk; 1800C> Kw;wpYk; NtWgl;ljhf;fk; eilngWfpd;wJ. vjyPd; gpujhd

tpisthf cz;lhfpd;wJ.
(H2 SO4 )
2CH3CH2OH(aq) CH2CH4(g) + H2O(l)
180oC
jhf;fpfspd; ngsjPfj; jd;ik

xU jhf;fj;jpy; xNu jput mtj;ijapYs;s ,Uf;f> %yf;$Wfisf; fUJf> mit mbf;fb
NkhJiff;F cl;gLk;. xd;Nwh my;yJ vy;yhj; jhf;fpfSk; jpz;kkhf ,Ug;gjpYk; ghu;f;f
(my;yJ NtWgl;l fyf;Fk; jftw;w mtj;ijapy; ,Ug;gjpYk; ghu;f;f) jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs;
rPuhf xU Vftpd fiurypy; guk;gpapUf;Fk; nghOJ xU myF Neuj;jpy; xU fd myF
fdtstpy; Vw;gLk; NkhJif> nrwptpYk; Neuj;jpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. gy;ypdj; jhf;fkhapd;
jhf;fpfNs ,U NtWgl;l mtj;ijfspy; (jpz;kk; / thA) ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ (jpz;kk; /
thA) jhf;fpfSf;fpilapyhd nghJKfj;jpy; (interface) kl;Lk; eilngw KbAk;. jhf;fp
fSf;fpilapyhd NkhJif vz;zpf;if xU myF fdtstpy; xU myF Neuj;jpy;
fzprkhdsT Vftpdkhd epiy rhu;ghfj; jho;j;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; jhf;ftPjKk;
nghJthfj; jhf;ftPjk; ngsjPf epiyapy; jq;fpAs;sJ. thAepiy > jputepiy > jpz;k
epiy Nghd;W gy;ypd jhf;fk; xd;wpd; jhf;ftPjk; xLq;fpa mtj;ijapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;
mjpfstpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
Nkhl;lhu; thfdj;jpd; ,ae;jpuq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Nkw;gug;Gj; jhf;fNtfj;jpy; tpisit
Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. xt;nthU cUisapYs;Sk; fNrhypd; (gasoline) cl;nrYj;jg;gl;L>
nghwp MopapypUe;J tUk; nghwpapdhy; vupa+l;lg;gl;L mq;F jfdkilfpd;wJ fNrhypd;
Ez;zpa Jspfshf cl;GFj;jg;gLfpd;wJ> Vnddpy; ,t;tbtj;jpy; ,J kpfg;ngupa Nkw;
gug;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mj;Jld; kpfTk; tpiuthfg; gw;wp vupaf;$baJ. mUtpahf cl;
nrYj;JtjpYk; ghu;f;f xU Ftpay; mLf;F Ez;zpa J}shf;fg;gl;l ,Uk;G nkJthfNt
vupfpd;wJ. Mdhy; Ez;J}shf;fg;gl;l ,Uk;ig Rthiyapd; kPJ tprpWk;NghJ kpf
tpiuthfj; jhf;fk; eilngWfpd;wJ.
jpz;kj; jhf;fpahf cs;s epfo;r;rpapy;> J}s; J}shf;fg;gl;l jpz;kk; kpfTk; tpiuth-
fj; jhf;fKWk;. mNj jpzpitAil xU fl;b jhf;fKWtjpYk; ghu;f;f. (Vnddpy; J}s;
J}shf;fg;gl;l ,Uk;G ngupa Nkw;gug;ig nfhz;bUg;gNj.)
cjhuzkhf fy;rpak; fhgNdw;Wf;Fk; IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyj;jpw;Fkpilapyhd
jhf;fj;ij Ma;T$lj;jpy; nra;Ak;nghOJ ePq;fs; mtjhdpg;gPu;fs; J}shf;fg;gl;l fy;rp
ak; fhgNdw;W> mNj jpzpT nfhz;l khgps; my;yJ Rz;zhk;Gf;fy; fw;fspYk; ghu;f;f
kpf tpiuthfj; jhf;fKWtij. Ijurd; gunthl;irl;Lk; Cf;fw;gpup iff;F kq;fdP];
(IV) xl;irl;L ngUk;ghYk; Cf;fpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Cf;fp J}shf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ
mNj jpzpTila Cf;fp rpWkzpfshf ,Ug;gjpYk; ghu;f;f xl;rprd; tpiuthf ntsptp
lg;gLk;.
cjhuzkhf> kf;dPrpak; cNyhfj;jpw;Fk; Ijhd IjNuhFNshwpf; mkpyj;jpw;Fkpilapyhd
jhf;fj;jpy; Mg mZf;fSf;Fk; Ijurd; mad;fSf;Fkpilapy; NkhJif epfOfpd;wJ.
,q;Nf cNyhfj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G jhf;fNtfj;ijg; ghjpf;fpd;wJ.
J}s;J}shf;fg;gl;l Mg J}s; kf;dPrpak; ehlhtpYk; ghu;f;f H2 thA ntspNaWtij
kpfTk; tpiuthf;Fk;.
Kd;du; tpgupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghd;W ngsjPfj; jd;ik khj;jpukd;W ,urhadg; gpizg;Gfspd;
jhf;fpfspd; ,urhadg; gpizg;GfSk; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ghjpf;fpd;wJ.
23
gpd;tUk; ,U jhf;fq;fisAk; fUJf.

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ………… (a)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) ………… (b)
KjyhtJ jhf;fk; (a) ,uz;lhtJ jhf;fj;jpYk; tpiuthdJ. Vnddpy; KjyhtJ
jhf;fj;jpy; N = O gpizg;G kl;Lk; cilfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jhf;fk; (b) ehd;F C - H
gpizg;Gf;fs; cilfpd;wJ.
,NjNghd;W NtW ,U xj;j jhf;fq;fisf; fUJf.
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ………... (c)
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) ……........ (d)
NO gpizg;G CO gpizg;gpYk; eypthdJ> vdNt ,yFthf cilAk;. vdNt jhf;fk;
(c), (d) ia tpl tpiuthdJ.
fiug;ghdpd; tpisTfs;
fiug;ghdpd; jd;ik jhf;fNtfq;fisg; ghjpf;Fk;. gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fiug;ghd;fspd;
KidTj; jd;ikiag; nghWj;J xNu jhf;fk; ,U NtWgl;l fiug;ghd;fspy; eilngWk;
nghOJ jhf;fNtfk; fiug;ghd;fspd; KidTj;jd;ikapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
xU jhf;fk; ntt;NtW fiug;ghd;fspy; eilngWk; nghOJ fiug;ghdpd; ghFj;jd;ikAk;
jhf;fNtfj;ijj; jPu;khdpg;gjpy; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wJ. cau; ghFjd;ik nfhz;l
fiug;ghd;fspy; jho; ghFj;jd;ik nfhz;l fiug;ghd;fspYk; Jzpf;iffs; kpf
nkJthfg; guTfpd;wikahy; xU fd myF fdtstpy;> xU myF Neuj;jpy; Vw;gLk;
NkhJif Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt jhf;fNtfk; fiug;ghdpd; ghFj;jd;ik mjpfupf;ff;
FiwtilAk;.
Cf;fpapd; tpisT
xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; ghijia khw;Wtjd;%yk; jhf;f Ntfj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;
xU gjhu;j;jk; ,Wjpapy; ,urhad khw;wj;jpw;F cl;glhJ fhzg;gLk; gjhu;j;jkhFk;.
cjhuzkhf CO(g)+ 2H2(g) → CH3OH(g) vd;Dk; jhf;fk; miwntg;gepiyapy; kpfj;
jho; jhf;ftPjk; cilaJ> mjDs; xU Cf;fpiar; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; jhf;fj;ij
tpiuTgLj;jyhk;. NkYk;> Ijurd; gunthl;irl;bd; gpupif Cf;fpapd; Kd;dpiy
apy;> Cf;fpaw;w epiyAld; xg;gpLk; nghOJ kpftpiuthf eilngWk;. ngUk;ghyhd
Cf;fpfs; rpy jhf;fq;fSf;Fr; rpwg;g+f;fy; (Fwpj;jt+f;fy;) cilajhf ,Ug;gjhy; gy
jhf;fq;fs; rhj;jpakhf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ mj;jhf;fj;jpy; tpisitj; Jzptjd; %yk;
mtw;wpy; xU jhf;fj;ijNa Cf;Ftpf;Fk;. Cf;fp gad;gLk; rpy Fwpj;j jhf;fq;fspy;
jhf;fpapd; nrwpit mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspy; jhf;ftPjk; mjpfupf;fhJ
Nghfyhk;. cjhuzkhf xU jhf;fj;jpy; fiu rypy; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT NghjpasT kpf
cau;thf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ> rpW J}s;J}shf;fg;gl;l Cf;fp cgNahfpf;fg;gbd;> Cf;fp
apd; Nkw;gug;G jhf;fp %yf;$Wfshy; Kw;whf %lg;gl;bUf;Fk;. fiurypd; nrwpit
NkYk; mjpfupj;jhYk; mJ xU tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;j KbahJ Vnddpy; Cf;fp
Vw;fdNt cau; nfhs;sstpy; njhopw;gLtjhyhFk;. jhf;ftPjj;jpd; kPJ ,t;tpisTfs;
gw;wpa tpguq;fs;> nghwp Kiwfs; gpwpnjhU gFjpapy; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;.
24
1.7 nghUj;jkhd mstpy; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpitf; ifahStjd; %yk;

xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy;
1.7.1 xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $Wk; Kiwfs; ruhrup tPjk;> fzepiy
tPjk;> njhlf;f tPjk;
Kd;du; tpgupj;jJ Nghd;W jhf;fk; eilngw;Wf;nfhz;bUf;ifapy; jhf;ftPjk; khw;wkil
fpd;wJ.
gpd;tUk; A f;F B f;Fkpilapyhd thA mtj;ij fUJNfhl; jhf;fnkhd;iwf; fUJf.
A(g) + B(g) → C(g)
xt;nthU %yf;$W A apw;Fk; xU %yf;$W B jhf;fKWfpd;wJ. vdNt (A) apdJk;
(B) apdJk; nrwpT xNu tPjj;jpy; FiwtilAk; mj;Jld; gpd;tUkhW vOjKbAk;.
∆[A] ∆[B]
jhf;ftPjk; = =
∆t ∆t
%ba ghj;jpuk; xd;wpDs; njupe;j A apd; nrwpTld; 298K y; jhf;fk; Muk;gpf;fg;gl;lJ
vd mDkhdpf;fTk;. B Nru;f;fg;gl;lgpd; A apd; nrwpT 10 nrf;fd;fs; ,ilntspfspy;
msf;fg;gl;lJ. ngwg;gl;l juTfs; cU 1.13y; fhl;bathW tiuGgLj;jg;gl KbAk;.
jhf;fj;jpd; tpUj;jpapd;NghJ jhf;ftPjk; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ Vnddpy; jhf;fpapd;
nrwpT Neuj;Jld; Fiwtile;J nry;fpd;wikNa (A) %yf;$Wfs; jhf;fkila>
gad;jU NkhJif vz;zpf;if FiwtilAk; mj;Jld; jhf;ftPjKk;> tpisTfspd;
nrwpit Neuj;Jld; tiuG gbj;jpwd; vjpuhd tisap tpisthf;fg;gLk; tpisTfspd;
nrwpT Neuj;jpw;F vjpuhf tiuag;gLk; tiugpd; cjtpAld; gpd;tUk; %d;W tif
Ntfq;fisAk; tiuaWf;fyhk;.
Muk;g tPjk;
fzepiy gbj;jpwd;
nrwpT
nrwpT
ruhrup
ruhrup
fzepiy
gbj;jpwd;
Muk;g tPjk;
Neuk; Neuk;
cU 1.13 tiutpyf;fzq;fSk;> tiuglk; %yk; vLj;Jf;$wy;> ruhrup> fzepiy> njhlf;f

jhf;ftPjq;fs; (a) jhf;fpfspw;Fj; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; khw;wk; (b) tpisTfSf;Fj; jhf;f
tPjj;jpy; khw;wk;> jhf;ftPjj;jpd; ngWkhdk; kiw FwpaPLilaJ vd;gijf; ftdpf;
fTk; (gbj;jpwd; kiwahdJ) tpistpw;F NeuhdJ. MfNt> fzpg;Gfspy; jhf;fpfs;
kiwAk; tPjk; (-1) dhy; ngUf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
ruhrupj; jhf;ftPjk;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyg;gFjpad; ruhrup tPjk; ,uz;L Gs;spfis ,izf;Fk; Nfhl;bd;
rha;T MFk;. Kjy; 100S fs; Neu ,ilntspapy; Vw;gLk; nrwptpd; khw;wj;ij mk;
khw;wk; Vw;gLtjw;fhd Neu ,ilntspahy; tFf;Fk; nghOJ ngwg;gLtJ ruhrup Ntf
khFk;. cjhuzkhf> C1= 3.50 x 10-5 and C2 = 0.50 → 10-5 mol dm-3, Mf ,Uf;Fk; nghOJ>
25
∆[A] - [ 0.50 × 10-5 - 3.50 × 10-5] mol dm-3

jhf;ftPjk;0-100 = =
∆t [ 100-0 ]s
= 3.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1

jhf;fj;jpd; Kjy; 100 tpdhbfspy; (A) 3.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 ruhrupahf xt;nthU nrf;fDf;
Fk; 3.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 Mff; Fiwfpd;wJ vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. xt;nthU nehbapYk;
tisapapd; topNa ve;jnthU Gs;spapYk; jhf;ftPjk; 3.0 × 10-7 mol dm-3 vd;W fUj
tpy;iy. tistpd; rha;T Neuj;Jld; Fiwtila Ntz;Lk;.
,J fUJtJ FWfpa ,ilntspfspy; jhf;ftPjk; ruhrupia tpl cau;thfTk; my;yJ
jho;thfTk; ,Uf;fyhk;. Nky; kjpg;gPl;by; 100 S ,ilntspapy; (A)d; nrwpT FiwT
ve;jnthU FWfpa Neu ntspapd; jhf;ftPjj;ijf; fhl;lhJ.
ve;j xU FWfpa fhyntspapy; ehk; ruhrup Ntfj;ij ehk; fzf;fpLk;nghOJ jhf;f
tPjj;jpy; ,e;j khw;wk; njspthfpd;wJ. Kjy; ruhrup jhf;ftPjk; jug;gLfpd;wJ.
(C1= 3.50 x 10-5 and C2= 3.00 x 10-5 mol dm-3)
∆[A] - [ 3.00 x 10-5- 3.50 x 10-5 ] mol dm-3
jhf;ftPjk;0-10 = =
∆t [ 10-0 ]s
= 5.0 x 10-7mol dm-3 s-1

,NjNghd;W ruhrupNtfk; 50 - 60 ,ilntspapy; (C1=1.00 x 10-5 , C2 = 0.75 x 10-5 mol dm-3.)
∆[A] -([ 0.75 x 10-5- 1.00 x 10-5] mol dm-3
jhf;ftPjk;50 - 60 = =
∆t [ 60-50 ] s
= 2.50 x 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1
fzepiyj; jhf;ftPjk;
ruhrup Ntfk;> Mu;tKs;s Neu ,ilntspapy; ruhrupNtfk; xU khwpypahFk;> ,J xU
Fwpj;j Neuj;jpy; cs;s jhf;ftPjk; fzepiy jhf;ftPjk; vdg;gLk;.
tisapapd; ve;jnthU Gs;spf;Fk; fPwg;gLk; njhlupapd; rha;T me;Neuj;jpd; fz
epiyj; jhf;ftPjkhFk;. cjhuzkhf 50.05y; fzepiyj; jhf;ftPjk; ,jidf; fzf;fpL
tjw;F 60s y; tiuag;gl;l njhL NfhLfspd; rha;T (gbj;jpwd;)> fzf;fplNtz;Lk;.
fUjg;gLk; njhlu;Gila Gs;spfs; (65, 1.25X10-5)k; (35,0.75X10-5) k; MFk;.
∆[A] -([ 0.75 x 1.25] x10-5 mol dm-3
jhf;ftPjk;50 = = = 1.70 x 10-7 mol dm-3 s-1
∆t [ 65-35 ] s
ruhruptPjk; fzepiyj; jhf;ftPjj;jpYk; NtWgl;lJ vd;gJ kpfTk; njspthf cs;sJ.

mj;Jld; jhf;ftPjk; vd;Dk; gjk; fUJtJ fzepiyj; jhf;f tPjj;ijNa MFk;.
njhlf;ftPjk;
jhf;fpfs; fye;j nehbapy; fhzg;gLk; fzepiyj; jhf;fNtfNk (mjhtJ t = 0) njhlf;f
tPjkhFk;. njhlf;ftPjk; / Muk;gtPjk; nrwpT Neu tisapy; t = 0 Mf ,Uf;Fk;
Gs;spf;Ff; fPwg;gl;l njhlupd; rha;tpypUe;J njhlf;ftPjk; fzpf;fplg;gLfpJ. njhlf;f
tPjq;fspd; mstPLfs; nghJthf ,urhad ,af;ftpaypy; cs;s Vida gupkhdq;fisf;
fhz;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
26
kPSk; jhf;fkhf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ Muk;gtpfpjj;ijg; gad;gLj;JtJ rpy

rpf;fy;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;. jhf;fk; Kw;jpirapy; eilngw;Wf;nfhz;bUf;ifapy;
(jhf;fpfs; - tpisTfs;) tpisTfs; mjpfupf;fp d;wd. ,J gpd;Nehf;fpa jhf;fj;jpid
(tpisTnghUs; - jhf;fp) tpiuthf Vw;gLj;Jk; xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;f tPjj;ijf; fhz;gjw;F
Kd;Gw> gpw;Gwj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftPjj;jpd; NtWghl;ilf; fspj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. Mdhy;>
Muk;gj; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; t = o, vdNt tisTfspd; nrwpTfs; Gwf;fzpf;ff;$bait.
mjdhy; gpd;Kfj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ghjpf;fhJ.
vspa Kiwapy; t=0 Neuj;jpy; Muk;g jhf;ftPjk; my;yJ fzepiyj; jhf;ftPjk;
jhf;fpfs; fyf;fg;gl;l nehbapy; cz;lhfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; tpisTfs; vitNaDk; nrwp
tilahJ / FtpahJ ,Uf;Fk;NghJ.
1.7.2 jhf;ftPjj;jpy; nrwptpd; tpisT

jhf;ftpjp
NkYs;s gFjpapypUe;j ehk; mwpe;jJ gaDs;s Nkhjy;fspd; mjpu;ntz; jhf;f
tPjj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ vd;gNj. ngUksT gaDs;s Nkhjy;fs; Ntfkhd
Ntfj;ij mu;j;jg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. %yf;$WfspilNa Nkhjy; mjpu;ntz; mjpfupf;f ,U topfs;
cz;L. khwhf; fdtstpy; khwh ntg;gepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifia
mjpfupj;jy; my;yJ ,af;f rf;jpia mjpfupf;Fk; ntg;gepiyia cau;j;Jjy; - khwhf;
fdtstpy; cs;s %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifia mjpfupj;jy; vd;gJ nrwpT mjpfupg;G
vdg; nghUs;gLk;.
Kd;du; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sgb jputq;fs; my;yJ thAf;fs; rk;ge;jg;gl;l jhf;fq;f
Sf;Fj; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpit mjpfupf;f NkhJif mjpu;ntz; mjpfupg;gjhy; jhf;f
tPjk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. jhf;fpfspy; xd;wpd; nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ jhf;fj;jpd; Ntfk;
ghjpf;fhjpUj;jiyr; rpy jhf;fq;fspy; fhzyhk;. mj;Jld; rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspy; jhf;fp
fspy; xd;wpd; nrwpit ,uz;L klq;fhf;Fk;NghJ vg;NghJk; jhf;ftPjk; ,ul;bg;gil
tjpy;iy. vdNt jhf;ftPjj;jpd; nrwpT rhu;ghd elj;ijia mstwpuPjpahf NtW rpy
khjpupfSld; ehk; Gupe;J nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.
xU vspa jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs;
A B
ehk; vOjyhk; jhf;ftPjk ∝[A]
/ tPjk; = K [A]
K xU tpfpjkhwpyp mj;Jld; K 'Ntf khwpyp" / jhf;ftPj khwpyp" vd miof;fg;gL
fpd;wJ.
NkNy nfhLf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; Nfhit A B vd;Wk; jhf;fj;jpd; 'jhf;ftPj tpjp" my;yJ
'jhf;ftPj tpjpf;fhd Nfhit" vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,j;jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fj;jpd; Ntfk;
(A) nrwpTf;F tpfpj rkk; vd vk;khy; $wKbAk;. A d; nrwpit ,U klq;fhf;fpdhy;
jhf;ftPjk; ,U klq;fhFk; vd epr;rag;gLj;jpdhy;> jhf;ftPj tpjpia ehk; vOjyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; = K [A]1 = K [A]
gpd;tUk; gpupifj; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs;
NH4CNO(aq) (NH2) 2 CO(ag)
NkNy nfhLf;fg;gl;l jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; NH4CNO(aq) d; nrwptpd; tu;f;fj;jpw;F
tpfpj rkk; vdg; gupNrhjid uPjpahff; fhzg;gl;lJ. vdNt jhf;ftpjpia ehk; vOjyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; = k [NH4NCO(aq)]2
27
NkNy nfhLf;fg;gl;ljpypUe;J %d;W gFjpfs; jhf;ftpjpapy; ,Ug;gjhff; Fwpg;gplyhk;.

K: jhf;f tPjkhwpyp : nfhLf;fg;gl;l jhf;fj;jpw;F ,J xU vz;izAk;> (nghUj;jkhd)
myFfisAk; cilaJ. tPjkhwpyp jhf;fq;fisg; nghWj;J khWgLfpwJ. mj;Jld; xNu
jhf;fj;jpw;F ntg;gepiy khw> khWgLk;.
[(NH4NCO(ag)] jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT> xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fpfs; ,Ue;jhy; ve;jnthU
my;yJ vy;yh tw;iwAk; rkd;ghl;by; fhzyhk;. rpyNtisfspy; xd;W my;yJ xd;Wf;F
Nkw;gl;l jhf;fpfs; tPj tpjpapy; Njhd;whJ.
2 : rk;ge;jg;gl;l jhf;fp njhlu;ghfj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftupir : ngUk;ghYk; ,J 1>2
Nghd;w xU KO vz; Mdhy; gpd;dq;fs; rpyNtisfspy; rhj;jpakhFk;. jhf;f
tup (1) xd;W vdpd; jhf;ftPj tpjpapy; vOjg;gLtjpy;iy. xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftupir
,uz;Lf;Fk; $lthfTk; ,Uf;fyhk; vdpDk; ,t; fye;Jiuahlypy; mit Nru;f;fg;gl
tpy;iy.
,uz;L jhf;fq;fSf;fhd gupNrhjid uPjpahfg; ngwg;gl;l jhf;ftPj tpjpfs; fPNo
nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
2NO(ag) +O2(g) NO2(g) jhf;ftPjk; = K[NO2 (g)]2 [O2 (g)]
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO(g) tPjk; = K(NO2g)2
,g;NghJ A kw;Wk; B jhf;fpfSf;fpilapy; xU nghJj; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJNthk;.
aA + bB tpisTfs;
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd tPj tpjpiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;
jhf;ftPjk; = K [A]x [B]y
Nkw;fz;l vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fspypUe;J A kw;Wk; B d; nrwpTfs; vt;thW jhf;ftPjj; ijg;
ghjpf;Fk; vd;gjidf; fhl;Ltjw;F x,y Mfpa mLf;fSf;F cau;j;jg;glNtz;Lk;.
,t; mLf;Ffs; KiwNa A , B rhu;ghfj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftupirfshFk;. x apdJk;
y apdJk; $l;Lj;njhif (x+y) mj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tupirahFk;.
mjhtJ - jhf;ftPj tpjpf; Nfhitapy; ,Uf;Fk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTfspd; mLf;fspd;
$l;Lj;njhif mj;jhf;fj;jpd; xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;ftupirahFk;.
A rhu;ghfj;
jhf;ftupir g+r;rpak; (0) vdpd;> A apd; nrwpT jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ghjpg;gjpy;iy.
Nfj;jpufzpj uPjpahf xU vz;zpd; mLf;Fg; g+r;rpakhapd; mjd; ngWkhdk; 1f;F rk
khFk;.
MfNt jhf;ftpjp Nfhitapy; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpfspd; %yu;nrwpT rhu;ghfj; jug;gLfp-
d;wJ. mt;mLf;Ffs; rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;bYs;s jhf;fpfspd; gPrkhdq;fis (NghyNt)
xj;J ,Uf;fyhk; my;yJ ,y;yhJ ,Uf;fyhk;.
rpy cjhuzq;fspy; mtjhdpf;fg;gl;l jhf;ftpjpfspd; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fisAk; kw;Wk;
jhf;ftupirfisAk; fUJNthk;.
NO(g) w;Fk; H2(g) f;Fkpilapy; jhf;fj;jpw;F
2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
mjw;fhd jhf;ftpjp
jhf;ftPjk; = K(NO(g))2 (H2g)
28
NO rhu;ghfj; jhf;ftupir ,uz;L. rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;by; H2 d; gPrkhdf; Fzfk;

,uz;lhf ,Ug;gpDk; jhf;fj;jpy; H2 rhu;ghfj; jhf;ftupir xd;whFk;. xl;Lnkhj;jj;
jhf;ftupir %d;whFk;. (iejurd; nkhNdh xl;irl;L) iej;jpupf; xl;irl;L kw;Wk; XNrhd;
Mfpatw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpw;F
NO(g) + O3(g) NO2(g) + O2 (g)
jhf;ftpjp>
jhf;ftPjk; = k[NO][O3]
,j;jhf;fk; NO(g) rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupir XNrhd; rhu;ghfTk; Kjyhk; tupir> xl;L
nkhj;jkhf ,uz;lhtJ tupirahFk;.
2 - GNuhNk - 2- nkjdy; Gwk;Ngdpd; ePu;g;gFg;gpw;F
(CH3)3 CBr(l) + H2O (CH3)3 COH(l) + HBr(ag)
jhf;ftpjp>
jhf;ftPjk; = [(CH3)3 (Br (l)]
2- bromo - 2 - methylpropane rhu;ghfj; jhf;fk; Kjyhk; tupir> H2O rhu;ghfg; g+r;rpa
tupir> rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;by; mjd; rkkhd Fzfk; (1) xd;whf ,Ug;gpDk;. jho; ePu;
xU jhf;fp vdf; Fwpg;gpl tpUk;gpdhy;> jhf;f tpjpiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
jhf;ftpjpahdJ K[(CH3)3 CBr(l)] [H2O]
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;ftupir Kjyhk; tupir>
Nkw;$wg;gl;l vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fs; Kf;fpakhd jftiyf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ.
ve;jnthU jhf;fj;jpw;Fk; jhf;ftpjpia ntWkNd rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;ilg; ghu;j;J
vjpu;T $wKbahJ. gupNrhjiduPjpahf kl;LNk jPu;khdpf;f KbAk;. tpfpjkhwpyp
cz;ikapy; nghUj;jkhd myFfs; nfhz;l vz;> jhf;f tpjpiag; nghJthf tpgupf;Fk;NghJ
ehq;fs; tof;fkhf K vd vOJfpd;Nwhk; Mdhy; ve;jg; ngWkhdKk; xNu xU ntg;g
epiyapy; cz;ikahFk;.
xU jhf;ftPjk; vg;NghJk; mol dm-3s-1 mbg;gilapy; ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. jhf;fq;fisg;
g+r;rpa> Kjy;> ,uz;lhtJ tupirj; jhf;fq;fs; vd tifg;gLj;jyhk;. Neuk; tpdhbfspy;
mstplg;gLfpd;wJ vd mDkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. jhf;ftPj khwpyp njhlu;Gila myFfs;
gpd;tUkhW ngwg;glyhk;.
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fq;fs;

A tpisTfs; vd;Dk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs; jhf;fk; g+r;rpa tupir vdpy;>
jhf;ftpjp
jhf;ftPjk; =K
Kd; myFfs; jhf;f tPjj;jpd; myFNghy ,Uf;fNtz;Lk; mol dm-3 s-1
Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fk;

gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; ftdpAq;fs;
A tpisTfs;
jhf;fk; Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fkhf ,Ug;gpd;> jhf;ftPj tpjp
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A]
29
jhf;ftPjk; mol dm-3 s-1

Kd; myFfs; = = = S-1
[A] mol dm-3
,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fs;

gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fisf; fUJq;fs;>
A tpisTfs; my;yJ A + B tpisTfs;
jhf;fk; ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fkhapd;> jhf;ftpjp
K jhf;ftPjk; = K[A]2 my;yJ jhf;ftPjk; = K[A] [B]
jhf;ftPjk; mol dm-3 s-1
Kd; myFfs; = = = mol-1 dm3 s-1
[A]2 mol2 dm-6
cjhuzk;; 1.8
nkijy; mrw;Nww;W Ijnuhl;irl;L maDls; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bd;gb jhf;fkil
fpd;wJ.
CH3COOCH3(aq) + OH-(aq) CH3COO-(aq) +CH3OH(aq)
jhf;ftpjp
jhf;ftPjk; = K [CH3COOCH3(aq) [OH-(aq) xt;nthU jhf;fp rhu;ghfTk; jhf;f
tupir ahJ? mj;Jld; xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;ftupir ahJ?
tpil
jhf;ftPj tpjpapy;> xt;nthU nrwpT gjj;jpd; (concentration term) Nky; mLf;F
(Super scripts) ,y;iy. ,J fUJtJ xt;nthd;Wk; rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupir. ,j;;jhf;fk;
(CH3COOCH3(aq) Kjyhk; tupir xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;f tupir ,uz;L (1+1=2)
cjhuzkhfg; gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fspd; gupNrhjid uPjpahfg; ngwg;gl;l jhf;ftpjpfisg;

guprPypg;Nghk;
2NO(g) + O2(g) NO2(g) jhf;ftPjk; = K[NO(g)]2 [O2(g)]
,j;jhf;fk; NO (g) rhu;ghf ,uz;lhk; tupirAk; O2(g) rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupirAk;
nkhj;jj; jhf;ftupir %d;Wk; MFk;.
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g) jhf;ftPjk; = K[NO2(g)]2
,j;jhf;fk; NO2 rhu;ghf ,uz;lhk; tupir> CO(g) rhu;ghfg; g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd;
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;ftupir 2.
30
cjhuzk;; 1.9
gpd;tUk; xt;nthU NtfkhwpypfspypUe;J> jhf;fq;fspd; tupiria ,dk; fhz;f.
tpil
(i) K = 5.6 x 10-5 dm3 mol-1 s-1
2k; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; Ntf khwpypapd; myF dm3 mol-1 s-1
/ K = 5.6 x 10-5 dm3 mol-1 s-1 Nky; jhf;fk; ,uz;lhk; tupir vdg; gpujpgypf;
fpd;wJ.
(ii) K = 3 x 10-4 s-1
tpil Kjyhk; tupirf;fhd Ntfkhwpypapd; myF s-1
K = 3 x 10-4 s-1 Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fk; vd;gijg; gpujpgypf;fpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 1.1 jhf;f tPjk;> jhf;ftPj khwpyp mtw;wpw;fpilNa cs;s NtWghl;il

(Fog;gj;ijj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhf) RUf;fkhff; $Wfpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 1.1 jhf;f tPjj;jpw;Fk; jhf;ftPj khwpypf;Fkpilahd NtWghL
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;ftPj khwpyp
,J jhf;fpfs; tpisTfshf khWk; ,J xU tpfpjhrhu khwpyp

tPjk;
jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT FiwtilAk; xt;nthU jhf;fpfspdJk; nrwpT xU ikahf
tPjkhf my;yJ tpisTfspd; nrwpT ,Uf;Fk;NghJ jhf;f tPjj;jpw;Fr; rkkhFk;
mjpfupg;G tPjkhf mstplg;gLfpd;wJ
,J jhf;fpfspd; Muk;gr; nrwpit ,J jhf;fpfspd; Muk;gr; nrwptpw;F Rah-

rhu;e;Js;sJ jPdkhf cs;sJ. ,J nfhLf;fg;gl;l
jhf;fj;jpw;F khwh ntg;gepiyapy;
epiyahd / khwhg; (constrant) ngWkhdk;
nfhz;lJ
1.7.3 g+r;rpa> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fSf;Fr; nrwpTld;

jhf;ftPj khw;wj;jpw;fhd tiu gl gpujpepjpj;Jtk;
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fq;fs;
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fq;fs; vd;gJ jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwptpw;Fr; RahjPdkhdjhFk;.
my;yJ jhf;f tPjk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwptpd; g+r;rpa mLf;Ff;F tpfpjhrhukhf cs;sJ.
gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs;
A tpisTfs;
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A]0 = K
vdNt> VNjDk; A f;F nfhLf;fg;gl;l nrwpTj; jhf;f tPjj;ij khw;wkhl;lhJ vd;W
Fwpg;gpLfpwJ. mjhtJ jhf;ftPjk; nrwpTld; xU khwpyp. vdNt nrwpTf;F vjpu;
jhf;ftPjj;jpw;fhd tiuG cU 1.14 (a) y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ Nghd;W fpilahd Neu; NfhL
NtW Kiwapy; $wpdhy; Neuj;Jld; nrwpT khw;wr; rha;T xU khwpypahf cs;sJ.
tiuG 1.14 (b) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sgb nrwpT vjpu; Neuk; tiuG.
31
khwpyp tPjk; = rha;T
nrwpT
tPjk;
nrwpT Neuk;
cU 1.14 (a) jhf;fpapd; nrwpT khw;wj;Jld; jhf;ftPj khw;wk; (b) Neuj;Jld; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT
khw;wk; g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; elj;ij gpd;tUkhW fUjg;glyhk; xU jhf;fk;
A + B tpisTfs;
jhf;ftPjk;
jhf;ftPjk; = K [A]a [B]b
B d; nrwpT kpfTk; cau;thf cs;sJ kw;Wk; jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ mjd; nrwpT khw;wk;
Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;fJ vd epidj;Jf;nfhs;Sq;fs;. vdNt> jhf;f tPjj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW
vOjyhk;
jhf;ftPjk; = K1[A]a ,q;Nf K1 = K[B]b
jhf;fk; A rhu;ghfg; g+r;rpa tupirahf ,Ug;gjhy; jhf;f tPjk; = K1= xU khwpyp
vdNt> nrwpTj; jhf;ftPjq;fspd; tiuglk; kPz;Lk; NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;lijg; Nghd;W xU
fpilkl;l Neu;NfhlhFk;.
rpy xsp ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fSk;> rpy gy;ypdj; jhf;fq;fSk; g+r;rpa tupir
jhf;fq;fSf;F cjhuzq;fshff; fhzg;gLk;. ,j;jifa jhf;fq;fs; nghJthdit
my;y. Ijurd; kw;Wk; FNshupd; Mfpatw;wpw;F ,ilNa eilngWk; xsp ,urhad
jhf;fk;.
hν
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
,t; xsp ,urhadj; jhf;fk; Xu; g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fkhFk;. H2, Cl2 thAf;fis ePupd;
kPJ itj;J Ma;T nra;ag;;gLfpwJ. cUthFk; HCl ePupy; fiutjd; fhuzkhf ePu;
ghj;jpuj;jpd; ePupd; vOr;rp (caUk;) tPjj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLtjd; %yk; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f
tPjk; fw;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ePupd; vOr;rptPjk;> H2 k; Cl k; mopAk; tPjj;jpw;Fr; rkk;. thA
mtj;ijapd; msT khWgLk; vdpDk; nrwpT khwhJ.
#lhd gpshl;bdj;jpd; Nkw;gug;gpy; N2O gpupif:
1
N2O(g) N2(g) + 2 O2(g)
jhf;ftPjk; = K[N2O]o = K my;yJ
∆[N2O]
∆t
=K
nkhypg;bdk; my;yJ jq;Fjd; Kd;dpiyapy; mNkhdpah gpupifAWjy; Xu; g+r;rpa

tupirj; jhf;fkhFk;.
mo
2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
32
Cf;fpapd; Nkw;gug;G KOtJk; Kw;whf NH3 %yf;$Wfshy; %lg;gLfpd;wJ. mKf;fj;ij

mjpfupg;gjd; %yk; Nkw;gug;gpy; cwpQ;rg;gLk; msit my;yJ NH3 d; nrwpit khw;w
KbahJ Mifahy; tpisT cUthapDk; thA mtj;ijapd; nrwpT khwhky; cs;sJ.
MfNt ,j;jhf;fk; g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fkhFk;.
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fq;fSf;fhd Vida vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fs; H+(aq) madpd; Kd;dpiy
apy; mrw;Nwhdpd; mabNdw;wk;
H+(aq)
CH3COCH3(g) + I2(g) ICH2COCH3(aq) + HI(aq)
,e;jj; jhf;ftPjr; rkd;ghL [I2(q)] fhuzpiaf; nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy vdg; gupNrhjid

thapyhff; fhzg;gl;lJ.
jhf;ftPjk; = K[CH3COCH3(aq)] [H+(aq)]
[I2(aq)] rhu;ghf ,j;jhf;fk; g+r;rpa tupir vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpwJ.
g+r;rpatupirj; jhf;fq;fspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs;

jhf;fq;fspd; nrwpT Neuj;Jld; rPuhff; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. jhf;fk; Kw;Wg;ngwj; Njitg;
gLk; Neuk; mjhtJ (A) g+r;rpakhFk;. Neuk; %yk; jug;gLfpwJ.
[A]o
t =
epiwT = Muk;gnrwpT / tPj khwpyp
K
Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fs;
,t;tif jhf;fq;fSf;Fj; jhf;f tPjk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwptpd; Kjyhk; mLf;fpw;F Neu;tp-
fpj rkkhFk;. cjhuzkhf A tpisTfs; vDk; mNj jhf;fj;ijf; fUJk; NghJ
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A]
y = mx vd;w tbtj;ij ,J vLf;fpwJ. nrwpTf;F vjpuhd jhf;ftPj tiuG cw;gj;jpap
D}lhfr; (0.0) nry;Yk; Neu;Nfhlhf cU 1.15 (a) fhl;bathW mikAk;.
Neuj;Jld; nrwpT khWghL tiuG 1.15 (b) y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ Nghd;W xU tisthf
mikAk;.
tPjk;
nrwpT
nrwpT Neuk;
cU 1.15 (a) jhf;fpapd; nrwpTld; jhf;fNtfj;jpd; khw;wk; (gbj;jpwd; = Ntfkhwpyp) (b) Kjyhk;
tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F Neuj;Jld; nrwpT khw;wk;
,ij NtW topapy; rpe;jpf;fyhk;

ehk; vOjyhk;>
jhf;f tPjk; = K[A]
33
,U gf;fq;fspw;Fk; klf;if vLf;fTk; : kl (jhf;f tPjk;) = kl [A] + kl (k) MfNt> kl

[A] f;F vjpuhf kl (jhf;f tPjk;) w;Ff; fPwg;gLk; tiuG y = mx + C tifahdJ mjd;
gbj;jpwd; (rha;T) (1) xd;W> mj;Jld; ntl;Lj;Jz;L kl(K) cU 1.17y; fhl;bathW
(gpd;du; fhz;gpf;fg;gLk;)
Kd;du; tpthjpf;fg;gl;l gb> Kjy; tupirj; jhf;f tpfpj khwpyp S -1 (jiyfPo; Neuk;)
cs;sJ. ,jw;Fr; nrwpT myF ,y;iy. ,J fUJtJ Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd;
K d; vz;ngWkhdk;. nrwpT ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk; myFf;Fr; RahjPdkhFk;.
tPjk; mol dm-3 s-1
(K = = nrwptpw;fhd myF khw;wkile;jhYk; Kjyhk;
-3
nrwpT mol dm
tupir jhf;fj;jpd; K d; vz; ngWkhdk; khw;wkilahJ. vt;thwhapDk; Neu myF
khw;wj;Jld; khw;wkilAk;. K= 6.0 x 10-3 min-1 vd;W nrhy;Yq;fs;. ,jid vdTk;
vOjyhk;. mjhtJ K d; vz; ngWkhdk; khwptpl;lJ Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fSf;F
rpy cjhuzq;fs; gpd;tUkhW
ePu; fiurypy; H2O2(aq) d; gpupif
H2O2(aq) → H2O(Ɩ) + ½O2(g)
fdpk mkpyq;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; nkijy; mrw;Nww;wpd; ePu; gFg;G
CH3COOCH3(aq) + H2O(l) → CH3COOH(aq) + CH3OH(aq)
fdpk mkpyq;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; fUk;G nty;yk;
H+
C12H22O11(aq) + H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + C6H12O6(aq)
ePu; fiurypy; mNkhdpak; iej;jpiuw;wpd;

NH4NO2(aq) → N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
<uNrhNth ngWjpfspd; ePu;gFg;G
C6H5N=NCl(aq) + H2O(l) → C6H5OH(aq) + N2(g) + HCl(aq)
thA mtj;ijj; jhf;fq;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;Sk; epfo;Tfspy;> mKf;fg; gjq;fis>
nrwpTg; gjq;fSf;Fg; gjpyhfj; jhf;f tPj tpjpfspy; cgNahfpj;jy; mtrpak;. cjhuz-
khf A(g) → B(g) + C(g) Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fk; t=0 Mf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> mt;
mikg;gpd; (njhFjpapd;) Muk;g mKf;fk; P1 Neuk; td; gpd;du; mikg;gpd; (njhFjpapd;)
mKf;fk; P2 Mf khw;wkile;Jtpl;lJ vdpd;> jhf;ftPj tpjpapid vOJk; topia ehk;
Gupe;J nfhs;sNtz;baJ mtrpak;.
,t;epfo;tpy;> Ad; gpupif fhuzkhf Ad; gFjp mKf;fk; -X msT Fiwfpd;wJ> vd;W ehk;
nfhs;syhk;. vdNt B kw;Wk; C xt;nthd;Wk; cUthf;Fk; mKf;fq;fs; +x Mf ,Uf;Fk;.
vdNt njhFjpiag; gpd;tUkhW fl;bnaOg;gyhk;.
MfNt nkhj;j mKf;f Neuk; t ,y; = (P1 - x) + x + x + = P1 + x = P2
/ x = P2 - P 1
Ad; mKf;fk; t d; = P1 - x + P1 - (P2 - P1) + 2P1 - P2
vdNt mKf;fg; gjq;fs; (terms) jhf;fq;fspd; tupirfs;> tPjkhwpypfs; Mfpatw;iw kjpg;
gpLtjw;Fg; gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
34
,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fs;

,t;tFg;Gj; jhf;fq;fSf;F> jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpapd; nrwptpd; ,uz;lhk; mLf;
fpw;F Neu;tpfpjrkkhFk; my;yJ KiwNa mj; jhf;fpapd; nrwpit ,U klq;fhf;fpapd;
jhf;f tPjk; ehd;F klq;fhFk;. cjhuzkhf mNj jhf;fj;ij fUj;jpw;nfhs;f: A →
tpisTfs;
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A] 2
,J y = mx2 vd;w (tbtj;ij) mikg;igg; ngWfpd;wJ. kw;Wk; nrwpTf;F vjpuhfj;
jhf;ftPj tiuglk; cU 1.16(a)y; fhl;bathW Nky; Nehf;fpa tisT cw;gj;jp (0>0)
Clhfr; nry;fpd;wJ. Neuj;jpw;F vjpuhd nrwpT khw;wj;jpw;fhd tiuG Xu; tisap.
,Ug;gpDk; rupT Kjyhk; tupir tisapd; ruptp Yk; ghu;f;f mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk; cU
1.16y; fhzg;gLtJ Nghd;W
tPjk;
nrwpT
nrwpT Neuk;
cU 1.16 (a) jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTld; jhf;ftPjk; khWghL kw;Wk; (b) Neuj;Jld; jhf;fpfspd;
nrwpT khWghL ,uz;lhf tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F.
,ij NtW topapy; rpe;jpf;fyhk;

ehk; vOjyhk;
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A]2
,U gf;fj;jpw;F klf;if vLf;Fk;NghJ kl (jhf;ftPjk;) = 2 kl [A] + kl (K) vdNt
kl (jhf;f tPjk;) vjpu; kl (K)f;fhd tiuG y = mx + C vd;w tbtj;ijg; ngWk; gbj;
jpwd; (rha;T) 2 MfTk; ntl;Lj;Jz;L kl KahfTk; fhzg;gLk;. xU RUf;fkhf cU
1.17 NkNy cs;s epfo;Tfs; g+r;rpak;> Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fq;fSf;fpilNa
NtWghl;il ,yFthf tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F xg;gpLfpd;wJ.
,uz;lhk; tupir
g+r;rpa tupir
Kjyhk;; tupir
,uz;lhk; tupir
kl (tPjk;)
nrwpT
tPjk;
Kjyhk;; tupir Kjyhk;; tupir

g+r;rpa tupir
g+r;rpa tupir ,uz;lhk; tupir kl
nrwpT Neuk; kl (nrwpT)
cU 1.17 Kjy;> ,uz;lhk;> g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fq;fspd; xg;gPL (a) nrwpTld; jhf;ftPj khw;wk;.
g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;Ff; fpilkl;l tup tiughFk;. Vnddpy; [A] d; ngWkhdk;
vd;dthf ,Ue;jhYk; jhf;ftPjk; khWglhJ. Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F Nky;
Nehf;fpa rha;T tisap (tup) MFk;. Vnddpy; jhf;ftPjk; [A]d; nrwptpw;F Neu;tpfpj
rkkhFk;. ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F xU Nky; Nehf;fpa rupT $ba tisT
Vnddpy; [A] Ald; jhf;ftPjk; kpf tpiuthf (mLf;FFwpNahL $ba / exponential
ly) mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. (b) Neuj;Jld; nrwpT khw;wk; g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F (A)
35
FiwT khwhJ Neuj;Jld; Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F (A) nrwpT FiwT Fiwe;J
nry;fpd;wJ. Neuj;Jld; ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F [A] nrwpT FiwT ,d;Dk;
mjpfkhdJ. (c) kl (nrwpTld;) kl (jhf;ftPj) khWghL g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F
tiuG fpilkl;l tup. Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fg; gbj;jpwd; / rha;T xd;iwf;
nfhz;l Neu;NfhL ,uz;lhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fr; rha;T ,uz;ilf; nfhz;l
Neu;NfhL.
cjhuzk;; 1.10
gpd;tUk; Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;ijf; ftdpAq;fs;
N2O(g) 2NO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
328K ,y;, N2O5(g) d; nrwpT 2.00 X 10-2 mol dm-3 MFk;NghJ gpupifj; jhf;ftPjk; 1.00 X
10-2 mol dm -3 s-1 Mff; fhzg;gl;lJ. 328 K y; ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd jhf;ftPj khwpypiaf;
fzpf;fTk;.
tpil
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A] = 1.00 x 10-2 mol dm-3 s-1
1.00 x 10-2 mol dm-3 s-1
/ K= = 0.50 s-1
-2 -3
2.00 x 10 mol dm
cjhuzk;; 1.11
xl;rprDf;Fk;> iejurd; Xu; xl;irl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd jhf;fj;ijf; ftdpAq;fs;
O2(g) + 2NO(g) 2NO2(g)
jhf;ftPjtpjp> jhf;ftPjk; =k [O2(g) ] [NO(g)]2 at 300 K. O2(g) dJk; NO(g) nrwpTfs;
KiwNa 1.00 x 10-2 mol dm-3 kw;Wk; 2.00 10-2 mol dm-3, Mf ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ
jhf;ftPjk; 3.20 x 10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 at 300 K fhzg;gl;lJ. 300K y; ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd
jhf;ftPj khwpypiaf; fzpf;f.
tpil
jhf;ftPjk; = K[A] = 1.00 x 10-2 mol dm-3 s-1
jhf;ftPjk;
k =
[O2(g) ] [NO(g)]2
3.20 x 10-3 mol dm-3 s-1
=
[1.00 x 10-2mol dm-3] [2.00 x 10-2 mol dm-3]2
k = 8.00 x 102 dm6 mol-2 s-1
36
cjhuzk;; 1.12
nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s fUJNfhs; jhf;fj;ijf;
ftdpAq;fs;.
aA + bB cC + dD
xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l gupNrhjid elhj;jg;gl;L> jhf;ftPjk;
5.00 x 10-4 mol dm-3 s-1 Mff; fhzg;gl;lJ. A apdJk; B apdJk; nrwpTfs; KiwNa
1.00 x 10-5 mol dm-3 kw;Wk; 2.00 mol dm-3 MFk;. A apd; nrwpT ,U klq;fhFk;NghJ
jhf;ftPjk; ,U klq;fhFk;. jhf;ftPj khwpypiaf; fzpf;fTk;.
tpil
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;F ehk; jhf;ftPj tpjpia vOjyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; =k [A]x [B]y
A d; nrwpT ,Uklq;fhFk;NghJ jhf;ftPjk; ,Uklq;fhFk; vdj; jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
vdNt ehq;fs; A rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupirahf ,Ug;gjhf KbT nra;aayhk;. mLj;
jjhf Bd; nrwptpy; jhf;ftPjk; rhu;e;jpUg;gijg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tJ mtrpak;. ,jd;
nrwpT [A] ia tpl kpf mjpfkhdjhFk;. (( 1.00 x10-5 <<< 2.00 mol dm-3) jhf;ftPjk;
Bd; nrwpT rhu;e;jJ my;y vd;gJ njspthf cs;sJ my;yJ [B] jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ
khwhky; cs;sJ. ,g;NghJ jhf;ftPj tpjpiaj; jpUk;g vOjyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; = K1 [A]
(5.00 x 10-4) mol dm-3 s-1
k1 =
1.00 x 10-5 mol dm-3
= 50 s-1
gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; jhf;ftupir kw;Wk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTfSf;fpilNa cs;s njhlu;G

gw;wpa fUj;ijf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ. xU fUJNfhs; jhf;fj;ijf; ftdpAq;fs;>
aA + bB cC + dD
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPj tpjp jug;gLfpd;wJ jhf;ftPjk; = k [A] [B]2
(a) A kw;Wk; B ,uz;bd; Muk;g nrwpTfs; 1.0 mol dm-3 vd fUJq;fs;.
jhf;ftPjk;1 = k [1.0][1.0]2 mol3 dm-9 = k mol3 dm-9
Bd; nrwpT khwhJ 1.0 mol dm-3 ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> Ad; nrwpT ,Uklq;fhf ,Ug;gpd;
jhf;ftPjk; = k [2.0][1.0]2 mol3 dm-9 = 2k mol 3 dm-9
A rhu;ghd nrwpT ,ul;bg;ghFk;NghJ jhf;ftPjk; ,Uklq;fhfpd;wJ. vdNt A rhu;ghd
jhf;ftupir 1 MFk; (Kjyhk; tupir)
b) A ,d; nrwpT khwpypahf (1 mol dm -3)
B ,d; nrwpT ,U klq;fhFk; NghJ
tPjk;3 = K [1.0] [2.0]2 mol3 dm-9
= 4K mol3 dm-9
mjhtJ jhf;ftPjk; ehd;F klq;fhfpd;wJ> Bd; nrwpT ,Uklq;fhFk;NghJ ,J ntspg;
gLj;Jfpd;wJ B rhu;ghfj; jhf;fk; ,uz;lhk; tupir vd;gij.
37
1.7.4 jhf;ftPj khwpyp kw;Wk; xU jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftupiriaj;

JzpAk; topfs; (jhf;ftPj tpjp)
xU jhf;fj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;l xU jhf;fpapd; nrwpthdJ Vidatw;Wld; xg;gpLifapy; kpf
mjpfstpy; fhzg;gLkhapd; mj; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT jhf;fk; eilngWk; KONeuKk; khwpyp
vd vLj;Jf;nfh s;syhk;. ,t; mDkhdkhdJ xU jhf;fj;jpy; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fp
<LgLk;NghJ mjd; jhf;f ,af;ftpaiy Muhag; gad;gLk;.
,jw;F mbg;gilapy; 2 toptiffs; cz;L. xU jhf;fj;ij Kw;whfg; gpd; gw;wpg;
gpd; me;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; KbTfisr; nrad;Kiwf;Fl;gLj;jpj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fpfspd;
nrwpT khw;wj;Jld; njhlf;fj; jhf;f tPjj;ij msT nra;tjd; %yKk; ehk; jhf;f
tupiriaf; fhzKbAk;.
,jd; Kjy; gbapy; xd;iwj;jtpu Vida midj;Jj; jhf;fpfisAk; kpf mjpf
nrwptpy; itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
aA + bB cC + dD
jhf;ftpjp : jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]x [B]y
B apd; nrwpT A ia tpl gy klq;F mjpfk; vdf; nfhs;f.
jhf;ftPjk; = K1 [A]x
K1 = K[B]y
,U gf;fKk; klf;ifiag; gpuNahfpg;gpd;
log (Rate) = y log [A] + log [K1]
,e;jr; rkd;ghlhdJ Xu; Neu;Nfhl;L tiuG tbtpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt log (Rate)
f;Fk; log [A] f;Fk; tiuG tiuag;gbd; mt;tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; y IAk; mjd; ntl;Lg;
Gs;sp log K1 Ak; jUk;.
,J gpd;du; Aapd; nrwpit mjpfkhf itj;Jk; elj;jg;glyhk;.
,jd;%yk; x, k fzpf;fg;gLk;.
njhlf;f jhf;ftPj tpjp Kiw

jhf;ftpjp vd;gJ jhf;fr; rkd;ghl;bypUe;J ngwg;gLtjpy;iy. mJ gupNrhjid
uPjpahfg; ngwg;gLtJ vd;gJ ehk; mwpe;jNj. njhlf;fj; jhf;f tpjKiwnad;gJ gupNrhjidj;
jfty;fspd; mbg;gilapy; jhf;ftPj khwpyp> jhf;ftupir vd;gtw;iwg; gy;NtW njhlu;
gupNrhjidfs; nra;tjd; %yk; ngwg;gLk; KiwahFk;. xt;nthU jhf;fj;jpdJk;
njhlf;f tPjkhdJ jhf;fpfspd; njhlf;fr; nrwpTfSld; xg;gplg;gLk;. ,k;Kiw $Ljyhfg;
gpd;tUk; topapNyNa nra;ag;gLk;.
,yFthd topahf xU jhf;fj;jpd; njhlf;ff; fhyj;jpy; eilngWk; milahsq; fhzj;
jf;f / mstplj;jf;f epfo;nthd;W eilngWtjw;fhd Neuj;jpidf; fzpj;jyhFk;. ,t;
NeukhdJ Fwpg;gpl;l msT thA ntspNaw vLf;Fk; Neukhf / xU mstp lj;jf;f
tPo;gbT cUthf vLf;Fk; Neukhf / epwkhw;wk; Vw;gl vLf;Fk; Neukhf ,Uf;fyhk;.
kw;Wk; rpy epakpg;Gf;fs; xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpd; gpd;du; epWj;jg;gLgitahf ,Uf;Fk;.
gpd;du; Xu; jhf;fj;jpy; xU $W khj;jpuk; khw;wg;gLtJld; midj;J kw;iwa jhf;fpr;
nrwpTfs;> fiurypd; fdtsT> ntg;gepiy vd;gtw;iw khwhky; Ngzg;gLk;. gpd;du;
mNj epfo;T NtW Gjpa nrwpTld; eilngwj; Njitahd Neuk; mstplg;gLk;. ,r;
nraw;ghL ek;kplk; cs;s khw;wq;fshdJ gy;NtWgl;l kl;lq;fspy; nra;tJ cfe;jjhFk;.
38
cjhuzj;jpw;F cz;ikahd Kjy; ghtpj;j nrwptpw;F miuthrp mstpw;F

vLj;J gupNrhjid <Lgly; crpjkhd xd;whFk;.
,t;thnwdpd; filrp xU jhf;fpapd; nrwpT kw;iwait khwhjpUf;f ,Uklq;fhf;
fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. $Ljyhfj; njhlf;fr; nrwpT khw;wg;gLk;NghJ njhlf;fj; jhf;ftPjj;
jpw;Fg; gpd;tUtdtw;wpy; xU khw;wNk eilngWk;.
(a) jhf;ftPjk; khw;wkilahJ. ,q;F jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpapd; nrwptpy;; jq;fhJ vdNt
jhf;ftupir g+r;rpakhFk;.
(b) jhf;ftPjk; ,Uklq;fhFk;. ,q;F jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpapd; nrwptpf;Fk; Neu;tpfpj rkd;
vdNt jhf;ftupir 1 MFk;.
(c) jhf;ftPjk; ehd;F klq;fhFk;. ,q;F jhf;ftPjj; jhf;fpapd; nrwptpd; tu;f;fj;jpw;F
Neu;tpfpj rkdhFk;. vdNt jhf;ftupir 2.
xU jlit jhf;fpfspd; tupir mwpag;gbd; VjhtJ Xu; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fpfspd;
nrwpTfisg; gpujpapLtjhy; jhf;ftPj khwpyp K I Jzpayhk;.
Muk;gjhf;ftPjr; Nrhjidfspy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gl;l KbTfis Muha;jy;

thA cUthf;Fj;Jld; njhlu;Ggl;l xU vspa Muk;gj;jhf;ftPj Nrhjidia fUj;jpw;
nfhs;f. mJ xU cNyhf - mkpyj; jhf;fkhf ,Uf;fyhk;: my;yJ Cf;fp Kd;dpiy
apy; Ijurd;gu; xf;irl;bd; gpupifahf ,Uf;fyhk;. ,j;jhf;fq;fspy; cUthfpa thAtpd;
fdtsT Neuj;Jld; khWgLtijg; gpd;tUk; tiuGfs; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
............
........
nrwpT Neuk;
-
cU 1.18 Muk;gj; jhf;ftPjr; Nrhjidfspy; cUthfpa thAf;fspd; fdtsit mstply; (a)
Neuj;Jld; fdtsT khWgLk; tiuG. ,jpy; fdtsT Muk;gj;jpy; kpfj;Jupj fjpapy;
cau;tilfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; Neuj;Jld; mjpfupf;Fk; tPjk; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ.
(b) epow;wpa gFjpapd; ngUg;gpf;fg; gl;l glk; (a) jhf;fj;jpd; Muk;gj;jpy; fdtsT
Neuj;Jld; khWgLtJ xU Neu;Nfhl;L tiughf mikfpd;wJ. vdNt khwh
ntg;gepiyapy; Fwpg;gpl;l fdtsT thAitg; ngwj; Njitahd Neuj;ij mstpl
KbAk;.
tiugpd; gbj;jpwidg; gad;gLj;jpf; Fwpj;j Gs;spapy; jhf;ftPjj;ij mstpLk; Kiw

ahtUk; mwpe;jJNt. MfNt Muk;g jhf;ftPjj;ijg; ngw tiugpd; njhlf;fj;jpy; gbj;
jpwid mstpl Ntz;Lk;. (t ˜ 0 s) ,J kpfTk; fbdkhdJ vd;gjhy; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
khw;wk; Vw;glj; Njitg;gLk; Neuj;ij mstpLfpd;Nwhk;. (fdtsT) mj;Jld; Muk;ge-
piyapy; ehk; gad;gLj;Jk; ,urhadq;fspd; nrwpTk; ngUk;ghYk; Muk;gr;nrwpthff;
fhzg;gLk;. ,jd; NghJ Muk;gepiyapy; nrwptpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; Gwf;fzpf;ff;$ba-
jhff; fhzg;gLk;.
39
thAtpd; fdtsT
Neuk;
cU 1.19 (a)> thAtpd; fdtsT Neuj;Jld; khWgLtijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mUfpy; cs;s glk;
,t;tiugpd; kpf Muk;g epiyapd; cUg;ngUg;gpf;fg;gl;l glk; MFk;. ,J Xu; Neu;
Nfhl;L tiuG tiuG Nghy fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. (cU 1.18 (b)). ,t; tiuG t 0 ,y;
ngwg; gl;l gbj;jpwd; %yk; tiu ag;gl;lJ MFk;. ,jd; gbj;jpwd; V/T MFk;. cU
1.19 ntt;NtW nrwpT cila jhf;fpfs; %yk; cUthFk; thAtpd; Fwpj;j fdtsT
Neuj;Jld; khWgLtijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
gpd;tUk; Nrhjidfspd; Muk;gj; jhf;ftpfpjk;

V
gupNrhjid 1 = Muk;g tPjk; =
t1
V
gupNrhjid 2 = Muk;g tPjk; =
t2
,U NrhjidfspYk; ngwg;gl;l thAtpd; fdtsT xU khwpyp MFk;. MfNt
Muk;gj;jhf;f tPjk; = 1/t
nghJthf Muk;gj; jhf;fj;ijf; fzf;fpl 1/t Neubahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. MfNt
Muk;gj;jhf;fk; khWk; nrwpT cila jhf;fpfisf; nfhz;lJ. jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;f
tupiriaj; jPu;khdpf;fg; gad;gLk;. ,Wjpahfj; jhf;ftPj khwpypiaAk; Jzpag;gad;gLk;.
cjhuzk; : gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ij khwhntg;gepiyapy; fUJf.
A + 2B C+D
tpfpj tpjp gpd;tUkhW fhzg;gLk;
= k[A]m[B]n
m, n ,d; ngWkhdq;fisj; Jzptjw;Fr; rpy Nrhjidfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;ld.
mtw;wpy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gl;l KbTfs; gpd;tUkhW mike;jd.
gupNrhjid ,y Muk;g [A] / mol dm- 3 Muk;g [B] / mol dm-3 Muk;gj; jhf;ftPjk; / mol dm-3 s-1
1 2.5 × 10-2 3.0 × 10-2 1.75 × 10-3
2 5.0 × 10-2 3.0 × 10-2 3.50 × 10-3
3 2.5 × 10-2 6.0 × 10-2 3.50 ×10-3
1. A ,d; jhf;ftupir m I Jzpjy;

Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; gupNrhjidfis Muha;jy; [B] xU khwpypahfg; Ngzg;gLfpd;wJ.
vdNt Kjyhk;> ,uz;lhk; Nrhjidfspd; tpfpj tpjpapd; gpd;dq;fisf; fUJf.
40
tPjk;1 k[A]1m [B]1n

=
tPjk;2 k[A]2m [B]2n
Mdhy; [B]1 and [B]2 = 3.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3 kw;Wk; K = khwpyp (ntg;gepiy khwpyp)
tPjk;1 k[A]1m [B]1n
=
tPjk;2 k[A]2m [B]2n
1.75 x10-3 mol dm-3s-1 (2.5 x10-2 mol dm-3)m

=
3.50 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 (5.0 x10-2 mol dm-3)m
1/2 = (1/2)m
m=1
vdNt A ,d; jhf;ftupir 1 MFk;. [A] ,Uklq;fhdhy; jhf;ftPjk; ,Uklq;fhFk;.
2) B ,d; jhf;ftupir n I Jzpjy;
Kjyhk;> %d;whk; jhf;fq;fis Muha;jy;
tPjk;1 k[A]1m [B]1n
=
tPjk;3 k[A]3m [B]3n
Mdhy; [A]1 and[A]3= 2.5 x10-2 mol dm-3

tPjk;1 [B]1n
vdNt =
tPjk;3 [B]3n
1.75 x10-3 mol dm-3s-1 (3.0 x10-2 mol dm-3)n
=
3.50 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 (6.0 x10-2 mol dm-3)n
1/2 = (1/2)n
n = 1
vdNt B apd; jhf;ftupirAk; 1 MFk;. vdNt [B] ,Uklq;F Mdhy; jhf;f tpfpjKk;
,Uklq;F MFk;.
jhf;ftpfpjk; k [A] [B]
K apd; ngWkhdk; jFe;jKiwapy; gupNrhjid 1 ,w;F cupajpy; gpujpaply; %yk; ngwg;
gLk;.
1.75 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 =k (2.5 x10-2) (3.0 x 10-2) mol2 dm-6
(1.75 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1)

K = = 2.3 mol-1 dm3 s-1
(1.75 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1)
Fwpg;G : [A], [B] vd;gd xNu Neuj;jpy; ,Uklq;F Mf;fg;gl;lhy; Muk;gjhf;f tPjj;jpd;
ngWkhdj;jpw;F vd;d epfOk; jhf;ftPjk; 4 klq;F Mf;fg;gl;L 7.00 X10-3 mol dm-1 s-1
vd;Dk; ngWkhdj;ij vl;Lk;.
Fwpg;G : ,q;F Bapd; jhf;ftupir 1 MFk;. Mdhy; B apd; %y; Fzfk; 2 MFk;.
,jpy; ,Ue;J gupNrhjid %ykhf kl;LNk jhf;ftupir Jzpa KbAk; vd;gJ cWjpah
fpd;wJ.
41
cjhuzk;; 1.13
xl;rprd;> iejurNdhu; xl;irl;Lf;fpilapy; 300 K ,y; eilngWk; cz;ikahd
jhf;fnkhd;iwf; fUjpd;>
O2(g) + 2NO(g) 2NO2(g)
nghJ tpjpahdJ>
= k [O2(g)]m[ NO(g)] n
fPNo jug;gl;l ml;ltizapYs;s jfty;fspdbg;gilapy; 300K ,y; ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;
fhd jhf;ftpjpiag; ngWf.
gupNrhjid Muk;g [O2(g)] my;yJ Muk;g [NO(g)] Muk;g tPjk; mol dm-3
,y [O2(g)]0/ mol dm-3 my;yJ [NO(g)]0/ mol s-1
dm-3
1 1.0 × 10-2 2.0 ×10-2 3.20 ×10-3
2 2.0 × 10-2 2.0 × 10-2 6.40 ×10-3
3 1.0 × 10-2 4.0 × 10-2 12.80 × 10-3
4 3.0 × 10-2 2.0 × 10-2 9.60 × 10-3
[O2(g)]0 , [NO(g)]0 vd;gd mtw;wpd; njhlf;fr;nrwpTfis Fwpf;Fk;.
tpil
1) m I fz;Lgpbj;jy; (O2(g) njhlu;ghd)
gupNrhjid 1> 2 I xg;gpLk;NghJ> mjhtJ (O2(g)) ,ul;bg;giltNjhL (NO(g))
khwpypahf cs;sJ. toikahd jhf;ftpjpfspd;gb mtw;wpd; tpfpjj;ijf; fz;L
gpbg;gpd;>
tPjk;1 k [O2 (g)]1 [NO (g)]1n
=
tPjk;2 k[O2 (g)]2m [NO (g)]2n
gupNrhjidfs; 1>2 ,y; [NO (g)]1 = [NO (g)]2= 2.0x10-2 mol dm-3 K ntg;gepiyAld;
khwpyp
tPjk;1 [O2 (g)]1m
vdNt =
tPjk;2 [O2 (g)]2m
3.2 x 10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 1.0 x10-2 mol dm-3m
=
6.40 x 10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 2.0 x10-2 mol dm-3m
m=1
42
vdNt O2 njhlu;ghd jhf;ftupir 1. vdNt O2 ,d; nrwpT ,Uklq;fhf;fg;gLk;

NghJ mjd; jhf;ftPjKk; ,Uklq;fhfpd;wJ. gupNrhjid 4 ,ij ep&gpf;fpd;wJ.
Vnddpy; nrwpTk; 3 klq;F Mf;fg;gLk;NghJ jhf;ftPjKk; 3 klq;F Mfpd;wJ.
2) NO njhlu;ghd jhf;ftupir n I Jzpjy;
1>3 gupNrhjidfspy; (O2(g)) khwpyp> (NO) ,uz;L klq;F
=
1>3 ,y; [O2 (g)]1 and[O2 (g)]3 = 1.0 x10-2 mol dm-3
ntg;gepiy khwpyp vdNt K , khwpyp
tPjk;1 [NO (g)]1n
=
tPjk;3 [NO (g)]3n
3.20 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 2.0x10-2 mol dm-3n

=
12.8 x10-3mol dm-3 s-1 4.0 x10-2mol dm-3n
1/4 = (1/2)n
/n=2
vdNt NO njhlu;ghf ,jd; tupir 2. vdNt (NO) ,d; nrwpT ,U klq;fhf;Fk;
NghJ jhf;ftPjk; 4 klq;fhFk;.
vdNt jhf;f tpjpf;Nfhit gpd;tUkhW mikAk;
tPjk; = k [O2(g)] [ NO(g)]2
Fwpg;G : rpy rkaq;fspy; rupahd vspa vz;fs; fpilf;fg;ngwhJ. cjhuzj;jpw;F>

gupNrhjid 1 ,d; njhlf;ftPjk; 3.10 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 vdpd;
3.10 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1
= 0.485
6.40 x1-3 mol dm-3 s-1
vdNt 0.485=(1/2)m = (0.500)m.
log (0.485) = m log (0.500)
log(0.485) log(0.500)
m= 1.04 or m = = 1 (as 0.485 ~ 0.500)
(log(0.500)) (log(0.500))
m xU KO vz;zhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk; m = 1
K ,d; ngWkhdkhdJ jhf;ftPjj;jpw;fhd Nfhitapy; rupahfr; nrwpTfisg; gpujpap
Ltjd; %yk; ngwg;gLk;.
3.20 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1 = k (1.0 x 10-2 ) (2.0 x10-2)2 mol3 dm-9
(3.20 x10-3 mol dm-3 s-1
k= = 8.00 x102 mol-2 dm6 s-1
(4.0 x10-6 mol3 dm-9)
,j;NjhL ,t;thwhd fzpg;Gfspy; juTfshdJ gy;NtW gupNrhjidfspypUe;J ngwg;
gl;Lj; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTfs; khw;wj;Jld; 1/t I tiuGgLj;Jtjd; %yk; tupir
ngwg;gLk;. ,q;F tiughdJ xU Nfhlhfg; ngwg;gLk;. vdNt> ,t;thwhd Kjy;
tupirj; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;ftPjk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwptpw;F Neu;tpfpj rkdhFk;.
43
tiuG tisNfhlhf ,Ug;gpd;> mJ 2k; tupirj; jhf;fkhff; fhzg;glyhk; (my;yJ VJk;

gpd;d tupirahf ,Uf;fyhk;.)
,t;thW gy juTfis ngw;W Muhar; rpwe;j top klf;if tiuG tiujyhFk;. cjhuzj;
jpw;F A vDk; n tupir cila xU jhf;fpAldhd jhf;fk; fhzg;gbd;>
tPjk; + K[A]n
,Ugf;fKk; klf;if vLg;gpd;
kl(tPjk;) + n kl [A] = kl K
vdNt kl(tPjk;) kw;Wk; kl (A) f;Fk; tiuG tiuag;gbd; xU Neu;NfhL gbj;jpwd; n
cld; ngwg;gLk;. mjd; ntl;Lg;Gs;sp kl(K) I jUk;. ,jpypUe;J K I Jzpayhk;.
,uz;lhk; tupir
Kjyhk; tupir
kl(1/t)
g+r;rpa tupir
kl(k)
kl(nrwpT)

cU 1.20 gupNrhjidfspy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gl;l Muk;g jhf;f tPjj;jpw;fhd tiugpd;
tbtq;fs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. (cU 1.17 (a) ,Yk; mtjhdpf;f KbAk;.)
rpy Ma;T$lg; gupNrhjidfSk; xOq;FgLj;Jtjd; %yk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;lsT jhf;fk;
eilngw vLf;Fk; Neuj;ij mstpl;L> rupahfg; gpd;du; tiuig tiutjd; %yKk;
jhf;ftupiriaf; fhzyhk;. fPNo rpy cjhuzq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
jNahry;Ngw;W - mkpyj;jhf;fk;
rhjhuz miwntg;gepiyapy; Nrhba jNahry;Ngw;Wf;F (Na2S2O3) Ijhd iej;jpupf;
fkpyk; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; ntspwpa kQ;rs; tPo;gbnthd;W nkJthf cUthtij mtjh-
dpf;fyhk;.
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq ) S(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
,e;jj; njhFjpapy; rpwjsT Fwpj;jsT fe;jf tPo;gbT cUthtij ,yFthfTk; JupjkhfTk;
msf;Fk; topKiw ifahsg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,j;jhf;fj;jpy; tPo;gbT cz;lhtjhy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l
ntg;gepiyapy;> ntt;NtW nrwptpy; Fwpg;gpl;lsT fe;jf tPo;gbT cUthFk; Neuj;ij
mstpl KbAkhf cs;sJ.
xU fljhrpapy; ''X" milahsk; ,l;L mjd;Nky; FLit my;yJ rpwpa fz;zhbf;
Ftis xd;iw itf;fTk;. me;j milahsk; X kiwAk; tiu jhf;ff; fyitapd;
Clhf X milahsj;ij cw;W Nehf;fTk;. Kjy;> njupe;j msT jNahry;Ngw;Wf;
fiuriyf; FLitapDs; ,l;Lg; gpd; ntt;NtW nrwpT nfhz;l rpwpa msT Ijhd
mkpyf; fiuriy ,l;L me;j X milahsk; kiwAk; tiu Neuj;ij msf;fTk;.
,e;jg; gupNrhjidapy; Na2S2O3 fiurypd; cz;ikr; nrwpT jhf;ff; fyitapd; KOf;
fdtsitf; nfhz;L fzpf;fyhk;. 40cm3 Na2S2O3 fiurYk;> 10cm3 ePUk; nfhz;l fyit
Kjy; nrwptpd; 80% nrwpT nfhz;bUf;Fk;. c +k;: Na2S2O3 fiury; 10cm3 k;> ePu;
40cm3 k; nfhz;l fiury; Ke;ijajd; 20% nrwpitf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
44
Neuj; juTfisr; Nrfupj;jg; gpd;du;> juTfis 1/t vjpu; jNahry;Ngw; nrwpT

tiugpy; tiue;J mjpy; ,Ue;J jNahry;Ngw;W jhf;fpapDila jhf;f tupiria
ca;j;jwpag;glyhk;. ,jNdhL> jhf;f tPjj;jpy; ntg;gepiyapd; nry;thf;Fk;
Muhag;glyhk;. (nra;Kiwg; Gj;jfj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sthW)
maBd; fbfhug; gupNrhjid

gy jhf;fq;fSf;F 'Iodine clock" gupNrhjid vdg; ngauplg;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; mit
mabid xU tpisnghUshfj; je;J xU Fwpg;gpl;lsT maBd; cUthtjw;F vLj;j
Neuj;ij fzpf;f cjTfpd;wJ. mtw;wpy; ,yFthdJ fPo; fhzg;gLk; jhf;fkhFk;.
Vnddpy; ,J vq;fSf;Fg; guPl;rakhd jhf;F nghUl;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. cjhuzkhf
mkpy epyikfspd; fPo; H2O2 (hydrrogen peroxide) ,id cgNahfpj;J I2 ,id xl;rp
Naw;Wk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd ,af;ftpay; Iodine clock gupNrhjid %ykhfj; Jzpag;glyhk;.
mkpy epiyapy; I- mad;fs; H2O2 cld; fPo;fhZkhW jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk;.
H2O2(aq) + 2I-(aq) + 2H+(aq) I2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; rpwjsT I2 (ag)2 cUthFk;NghJ> cUthFk; I2 msit khg;nghUis
cgNahfpj;Jj; Jzpayhk;. I2 khg;nghUSld; jhf;fp Mo;e;j ePyr; rpf;fiy cUthf;fpf;
fiuriy ePykhf khw;Wk;. rpwpjsT fdtsT khg;nghUs; fiury; Muk;gj;jpy; jhf;ff;
fiurYf;Fr; Nru;f;Fk;NghJ> Kjy; jukhf D2 cUthfpaTld; me;j fiury; ePykhf
khwptpLk;. vd;whYk; ntWk; khg;nghUis kl;Lk; Nru;g;gJ> epwk; cldbahf khWtjhy;
,af;ftpay; gw;wp mwpaj; JizGuptJ fbdkhf ,Uf;Fk;. MfNt cUthd I2 id ePf;f
,d;ndhU Kiw gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. I2 MdJ Na2S2O3 fiurYld; jhf;fk; GupAk; vd;g
jhy; rpy I2 ,id ePf;fr; Nrhbak; jNahry;Ngw;Wk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
rpwpjsT Nrhbak; jNahry;Ngw; fiury; jhf;ff; fyitapDs; Nru;f;Fk;NghJ (khg;
nghUs; nfhz;l fiury;)> mJ Muk;gj;jpy; cUthFk; maBDld; jhf;fk; GupAk;.
mjdhy; I2 khg;nghUisj; jhf;fp cldbahf ePy epwj;ijj; juhJ. vt;thwhapDk;
mf; Fwpg;gpl;lsT Na2S2O3(ag) KbAk;NghJ> maBd; khg;nghUSld; jhf;Ftijj; jil
nra;a vJTk; ,Uf;fhJ. MfNt fyit jpBnud ePy epwkhFk;. ePyepwk; cUthtjw;
fhd Neuk; ntt;NtW gupNrhjid epyikfspd; fPo; msf;fg;glyhk;.
,e;jg; gupNrhjidapy; H2O2 nrwpitNah> maill; mad;fspd; nrwpitNah Ijurd;
mad;fspd; nrwpitNah xt;nthU jlitAk; ,tw;wpy; VjhtJ xd;iw khw;wpf;
nfhz;L kw;wtw;iw khwpypahff; nfhz;L gupNrhjidj; jhf;ftupiria ,dq;fhz
KbAk;.
,ijnahj;j gupNrhjidr; nraw;ghl;Lg; Gj;jfj;jpy; jhf;fg; nghwpKiw gw;wp mwpaj;
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) 2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq)
Nkw;$wg;gl;ltw;NwhL> Cf;fpia cgNahfpj;J H2O2 gpupifj;jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiw
apy;> Muk;gj;jhf;f tPjkhdJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xl;rprd; thA cUthFk;
fdtsitf; fz;fhzpg;gjd; %yk; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l cjhuzq;fshdJ> xU jhf;fg; nghwpKiwiaf; ftdkhf mikf;fg;gl;l
gupNrhjid mikg;Gf;fspd; %yk; Muhayhk; vdf; $Wfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd gupNrhjid
fspd;NghJ fPo;fhzg;gLk; Njitfs; g+u;j;jp nra;ag;glNtz;Lk;.
(i) ey;y ntg;gf;fhtyp (thermostat) xd;iw cgNahfpj;J ntg;gepiy khwhky; fl;Lg;
ghl;Lf;Fs; Ngz Ntz;Lk; (nra;Kiwapd;NghJ mwpayhk;) vnddpy; ntg;gepiy
Ald; jhf;ftPjk; khWfpd;wJ.
(ii) rupahf Neuj;ij msf;Fk; fUtpiaj; Nju;e;njLj;jy;
45
(iii) ,J rpwe;j xU jhf;fpapDila nrwpitf; fhzg;gjw;fhd my;yJ tistp

Dila nrwpitf; fhz;gjw;fhd KiwahFk;. ,J tpiuthf khwf;$ba> Jzpaf;$ba
ngsjPf ,ay;gpid msg;gjd; %yk; mwpayhk;.
jdpj;jhf;fnkhd;iw Muha;jy;
xU KO Muk;gj;jhf;fg; gupNrhjidfisr; nra;tijtplf; fPo;f; fhzg;gLk; xU Fwpj;j
jhf;fj;ij Muk;gk; Kjy; ,Wjp tiu nra;tjpypUe;J Jzpag;glyhk;.
,jid Nkw;nfhs;s ,UNtW topKiwfs; cs;sd. xd;W Fwpg;gpl;l Neu ,il-
ntspfspy; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT khWtij epakpg;Gfspd; %yk; mwpjy; my;yJ jhf;fk;
eilngWk;NghJ ngsjPff; fhuzpfs; khWtij msj;jy;. cjhuzkhf: mfj;JwpQ;ry;>
xspKwpT Rl;b
gpd; nrwptpw;fhfg; ngwg;gl;l Gs;sp tpguj;ijj; jhf;ftPjk; vjpu; Neuk; tiuig tiu e;J
ntt;NtW Gs;spfspd; xj;j jhf;ftPjj;ij tiugpy; ,Ue;J ngwyhk;. ,Wjpahf
kl (jhf;ftPjk;) vjpu; kl (nrwpT) tiugpy; tiue;J> tiugpy; ,Ue;J jhf;fj;jpd;
tupiria mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
xU jhf;fj;jpd; miu MAl;fhyk; (t 1/2)

jhf;fk; eilngWifapy; jhf;fpapd; nrwpT FiwAk;. nrwpitAk; Neuj;ijAk; njhlu;G
gLj;jpj; jhf;ftPjj;ij mstpLtjw;fhf miu MAl;fhyk; gad;gLk;. jhf;fk; eil
ngWk; Ntfj;jpid mwptjw;Fk; miu MAl;fhyk; gad;gLfpd;wJ. miu MAl;fhyk;
vd;gJ xU jhf;fpapd; nrwpT miuthrpahf vLf;Fk; fhyk; MFk;. my;yJ xU
jhf;fp mjd; Muk;g mstpd; miuthrpahf vLf;Fk; Neuk;. ,jid t 1/2 vdf; Fwpg;gu;.
,J ntg;gepiyahy; ghjpf;fg;gLk;.
nrwpT
Neuk;
cU 1.21 miu - tho;tpw;fhd tiutpyf;fzk; (Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;F)
cjhuzkhf: H2O2 ,d; Kjyhk; tupir gpupifahf;fj;ijf; fUj;jpw;nfhs;f. fPo; cs;s

ml;ltiz xt;nthU 600epkplq;;fSf;fhd H2O2 ,d; nrwpitf; fhz;gpf;Fk;.
(ml;ltiz 1.3) 600 epkpl cau;r;rpAld; H2O2 fs; nrwpT
Neuk; / epkplk; miu MAl;fhyq;fspd; kpFjpahd gpd;dk; [H2O2] / mol dm-3

vz;zpf;if
0 0 1 0.020
600 1 1/2 0.010
1200 2 1/4 0.005
1800 3 1/8 0.0025
2400 4 1/16 0.0013
3000 5 1/32 0.00065
46
Fwpg;G : xt;nthU 600 epkplj;jpw;Fk; nrwpT miuthrpahfpwJ. vdNt jhf;fj;jpd; miu

MAl;fhykhdJ 600 epkplq;fs; MFk;. mLj;jLj;j miu MAl;fhyq;fspy; nrwptpd;
gpd;dk; 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32 vd mikAk;.
Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd miuMAl;fhyk;

Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; miu MAl;fhyk; t1/2 = 0.693/k vdf; Fwpf;fg;gLk; :
k jhf;fkhwpyp
k xU Fwpj;j jhf;fj;jpy; Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyf;fhd khwpyp Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd;
MiuMAl;fhykhdJ jhf;fpapd; Muk;gnrwptpy; jq;fhj xU khwpyp MFk;.
mjhtJ Kjy; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpy; xU jhf;fp 2.00 mol dm-3 Ald; Muk;gpf;fg;gl;L 20
epkplq;fs; fopj;J nrwpT 1.00 mol dm-3 MdJ mj;jhf;fj;jpd; miuMAl;fhyk; 20 epkpl
q;fshFk;. Kjy; 20 epkplq;fspy; 50% Md jhf;fk; eilngw;W Kbe;jpUf;Fk;. gpd; 40
epkplj;jpy; 75%, 60 epkplj;jpy; 87.5% vd;wthW mikAk;.
cjhuzk; 1.14
xU Kjy; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; miuMAl;fhyk; 20 epkplq;fs; MFk;.
(i) K I Jzpf
(ii) ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; 75% epiwT ngw vt;tsT Neuk; vLf;Fk;
tpil
(i) Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; miuMAl;fhyk; t1/2 = 0.693
k
20.0 min = 0.693
k
20.0 min = 0.693 = 3.47 x10-2 min-1
20 min
(ii) mj;jhf;fk; 75% KbT ngwpd; 25% kpQ;rp ,Uf;Fk; my;yJ mj;jhf;fk; 2k;
MAl;fh yk; tiu eilngw;wpUf;Fk;. Mjyhy; 75% jhf;fk; eilngw vLj;j
Neuk; 40 epkp lq;fs;.
Kjy; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpy; 99.9% gpupifaila vLj;j Neuk; mjd; miu
MAl;fhyj;jpd; 10 klq;F vdf; fhl;Lf.
99.9% epiwngw;why; kPjpahf cs;sJ. 0.100% or 0.001 10 MAl;fhyq;fspd;
kPjpahdJ gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
(1/2)n = (1/2)10 = 1 = 0.001
1024
vdNt xU Kjyhk; tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; 99.9% eilngw;W Kbaj; Njitahd
Neuk; mjd; miuMAl;fhyj;jpd; 10 klq;F MFk;.
xU g+r;rpa tupirj; jhf;fj;jpd; miuMAl;fhyk; fPo;f;fhzg;gLkhW jug;gLk;.

[A]0
t1/2 = 2k
[A]0 MdJ Muk;g nrwpT MFk;. MfNt g+r;rpa tupir jhf;fj;jpd; miu MAl;fhyk;
Muk;gr; nrwptpNyNa jq;fp cs;sJ. * ,e;jr; rkd;ghl;ilg; ngWk; topKiw f.ngh.
(c/j) ,urhadtpay; Nrhjidapy; tpdtg;gl;Ls;sJ.
47
1.8 jhf;ftPjj;jpy; ngsjpfj;jd;ikapd; (Nkw;gug;gsT) nry;thf;F

jhf;fpfspd; ngsjpfj;jd;ikapd; nry;thf;Fg; gw;wpa rpwpa tpsf;fk; xd;W gFjp 1.1
,y; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. jhf;fq;fs; jpz;kj; jhf;fpfspidf; nfhz;L eilngWk;NghJ>
mj; jpz;kj;ijr; rpW Jfs;fshf;Ftjd; %yk; Nkw;gug;gsitf; $l;bj; jhf;ftPjj;ij
mjpfupf;fyhk;. ,J jhf;fk; GupAk; %yf;$WfSf;fpilNa Nkhjy;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia
mjpfupf;Fk;.
Nkw;$wpaijg; Nghd;W jhf;ftPjkhdJ ngsjpfj; jd;ik kw;Wk; epiyapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
thAepiy > jputepiy > jpz;kepiy. xU gy;ypdj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tPjkhdJ xLf;fg;
gl;l mtj;ijapy; cs;sjd; Nkw;gug;gpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. jpz;kj; jhf;fpapy;> kpfTk; Jfshf;
fg;gl;L> Jfshf;fg;gl;l jpz;kk; mNj msT epiwAila fl;b jpz;kj;Jld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
tpiuthfj; jhf;fk; GupAk;. Vnddpy; J}shf;fg;gl;ljw;F epiwa ngsjpf Nkw;gug;Gf;
fhzg;gLk;.
cjhuzkhf CaCO3 kw;Wk; HCl ,ilapy; cs;s jhf;fj;jpy;> J}shf;fg;gl;l CaCO3 kpf
tpiuthf HCl mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fk; GupAk; kw;waijtpl.
jpz;k manganese (iv) oxide Cf;fpahf H2O2 gpupif jhf;fj;jpy; cgNahfg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Cf;fpahdJ J}shf;fg;gl;bUe;jhy; xl;rprd; thAthdJ kpfTk; tpiuthf ntspNaWk;.
,tw;wpd; %yk; jpz;k ntspNkw;gug;G mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ Nkhjy;fs; eilngWk; vz;zf;if
mjpfupf;Fk;. jhf;ftPjk; mjpfupf;Fk;.
cjhuzkhf: Mg cNyhfk; Ijhd HCl mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fk;GupAk;NghJ Mg mZf;fSf;
Fk; H+ mad;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa Nkhjy; eilngWk;. Nkw;gug;gpd; nry;thf;ifg; gw;wp cU
1.22 fw;gjd; %yk; mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l NkhJif NkhJif $l;lg;gl;Ls;sJ
cU 1.22 jhf;ftPjj;jpy; %yf;$wpd; mstpd; nry;thf;F xU %yf;$W jhf;fpfSld;

Nkhjpj; jhf;fk; GuptJ jhf;fpfspd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpwpa ,lj;jpyhFk;. ntsp
Nkw;gug;gpy; kl;LNk %yf;$Wfs; NkhJk;. xU jpz;k nghUshdJ cilf;fg;gl;Lr;
rpW Jfs;fshf khw;wg;gLk;NghJ jhf;fj;jpw;fhd ntspNkw;gug;G mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
mjdhy; jhf;f tPjKk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
1.9 jhf;fq;fspy; Cf;fpfspd; nry;thf;F

xU njhopw;rhiyapy; jhf;ftPjj;ij mjpfupg;gJ gy ed;ikfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. $ba
ntg;gepiyfs; jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $l;Lk;. Mdhy; ,jw;Fj; Njitahd rf;jp toq;Fjyhy;>
gz tpuak; Vw;gLk; kw;Wk; gy Nrjd kw;Wk; capupay; nghUl;fs; ntg;gj;jpw;F kpfTk;
czu;r;rpAs;sitahff; fhzg;gLk;. Mjyhy; nghJthf Cf;fp %yk; jhf;fk; tpiuthf;
fg;gLk;. Cf;fp vdg;gLtJ jhf;fj;jpy; cs;nsLf;fg;glhJ jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $l;LtJ
MFk;.
Mjyhy; rpwpa Fwpj;jsT gPrkhd Fzfg;gbay;yhJ Cf;fp jhf;fj;ij tpiuthf;F
tjw;Fg; ghtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
48
epfukhf ve;jnthU jhf;f khw;wj;jpw;Fk; cl;glhJ. xU jhf;fj;ij tpiuthf;FtJ

Cf;fp vdg;gLk;. ,J Fiwthd Vtw;rf;jp nfhz;l NtW tpjkhd topKiwia
cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ,J nkJthd> jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gbiaj; jtpu;j;J> tpiuthd
jhf;fj;ij xU Fwpg;gpl;lsT ntg;gepiyapNyNa cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
,uz;L tpjkhd Cf;fpfs; cs;sd. Vftpd Cf;fp> gy;ypd Cf;fp vd;gitahFk;. gy;ypd
Cf;fp NtW ngsjPf epiyapy; fhzg;gLk;. (c + k; : thA mtj;ijj; jhf;fj;jpw;F>
jpz;kepiy Cf;fp). Vftpd Cf;fpahdJ jhf;ff; fyitapd; mtj;ijNahL xj;j mtj;ijapy;
,Uf;Fk;. (c + k; : fiury; epiyapy; mkpy Cf;fpj; jhf;fk;)
fPo;f; fhzg;gLk; cjhuzq;fs; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; Cf;fpnahd;wpd; njhopw;ghL gw;wpf; $wg;gL
fpd;wJ.
H2O2 gpupifj; jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw;rf;jp fiury; epiyapy; 76 KJ mol-1, kw;Wk; ,J miw
ntg;gepiyapy; nkJthdjhFk;. rpwpjsT maill; mad;fisr; Nru;f;Fk;NghJ Vtw;rf;jp
57KJmol dm-1 Mff; Fiwfpd;wJ. kw;Wk; jhf;ftPj khwpypapd; ngWkhdk; 2000 vDk;
fhuzpahy; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
nehjpaq;fs; (capupay; Cf;fpfshff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ) gpuj;jpNafkhdit kw;Wk;
mtw;why; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk; jhf;fq;fspy; ghupasT nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wd. Rf;F
Nuhrpd; mkpy ePNuw;wj; jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw;rf;jp 107KJ mol-1 Mdhy; Rf;FNuhR vDk;
nehjpak; ,jid 36KJ mol-1 ,w;F Fiwfpd;wJ. ,jd; %yk; jhf;ftPjkhdJ cly;
ntg;gepiyapNyNa fhuzp 1012 My; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
rpy gjhu;j;jq;fs; jhf;ftPj Ntfj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; mit epNuhjpfs; vdg;gLk;.
jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $l;Lk; gjhu;j;jk; Cf;fp vdg;gLk;. rpy jhf;fq;fspy; tpisTg;
nghUs; Cf;fpahfr; nraw;gLk;. ,it 'Ra Cf;fp" vdg;gLk;. ,j;jhf;fq;fs; Ra Vf;fy;
jhf;fq;fs; vdg;gLk;.
jhf;ftPjj;ijf; $l;Ltjpy; Cf;fpapd; njhopw;ghL cU 1.23 fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Cf;fp ,y;yhjNghJ Cf;fp ,y;yhjNghJ
Kw;jhf;fk; gpw;;jhf;fk;
Cf;fp cs;sNghJ Cf;fpAld;

Kw;jhf;fk; gpw;;jhf;fk;
jhf;fpfs; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;

tpisTfs;
jhf;fg;ghij jhf;fg;ghij
cU 1.23 Nkw;gb glq;fs; Cf;fpiag; gad;gLj;Jtjd;%yk; rf;jp Fiwe;j ghij %yk; jhf;f
tPjk; mjpfupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. (a) ,y; jhf;fk; NtW nghwpKiw %yk; eilngWfpwJ. (b)
,y; jhf;fk; ,uz;L ,il epiyfspD}lhfr; nry;fpd;wJ.
Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fj;jpy; tpisTfisg; ngWtjw;F NkhJfpd;w jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; Fwpj;j

nthU ,opT rf;jp / Vtw;rf;jpiaf; nfhz;;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
cU 1.24 (a) ,y; kf;];nty; - Nghl;];kd; tisapy; Vtw;rf;jpahdJ fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
49
jhf;fkiltjw;Fg; Njitahd rf;jpiag; ngw;w

jhf;fKWtjw;Fg; NghJkhd
Nkyjpfkhd %yf; $Wfisf; nfhz;l gug;G
rf;jpiaf; nfhz;buhj %yf;
cs;s gug;G
$Wfs; cs;s gug;G Gjpa
%yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dk;
%yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dk;
%yf;$Wfs;
jhf;fkilt-
jw;Fg; Ngh- %yf;$Wfs;
Jkhd rf;jp jhf;fkiltjw;Fg;
iaf; nfhz;l NghJkhd rf;jpiaf;
%yf;$Wfs; nfhz;l %yf;$Wfs;
nfhz;l gug;G nfhz;l gug;G
rf;jp rf;jp
cU 1.24 300K ntg;gepiyapy; Cf;fp cs;sNghJk; Cf;fp mw;wNghJk; cs;s kf;];nty;
- Nghy;w;];khd; guk;gypd; xg;gPL jhf;fnkhd;wpw;Fk; Cf;fpiar; Nru;f;Fk; NghJ
NghJkhd rf;jpia cila %yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,jdhy;
Nkhjy;fspd; mjpu;ntz; mjpfupg;gjdhy; xU khw;Wg;ghij topahfr; nraw;gl;Lj;
jhf;ftPjk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
tiugpy; Vtw;rf;jpia tyg;gf;fkhf cs;s gug;gpYs;s %yf;$Wfs; khj;jpuNk NkhJiff;F

cl;gLk;NghJ jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; mjp$ba vz;zpf;ifahdit NghjpasT rf;jpiaf;
nfhz;bUg;gjpy;iy. mit rhjhuzkhf Nkhjptpl;Lr; nry;Yk;. MfNt jhf;ftPjj;ij
mjpfupg;gjw;Fg; NghjpasT rf;jpiaf; nfhz;Ls;s %yf;$Wfspd; gpd;dj;ij mjpfupg;
gjd;%yk; gaDs;s NkhJiffspd; vz;zpf;ifia mjpfupj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
,jw;F khw;wPlhf NtnwhU khw;Wg;ghijapD}lhff; Fiwe;j Vtw;rf;jpiaAila
jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; Nkw;nfhs;syhk;. mjhtJ NkNy cs;s cU 1.24(b) ,y; fhl;lg;
gl;lthW kf;];nty; Nghy;w;kd; guk;gypy; Vtw;rf;jpahdJ Fiwe;jsT rf;jpia (,lJ)
Nehf;fp mirf;f Ntz;Lk;. Cf;fpiag; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; Vtw;rf;jpia ,t;thwhd
khw;wj;ijf; nfhz;Ltu KbAk;.
Kf;fpa Fwpg;G : 'xU Cf;fpahdJ khw;Wg;ghijnahd;iw toq;Ftjd; %yk;
Fiwe;jsT Vtw;rf;jpia cila khw;Wg; ghijiaj; jUfpwNj jtpu me;jf; Fwpg;gpl;l
jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw; rf;jpia Fiwf;ftpy;iy.
,jdhy; fUjf;$baJ> jhf;fj;jpd; cz;ikahd Vtw;rf;jp khw;wkilahJ> mt;thNw
mike;jpUf;Fk;. mj;Jld; xU Gjpa Cf;fg;gl;l ghij Fwie;j Vtw;rf;jpAld; mikAk;.
,J kiyapd; cr;rpf;F VwhJ xU fztha; CL nry;tJ NghyhFk;.
1.10 ,urhadj; jhf;f tPjj;ij tpgupg;gjpy; nghwpKiwapd; gad;ghL

xU ,urhadj; jhf;fkhdJ xNunahU gbapy; kl;Lk; eilngWjy; mjhtJ ahTk; xU
jdpg;gbapy; epfo;tJ Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
xU ,urhadj; jhf;fkhdJ xUnjhluhd ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gbfspy;
eilngWjy; eilngWjy; xU gy; - gbj;jhf;fk; my;yJ rpf;fw;jhf;fk; vdg;gLk;.
NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;lthW xU njhluhd gbfspD}L xU gy; - gbj;jhf;fk; eilngWtJ
jhf;fg; nghwpKiw vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,g;nghwpKiwapy; xt;nthU gbAk; xU Kjd;ikj;
jhf;fk; MFk;. jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfs; fzpf;fg;glNth md;wp vjpu;T $wg;glNth
Kbahjd@ gjpyhf> vy;yh jhf;fg; nghwpKiwfspYk; gupNrhjidthapyhfNt
fl;lhakhf Jzpag;gLfpd;wJ.
MfNt> xd;W my;yJ Nkw;gl;l ,urhad,dq;fs; Neubahfj; jhf;fp xU topapy;> xU
jhz;ly; epiyapD}L tpisTfis cUthf;FtJ xU Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; vd mi-
of;fg; gLk;. ,j;jifa Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdr; rkd;ghl;bw;Nfw;g
jpUj;jkhf %yf;$Wfs; Nkhjypy; <LgLk;.
50
NkYk;> xU Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpy; jhf;f,ilepiyfs; <LgLtjpy;iy. mj;Jld;>

mtw;wpd; gpurd;dKk; ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpid %yf;$w;W mstPl;by; tpgupg;gjw;F
mtrpakd;W.
1.10.1 jhf;fnkhd;;wpd; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;

xU Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwd; vd;gJ mjd; <Lnra;ag;gl;l rkd;ghl;
bYs;s> jhf;fj;jpid elj;jj; Njitahd jhf;fp / jhf;fpfspd; Mff;Fiwe;j %yf;$Wfs;>
mZf;fs; my;yJ mad;fspd; gPrkhdf; Fzfq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkdhFk;.
nghJthf xU vspa jhf;fj;jpd; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwd; vd;gJ <Lnra;ag;gl;l rkd;ghl;by;
<LgLk; jhf;fpfspd; %yf;$w;W vz;zpf;iffspd; $l;Lj;njhiff;F rkkhFk;.
gy; - gbj;jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiw vOjg;gLk;NghJ jhf;ftPjepu;zag;gbapYs;s NkhJ
fpd;w my;yJ xd;whf ,iztjd; %yk; tpisT / tpisTfis jUk; Jzpf;if
fspd; (%yf;$Wfs;> mZf;fs;/mad;fspd;) Mff;Fiwe;j vz;zpf;if mj;jhf;fj;jpd;
%yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; vdg;gLk;.
MfNt> ,urhadj;jhf;fq;fis Kjd;ikg; gbapYs;s jhf;Fk; ,dq;fspd; vz;zpf;if
ahy; ,yFthf tifg;gLj;jyhk;. xU jdpj;jhf;fp kl;Lk; <Lgbd; mJ xu;%yf;$w;Wj;
jhf;fkhFk;> ,U jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; <LgLkhdhy; mJ <u;%yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fkhFk;.
cjhuzkhf xU Xu;%yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy;> xU jdpj;jhf;fp %yf;$whdJ jdf;Fs;
gpupifailjy; /mjd; mZf;fs; xU Gjpa xOq;fikg;ghy; jkf;Fs; khw;wkiljy;
mjhtJ rf;fug;Gwg;NgdhdJ Gwg;gPdhf rkgFjpakhf;fg;gly; Nghd;wjhFk;.
<u;%yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,U %yf;$Wfs; NkhJk;NghJ rf;jpg; gupkhw;wk;
epfo;fpwJ. mjd;NghJ mZf;fNsh> my;yJ mZf;$l;lq;fNsh rpy khw;wq;fSf;F
cl;gl;L tpisTfshf khw;wg;gLk;.
%yf;$w;Wj; jpwd; vdg;gLtJ jj;Jthu;j;j uPjpahd Nfhl;ghlhFk;. ,J g+r;rpakhfNth
kiwahfNth> gpd;dkhfNth> KbtpypahfNth> fw;gid vz;zhfNth ,Uf;f KbahJ.
fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf. ,jpy; xU gbj;jhf;fk; %ykhfNt gpizg;G cile;J
,U gFjpahf C- O gpizg;G cilfpd;wJ. xU jhf;fp> ,U tpisTfis cUthf;F
fpd;wJ. Vnddpy; xU jhf;f %yf;$Nw ,q;F <LgLfpd;wJ. ,J xU %yf;$w;Wj;
jhf;fkhFk;.
fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; gpizg;G cUthFk; gbKiwj; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf. ,jpy; ,uz;L

%yf;$Wfs; ,ize;J xU jdp tpisitj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ> C-O gpizg;G cUth
fpd;wJ. ,uz;L jhf;fp ,ize;J xU tpisitj; Njhw;wtpg;gjhy; ,J <u;%yf;$w;Wj;
jhf;fkhFk;.
rhjhuzkhf> rpy jhf;fq;fs; Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fshff; fhzg;gl;lhYk;> %d;W

%yf;$WfSf;F Nky; ,izAk;NghJ Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; eilngWtJ fbdkhfNt
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. (,j; jhf;fq;fs; gy;gbfspd; Clhf eilngWfpd;wd.)
51
1.10.2 xUgbj; jhf;fq;fSf;fhd cjhuzq;fs;

rhjhuzkhf> ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; gy xU gb %ykhf eilngWgitahff; fhzg;gL
fpd;wJ. gy mkpy fhu jhf;fq;fs; xU gbj;jhf;fq;fshFk;. mNkhdpahtpw;Fg; GNuhj;jp
uNdw;wj; jhf;fj;jpy; H+ mad;fs; (H3O+ ,ypUe;J) NH3 tpw;F gupkhw;wg;gLfpd;wd. ,J
xU xUgbj; jhf;fkhFk;. ,jpy; gpizg;G ciljYk; cUthjYk; elf;fpd;wJ.
H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq) H2O(l) + NH4+(aq)
,j;jhf;fk; ,U %yf;$Wfis cs;slf;fp xU gb %yk; eilngWtjdhy; '<u; %yf;$w;W

Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk;" vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
N2O4 ,d; gpupifahf;fkhdJ xU gb gpizg;G ciljy; jhf;fkhFk;.
N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fk; xU gb %yk;> xU %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fpiaf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; 'Xu;
%yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fkhFk;"
fPo; fhzg;gLk; cjhuzj; jhf;fq;fs; ntt;NtW %yf;$w;Wj; jpwDila Kjd;ikj;
jhf;fq;fshFk;.
ntt;NtW %yf;$w;Wj; jpwDila Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;fk; %yf;$w;Wjpwd;
PCl5 → PCl3 + Cl2 xU %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
2HI → H2 + I2 ,U %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
NO + O3 → NO2 + O2 ,U %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
2CO + O2 → 2CO2 Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
2FeCl3 + SnCl2 → SnCl2 + 2FeCl2 Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;
rpy gPrkhdf; Fzfj;jpd;gb rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l jhf;fq;fspy; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; 3 tplf;$ba

jhf mikAk;.
4HBr(aq) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 2Br2(l)
2MnO4- (aq) + 16H+(aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
Nkw;$wg;gl;ltw;wpy; Kjy; jhf;fj;jpy; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwd; '5" MfTk; ,uz;lhtJ
'23" MfTk; Njhd;Wk;. ,it xU gb %yk; elf;fhJ. ,uz;Nlh my;yJ ,uz;bw;F
Nkw;gl;l gbKiw %yk; elf;Fk;. xt;nthU gbKiwAk; jdpj;Jtkhd %yf;$w;Wj;
jpwd; (%d;Wf;F Nkw;glhj) nfhz;Ls;sJ. fPo; fhzg;gLtJ gy gbj;jhf;fj;jpd;
mbg;gil ,ay;Gfs; gw;wpf; $Wfpd;wJ.
1.10.3 gy; gbj;jhf;fk;

gy Kjd;ikj; njhlu; jhf;fq;fshy; Md gy; gbj;jhf;fk; fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; xOq;F
tpjpfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
(i) xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fkhdJ gy Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fspd; $l;lhFk;.
52
(ii) xU jhf;fg;gbapy; cUthfpg; gpd;ida jhf;fg;gbapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Xu; ,dk;

,ilepiy vdg;gLk;.
(iii) jhf;f tPjj;ij mjpfupg;gjw;fhf xU gbapy; cgNahfpf;fg;gl;Lg; gpd; kw;iwanjhU
gbKiwapy; kPs cUthf;fg;gLk; xU gjhu;j;jk; Cf;fp MFk;.
(iv) ,ilepiyNah> Cf;fpNah xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;f tpjpapy; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
cjhuzk; 1 : XNrhd; gilapd; gpupifahf;fk; gpd;tUk; ,U gbKiwfs; %yk; eil

ngWfpd;wJ.
gb 1 : O3(g) O2(g) + O(g) xU %yf;$w;Wg; gpizg;G cilTj; jhf;fk;
gb 2 : O3(g) + O(g) 2O2(g) ,U %yf;$w;Wg; gpizg;G cilT kw;Wk;
cUthjy; jhf;fk;.
myF 5 ,y; Fwpg;gpl;lthW epfuj;jhf;fj;ijg; ngWtjw;fhfj; njhlu; jhf;fq;fisf;
$l;Ljy;> xl;Lnkhj;j jhf;fj;ij ngWtjw;Fk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
,e;jj; jhf;fj;jpy; O(g) ,U gf;fKk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
gb 1 : O3(g) O2(g) + O(g)
gb 2 : O3(g) + O(g) 2O2(g)
____________________
2 O3(g) + O(g) 3 O2(g) + O(g)
/ xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fk;: 2 O3(g) 3 O2(g)
,e;j cjhuzj;jpy; gb 1 ,y; cUthFk; O(g) mZ MdJ> gb 2 ,y; Efug;gLk;. ,J
vy;yhj; jhf;fj;jpYk; gq;FngwhJ jhf;fg; nghwpKiw xd;wpd; xU gbapy; cUthFk;. ,urhad
tpisthdJ ,d;ndhUgbapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vdpd; mJ ,ilepiy vdg;gLk;.
nkhj;jj; jhf;fr; rkd;ghl;bNy ,ilepiyahdJ fhzg;glhJ. rpy jhf;fg; gbapNy
,tw;iw mtjhdpf;ff;$bajhf ,Ue;jhYk;> rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspNy mit Njhd;wpa
clNd gad;gLj;jg;gl;LtpLk;. MfNt mijf; fhzKbahJ.
cjhuzk; 2 : Kd;dpiyapy; H2O2 ,d; gpupif 2 gbfspy; eilngWk;.
gb 1 H2O2(aq) + I-(aq) IO-(aq) + H2O(l); ,U%yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fk;
gb 2. IO-(aq) + H2O2(aq) I-(aq) + H2O(l) + O2(g): ,U%yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fk;
____________________________________
/ xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fk; : 2 H2O2(aq) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
1k; gbapy; Njhd;Wk; IO - MdJ 2k; gbapy; Efug;GlfpwJ. ,q;F IO- MdJ ,ilepiy
MFk;. khwhf 1k; gbapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; I- MdJ 2k; gbapy; kPsg; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
MfNt I- ,q;F Cf;fpahfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 3 : Nky; tspkz;lyj;jpy; FNshNuh GNshNuh fhgd;fs; cile;J
FNshupd; mZf;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;fpd;wJ. ,it fPo;tUk; nghwpKiw
Clhf XNrhd; ciltpy; gq;FngWk;.
53
gb 1. Cl(g) + O3(g) ClO(g) + O2(g)

gb 2.
ClO(g) + O3(g) Cl(g) + 2O2(g)
__________________________
/ xl;Lnkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2O3(g) 3O2(g)
gb 1> 2 ,uz;LNk ,U %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fq;fshFk;. gb 1 ,y; Cl MdJ jhf;fp Mdhy;
gb 2 ,y; mJ kPsg; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt Cl Cf;fpahFk;. jhf;fk; 1 ,y; ClO
Njhd;wp gb 2 ,y; Efug;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt ClO xU ,ilepiy MFk;.
1.10.4 Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftpjp

Kjd;ikj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftpjpia mtw;wpd; %yf;$w;Wj; jpwdpypUe;J Neubahf
Cfp j;Jf;nfhs;s KbAk;. cjhuzkhf xU %yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tpjpahdJ
me;jj; jhf;fpapd; Kjyhk; tupirahf mikAk;. P vDk; tpisT cUthFk; xU
jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf (NkYk; gy;NtW tpisTfs; Njhd;wyhk;)
A P
jhf;ftPjk; = -[A] =k [A]

∆t
xU %yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; Kjyhk; tupirahf mike;jpUf;Fk;. Vnddpy; Fwpj;j
Neu ,ilNtisapy; jhf;fkile;j A %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifahdJ jhf;fkilah
ky; ,Uf;Fk;. A %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;iff;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhFk;. MfNt A gpupif
ailAk; tPjkhdJ mjDila %yu; nrwptpw;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhFk;.
xU ,U %yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f tpjpahdJ ,uz;lhk; tupirahf
mikAk;.
2A P
jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]2
my;yJ jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;
A+B P
jhf;ftPjk; =k [A][B]
xU ,U %yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftupir ,uz;lhf mikAk;.
Vnddpy; ,jd; jhf;ftPjkhdJ jhf;fpfs; xd;iwnahd;W re;jpf;Fk; tPjj;jpw;F Neu;tpfpj
rkdhf ,Uf;Fk;. mjhtJ mJ mtw;wpd; nrwpTfspw;F Neu;tpfpj rkdhFk;. MfNt>
ehq;fs; mij xU xU gbj;jhf;fkhff; fUjpdhy; mk; %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f
tpjpia vOj KbAk;.
Mdhy; ,jd; kWjiy vg;NghJk; cz;ikad;W vd;gij ftdj;jpw; nfhs;f. cjhuz-
khf vy;yh ,uz;lhk; tupir jhf;ftpjpfSk; mj;jhf;fk; xU ,U %yf;$w;Wj;
jhf;fk; vd;gij ntspf;fhl;ltpy;iy. Nkyk; me;j jhf;fk; / Fwpj;jgb cz;ikapNyNa
Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; jhdh vd;gij cWjpg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf> gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.
H2(g) + I2(l) 2HI(g)
,J xU vspa jhf;fkhfj; Njhd;wpdhYk; ,J xU Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; my;y. ,J kpfTk;
rpf;fyhd jhf;fg;nghwpKiwiaf; nfhz;lJ. MfNt ,j;jhf;fjpd; jhf;ftpjpia ntWkNd
jhf;fj;ij kl;Lk; nfhz;L vOjKbahJ.
54
xU nghJthd Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.

aA + bB cC + dD
,jd; jhf;f tpjp gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]a [B]b
xU Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd;> Fwpj;j xU jhf;fp rhu;ghd tupirahdJ mjd; gPrkhdf;
Fzfj;jpw;F jpl;lkhfr; rkdhdJ. MfNt> Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpy; jh-
f;fp A rhu;ghd tupir a vdTk; jhf;fp B rhu;ghd tupir b vdTk; ,j;jhf;fj;jpDila
xl;Lnkhj;j tupir (a+b) vdTk; $wyhk;.
jhf;ftupirf;Fk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwDf;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrj;ij tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tJ
Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.
jhf;ftupir vd;gJ xU mDgtf; fzpakhFk;. mJ gupNrhjid uPjpahd jhf;f tpjpapyp
Ue;J ngwg;gLk;.
%yf;$w;Wj; jpwd; vd;gJ nghwpKiwapy; jdpg;gbahf Kd;nkhopag;gl;l xU Kjd;ik
jhf;fk; rhu;e;jJ.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz rpy cjhuzq;fs; RUf;fkhfj; jUfpwJ.
ml;ltiz 1.5 %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd;fspd; RUf;fk;
%yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; Kjd;ik jhf;fk; jhf;ftpjp

xU %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]
,U %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A+A tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]2
,U %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A+B tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A] [B]
Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A+A+A tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]3
Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A+A+B tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A]2[B]
Kk; %yf;$w;Wj;jpwd; A+B+C tpisTfs; jhf;ftPjk; = k [A][B][C]
1.10.5 jhf;fnghwpKiwfSk; jhf;f tpjpAk;

Kd;du; Fwpg;gpl;lthW Cf;fpahfNth my;yJ ,il epiyahfNth njhopw;gLk; ,dq;fs;
jhf;ftpjpapy; ,lk;ngwhJ. MfNt mg;gbahd njhFjpapy; ,Ue;J jhf;ftp jpiag; ngw;Wf;
nfhs;tJ gw;wp tpsq;fp itj;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhdjhFk;. toikahf xU jhf;fg; nghwp-
Kiwapy; rpy gbfs; kpf NtfkhfTk; rpy gbfs; kpf nkJthfTk; ,lk;ngWk;. Mdhy;
me;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;ftPjk; mg;nghwpKiwapy; cs;s kpf nkJthd
gbahy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk;. xU jhf;fj;jpd; kpf nkJthd gbNa jhf;ftPjj;ij epu;zapf;
Fk;gb vd miof;fg;gLk; (RDS). MfNt gupNrhjidfspy; jhf;ftPjk; msf;fg;gLk;
NghJ> ntt;NtW gbfspy; jhf;ftPjk; msf;fg;gLk;NghJ> ntt;NtW gbfspy; jhf;ftPjj;
jpy; rpy tpj;jpahrq;fs; ,Ug;gpDk; jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gbapd; jhf;ftPjNk msf;fg;gL
fpd;wJ.
gpd;tUk; cjhuzj;ijf; fUJf. ,jpy; jhf;fk; ,uz;L gbfspy; ,lk;ngWfpd;wJ.
Kjypy; jhf;fp A MdJ B Mf khw;wkilfpd;wJ. gpd;du; gbapy; mJ jhf;fpahfj; njhopw;
gl;L Njitahd tpisT P Mf khw;wkilfpwJ.
k1
A B
55
k2
B P K1, K2 vd;gd nghUj;jkhd gbf;fhd jhf;f tPj khwpyp
k2 >> k1 vdf; nfhs;f. mg;gbnahU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; B %yf;$W xd;W Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;
lhy;. mJ cldbahf gpupifaile;J P Mf khWfpwJ. mjhtJ ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; Ntfkh-
dJ KjyhtJ gbapy; kl;LNk jq;fpapUg;gjhy; mg;gbNa jhf;ftPj epu;za gbahFk;.
,d;ndhU cjhuzj;ijf; fUjpdhy;>
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
vDk; jhf;fk; gpd;tUk; nghwpKiwapD}lhf ,lk;ngWfpd;wJ.
k1
NO2(g) + NO2(g) NO3(g) + NO(g) : nkJthdJ (jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gb)
k2
NO3(g) + CO(g) NO2(g) + CO2(g) : tpiuthdJ
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; KjyhtJ gbNa jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gb MFk;. MfNt ,j;jhf;fj;jpd;
jhf;f NtfkhdJ> jhf;ftPjkhwpyp K1 ,y; kl;LNk jq;fpapUf;Fk; vdyhk;. ,Nj mDgt
jhf;ftpjpiaj; jPu;khdpf;Fk;. gupNrhjidfspd; %yKk; cWjpg;gLj;j KbAk;. ,j;jhf;fj;-
jpd; mDgt jhf;f tpjpahdJ.
jhf;ftPjk; =k [NO2 ]2
MfNt ,j;jhf;fk; NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2 (g) MdJ NO2 (g) rhu;ghf ,uz;lhk;
tupirahfTk; CO(g) njhlu;ghf g+r;rpa tupirahfTk; mikAk;.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l gbKiwapy; NO3(g) MdJ xU jhf;f ,ilepiyahfNt njhopw;gL
fpd;wJ. ,J jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ Njhd;wp jhf;fj;jpNyNa gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. xU
jhf;fj;jpd; xl;Lnkhj;jr; rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkd;ghl;by; jhf;f ,ilepiy ,lk;ngwh
tpl;lhYk; mj;jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F mit mtrpakhdit jhf;f ,ilepiyfs;
jhf;fpfisNah tpisTfisNah tpl cWjp Fiwe;jit.
NkNy $wg;gl;l ,uz;L Kjd;ikg; gbfspd; jhf;f tpjpahdJ.
jhf;ftPjk;1 =k1 [NO2 ]2
jhf;ftPjk;2 =k2 [NO3 ][CO]
,e;jg; nghwpKiw njhlu;ghff; ftdpf;f Ntz;ba %d;W Kf;fpa tplaq;fshtd.
(i) K1= K Mf ,Ue;jhy; jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gbapd; jhf;ftpjpahdJ (gb 1) mtjhdpf;fg;gl;l
jhf;ftpjpf;F xj;jjhf mikAk;.
(ii) Vnddpy; Kjyhk; gb nkJthdJ vd;gjhy; (NO3) msT kpfTk; FiwthdJ.
MfNt NO3 MdJ Njhd;wpdhy; mJ kpf Ntfkhd ,uz;lhk; gbahy; kpf tpiuthf
Efug;gLk;. MfNt Kjyhk; gbapd; Ntfj;ijg; nghWj;Nj xl;Lnkhj;j jhf;fKk;
,lk;ngWk;.
(iii) CO jhf;ftpjpapy; Njhd;wtpy;iy (jhf;f tupir = O) Vnddpy; jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gb
apd; gpd;dNu mJ jhf;fg; nghwpKiwapy; gq;F nfhs;fpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; :
iejurdPnuhl;irl;Lf;Fk; GNshupDf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.
2NO2(g) + F2(g) 2NO2F(g)
56
gupNrhjidapd; gb jhf;ftpjpahdJ NO2 , F2 rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupirahFk;.

jhf;ftPjk; = k [NO2(g)] [F2(g)]
Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l nghwpKiwahdJ>
gb 1: NO2(g) + F2(g) NO2F(g) + F(g) : nkJthd (jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gb)
gb 2: NO2(g) + F(g) NO2F(g) : tpiuthdJ
,q;F RahjPdkhd GNshupd; mZf;fs; jhf;f ,ilepiyahfj; Njhd;Wtijf; ftdj;jpw;
nfhs;f.
,j;jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiwAk; mj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftpjp vt;thW tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ
vd;gijf; fUJf. ,U Kjd;ikg; gbfspd; Nru;f;ifia mj;jhf;fj;jpd; g+uz rkg;gL
j;jpa rkd;ghL MFk;.
gb 1 : NO2(g) + F2(g) NO2F(g) + F(g)
gb 2 : NO2(g) + F(g) NO2F(g)
KOj;jhf;fk;: 2NO2(g) + F2(g) 2NO2F(g)
,q;F ,U gbfSNk ,U %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fq;fs;
jhf;ftPjk; 1 = k1 [NO2(g)] [F2(g)]
jhf;ftPjk; 2 = k2 [NO2(g)] [F(g)]
,q;F gb1 MdJ jhf;f epu;zag;gbahf ,Ug;gJld; K1 = K vd;gjhYk; ,J xl;Lnkhj;jj;
jhf;ftpjpf;Fr; rkkha; ,Uf;fpwJ. ,g;nghwpKiwapy; NO2 %yf;$w;wpd; ,uz;lhtJ
%yf;$W jhf;f epu;zag;gbf;Fg; gpd;dNu jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLfpwJ. mjdhy; mJ jhf;f
tpjpapy; ,lk;ngwtpy;iy.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l cjhuzq;fspd;gb jhf;fkhdJ gy;NtW gbfspD}L ,lk;ngw;whYk; jhf;f

tpjpahdJ jhf;ftPj epu;zag;gb (kpf nkJthdgb) apNyNa jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
2-bromo-2-methylpropane ,w;Fk; Ijnuhl;irl; (OH-) mad;fSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;ijf;
fUJf.
(CH3 )3 C-Br + OH- → (CH3 )3 COH+ Br -
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd;gb GNuhkpd; mZthdJ OH $l;lj;jpdhy; gpujpaplg;gLfpd;wJ.
KjyhtJ gbapy;> xU %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fj;jpy; C - Br gpizg;ghdJ cilf;fg;gl;L
mad;fs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
(CH3 )3 CBr→ (CH3 )3 C+ + Br- : nkJthdJ
57
fhgd; GNuhkpd; gpizg;ghdJ rw;W typik tha;e;jJ vd;gjhy; ,J kpf nkJthd

khw;wkhFk;. Mdhy; jhf;ff; fyitapy; Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fspd; nrwpT mjpfkhf
,Ue;jhy; mit tpiuthf Neu; mad;fSld; ,iztjdhy; mj;jhf;fg;gbKiw kpfTk;
NtfkhdJ. ,q;F kpf Ntfkhd ,U %yf;$w;Wj;jhf;fk; %yk;> xl;rprd; mZtpd; jdpr;
Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fisg; gad;gLj;jpf; fhgdpw;Fk; xl;rprdpw;Fk; ,ilNa xU Gjpa gq;fPl;L
tYg; gpizg;G cUthf;fg;gLk;.
(CH3 )3 C++ OH- → (CH3 )3 C - OH : tpiuthdJ
,j;jhf;fkhdJ ,U gbfspy; elf;fpwJ vd;gijAk; mit gpizg;Gf;fs; ciljy;>
cUthjy; vd;gtw;Wld; njhlu;Ggl;Ls;sijAk; mg;gbKiwfs; ntt;NtW jhf;f
Ntfj;ij nfhz;Ls;sJ. (xd;W NtfkhdJ kw;iwaJ nkJthdJ) vd;gijAk; ,g;
nghwpKiw vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fj;jpw;fhd mDgt jhf;ftpjpahdJ gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
jhf;ftPjk; = k[(CH3 )3 C-Br]
MfNt jhf;fk; (CH3)3CBr rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupirahfTk; OH- mad;fs; rhu;ghf g+r;rpa
tupirahfTk; mikAk;. Mjyhy; OH- mad;fspd; nrwpT jhf;f tPjj;ijg; ghjpf;fhJ.
OH- mad;fs; ,j;jhf;fj;jpd; nkJthd gbapy; gq;Fgw;wp ,Ue;jhy; mtw;wpd; nrwpit
mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ jhf;fk; Ntfkile;J ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; mit Ntfkhd gbapy;
,lk;ngWtjhy; mtw;wpd; nrwpT vt;tpjkhd jhf;fj;ijAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ.
OH- mad;fspd; nrwpT mjpfupf;fg;gLk;NghJ Ntfkhd gbapd; jhf;ftPjk; ,d;Dk;
mjpfupf;Fk;. Mdhy; ,J KOj;jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; Fwpg;gpl;lj;jf;fsT khw;wj;ij
Vw;gLj;jhJ Vnddpy; mJ kpf nkJthd gbapNyNa ngupJk; jq;fpapUf;fpwJ.
cjhuzk; : nghUj;jkhd nghwpKiwia Cfpj;jy; A, B vd;gtw;Wf;fpilapyhd ,U
%yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fk; xd;wpd; jhf;ftupirahdJ A rhu;ghfTk; B rhu;ghfTk;
Kjyhk; tupir vd gupNrhjid uPjpahf mwpag;gLfpwJ.
MfNt jhf;ftPjf; Nfhit>
jhf;ftPjk; = k [A][B]
gpd;tUk; ,U nghwpKiwfisf; fUJf
nghwpKiw 1
A → C+D ; nkJthdJ
B + C →E ; tpiuthdJ
nghwpKiw 2
A + B → D + E ; nkJthdJ
,J re;ju;g;gj;jpy; jhf;fkhdJ A, B rhu;ghf Kjyhk; tupirf;FupaJ. MfNt A, B
Mfpa ,U%yf;$WfSk; nkJthd gbapy; gq;Fgw;wNtz;Lk;. Mifahy; nghwpKiw 2
rhj;jpakhf mikAk;.
nghwpKiw 1 jtwhdJ. ,q;F A %yf;$W kl;LNk nkJthd gbapy; gq;Fgw;WfpwJ.
B ,jpy; gq;Fngwtpy;iy. MfNt jhf;ftPjr; rkd;ghL
jhf;ftPjk; = k[A]
58
1.10.6 njhlu;r;rpahd (Kjd;ik) jhf;fq;fs;

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fgbfs; / nghwpKiwfspd;gb ,ilepiy xd;wpD}lhfr; nry;Yk;
jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUkhW Fwpg;gplyhk;.
k1 k2
A→ I→P

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fk; njhlu;r;rpahd Xu; %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. Vnddpy;
xU jhf;fp xt;nthU gbKiwfspYk; <LgLtJld; Kjyhk; gbNa jhf;f epu;zagbahFk;.
mg;gbnahU nrad;Kiwf;F>
(i) A ,d; gpupifailjypd; %yk; A ,d; nrwpT FiwtJld; mJ kPs epiwT
nra;ag;glkhl;lhJ. MfNt jhf;ftPjr; rkd;ghL
tPjk; =k1 [A]
(ii) ,ilepiy I MdJ A apypUe;J k1 [A] vDk; jhf;ftPjj;jpy; cUthfpd;wJ. NkYk;
k2 [A] vDk; tPjj;jpy; P Mfr; rpijtilfpwJ. ,J kpf Ntfkhf ,lk;ngWfpwJ.
(iii) tpisT P MdJ D ,ypUe;J K2 [I] vDk; Ntfkhd jhf;f tPjj;jpy; cUthfpwJ
NkYk; ,J FiwtilahJ.
MfNt ,jpypUe;J gpd;tUtdtw;iwf; Fwpj;J fhl;lKbAk;
(i) Neuj;Jld; jhf;fp A d; nrwpT FiwtilfpwJ
(ii) ,ilepiy I ,d; nrwpT xU cau; ngWkhdj;jpw;F mjpfupj;Jg; gpd;du; rpWNeu
,ilntspapy; g+r;rpakhFk;.
(iii) tpisT P ,d; nrwpT g+r;rpaj;jpypUe;J mjpfupj;J xU Fwpj;j ngWkhdj;ij
milAk;. mg;ngWkhdk; jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhd Fzfj;jpy; jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
,it gpd;tUk; glk; (cU 1.25) %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;glyhk;.
rhu;Gr; nrwpT
Neuk; V
k1 k2
cU 1.25 A→ I→P vDk; njhlu; jhf;fj;jpy; I vDk; ,ilepiy cUthfp mJ mLj;j gbapy;
jhf;fkiltjhy; mjd; nrwpT Neuj;Jld; g+r;rpakhfpd;wJ.
njhlu; jhf;fj;jpy; A, I, P vd;gtw;wpd; nrwpT

,jid ehk; gpd;tUkhW NtW tifapy; Nehf;FNthk;
k1
gb 1: A→ I I
k2
gb 2: A→ I P
k
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fk; : A→ P
,ypUe;J A, I, P vd;gtw;wpd; nrwpTfs; Neuj;Jld; khw;wkilfpwJ vd;gij Cfpf;fyhk;.
59
jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLk; ,dq;fspd; nrwpTfspd; khw;wj;ij tpsq;ff; nfhs;tjw;F xt;nthU

gbapdJk; rhu;G jhf;ftPjj;ijf; fUj;jpw;nfhs;tJ Kf;fpakhdJ. ve;jnthU re;ju;g;gj;
jpYk; jhf;fk; eilngWk;NghJ A,d; nrwpT FiwtiltJld; tpist P ,d; nrwpT
mjpfupf;Fk;. Mdhy; ,ilepiy I ,d; nrwpT vd;dthf ,Uf;Fk;. ,J xU gbapy;
cUthfp mLj;jgbapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.MfNt ,jd; nrwpT jhf;fk; njhlq;Fk;
NghJk; KbAk;NghJk; g+r;rpakhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. Mdhy; mjw;fpilNa jhf;fk; eil
ngWk;NghJ mg;ngWkhdk; g+r;rpakhf ,Uf;fKbahJ. ,ij nrwpT - Neu tiugpy;
mtjhdpf;fMbAk;. cU 1.26 ,tw;wpd; nrwpT - Neu tiuig %d;W re;ju;g;gq;fspy;
fhl;LfpwJ.
rhu;Gr; nrwpT
rhu;Gr; nrwpT
rhu;Gr; nrwpT
Neuk; V Neuk; V Neuk; V
cU 1.26 (a) gb 2I tpl gb 1 tpiuthdJ (b) gb 1 I tpl gb 2 rpwpJ tpiuthdJ (c) gb
1 I tpl gb 2 kpf tpiuthdJ
(a) ,y; Kjw;gbahdJ ,uz;lhk; gbia tpl NtfkhdJ Muk;gj;jpy; a→I
cUthFk;NghJ> I Njhd;Wk; tPjkhdJ gb2 ,y; I Efug;gLk; tPjj;jpYk; cau;T
MFk;. MfNt I ,d; nrwpT Neuj;Jld; mjpfupf;Fk; gpd;du; A FiwtjhYk; I
,d; nrwpT mjpfupg;gjhYk; I Njhd;Wk; tPjk; FiwtNjhL> mJ Efug;gLk; tPjk;
mjpfupf;Fk; ,e;Neuj;jpy; I apd; nrwpT Fiwa Muk;gpf;Fk;. ,Wjpapy; A,I apd;
nrwpTfs; jhf;fk; fpl;lj;jl;l epiwTw> fpl;lj;jl;lg; g+r;rpaj;jpw;Ff; FiwAk;
(b) ,y; gb 2 MdJ gb 1I tplr; rpwpJ NtfkhdJ ,q;F I MdJ tpiuthf Efug;gLt
NjhL ,jd; nrwpT (a) ,y; cs;sJNghd;W mjpfkhff; fl;bnaOg;g KbahJ.
(c) ,y; gb2 MdJ gb1 I tpl kpfTk; NtfkhdJ ,q;F I MdJ fpl;lj;jl;l
Njhd;wpa clNdNa Efug;gLfpwJ. I ,d; nrwpthdJ fUj;jf;f kl;lk; xd;wpw;F vg;Ngh
Jk; cauhJ. mj;Jld; gupNrhjid apy; mtjhdpf;fj;jf;f mstpw;F
mjd; nrwpT xUNghJk; ,uhJ.
C Nghd;w re;ju;g;gk; xd;wpy;> ,ilepiy Njhd;wpajh ,y;iyah vd;gJ fl;lhakhfj;
njupa Ntz;bajhFk;. ,ilepiyahdJ Neubahff; fl;lhakhfj; njupa Ntz;ba-
jhFk;. ,ilepiyahdJ Neubahf mtjhdpf;fg;glhtpl;lhYk; mJ cz;L vd;gij
ep&gpf;f Nkyjpf gupNrhjidfis xOq;FgLj;j KbAk;. xg;Gf;nfhs;sg;gl;l ,ilepiy
Ald; jhf;ff;$ba Nrhjidg; nghUisr; Nru;j;J vjpu;ghu;f;Fk; tpisT tUfpwjh vd
mtjhdpg;gJ ,k;Nkyjpfg; gupNrhjidfspy; xd;whFk;. mjdhy; ,ilepiy cz;L
vd;gjw;fhf Mjhuj;ij vq;fshy; ngwKbAk;.
1.10.7 nghwpKiw xd;wpy; Kd; rkepiy ,Ug;gjw;fhd re;ju;g;gq;fs;

cjhuzk; 1 : jhf;fk; A + B → P ,d; nghwpKiwia
A ⇌ I :tpiuthdJ
I + B → P :nkJthdJ
,q;F 2k; gb nkJthd gbahf ,Ug;gNjhL jhf;fpfs; A, B Ald; ,ilepiy I
MdJ rkepiy milfpwJ. MfNt ,g;nghwpKiwahdJ jhf;fpfSk; ,ilepiyAk;
rkepiyapypUf;Fk; xU Kd; - rkepiyiaf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
60
,ilepiy Njhd;Wk; tPjKk; mJ kPsj; jhf;fpfshfr; rpijAk; tPjKk; tpisTfs;

Njhd;Wk; tPjj;jpYk; kpf tpiuthf ,Uf;Fk; re;ju;g;gq;fspNyNa Kd; - rkepiy
Njhd;Wk;.
jhf;fj;jpd; tPjkhdJ nkJthd gbahy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk; MfNt nkJthd gbapd;
jhf;fr; rkd;ghL
jhf;ftPjk; = k [B] [I] vd;gjhy; jug;gLk;tPj tpjpapy; ,ilepiy I Njhd;WtNjhL> I
MdJ A Ald; rkepiyapy; ,Ug;gJk; njupe;j tplakhFk;. MfNt Kjw;gbapd; rk
epiy khwpyp Kc.
[I]
Kc =
[A] MFk;
[I] = Kc [A]
MfNt jhf;ftPjk; = k [B] Kc [A]
= k Kc [A][B] MFk;.
,J tPjkhwpyp kw;Wk; rkepiy khwpypfSf;fpilapyhd njhlu;gpd; %yk; ,d;Dk; rpwpJ
khw;wpaikf;fg;glyhk;. kf, kr vd;gd Kw;jhf;fk;> gpw;jhf;fk; vd;gtw;wpd; tPjkhwpypfs;
vdpd;
kf
Kc =

kr
vd vOjg;glyhk;
,Wjpahf>
jhf;ftPjk; = k kf
kr [A][B]
jhf;ftPjk; = k' [A][B]
tPj tpjpahdJ KJd;Kiwahd ,U %yf;$w;wj;jhf;fk; xd;wpdij xj;jpUg;gij ,J
fhl;LfpwJ.
,d;DnkhU cjhuzj;ij Nehf;FNthk;
jhf;fk; A + B → P apd; nghwpKiwia
A+B (⇌) I : tpiuthdJ
I + A → P : nkJthdJ
______________
xl;L nkhj;jj; jhf;fk;: 2A +B → P
jhf;ftPjkhdJ nkJthd gbahy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk; nkJthd gbapd; jhf;fr; rkd;ghL>
jhf;ftPjk; = k [A] [I] vd;gjhy; jug;gLk;
tPj tpjpapy; ,ilepiy I Njhd;WtNjhL I MdJ B, A Ald; rkepiyapy; ,Ug;gjd;
fhuzkhf> Kjw;gbapd; rkepiy khwpyp Kc
Kc = [I]
61
([A][B])
/ [I] = Kc [A][B]
/ jhf;ftPjk; = kKc [A][A][B]
= k' [A]2 [B]
MfNt tPjtpjpahdJ Kk;%yf;$w;W Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpw;Ff; fl;Lg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzk; 2
H2(g) kw;Wk; I2(g) ,w;F ,ilapyhd thA mtj;ijj; jhf;fkhdJ NkNyAs;s jhf;f
tiffSf;F cjhuzkhFk;.
H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
,J %yf;$w;W maBid mZf;fshf khw;Wk; tpiuthd Kd; rkepiyj; jhf;fk;
xd;iw nfhz;Ls;sJ.
I2(g) → 2I(g)
gpd; ,e;j mZ maBd; %yf;$w;W IjurDld; jhf;fKw;W> nkJthd ,uz;lhk; gbapy;
HI I Njhw;Wtpf;fpwJ.
H2(g) + 2I (g) → 2HI(g)
jhf;f tPjkhdJ nkJthd gbapy; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk; nkJthd gbapd; jhf;fr; rkd;ghL>
jhf;ftPjk; = k [H2(g)] [I(g)]2
tPj tpjpapy; ,ilepiy I(g) ,d; nrwpT Njhd;WtNjhL I (g) MdJ I2(g) cld;
rkepiy ,Ug;gjdhy; Kjw;gbapd; KC
KC = [I(g)]2 / [I2 (g)]
[I(g)]2 = Kc [I2 (g)]
jhf;ftPjk; = kKc [I2 (g)][H2 (g)]
jhf;ftPjk; = k' [I2 (g)][H2 (g)]
MfNt jhf;f tPjkhdJ H2(g) , I2(g) vd;w ,uz;bd; nrwptpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ.
cjhuzk; 3
,t; cjhuzj;jpy; Kjw;gbahdJ tpiuthd kPSk; jhf;fkhFk;. fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s
iejurd; Xnuhl;irl;bd; xl;rpNaw;wj;ijf; fUJf.
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
mtjhdpf;fg;gl;l tPjtpjp
jhf;ftPjk; = k [NO(g)]2 [O2(g)]
jhf;fkhdJ gpd;tUk; nghwpKiwiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
gb 1 : NO(g) + O2(g) → NO3(g) : tpiuT
gb 2 : NO3(g) + NO(g) → 2NO2(g) : nkJthdJ> tPj epu;zag;gb
62
NkNyAs;s ,uz;L gbfspdJk; $l;Lj;njhif xl;L nkhj;j jhf;fk; 2NO(g) + O2(g) →

2NO2(g) I jUtNjhL> ,uz;L gbfSk; ,U %yf;$w;Wj; jhf;fq;fshf cs;sd.
nkJthd gbapd; tPjtpjp
tPjk; = k [NO3(g)] [NO(g)]
Kjw;gbapd; rkepiy khwpyp

[NO3 (g)]
Kc = [NO(g)] [O2 (g)]
[NO3 (g)]= Kc [NO(g)][O2 (g)]
/ jhf;ftPjk; = kKc [NO(g)] [O2 (g)] [NO(g)]
= k1 [NO(g)]2 [O2 (g)]
ngwg;gl;l ,e;j tPjtpjpahdJ> Kjy; jug;gl;l mDgt tPj tpjpAld; khwpypahf cs;sJ.
MfNt jhf;fj;jpd; nghwpKiwahdJ rupahFk;.
1.11 jhf;fj;jpd; rf;jp cs;tupg;glk;

Kjypy; xU gbapD}lhf> ,lk;ngWk; vspa jhf;fnkhd;iwf; fUJf A → tpisT
xU ,urhadj;jhf;fk; xd;W ,lk;ngwj; Njitahd fhuzpfs; gw;wp Kd;du; ehk; ghu;-
j;jJ Nghy ,U Jzpf;iffs; xd;iwnahd;W Nehf;fp tUk;NghJ> mtw;wpd; ,yj;jpud;
$l;lj; Jf;F ,ilapyhd js;SifahdJ njhlu;e;J mjpfupj;Jf; nfhz;Nl ,Uf;Fk;.
Mifahy; ,tw;wpd; ,af;fr; rf;jpapy; rpwpJ gFjpahdJ epiyg;gz;G rf;jpahf khw;wg;
gl;L mtw;wpd; Ntfk; FiwtilfpwJ. mit Nkhjypy; <LgLk;NghJ> Vtw;rf;jpahdJ
Nkhjypdhy; Vw;gLk; rf;jpia tpl mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy;> mit tpyfpr; nry;fpd;wJ.
kf;];nty; - Nghy;l;];kd; guk;gypd;gb> NghjpasT Ntfj;Jld; mirAk; Jzpf;
iffspy; Nkhjypd; xU gFjp Nkhjypy;> Jzpf;iffspd; ,af;fr; rf;jpahdJ
mtw;iwg; Nghjpa tpirAld; xd;whfj; js;Sfpd;wJ. ,jd; %yk; ,j;Jzpf;ifffs;
js;Sif kw;Wk; Vtw;rf;jpia kPwp ,izfpd;wd. ,g;gbg;gl;l Nkhjy;fspy; jzpf; iffs;
rhu;epiyahdJ rpwg;ghf xOq;fikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. me;epiyapy;> xU Jzpf; ifapy;
cs;s fUthdJ kw;wj; Jzpf;ifapy; cs;s ,yj;jpud;fisf; ftUfpd;wJ. mZ
xOf;Ffs; jkf;Fs; xd;Wld; xd;W ,izfpd;wd. ,yj;jpud; jpzpthdJ ,lk;khWfp
d;wJ. rpy gpizg;Gf;fs; ePsk; FWfp cWjpahfpd;wd. ,g;gbg;gl;l rPuhd khw;wj;jpy;>
rpy rkaj;jpy; jhf;fpAkw;w> tpisTkw;wjhd Xu; gFjpahd gpizg;Gf;fisf; nfhz;l
$l;lk; cUthfpwJ. ,J kpfTk; cWjpaw;wjhFk;. ,J Vtw;gl;l ,ilepiyr; rpf;fy;
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J mjp$ba epiyg;gz;G rf;jp cUthFk;. epiyapy; kl;LNk
fhzg;gLk; vdNt jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw;rtf;jpahdJ Vtg;gl;l ,ilepiyr;rpf;fiy mila
cjTk;. Vtg;gl;l ,ilepiyr;rpf;fiy miltjhy; jhf;fkhdJ tpisTfis cUth-
f;Fk; vd cWjpahf $wKbahJ. Vnddpy; Vtw;rf;jpahdJ ,U jpirfspYk; khw;wk-
ilaf; $bajhFk;. ,e;j epiyapy; cUthFk;. Mdhy; Vw;fdNt cs;s gpizg;Gf;fs;
kPz;Lk; cWjpahfpdhy;> Vtg;gl;l ,ilepiyr; rpf;fy; jhf;fpia Nehf;fp khw;wkilAk;.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l khw;wj;ij tptupf;fr; rf;jp tiuglk; rpwe;j topahFk;. vt;thW
epiyg;gz;Gr; rf;jpahdJ jhf;fk; ,lk;ngWk;NghJ khw;wkilfpd;wJ vd;gij ,jd;%yk;
mtjhdp f;fyhk;. tiuglkhdJ jhf;fpffs;> tpisTfs;> Vtw;gl;l ,ilepiyr;
rpf;fy; Nghd;wtw;wpd; rhu;rf;jp kl;lq;fisAk;> Kd;Ndhf;fpa> gpd;Ndhf;fpa Vtw;rf;jp-
fisAk;> jhf;fj;jpd; ntg;g cs;Siwr; rf;jpiaAk; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ. Xu; mfntg;gj;jh-
f;fj;jpNyh my;yJ Gwntg;gj;jhf;fj;jpNyh ,lk;ngWk; rf;jp khw;wj;ij glk; 1.27 ,y;
63
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW ,yFthff; fhl;lyhk;.
jhf;f Ms;$W jhf;f Ms;$W
cU 1.27 xU Vtw;gl;l ,ilepiyr; rpf;fypD}lhf ,lk;ngWk; (a) Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk; kw;Wk;

(b) mfntg;gj;jhf;fk; vd;gtw;wpd; rf;jp tiuglk;
cU 1.27 (a) fhl;LtJ ahnjdpy; KOjhf;fKk; Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. tpisTfs; jhf;fpfis

tplf; Fiwthd rf;jpiaf; nfhz;Ls;sd. vdNt jhf;fk; ,lk;ngWk; NghJ rf;jpahdJ
ntsptplg;gLfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; Jzpf;iffs; jkf;Fs; NghjpasT Vtw;rf;jpia
itj;jpUe;jhy; kl;LNk jhf;fpia Vtw;rf;jp jil iaj; jhz;b nfhz;L nry;y KbAk;
vd;gijAk; fhl;LfpwJ.
cU 1.27 (b) MdJ Xu; mfntg;gj;jhf;fj;ijf; fhl;LfpwJ cjhuzkhfg; gpd;tUk; ,U
jhf;fq;fSk; xU gbapD}lhf xU Vtw;rf;jpfs+lhf ,lk;ngWfpd;wd.
NO(g) + O3(g) → NO2(g) + O2(g) Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk;
2NOCl(g) → 2NO(g) + Cl2(g) mfntg;gj;jhf;fk;
mtw;wpd; Vtw;rpf;fy; kw;Wk; epiyg;gz;Gr; rf;jp vd;gd glk; 1.28 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cU 1.28 thA mtj;ijapy; ,lk;ngWk; 2 jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rf;jp tiuglk; (a) Gwntg;gj;

jhf;fk; (b) mfntg;gj;jhf;fk; ,uz;L re;ju;g;gq;fspYk;> Vtw;rpf;fypd; fl;likg;ghdJ>
tpistpy; ,izaNtz;ba mZf;fspd; rhu;epiyia itj;Nj Cfpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
kw;WnkhU cjhuzj;ijf; ftdpg;Nghk;. gpd;tUk; jhf;fkhdJ GNuhkh vNjdpy; cs;s

GNuhkpd; mZthdJ OH $l;lj;jhy; ,lk;ngau;f;fg;gl;L vjNdhy; cUthtijf; fhl;L
fpwJ.
CH3Br(aq) + OH- (aq) → CH3OH(aq) + Br-(aq)
NkYs;s jhf;fj;jpy; OH- ,y; cs;s kiw Vw;wj;ijf; nfhz;l xl;rprdpy; cs;sjdp
,yj;jpud; NrhbahdJ GNuhkpDld; ,ize;Js;s fhgud Nehf;fp <u;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
GNuhkpdhdJ fhgidtpl ,yj;jpud; ehl;lj;jd;ik mjpfk; vd;gjhy; C - Br gpizg;gp
Ys;s ,yj;jpud; NrhbahdJ GNuhkpid Nehf;fpf; fhzg;gLk;.
64
,Nyrhd Neu;j;jd;ik cila fhgid Nehf;fp Ijnuhl;irl;L mad; CLUTtjhy;

xl;rprDf;Fk; fhgDf;Fk; ,ilNa xU GJg;gpizg;G cUthf Muk;gpf;fpd;wJ. mNj
rkak;> GNuhkpid Nehf;fp ,yj;jpud; js;sg;gLtjhy;> fhgd; GNuhkpd; gpizg;ghdJ
cila Muk;gpf;fpd;wJ.
rpy rkaj;jpy; ,r;nrad;KiwahdJ miuthrp Kbe;jjhff; fhzg;gLk;. fhgd; mZthdJ
xl;rprdhy; miug;gq;F ,ize;jjhfTk; GNuhkpdhy; miug;gq;F ,ize;jjjhfTk;
NkYk; %d;W $l;lq;fs; fhgDld; ,ize;jjhfTk; fhzg;gLk;. mjd; gpd;du; ,r;
nrad;KiwahdJ KbtilAk; - gpizg;Gf;fs; miuthrp cile;j tz;zKk; miuthrp
cUthd tz;zKk; cs;s fl;likg;igNa ehk; Vtw;rpf;fy; vd;fpd;Nwhk;. mJ cr;rf;
fl;l epiyg;gz;Gr; rf;jpia nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Vtw;gl;l ,ilepiy rpf;fy; kpfTk; cWjpaw;wjhFk;. ,U jpirfspy; Vw;gLk; Xu;
rpwpa khw;wk; $l Kd;Ndhf;fp efu;e;J tpisit cUthf;fNth my;yJ gpd;Ndhf;fp
efu;e;J jhf;fpfis cUthf;fNth NeupLk; Vtw;rpf;fy; mjpcau; rf;jpia itj;jpUf;Fk;
vd;gNj mJ gw;wpa tpNrl fUj;J MFk;.
cU 1.29 CH3Br + OH- → CH3OH+ Br - vDk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rf;jp cUj; Njhw;wk;
cjhuzk; 1.15
O3(g) + O(g) → 2O2(g) vDk; jhf;fj;jpd; Kd;Ndhf;fpa Vtw;rf;jp 19KJ mol-1 kw;Wk;
∆H = -392KJ mol-1 MFk;. ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rf;jp tiuglj;ij tiutJld; gpw;jhf;f
Vtw;rf;jpiaf; fzpf;Ff.
tpil

cU 1.30 O3(g) + O(g) → 2O2(g) vDk; jhf;fj;jpd; rf;jp cUj;Njhw;wk;
gpd;Ndhf;fpa jhf;fj;jpd; Vtw;rf;jpiaf; fzpf;Fk; tpjk; glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. mj;Jld;
jhz;ly; epiyf;fhd fUJNfhs; fl;likg;Gk; fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
65
,ilepiyapD}lhf ,lk;ngWk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rf;jp tiuglk; (cUj;

Njhw;wk;)
Xu; ,ilepiyapD}lhf ,lk;ngWk; gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; ftdpf;fTk;
(CH3 )3 CBr + OH- → (CH3 )3 COH+ Br -
Kw;jhf;fj;jpy;> GNuhkpd; mZthdJ OH $l;lj;jpdhy; ,lk;ngau;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. NkNy
Fwpg;gp l;lthW jhf;fkhdJ O2 gbfspy; ,lk;ngWfpwJ.
,jpy; kpf Kf;fpakhd tpj;jpahrk; ahnjdpy;> NeNuw;wk; nfhz;l maidf; fyitapy;
mtjhdpf;f KbAk;. ,J kpfTk; cWjpaw;wJ. rpwpa Neuj;Jf;Nf fhzg;gLk;. kw;Wk; OH-
maDld; (my;yJ kPz;Lk; GNuhikl;L maDld;) jhf;fkilAk;
jhf;fpfSf;fpilapyhd ntg;gTs;Siw jiliatpl Kjw;gbapd; tpisT ,ilepiyf;
fhd ntg;gTs;Siwj; jil FiwthFk;. mj;Jld; ,jpypUe;J ehk; tpisT cUth
tjw;F kpFjpahd rf;jp fhzg;gLfpwJ. jhf;fj;jpw;Fg; gpd;Kfkhfr; nry;tjw;F kpfTk;
mjpf rf;jp Njitg;gLk;. Ts1, Ts2 vd;gd jhf;fpfSf;Fk; tpisTfSf;Fk; mtw;wpd;
,ilepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd khw;W epiy MFk;. xt;nthU xOq;fpYk; mZf;fs;
cau;rf;jpf;Fupa epiyf;Fr; nry;Yk; Xu; epiy fhzg;gLk;.
cU 1.31 ,uz;L jhf;fq;fspw;fhd rf;jp cs;tupg;glk; fhl;LfpwJ. (a) jhf;fk; nkJthfj;

njhlq;Fk;gb> (b) tpiuthd gbAld; jhf;fk; njhlq;Fk; ,U jhf;fq;fSk; mf
ntg;gkhdit xt;nthU jhf;fKk; xU rf;jp cr;rkhWepiygbiaf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
,ilepiyfs; jhf;FjpwDila cWjpaw;witahFk;. vdNt mtw;wpd; rf;jpahdJ
jhf;fp> tpisTfspd; rf;jpia tpl mjpfkhFk;. Ntfk; Fiwe;jgb (jhf;ftPj
epu;zag;gb) a ,y; gb 1, b ,y; gb 2 mjpfkhd Vtw;rf;jpiaf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
66
f.ngh.j.(c/j),urhadk;: myF 12 ,urhadr; rkepiy
2. ,urhadr;
nrwpT
rkepiy
rkepiy
Neuk;
cs;slf;fk; 2.2.10 xU nghJ maidf; nfhz;l ePu;f;

fiury;fs;
2.1 rkepiy vz;zf;fU
2.2.11 fdkhd epakpg;Gfs;
2.1.1 ngsjpfr; nrad;Kiwfspy; rkepiy
2.2.12 ,U> gy; %y mkpyq;fs; ,U> gy;mkpy
2.1.2 ,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfspy; rkepiy %yq;fs;
2.1.3 ,urhad rkepiy tpjp kw;Wk; rkepiy 2.2.13 mkpy - %yf; fhl;bfs;
khwpyp
2.3 jhq;fw; fiury;fs;
2.1.4 xU jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy tpjp>
2.4 fiujpwd; rkepiyfs;
rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhit
2.4.1 mad; kw;Wk; gq;fPl;Lr; Nru;itfspd;
2.1.5 jhf;fj;jpd; msT
fiury;fs;
2.1.6 ntt;NtW tbtpyhd rkepiy khwpypf;
2.4.2 fiujpwd; kw;Wk; (fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;
Nfhitfs;
jpw;fhd fzpg;Gf;fs;
2.1.7 thAj; njhFjpfspy; rkepiy khwpyp
2.4.3 fiujpwd; / fiujpwd; ngUf;ff;
2.1.8 gy;ypdr; rkepiy fzpj;jy;fs;
2.1.9 gy;gbj; jhf;fq;fspw;Fr; rkepiy 2.4.4 tPo;gbT Njhd;Wtij vjpu;T $wy;
khwpypf;fhd Nfhitfs;
2.4.5 fiujpwidg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
2.1.10 rkepiy khwpypapd; mbg;gilapy;
2.4.6 pH ,d; tpisT
jhf;fk; eilngWk; jpiria vjpu;T
2.4.7 gz;gwpgFg;gpy; (fw;wad;) fiujpwd;
$WjYk; fzpg;gPLfSk;
ngUf;fj;jpd; gpuNahfk;
2.1.11 rkepiyr; nrwpTfisf; fzf;fpLjy;
2.5 mtj;ijr; rkepiy
2.1.12 rkepiyiag; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
2.5.1 xU %ba nfhs;fyj;jpy; cs;s
2.2 ePu;f;fiury;fspy; mad; rkepiy
jputj;jpy; Mtpahjy;
2.2.1 mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; (mj;Jld;
2.5.2 rkepiy (epuk;gy;) MtpaKf;fj;jpid
cg;Gfs;)
msj;jy;
2.2.2 ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbfs;
2.5.3 ntg;gepiyAld; epuk;gy; MtpaKf;fj;
2.2.3 mkpyq;fs; %yq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; jpd; khWif
madhf;fk;
2.5.4 nfhjpepiy
2.2.4 ePupd; madhf;f khwpyp mjd; mad;
2.5.5 Mtpahjypy; ntg;gTs;Siw
ngUf;fk;
2.5.6 gjq;fghjYk; gbj;Jk;
2.2.5 pH msTj;jpl;lk;
2.5.7 mtj;ij tiuGfs;
2.2.6 nkd;dkpyq;fSk; mkpy madhf;f
2.6 Jtpj jputj;njhFjpnahd;wpd; jput -
($l;lg; gpupif) khwpyp
Mtpr; rkepiy
2.2.7 nkd;%yq;fs; mtw;wpd; madhf;f
2.6.1 ,yl;rpaf; fiury;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;
khwpypfSk;
2.6.2 fyf;Fk; jftw;w jput - jputj;
2.2.8 Ka, Kb vd;gtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd
njhFjpfs;
njhlu;G
2.7 gq;fPl;L guk;gw; Fzfk;
2.2.9 cg;Gfspd; ePu;g;gFg;G mtw;wpd;
fiury;fspd; pH
67
mwpKfk;
Kd;ida myFfspy;> ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; gw;wpa Kf;fpakhd tpdhf;fis ehk;
Muha;e;Njhk;. ahJ epfo;fpd;wJ> vt;tsT tpiuT> ve;jg; nghwpKiw %yk; mJ epfo;fpd;wJ?
'mJ vt;tsT J}uj;jpw;F epfo;fpd;wJ"? vd;gJ gw;wp mwpjy; kpfj; Njitahf cs;sJ.
rkd;gLj;jg;gl;l ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;bd; gPrkhdk;> jhf;fj;jpd; ,af;ftpay; vd;gd KiwNa
Kjy; ,uz;L tpdhf;fSf;Fk; cupa tpilfis tpsf;Ffpd;wd. ,t;tyfpy;> jhf;fpfspdJk;
tpisTfspdJk; nrwpTfs; NkYk; khw;wkilahj epiy> mjhtJ rkepiyia mila
Kd;G jhf;fk; Kw;Wg;ngWtij Nehf;fp vt;tsT J}uk; epfo;e;Js;sJ vd;Dk; tpdhtpw;F
tpil fhz;gij ehk; ghHf;fpd;Nwhk;. jhf;fpfspdJk; tpisTfspdJk; nrwpTfs; Neuj;Jld;
khwhJs;sNghJ ,e;epiy milag;gLfpd;wJ. ngsjPfr; nrad;KiwfSf;Fk; ,urhadr;
nrad;Kiwfspw;Fk; rkepiy epWtg;glyhk;. gupNrhjid epge;jidfs;> jhf;fpfspd;
jd;ik Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;Jj; jhf;fk; tpiuthf my;yJ nkJthff; fhzg;glyhk;.
%ba nfhs;fyj;jpYs;s jhf;fpfs; xU Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyapy; jhf;fKw;W tpisTfisj;
jUk;NghJ> jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT rpyNeuk; tiu Fiwe;J nry;Yk;> mNjNeuk; tpisTfspd;
nrwpT mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk; mjd; gpd;G jhf;fpfspNyh tpisTfspNyh nrwpTfspy; khw;wk;
Vw;glhJ. njhFjpapd; ,e;epiy ,af;fr; rkepiyahFk;> Kd;Kf gpd;Kf jhf;fq;fspd;
tPjq;fs; rkkhf tUk;. ,e;j ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; mKf;fk;> fiurypd; epwk;> xU
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; fiurypd; nrwpT Nghd;w ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa ,ay;Gfspy; khw;wk;
,y;yhjpUg;gJ ,dq;fhzg;gl;Ls;sJ. vdpDk;> mZ kl;lj;jpy;> mZf;fs;> mad;fs;>
%yf;$Wfs; jhf;fj;jpy; <LgLfpd;wd. xU njhFjp thAntdpy;> rkepiy epge;jidapy;
gjhHj;jq;fspd; msTfis> gFjp mKf;fq;fs; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;wd.
jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTfs; / mKf;fq;fs;> ntg;gepiy Nghd;w gupNrhjid epge;jidfSld;
rkepiyapy; jhf;fk; epfo;e;Js;s msT NtWgLk;. ngsjPf ,urhadr; nrad;KiwfSld;
rk;ge;jg;gl;l rpy Kf;fpakhd ePHf;fiury;fspy; mad;fs; rk;ge;jg;gLk; rkepiyapy;>
mjhtJ mad; rkepiy vd miof;fg;gLk; gFjpapy; ifahsg;gLk;. ,Wjpahf thAj;jputj;
njhFjpfspy; rkepiy fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;.
2.1 rkepiy vz;zf;fU

jhf;fpfs; Af;Fk; Bf;Fkpilapy; ,urhadj; jhf;fk; eilngw;W C, D Mfpa tpisTfs;
cz;lhfpd;wd> vdf; fUJf. jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;Fg; NghjpasT Neuk; tplg;gl;lgpd;G>
gFg;gha;T nra;jnghOJ C k;> D k; kl;Lk; ,Ug;gjhff; fhzg;gl;lJ. vdNt jhf;fk; Kw;W
ngw;Wtpl;lJ vd tpsq;fpnfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. vdNt jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
A+B → C+D ..............................(1)
,j;jhf;fj;jpy;> jhf;fk; eilngWk; ghj;jpuk; %bajhf ,Ug;gpDk; gpd;Kfj; jhf;fk;
eilngw;W kPsTk; jhf;fpfs; xUNghJk; cUthfhJ. xU jhf;fk; Kw;Wngw;W> xUNghJk;
gpd;Kfj;jpirapy; eilngwkhl;lhjhapd; mj;jhf;fk; kPshj;jhf;fk; vdg;gLk;. vt;thwhapDk;>
NghjpasT Neuk; jhf;fk; eilngwtpl;l gpd;dUk;> A, B apDld; C Ak; D Ak; fhzg;gbd;
mj;jhf;fk; xUNghJk; Kw;Wg;ngwkhl;lhJ vd;gjhFk;. mjhtJ Muk;gj;jpy; jhf;fk;
eilngw;W xU Fwpj;j fhy msT Neuk; tiu C Ak; D Ak; cUthFk;. mj;Jld; NkYk;
jhf;fk; Neuk; mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ C, D %yf; $Wfs; jpUk;gTk; A, B %yf;$Wfis
cUthf;f Muk;gpf;Fk;. ,t; Kiwapy; jhf;ff; fyit vg;NghJk; A, B, C, D Mfpatw;iw
ntg;gepiy> mKf;fk;> Cf;fp Nghd;w fhuzpfisg; gpuNahfpf;Fk;tiu fhytiuaiwapd;wpf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. xU jhf;fk;> Kw;jpirapNyh md;wp gpw;jpirapNyh Kw;Wg;ngw khl;lhjhapd;
mj;jhf;fq;fs; rkepiyj; jhf;fq;fs; (my;yJ kPSk; jhf;fq;fs;) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
mj;Jld; mj;njhFjp> rkepiyia mile;J tpl;lnjdf; $wg;gLk;. rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;
jhf;fpfisAk;> tpisTfisAk; nfhz;l fyit rkepiyf; fyit vdg;gLk;. mj;Jld;
mt;tifj; jhf;fq;fspd; rkd;ghL gpd;tUkhW Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
68
A+B ⇌ C+D ..............................(2)

Kd;> gpd; Mfpa ,UjpirfspYk; eilngWk; jhf;fq;fisf; Fwpg;gjw;F ehk; rkd;
nra;j rkd;ghl;bd; ,U mk;Gf;FwpfSs; ⇌ xd;W jhf;fpfspypUe;J tpisTfisr; Rl;bf;
fhl;Lfpd;wJ. kw;iwaJ tpisTfspypUe;J jhf;fpfisr; Rl;bf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. Kw;Wg;ngWk;
jhf;fk;> rkepiyia milAk; jhf;fk; Mfpa ,U epfo;TfSk; fPNo cs;s glk; 2.1 ,y;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
nrwpT
→
nrwpT
Kw;Wg;
ngw;W rkepiy
tpl;lJ
Neuk; Neuk;
cU 2.1 Neuj;Jld; jhf;fpfspdJk; tpisTfspdJk; nrwpT khw;wk; (a) kPshj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fk;
(b) rkepiyj; jhf;fq;fSf;Fk; jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;
xU kPSk; jhf;fj;jpd; Muk;gj;jpy;> Kjypy; jhf;fk; Kw;jpirapy; eilngw;W tpisTfis

cUthf;FfpwJ. tpisTfspd; nrwpT Neuj;Jld; mjpfupf;f mit jk;kpilNa jhf;fKw;W
kPsTk; jhf;fp %yf;$Wfis cUthf;f Muk;gpf;Fk;. xNu Ntfj;jpy; ,U vjpuhd
jhf;fq;fs; eilngw;W jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; ahtw;wpYk; nrwpT khwhjpUf;Fk;. kPSk;
jhf;fj;jpd; ,e;epiy ,urhadr; rkepiy vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. ,U jpirfspYkpUe;J
xU jhf;fj;jpd; cz;ikahd rkepiyiag; ngwf;$bajhf ,Uj;jy; ,urhadr; rkepiy>
,af;fr;nrad;Kiw vd;gij ep&g;gpf;fpd;wJ. ,t; jhf;fj;jpd; ,j;jd;ikia cU 2.2 d;
cjtpAld; tpsf;fyhk;. jhf;fpfspd; rkepiyr; nrwpTfs; mtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfspypUe;J
NtWgl;lit vd;gijf; ftdj;jpw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
Kw;jhf;fk;
jhf;ftPjk;
rkepiy
gpw;jhf;fk;
Neuk;
cU 2.2 nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; ,U jhf;f tPjq;fSk; rkkhf tUk;nghOJ

rkepiy Kw;Gw gpw;Gw jhf;ftPjq;fisr; rkkhf;Ftjd; %yk; milag;gLfpwJ.
mj;Jld; nrwpTfspy; NkYk; khw;wk; Vw;glhJ.
xU kPSk; jhf;fk; rkepiy milAk;NghJ jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; Mfpa xt;nthd;wpdJk;

nrwpTfs; Neuj;Jld; khwhJ fhzg;gLfpwJ. cz;ikahf> jhf;fp %yf;$Wfs; vg;nghOJk;
jhf;fKw;W tpisTfspd; %yf;$Wfis cUthf;Fk;. gupNrhjid epge;jid fspd; fPo;
tpisT %yf;$Wfs; jkf;fpilNa jhf;fkile;J mNjasT jhf;fpfis mNj Neuj;jpy; /
rkaj;jpy; Kw;Gwj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd jhf;f tPjj;jpy; Kbtpd;wp epfOk; xU nrad;Kiw.
vdNt ,urhadr; rkepiyapy; Kd;Kf gpd;Kfj; jhf;fq;fs; xNu rkaj;jpy; Kbtpd;wpr;
69
rkjhf;f tPjj;jpy; eilngWk;NghJ Vw;gLk; rkepiy ,af;fr; rkepiy vd miof;fg;gLk;

vd ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;.
(i) khwhntg;gepiyapy; xU %ba njhFjpapy; ,urhadr; rkepiy xd;W Vw;gLk;NghJ
jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; Nghd;w gy;NtW ,dq;fspd; nrwpTfs; khwhjpUf;Fk;.
(ii) ,Ug;gf;fq;fspypUe;Jk; rkepiyiaj; njhlq;fyhk;. xU kPSk; jhf;fj;jpd; (rkepiyapd;
epiyia) jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfspypUe;J Muk;gpj;jhYk; kPsf;$ba jhf;fj;ij
ngwyhk;.
(iii) XH jpwe;j njhFjpapy; rkepiyia milaKbahJ. XH %ba njhFjpapy; xU jhf;fk;
rkepiyia mila KbAk; Vnddpy; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfspd; gFjpfs;
ntspNaw KbahJ. XH jpwe;j nfhs;fydpy; thAj; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfs;
ntspNaw KbAk;. vdNt mq;F rkepiyia miltjw;fhd rhj;jpakpy;iy. midj;J
jhf;fpfSk; tpisTfSk; xd;Wld; xd;W njhLifAWk; nghOJjhd; rkepiyia
milaKbAk;.
gpd;tUk; cjhuzj;jpypUe;J NkNy fye;Jiuahba epfo;itg; Gupe;Jnfhs;s KbAk;. xU
jhf;fpiaAk; xU tpisitAk; nfhz;l xU vspa njhFjpiaf; fUJq;fs;. iejurd;
nuw;whxl;irl;L (N2O4(g))> iejurd; <H xl;irl;lhf (NO2(g)) kPSk; ntg;gg; gpupif. NO2(g)
fgpy Giff;Fg; nghWg;ghf cs;sJ. Kj;jpiuaplg;gl;l N2O4 I nfhz;Ls;s ghj;jpuj;jpy;
NO2(g) cUthtjhy; fgpy epwk; Njhd;Wfpd;wJ. vdNt jhf;fj;ijg; ghHit %yk;
gpd;gw;wyhk;. Vnddpy; tpisT epwKilaJ mNjrkak; jhf;fp (N2O4(g) epwkw;wJ.
N2 O4 (g) ⇌ 2 NO2(g)………………….. (3)
%d;W topfspy; rkepiyailAk; ,j;njhFjpia> kPSk; jd;ikia tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;F
cgNahfpf;fyhk;.
(i) N2O4(g) thAit ntw;Wf; FLitapDs; cl;nrYj;Jk;nghOJ cldbahfg; gOg;G epwk;
Njhd;WtJ. NO2 %yf;$Wfspd; cUthf;fj;ijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. N2O4 thA njhlHe;J
gpupifailtjdhy; rkepiy milAk; tiu Neuj;Jld; epwk; fLikailfpd;wJ
my;yJ jPtpukilfpd;wJ. ,Wjpapy; rkepiy mile;J epiyahd epwj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
,e;Neuj;jpy; N2O4(g), NO2 (g) thAtpdJk; nrwpTfs; khwhjpUf;Fk;.
(ii) J}a;ikahd NO2(g) cld; njhlq;Ftjd; %yk; xU rkepiyia ehk; Vw;gLj;j
KbAk;.vdNt rpy NO2(g) %yf; $Wfs; rpy N2O4 (g) I cUthf;Ffpd;wd. epwk;
kq;Ffpd;wJ kw;Wk; rkepiyia mile;jTld; epiyahd epwr;nrwptpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
(iii) ,e;jr; rkepiyia cUthf;Ftjw;fhd kw;WnkhU top NO2(g), N2O4(g) fyitAld;
njhlq;FtJ MFk;. epwk; khw;wk; epw;Fk; tiu njhFjpiaf; fz;fhzpf;fTk;. epidtpy;
nfhs;sNtz;ba Kf;fpakhd tplak; vd;dntd;why; N2O4(g), NO2(g) Mf khWtJk;
NO2(g), N2O4(g) thAthf khWtJk; njhlHe;J eilngw;Wf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,uz;L
khw;wq;fspdJk; Ntfk; rkkhf ,Ug;gjhy; ehk; epwkhw;wj;ijg; ghHf;f Kbatpy;iy.
mjhtJ NO2(g) %yf; $Wfs; ePf;fg;gLk;. Ntfj;jpy; NO2 %yf;$Wfs; cUthfpd;wd.
kw;Wk; N2O4 %yf;$Wfs; gpupifailAk; Ntfj;jpy; mit cUthfpd;wd. cU 2.3
,e;j %d;W #o;epiyfisAk; RUf;fkhff; $WfpwJ.
70
nrwpT
nrwpT
nrwpT
nrwpT
(a) Neuk; (b) Neuk; (c) Neuk; (d) Neuk;
cU 2.3 N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) rkepiyj; njhFjp
cU 2.3 (a) Muk;gj;jpy; njhFjp NO2(g) kl;Lk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. N2O4(g) ,y;iy NO2 (g),d;
nrwpT> MdJ N2O4(g) nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ Neuj;Jld; Fiwtilfpd;wJ.
(b) Muk;gj;jpy; ,j; njhFjpapy; N2O4(g) thA cs;sJ. kw;Wk; NO2(g) ,y;iy.
N2O4(g) nrwpT Neuj;Jld; Fiwfpd;wJ. NO2(g) mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. (c) Muk;gj;jpy;
NO2(g) kw;Wk; N2O4(g) fyit cs;sJ. vy;yhr; re;jHg;gq;fspYk; rkepiyia
mile;jhYk;> NO2(g) kw;Wk; N2O4(g) rkepiy nrwpTfs; xd;wy;y vd;gij
epidtpy; nfhs;f. (d) ,y; cs;s fyitapd; Kd;Gw gpd;Gwj; jhf;fq;fspd;
jhf;f tPjq;fs; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nrwpTfspd; msT Fwpf;fg;gltpy;iy
vdpDk; nrwpT khw;wk; jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdJf;F ,izahf my;yJ rkhe;jukhf
cs;sJ.
rlg;nghUl;fspd; epiyapy; khw;wk; epfOk;nghOJ ngsjPf khw;wk; epfo;e;jjhff;
$wg;gLfpwJ. rkepiy vz;zf;fUf;fs; ngsjPf epiy khw;wq;fSf;Fk; nghUe;Jk;. vdNt
rpy vLj;Jf;fhl;Lf;fs; fPNo tpthjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
2.1.1 ngsjPfr; nrad;Kiwfspd; rkepiy

ngsjPfr; nrad;Kiwfs; rpytw;iw Muha;e;jhy; mj;njhFjpfspd; rpwg;Gg; gz;Gfs; ed;F
Gupe;J nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. kpfTk; tof;fkhd mtj;ij epiykhw;wr; nrad;Kiwfspw;fhd
cjhuzq;fs; c+k; jpz;kk; ⇌ jputk;> jputk; ⇌ thA> jpz;kk; ⇌ thA
jpz;k - jput rkepiy
,q;Nf xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; jpz;k - jput tbtq;fs; rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiyapYk; mKf;fj;jpYk;
NrHe;J ,Uf;Fk;. 1 t. k. mKf;fj;jpy;> xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; cUFepiyapy; jpz;k - jput
rkepiy fhzg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf ePupd; jpz;k - jput rkepiy ePUf;F 273 K (0ºC), xU
tspkz;lyj;jpy;
H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(s)
Vw;gLfpwJ (1 atm, 101325 Pa) ,q;F jput ePH> gdpf;fl;b ,uz;Lk; xd;whf cs;sd.
gdpf;fl;b kw;Wk; ePupd; jpzpT Neuj;Jld; khwhJ. vd;gij ehq;fs; mtjhdpf;fpd;Nwhk;.
mj;Jld; ntg;gepiy khwhky; cs;sJ. vt;thwhapDk;> epiyr;;rkepiy my;y. mjhtJ
rkepiy epiyahdJ my;y.
jputj;jpw;Fk; jpz;kj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s vy;iyapy; jput ePupypUe;J ePH %yf;$Wfs;
gdpf;fl;bf;F vjpuhf Nkhjpg; gug;gpy; xl;bf; nfhs;fpd;wd. kw;Wk; gdpf;fl;bapd; rpy
%yf;$Wfs; jput mtj;ijf;Fj; jg;gpf;fpd;wd. gdpf;fl;b> ePu; Mfpatw;wpd; jpzptpy;
khw;wkpy;iy> gdpf;fl;bapypUe;J jput ePUf;F %yf;$Wfs; khw;wkilAk; tPjk; ePH
mtj;ijapy; ,Ue;J gdpf;fl;bahf ePH %yf;$Wfs; khw;wkilAk; tPjk;> 273 K apYk;
tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk; rkk;. gdpf;fl;b kw;Wk; ePH xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiy mKf;fj;jpy;
kl;Lk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. vd;gJ ntspg;gilahdJ. xU tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy;
ve;jnthU gjhu;j;jj;jpdJk; nghUspdJk; jput > jpz;k mtj;ijfs; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;
ntg;gepiy mjd; rhjhuz cUFepiy my;yJ ciwepiy vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;
cjhuzj;jpy; mj;njhFjp ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; ,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;. mj;Jld; gdpf;fl;b
cUFepiy my;yJ ePupd; ciwepiyapy; gdpf;fl;b cUFk; tPjKk; ePupd; ciwAk; tPjKk;
rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;. mj;Jld; khwpypahf ,Uf;Fk;. mKf;f khw;wj;Jld; rkepiy milAk;
ntg;gepiy khw;wkilfpd;wJ.
71
jput - Mtp rkepiy

,q;Nf xU gjhu;j;jj;jpd; jputk; kw;Wk; Mtp vd;gd rpwg;G ntg;gepiyapYk; mKf;fj;jpYk;
xU %banjhFjpapy; xUq;Nf ,Uf;Fk;. xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; nfhjp epiyapy; 1 t. k
mKf;fj;jpy; jput - Mtp rkepiy cs;sJ. cjhuzkhf> 373 K (100ºC) ePupd; jputk;
- Mtp rkepiyapy;
H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy; epfo;fpd;wJ> ,q;Nf jputk; kw;Wk; Mtp ,uz;Lk; xd;whf
cs;sd. xU fbfhuf; fz;zhbapy; ePiuapl;L 100 ºC ,y; ghukhdpAld; (mKf;fkhdp)
,izf;fg;gl;l tsp ntspNaw;wg;gl;l cyHe;j ngl;bapDs; itg;gjd; %yk; xU vspa
gupNrhjidahy; ep&gpf;fg;glyhk;. kNdhkhdpapd; tyJ Gaj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; ,urj;jpd;
kl;lk; nkJthf caHe;J ,Wjpahf khwhj kl;lj;ij milfpd;wJ. mNj rkak; fbfhuf;
fz;zhbapy; cs;s ePupd; fdtsT Fiwfpd;wJ. ePH MtpahFk;nghOJ ngl;bapDs; cs;s
thA mtj;ijf;F ePH %yf;$Wfs; NrHf;fg;gLtjhy; ngl;bapDs; mKf;fk; mjpfupj;J xU
khwhg; ngWkhdj;ij milAk;. MtpahFk; tPjk; xU khwpyp vt;thwhapDk; ePuhtp ePuhf
xLq;Ftjhy; mKf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk; tPjk; Neuj;Jld; Fiwtile;J nry;fpd;wJ. ,jd;
tpisAshf Mtpahjy; ,y;yhjNghJ ,Wjpahf xU rkepiyf;F ,l;Lr;nry;fpwJ. ,J
Fwpg;gJ thA epiyapYs;s %yf;$Wfs; jputepiyf;Fr; nry;Yk; (xLq;Fk;) tPjk; rkepiy
milAk; tiu mjpfupf;fpd;wJ> rkepiyapy; Mtpahjy; tPjk; xLq;fy; tPjj;jpw;Fr; rkk;.
rkepiyapy; nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; ePH %yf;$Wfshy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; mKf;fk;
khwhjpUf;Fk; mj;Jld; ePupd; 'rkepiy Mtp mKf;fk;" vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ (my;yJ
ePupd; MtpmKf;fk;). ePupd; epuk;gy; Mtp mKf;fk; ntg;gepiyAld; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,q;Nf
xU t.k mKf;fj;jpy; xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; MtpAk; jputKk; xNu Neuj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; ,ay;ghd
rpwg;G ntg;gepiy nfhjpepiy vd miof;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf 1 t.k mKf;fj;jpy;
ePupd;nfhjpepiy 100 ºC. ePuhtp jg;gpr; nry;ytpy;iy vd;why; jput ePH> ePuhtp ,uz;Lk; xNu
Neuj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
jpz;k - Mtpr; rkepiy
ehk; xU %ba ghj;jpuj;jpy; jpz;k maBid itj;jhy; rpwpJ Neuk; fopj;Jg; ghj;jpuk;
Cjhepw Mtpapdhy; epug;gg;gLk;. kw;Wk; epwr;nrwpT Neuj;Jld; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. xU Fwpg;gpl;l
Neuj;jpd; gpd; epwr; nrwpT khwpypahfpd;wJ> ,e;j epiyapy; rkepiy milag;gLfpd;wJ.
vdNt jpz;k maBd; gjq;fkhfp maBd; Mtpiaf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; maBd;
xLq;fpj; jpz;k maBidf; nfhLf;Fk; rkepiyiag; gpd;tUkhW Fwpg;gplyhk;. I2(s) ⇌ I2(g)
jpz;k - jpz;kr; rkepiy
xU Fwpg;gpl;l gspq;FUj; jpz;kkhf ,Uf;Fk; xU gjhu;j;jk; kw;nwhU gspq;FU tbtj;jpw;F
khWk;nghOJ gspq;FU tbtk; mjd; jpl;lkhd jd;ikia xU rpwg;G ntg;gepiyapy;
itj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;.
1 t.k ,U jpz;kq;fSk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; ntg;gepiy khWntg;gepiy / jhz;ly;
ntg;gepiy vdg;gLk;. ,J jpz;k - jpz;kr; rkepiy vdg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf jpz;kf;
fe;jfk; rkepiyia ntspgLj;JfpwJ. mjd; khWntg;gepiyapy; jpz;kf; fe;jfk; mjd;
rha;rJu fe;jfj;jpw;Fk; xU rupTf; fe;jfj;jpw;Fkpilapy; rkepiyiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
S(rha;rJuk;) S(xUrupT)
2.1.2 ,urhadr; nrad;Kiwfspy; rkepiy

Vftpdr; rkepiy
Vftpdr; rkepiy> gy;ypdr; rkepiy vd ,U tiffspy; ,urhadr; rkepiy cs;sJ.
rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspy; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; ahTk; xNu mtj;ijapy;
72
,Ue;jhy; Vftpdr; rkepiy Vw;gl;ljhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. cjhuzj;jpw;F N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌

2 NH3(g)
,q;Nf midj;Jj; jhf;fpfSk; tpisTfSk; thA epiyapy; cs;sd. ,J thA - mtj;ijr;
rkepiyf;F xU cjhuzkhFk;. ,urhadr; rkepiyapy; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; ahTk; jput
mtj;ijapy; ,Uf;Fk;nghOJ jputr;rkepiy vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf
CH3COOH(l) + C2 H5OH(l) ⇌ CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
thA mtj;ijr; rkepiy jput mtj;ijr; rkepiy ,uz;Lk; $l;lhf Vftpdr; rkepiy
vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
gy;ypdr; rkepiy
xU ,urhadr; rkepiyapy; jhf;fpfspd; tpisTfspd; %yf;$Wfs; / ,dq;fs; ntt;NtW
mtj;ijfspy; ,Ue;jhy; gy;ypdr; rkepiy Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ⇌ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
,q;Nf xU %ba ghj;jpuj;jpy; jhf;fq;fs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk;NghJ> rkepiy Vw;gl;lJ /
epWtg;gl;lJ.
2.1.3 ,urhadr; rkepiy tpjp> kw;Wk; rkepiykhwpyp

xU rkepiyf; fyitapy; cs;s tpisTfspdJk; jhf;fpfspdJk; nrwpTfSf;fpilapyhd
njhlHig mwpe;Jnfhs;tJ Kf;fpak;.
vt;thW rkepiyr; nrwpTfis Muk;gr; nrwpTfspypUe;J JzptJ> rkepiyf; fyitapd;
mikg;ig khw;Wtjw;F vd;d fhuzpfisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;? ,uz;L NehHNt NtjpayhsHfs;
Fy;l;gHf; kw;Wk; Nt[; (Guldberg and Waage) gupNrhjid uPjpahf mjpf vz;zpf;ifahd
rkepiyj; jhf;fq;fisf; fw;wdH. 1864 ,y; mtHfs; 'jpzpTj; jhf;f tpjp" vd miof;fg;gLk;
xU nghJikg;ghl;il xg;Gtpj;jdu;. ,J $WtjhtJ 'xU ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;ftPjk;
jhf;fpfspd; jhf;Fj; jpzpTfSf;F tpfpjrkd;" jhf;Fj; jpzpT vd;Dk; gjk; fUJtJ
%yHnrwpit> mjhtJ mol dm-3 xU Fwpj;j epiyahd ntg;gepiyapy; xU jhf;fj;jpd;
jhf;f tPjk; XuyF fdtstpy; cs;s jhf;fp%yf;$WfSf;fpilapyhd Nkhjy;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifahy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt mjd; nrwpT nghJthfj; jhf;Fj; jpzpT
vdf; (miof;fg;gLfpwJ) Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ.
gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs; kf
A + B ⇌ C + D
kr
jpzpTj; jhf;f tpjpf;F ,zq;f
Kw;Gwj; jhf;f tPjk; Rf = kf [A] [B]
gpw;Gwj; jhf;f tPjk; Rr= kr [C] [D]
[A], [B], [C], [D] Mfpad rkepiyapy; KiwNa A, B, C ,D Mfpatw;wpd; %yu;r;nrwpTfs;
MFk;. Kf = Kr Mfpad KiwNa Kw;Gw> gpw;Gwj; jhf;fq;fspd; jhf;ftPj khwpypfs;
rkepiyapy; kf = kr
kf [A] [B] = kr [C] [D]
kf [C] [D]
=
kr [A][B]

vd ehk; vOjyhk;.
73
jpzpTj; jhf;f tpjpf;F ,zq;f

kf k
ve;jf; Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapYk; kf , kr khwpypfs; vd;gjhy; k xU khwpypahFk; kf tpfpjk;
r r
rkepiy khwpyp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ kw;Wk; ,J kc FwpaPl;bdhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. 'c'
vd;Dk; fPo; vOj;Jf; FwpaPL jhf;fpfspd; tpisTfspd; nrwpT mbg;gilapy; kjpg;gplg;gLfpwJ
vd;gijAk; Fwpf;fpwJ.
rkd;ghl;il (1) gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
[C] [D]
kc =
[A][B]
mjhtJ khwh ntg;gepiyapy; kPSk; jhf;fnkhd;W rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> xU Fwpg;gpl;l

jhf;fpfspd; tpisTfspd;> nrwpTfspd; tpfpjk; xU khwhj ngWkhdj;ij my;yJ kjpg;igf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. kc (rkepiy khwpyp)
2.1.4 xU jhf;fj;Jf;fhd rkepiy tpjp> rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhit

cjhuzkhf NO2 kw;Wk; N2O4 thAf;fspd; Muk;g nrwpTfis khw;Wtjd; %yk; 25ºC apy;
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) njhFjpf;Fr; nra;ag;gl;l gupNrhjid jutpd; gFg;gha;T Rthu];akhd
Nfhyj;ijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. rkepiyr; nrwpT jutpd; gFg;gha;tpd; [NO2(g)] / [N2O4(g)]
tpfpjk; vOkhwhd kjpg;Gf;fisf; nfhLj;jhYk; [NO2(g)]2 / [N2O4(g)] tpfpjk; fpl;lj;jl;l
epiyahd / khwhj ngWkhdq;fspd; kjpg;ig mspf;fpd;wJ.
[NO2(g)]2
kc =
[N2O4(g)]
kc nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU khwpyp

,NjNghd;W xj;jtifahd ngWNgWfs; mtjhdpf;fg;gl;ld. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
jhf;fj;Jf;F [HI]2 / [H2] [I2] vd;w tpfpjk; xU khwpyp. gy rkepiyj; njhFjpfspy;
nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; ,e;j tif fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;likahy; xU jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy
Nfhitf;F xU nghJthd tbtj;ijg; ngwyhk;.
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
jhf;fp ,dq;fs; A, B, C, D Mfpatw;wpd; gPrkhd Fzfq;fs; KiwNa a, b, c, d ahf
,Uf;Fk;NghJ
[C]c[D]d
kc =
[A]a[B]b
kc = rkepiy khwpyp> rkepiy khwpypapd; nghJthd tiutpyf;fzj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW

$wyhk;.
rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;bYs;s xt;nthU tpis nghUspd; rkepiyr; nrwpT mtw;wpd; gPrkhd
Fzfj;jhy; tYNtw;wg;gl;l ngUf;fj;ijj; jhf;fpfspd; rkepiyr; nrwpit mtw;wpd; gPrkhd
Fzfj;jhy; tYNtw;wg;gl;l ngUf;fj;jhy; tFf;fg;gLk;nghOJ ngwg;gLtjhFk;.
cjhuzkhf> gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhitiaf; fUJq;fs;.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
2
kc = [NH3(g)]
[N2(g)][(H2(g)]3
74
ehk; ,t; ,urhadj; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;Kfj; jpirapy; vOjpdhy; Gjpa rkepiy khwpypf;fhd
Nfhit Kjyhtjd; jiyfPohdhjhf mikAk;. mj;Jld; Gjpa rkepiy khwpyp Kjyhtjhd
rkepiykhwpypapd; jiyfPohFk;. Kc` Kc. NtWgLj;JtJ
k`c =
[N2(g)][(H2(g)]3 1
=
[NH3(g)]2 k`c
Kc, Kc` ntt;NtW vz;ngWkhdq;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhy; rkepiy khwpypapd; ngWkhdj;ijf;

Fwpg;gpLk; NghJ ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;bd; tbtj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLtJ Kf;fpak;. NkYk;
rkepiy khwpypapd; Nfhitapy; cs;s xt;nthU ,dj;jpd; ngsjPfepiy Nfhitapy;
fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ Nghd;W fhl;lg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; 2.1
xU rkepiyf; fyitf;Fg; gpd;tUk; mstPLfs; msf;fg;gl;ld. 500 K ,y; N2(g) +
3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g), [N2] = 3.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3, [H2] = 4.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3
kw;Wk; [NH3] = 2 × 10-3 mol dm-3.
Kw;Gw gpw;Gwj; jhf;fq;fs; ,uz;bw;Fk; rkepiy khwpypfis 500 K ,y; fzpAq;fs;.
tpil
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
[NH3(g))]2
Kc =
[N2(g))] [H2(g)]3
(2 ×10-3)2 (mol dm-3)2
Kc = = 2.083 mol-2 dm6
(3 ×10-2) (4 ×10-2) 3(mol dm-3)4
[N2(g) ] [H2(g) ]3 (3 × 10-2) (4 × 10-2) 3 (mol dm-3)4
K`c = =
[NH3(g) ]2 (2 × 10-3)2 (mol dm-3) 2
my;yJ = 0.48 mol2 dm-6
1 1
K`c = = = 0.48 mol2 dm-6
Kc 2.083 mol-2 dm6
Fwpg;G : rkepiy khwpyp xU jhf;fj;jpw;F ,uz;L vjpH jpirfspy; tiuaWf;fg;gLk;

NghJ rkepiy khwpypapd; mstpYk; myFfspYk; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ij ghHf;f.
xU jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;Kfkhf vOJk;NghJ mj;jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy khwpyp>
Kjyhtjhf vOjg;gl;l mj;jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy khwpypapd; jiyfPo; MFk;.
2.1.5 jhf;fj;jpd; msT

K (Kc my;yJ Kp thA mtj;ijr; rkd;ghLfSf;Fg; gad;gLk;) 1 Itpl kpf mjpfkhf
,Ug;gpd; (K >>>1) rkepiy tyJGwkhf ,Uf;Fk;> tpisTfs; cUthtjw;Fr; rhjfkhf
mikAk;. mjhtJ tpisTfspd; nrwpT jhf;fpfspd; nrwpit tpl caHthf ,Uf;Fk;.
kWjiyahfr; rkepiy khwpyp 1 I tplr; rpwpjhf ,Ug;gpd; (mjhtJ K <<<1) rkepiy
,lJGwkhfTk;> jhf;fpfs; cUthtij Mjupf;fpwJ. mjhtJ jhf;fpfspd; nrwpT
tpisTfis tpl caHthf ,Uf;Fk;. ngUk;ghyhd jhf;fq;fs; 1000 Kjy; 0.001 (103
≥ K ≥ 10−3) tiu rkepiy khwpypfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mit kpfg;ngupait my;yJ
kpfr; rpwpait my;y. rkepiyapy; ,j;njhFjpfs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f msT tpisT> jhf;fp
,uz;bidAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. jhf;fpfspypUe;J tpisTfisAk; tpisTfspypUe;J
jhf;fpfisAk; cUthf;Fk; Nghf;F tYthdJ my;y vd;gij ,J Fwpf;fpwJ.
75
rkepiyf; fyitapd; mikg;G
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
cU 2.4 jhf;fj;jpd; msT> rkepiyj; jhdk; vd;gtw;wpd; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;
cU 2.4 K ,d; ngWkhdj;jpw;Fk; jhf;fpfs; ⇌ tpisTfs; vdj; jug;gLk; nghJj;jhf;fj;jpd;

jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfspd; rkepiy rhH nrwpTfSf;fpilapyhd tpfpjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd
njhlu;igr; RUf;fkhfj; jUfpwJ. Vnddpy; xU jhf;fj;jpd; ,af;ftpaYf;Fk; jhf;fpfspdJk;
tpisTfsJk; rkepiyr; nrwptpw;Fkpilapy; Neubj;njhlHG cz;L kf >> kr
xU ngupa vz;> mj;Jld; rkepiyapy;> tpisTfspd; nrwpT Mjpf;fk; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.
,e;j mbg;gilapy; ,J xU kPshj;jhf;fkhFk;. vjpHkiwahf kf << kr xU rpwpa vz; vdpd;
vOjg;gl;lJNghd;W jhf;fk; ve;jnthU tpisitAk; cUthf;ftpy;iy. kf ≈ kr f; nfhz;l
njhFjp tpisTfs;> jhf;fpfs; ,uz;ilAk; fzprkhd nrwptpy; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. mjhtJ
yy Kc > 103 tpisnghUl;fs; jhf;fpfspYk; ngUkstpy; ,Uf;Fk; Kc kpfg;ngupjhf ,Ue;jhy;
jhf;fk; fpl;lj;jl;l epiwtilfpd;wJ.
yy Kc < 103 jhf;fpfs; tpisTfspYk; ngUkstpy; ,Uf;Fk;. K`c kpfr; rpwpjhf ,Ue;jhy;
jhf;fk; mupjhfNt eilngWfpd;wJ.
yy 103 ≥ Kc ≥ 10−3 Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs; cs;sd.
jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;
jhf;f msT
cU 2.5 nfhLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiy mKf;fj;jpy; rkepiyapy; Fiwe;jgl;r fpg;]; njhopw; ghl;il
Nehf;fpj; jd;dpr;irahd jhf;fj;jpd; gpujpepjpj;Jtk;> jhf;fk; eilngWk;nghOJ fpg;];
njhopw;ghl;bd; rha;T khw;wkilAk;. rkepiyg; Gs;sp g+r;rpar; rha;Tf;F xj;jpUf;fpwJ.
,e;epiyia Gupe;Jnfhs;sg; glk; 2.4 ,y; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vspa tpsf;fj;Jf;Fj; $Ljyhf>

,e;jr; rkepiy vz;zf;fU myF 05 ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;l ntg;g ,urhad mwpit nfhz;L
jhf;fq;fspd; jd;dpr;iria tpsf;fyhk;.
cU 2.5 tisT (a) rkepiyapd; epiy tpisTfSf;Ff; fpl;lthf ,Uf;fpwJ vd;gijAk;
Vwj;jho Kw;Wg;ngWfpd;wJ vd;gijAk;> mg;NghJ fpg;]; rf;jp NtWghL (∆G)T,P < 0
vd;gijAk; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. tisT (b) jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; ,uz;ilAk; Fwpg;gpljf;f
msTfspy; nfhz;l rkepiyapd; epiyiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ> kw;Wk; (∆G)T,P = 0 tisT (c) y;
rkepiyapd; epiy jhf;fpfSf;F mz;ikapy; ,Uf;fpwJ. mq;Nf (∆G)T,P > 0 my;yJ jhf;fp
RahjPdkhdjd;W.
76
Fwpg;G : ,q;F (∆G)T.P Fwpg;gJ xU %Yf;Fupa RahjPdr; rf;jp khw;wj;jpd; ngWkhdj;ijahFk;.

(∆G)T.P / ∆n) vdpDk; xU jug;gl;l jhf;fj;jpw;F (∆G) T.P = ∆H - T ∆S jUtJ Kw;whd
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd epak RahjPd rf;jp khw;wj;ijahFk;. (i.e ∆G0 r ) nghJthf xU o
jhf;fj;jpd; ∆Gr xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy;> ∆Gr = ∆G0 r + RT ln Q ,dhy; o
jug;gLfpd;wJ. rkepiyapy; ∆Gr = 0 vd vq;fSf;Fj; njupAk;. ,J ve;jj; jhf;fKk;

mjw;Nf cupj;jhd (rpwg;gpay;ghd) ∆Gr ngWkhdj;ij cilaJ vd;gij
vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mjhtJ xU jhf;fj;jpw;F xU jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;>
∆G0 r ≠0 my;yJ ∆G0r = - RT ln K MFk;. (,r;rkd;ghL f.ngh.j (c/j) guPl;irapy;
o o
guPl;rpf;fg;gl khl;lhJ)
cU 2.5 tpsf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUk; %d;W tiuglq;fshy; 2.6 My; Fwpf;fyhk;. jd;dpr;irahf
eilngWk; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs;> epiwTngWk; jhf;fq;fs;> xUNghJ jhf;fk; eilngw;W
tpisitf; nfhLf;fhj jhf;fq;fspy; Vw;gLk; fpg;]; rf;jp khw;wj;ijg; gw;wp ed;F
Gupe;Jnfhs;s cU 2.6 cjTfpwJ.
rkepiyg;Gs;sp rkepiyg;Gs;sp rkepiyg;Gs;sp
fpg;rpd; RahjPd rf;jp (G)T,P

jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfs;

jhf;f msT jhf;f msT jhf;f msT
cU 2.6 tpguq;fs; (a) 1 fpg;]; RahjPd rf;jp khWghL jd;dpr;irahd Nghf;Fila jhf;ff; fyit
mikg;Gld; (b) Kw;Wg;ngWk; xU jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiyg;Gs;sp tpisTf;F mz;ikahf
cs;sJ. (K> 1) (c) xU NghJk; Kw;Wg;ngwhj jhf;fk; my;yJ tpisTfis cUthf;Fk;
Nghf;F ,y;yhj jhf;fk;> mjd; rkepiyg;Gs;spj; jhf;fpfSf;F kpf mz;ikapy; cs;sJ
(K <<<1)
cU 2.6 ,ypUe;J ehk; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;tJ rkepiyg; Gs;sp my;yJ tpisTfSf;F my;yJ
jhf;fpfSf;F vt;tsT mz;ikapy; jhf;fk; ,Uf;Fk; vd;gJ ∆G ,d; ngWkhdj;jpdhYk;
FwpaPl;bdhYk; tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
∆Gr < 0 tpisTfs; rhjfkhFk;
∆Gr ≈ 0 jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfs; rhjfkhf ,y;iy> njhFjp rkepiyapy; cs;sJ.
∆Gr > 0 jhf;fpfs; rhjfkhfTs;sJ.
2.1.6 ntt;NtW tbtpyhd rkepiy khwpypf; Nfhitfs;

,urhadtpay; uPjpahfr; rkkhd Mdhy; NtWgl;l tbtq;fisf; nfhz;l rkd;ghLfis
vOJk;NghJ rkepiy khwpypapd; Nfhit> rkepiy khwpypapd; ngWkhdk; / msT ,uz;Lk;
NtWgl;ljhfTs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf 2NO2(g)⇌ N2O4(g) cldhd jhf;f rkd;ghl;bw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp K vdTk;
NO2(g) ⇌ 1/2 N2O4 (g) w;fhd rkd;ghl;bw;Fr; rkepiy khwpyp K" vdTk; fUjpdhy; ehk;
gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
77
[N2O4(g)]
K=
[NO2 (g)]2
[N2O4 (g)] 1/2

K" =
[NO2 (g)]
vdNt K" w;Fk; K f;Fkhd njhlHG K" = (K)1/2 vdf; fhzyhk;. mj;Jld; jpzpT jhf;f
tpjpg;gb> rkepiy khwpypapy; fhzg;gLk; xt;nthU nrwpTg; gjKk; gPrkhd Fzfj;jpw;Fr;
rkkhd tYthy; caHj;jg;gLfpwJ. ePq;fs; xU ,urhadr; rkd;ghl;il ,ul;bg;ghf;fpshy;
mjw;Fupa rkepiy khwpyp Kjyhtjpd; tHf;fkhf ,Uf;Fk; kw;Wk; ePq;fs; rkd;ghl;il %d;W
klq;fhf;fpdhy; rkepiy khwpyp Kjyhtjd; fdkhd kjpg;Gilajhf ,Uf;Fk;. nghJthf
xU rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;by; cs;s midj;Jf; Fzfq;fisAk; (n My; ngUf;fg;gl;lhy;>
gpd;dH Gjpa rkepiy khwpyp> n tJ tYthy; caHj;jg;gl;l Kjyhtjhd rkepiy khwpyp
MFk;.
cjhuzk; 2.2
800 K ,y; N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp 0.25
MFk;. 800 K ,y; ½N2(g) + 3/2H2(g) ⇌NH3(g) vDk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp
ahJ?
tpil
[NH3(g))]2
K=
[N2(g))] [H2(g))]3
[NH3(g)] 1
K" = = K 1/2 = (0.25) 2 = 0.50
[N2(g)] 1/2 [H2(g)]3/2
2.1.7 thAj; njhFjpfspy; rkepiy khwpyp

,Jtiu ehk; jhf;fq;fspd; rkepiy khwpypiaj; jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfspd; %yu; nrwptpd;
mbg;gilapy; $wpAs;Nshk;. mj;Jld; FwpaPL Kc Ig; gad;gLj;jpNdhk;.. thAf;fs; <LgLk;
jhf;fq;fSf;Fg; gFjp mKf;fq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; rkepiy khwpypia ntspg;gLj;JtJ
kpfTk; trjpahdJ. khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU thAtpd; mKf;fk; P thAtpd; mol dm-3
nrwpTld; Neubj; njhlHGilaJ vd vkf;Fj; njupAk;. mjhtJ P = (n/V)RT my;yJ
P = CRT vdNt N2O4(g)⇌ 2NO2(g), vd;w rkepiyf;F> ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
(PNO (g)) 2
Kp = 2
(PN )
2 O4
(g)
PNO , PN O Mfpad NO2(g), N2O4(g) Mfpatw;wpd; rkepiyg; gFjp mKf;fq;fs; (Pa

2(g) 2 4(g)
,y;) MFk;. (Kp) y; cs;s fPo; vOj;Jr; rkepiyr; nrwpTfs; mKf;fj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ vd;gijf; Fwpf;Fk;. nghJthf Kc , Kp f;F vg;nghOJk; rkkhdJ
my;y> jhf;fpfs; tpisTfspd; gFjp mKf;fq;fs; mtw;wpd; mol dm-3 y; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;
nrwpTfSf;Fr; rkkhdit my;y. xU Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyapy; Kp kw;Wk; Kc f;Fkpilapy;
xU vspa cwT ,Uf;f KbAk;. Kjypy; thA epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf;
fUj;jpy;nfhs;Nthk;.
H2(g)+ I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
78
ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.

[HI(g) ]2
Kc =
[I2 (g)][H2 (g)]
(PHI(g) )2
Kp =
(PH2 (g)) (PI )
2 (g)
P = CRT vd;w njhlHigg; gpNahfpf;Fk;nghOJ PHI(g) =[HI(g) ] RT, PH2(g) =[H2 (g)] RT, PI2(g)
=[I2 (g)] RT ,jd; Kp Nfhitapy; gpujpapLk;nghOJ>
(PHI(g))2 [HI(g)]2(RT)2 [HI(g)]2(RT)(2-2)
Kp = = = = Kc
(PH (g)) (PI ) [I2 (g)](RT)[H2 (g)](RT) [I2 (g)][H2 (g)]
2 2 (g)
,t; cjhuzj;jpy; Kp, Kc mjhtJ ,U rkepiy khwpypfSk; rkk; vdpDk;> vg;NghJk;

cz;ikahdjy;y cjhuzkhf N2(g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
[NH3 (g)]2 (PNH3 (g))2
Kc = Kp =
[N2 (g)][H2 (g)]3 (PN (g))(PH )3
2 2 (g)
thAf;fs; ,yl;rpa elj;ijAilajhapd;

[NH3 (g)]2(RT)2)
Kp =
[N2 (g)](RT) [H2 (g)]3(RT)3
[NH3 (g)]2(RT)2-4
=
[N2 (g)] [H2 (g)]3
[NH3 (g)]2(RT)-2
=
[N2 (g)] [H2 (g)]3
vdNt> Kp = Kc (RT)-2 vd vOjyhk;.

Nkw;fz;l ,U cjhuzq;fspypUe;Jk; ngwg;gl;l Njhw;wj;Jld;> ehk; thA mtj;ijj;
jhf;fj;jpw;F xU nghJthd khwpypiaf; fUJNthk;.
aA(g) ⇌ bB(g)
[B(g)]b (PB(g))b
Kc = , K p
=
[A(g)]a (PA(g))a
,q;Nf PA, PB KiwNa A, B Mfpatw;wpd; gFjp mKf;fq;fs; %ba nfhs;fyd; V dm3 T

(K), ntg;gepiyapy; ,yl;rpa thA elj;ijiaf; fUjpdhy;
PAV = nART mj;Jld; PBV = nBRT
MfNt ehk; vOjyhk;
PA = CART kw;Wk; PB = CBRT> CA kw;Wk; CB Mfpait mol dm-3 ,y; $wg;gLk;NghJ
PA = [A]RT kw;Wk; PB = [B]RT NkNyAs;s Kp f;fhd Nfhitapy; gpujpapLk;NghJ
79
([B]RT)b [B]b
Kp = = [A]a (RT)b-a = Kc (RT)b-a
([A]RT)a
Kp = Kc (RT) ∆n, ∆n = b - a
Kp = Kc(RT) ∆n
RUf;fkhf ehk; xU jhf;fj;jpw;F Kp f;Fk; Kc f;Fkpilapyhd njhlHigg; gpd;tUkhW

vOjyhk;.
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD vdNt
Kp= Kc(RT)(c+d)-(a+b) = Kc(RT) ∆n
∆n = thA tpisnghUl;fspd; %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if - thA jhf;fpfspd; %y;fspd;
vz;zpf;if
nghJthf Kp ≠ Kc NkNy fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sgb rpwg;G khjpupfs; cjhuzq;fs; jtpu
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) njhFjpapy; ∆n = 0.
Fwpg;G : rkepiy khwpypf;F myF NrHj;Jf;nfhs;shjJ nghJthd eilKiwahFk;.
ntg;g ,af;ftpaypy; K f;F myFfs; ,y;iy vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. Vnddpy;
xt;nthU nrwpT (molarity) my;yJ mKf;fk; (atm/Pa) Mfpa fiyr;nrhw;fs;
cz;ikapy; xU epak ngWkhdj;jpw;fhd tpfpjk;. ,J 1 mol dm-3 my;yJ 1
atm/101325 Pa (~ 100 kPa) MFk;. ,e;jr; nray;Kiw midj;J myFfisAk;
ePf;Ffpd;wJ. Mdhy; nrwpT my;yJ mKf;fk; Mfpatw;wpd; vz;fSf;Fupa
gFjpfis khw;whJ. ,jd; tpisthf k f;F myFfs; ,y;iy
vdpDk;> xt;nthU nrwpT (%yu;j;jpwd;) my;yJ mKf;fk; (atm/Pa) vd;Dk; gjk; epakg;
ngWkhdj;jpw;Fupa tpfpjkhf ,y;yhJ ,Ug;gpd; ,e;jr; nrad;Kiw rkepiykhwpypfSf;Fupa
myFfisj; jUk;.
mjhtJ jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfspd; epak epiyfs; Fwpg;gplg;gl;lhy; rkepiykhwpypfisg;
gupkhzkw;w msTfshfj; njuptpf;fyhk; / ntspg;gLj;jyhk;. J}a thATf;F> epak epiy
(1 Bar = 1 atm, 100 kPa). MfNt epak epiyapy; 400kPa mKf;fj;ij 400 kPa/100kPa = 4
vd ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ. ,J gupkhzkw;w vz; xU fiurypy; xU fiuaj;jpw;F
epak epiy (C∅) 1 mol dm-3 MFk;. vy;yhr; nrwpTfisAk; ,J rhHghf mstplKbAk;.
midj;Jr; nrwpTfisAk; ,J rhHghf mstpl KbAk;. mjw;Fr; rkepiy khwpypapd; vz;
ngWkhdk; NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l epak epiyiag; nghWj;jJ. rkepiy khwpypfs; gupkhzkw;w
/ myF ,y;yhj msTfshff; fUjg;gl;lhYk;> epak epiy Fwpg;gplg;glhtpbd; ,g;ghlj;jpy;
ehk; nrwpTfs; kw;Wk; mKf;fq;fis me;je;j myFfSld; fUJfpNwhk;.
nrwpTfis mol dm-3 ,y; gpujpapLtjd; %yk; rkepiykhwpyp Kc I fzf;fplyhk;.
mj;Jld; gFjp mKf;fq;fis Pa, kPa, bar my;yJ atm ,y; gpujpapLtjd; %yk; Kp If;
fzf;fplyhk;. rkepiy khwpyp Nfhitapy; tFf;Fk; vz; tFf;fg;gLk; vz; ,uz;bdJk;
mLf;Ffs; rkkhf ,y;yhtpbd; rkepiy khwpypapd; myFfs; %yHjpwd; my;yJ mKf;fj;jpd;
mbg;gilapy; tpisfpwJ.
gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fSf;F>
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g), Kc f;Fk; Kp f;Fk; myF ,y;iy
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g), Kc f;F myF mol dm-3, Kp f;F Pa
80
cjhuzk; 2.3
nkNjd; thA (CH4) Ijurd; ry;igl;L thATld; 1000 Ky; jhf;fk; Gupe;J H2 itAk;
fhgd; ,Ury;igl;ilAk; nfhLfpd;wJ.
CH4(g) + 2H2S(g)⇌ CS2(g) + 4H2(g)
rkepiyf; fyitapy; gFjp mKf;fq;fs; 1000 K ,y; CH4 tpd; 0.20 × 105 Pa, fr; CS2
tpd; CH4, 0.25 × 105 Pa, H2 ,d; H2S, 0.52 × 105 Pa> CS2 ,d; kw;Wk; 0.10 × 105 Pa 1000
K ,y; Kp, Kc ,d; ngWkhdq;fs; vd;d?
tpil
(PH2 (g)4 (PCS2 (g)) (0.1 Pa)4 (0.52 Pa)
Kp = = (0.20 Pa) (0.25 Pa)2 (1.0 ×105 Pa)2
((PCH4 (g)) (PH2 S(g) )2
= 4.2 ×10-3×1010Pa2 =4.2 ×107Pa2
Kp=Kc (RT)∆n
∆n = 5-3 = 2
Kp
MfNt> Kp=Kc (RT)2 Kc =
(RT)2
Kp (4.2 ×107 Pa2) (4.2 ×107 10-3) J dm-3) 2
Kc = = =
(RT)2 (8.314 J K-1 mol-1 )×1000 K)2 (8314 J mol-1 ) 2
= 6 ×10-7 mol2 dm-6
vt;thwhapDk; gFjpaKf;fq;fs; P/Pϴ vd tiuaWf;fg;gl;lhy;> ,q;Nf Pϴ

epak mKf;fk; 1 atm my;yJ 1.0 ×105 Pa f;F ehk; ngWtJ
4
�(PH2 (g)� �(Pcs2 (g)�

Pϴ Pϴ (0.1)4 (0.52)
Kp = 2 = = 4.2 ×10-3
((P (g) PH2 S(g) (0.20) (0.25)2
� CH4
Pϴ � � Pϴ �
mrw;wpf; mkpyj;jpd; madhf;fj;ij ePupy; kw;nwhU Vftpdkhd rkepiyf;F XH cjhuzkhff;

fUJf.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
rkepiy khwpyp
[CH3 COO- (aq)] [H3 O+ (aq)]
K'C =
[CH3COOH(aq)] [H2 O(l)]
,yF jput ePH H2O(l) jhf;fj;jpw;fhd xU Clfkhf cs;sJ. 1 dm3 (1 L> my;yJ 1000g
1000g
ePupy; )my;yJ 55.5 %y; ePu; cz;L. vdNt ePupd; nrwpT my;yJ [H2O(l)]
18g mol-1
55.5 mol dm-3 MFk;. ePHf; fiurypy; cs;s kw;iwa ,dq;fspd; nrwpTld; (nghJthf 1
mol dm-3 my;yJ mjdpYk; rpwpJ) xg;gpLk;nghOJ ePupd; nrwpT xU ngupa msT mj;Jld;
ePupd; nrwpT jhf;fk; eilngWk; nghOJ khw;wkiltjpy;iy vd vLNfhs; vLf;fyhk;.
vdNt [H2O(l)] xU khwpyp vdf; fUjyhk;. MfNt rkepiy khwpypiag; gpd;tUkhW
vOjyhk;.
81
[CH3 COO- (aq)] [H3 O+ (aq)]

KC =
[CH3COOH(aq)]
,q;F KC =K'C [H2 O(l)]
2.1.8 gy;ypdr; rkepiy

xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l mtj;ijiaf; nfhz;l rkepiyj; njhFjp gy;ypdr; rkepiy vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. xU %banfhs;fydpy; ePuhtpf;Fk; jput ePUf;Fkpilapyhd rkepiy xU
gy;ypdr; rkepiyf;F cjhuzkhFk;.
H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
,t; cjhuzj;jpy; xU thA mtj;ijAk; xU jput mtj;ijAk; cz;L. mNj Nghd;W> xU
jpz;kj;jpw;Fk; mjd; epuk;gpa fiurYf;Fkpilapy; gy;ypdr; rkepiy cs;sJ.
Ca(OH)2(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
gy;ypdr; rkepiy ngUk;ghYk; J}a jpz;kq;fisNah my;yJ jputq;fisNah
cs;slf;fpd;wJ. J}a jpz;kk; my;yJ jputk; rk;ge;jg;gl;l gy;ypdr; rkepiyf;fhd
rkepiyf; Nfhitfspy; J}a jpz;kk; my;yJ J}a jputj;jpd; %yu;r;nrwpT xU khwpypia
ehk; vspikg;gLj;jyhk;. (mjhtJ ,Uf;Fk; gjhHj;jj;jpd; msitr; rhHe;jpUg;gjpy;iy)
fy;rpak; fhgNdw;wpd; ntg;gg;gpupif gy;ypd ,urhadr; rkepiyf;F XH vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff;
fUJNthk;.
CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
rkd;ghl;bd; gPrkhdj;ij fUJk;NghJ>
[CaO(s)] [CO2(g)]
K'C = vd vOjyhk;
[CaCO3(s)]
Vnddpy; J}a jputq;fs; kw;Wk; J}a jpz;kq;fspd; %yHr; nrwpTfs; ntg;gepiyAld;
nghJthf ngupJk; NtWgLtjpy;iy. ntg;gepiyAld; mtw;wpd; nrwpTfs; khwpypfshff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wd> ,J J}a jputq;fs; my;yJ J}a jpz;kq;fs; <LgLk; rkepiy khwpypapd;
Nfhitia vspjhf;Ffpd;wJ. J}a jpz;kq;fSf;Fk; my;yJ J}a jputq;fSf;Fk; Fwpfhl;Lk;
(khl;Nlw;W) epiyfs; 100kPa /1 atm ,y; cWjpahd tbtq;fs; mtw;wpw;Fj; njhopw;gLk;
nrwpT (jhf;FjpzpT) 1 vd epakpf;fg;gLfpwJ / nfhLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ jpz;kg;
nghUspd; 'nrwpT"> mlHj;jpia Nghd;W XU nrwptpay;thFk; kw;Wk; gjhu;j;jk; vt;tsT
cz;L vd;gjpy; jhq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
NkNy ,Uf;Fk; cjhuzj;jpy; [CaCO3(s)] kw;Wk; [CaO(s)] khwpypfs; vd;gjhy;>
khw;wpaikf;fg;gl;l fy;rpak; fhgNdw;Wf;fhd rkepiy khwpyp
KC= [CO2(g)]
[CaCO3 (s)]
,q;Nf KC = K'C xU khwpyp
[CaO(s)]
,NjNghd;W> ehk; vOjyhk;. Kp =PCO

2 (g)
fiurypy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; jhf;fq;fSf;F> fiug;ghd; rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;by; Njhd;Wk;

NghJ $l> fiug;ghdpd; nrwpT rkepiy khwpypf;fhd NfhitapypUe;J jtpHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fiug;ghdpd; nrwpT nghJthfj; jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfspd; nrwpit tpl kpf mjpfkhf
cs;sJ (J}a ePH Vwj;jho 55.5 mol dm-3 mj;Jld; J}a vjNdhYf;F 17 moldm-3) ,jd;
tpisthff; fiug;ghdpd; nrwpT ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ Kf;fpakhf khwpypahf
82
cs;sJ. vdNt fiug;ghd; J}a jputkhff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. xU jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy

khwpypapd; Nfhitfs;> jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ fzprkhf khwf;$ba ,dq;fspd; nrwpit kl;LNk
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpy;
Hg(l) + Hg2+(aq) ⇌ Hg22+(aq)
[Hg22+ (aq)]
K'c = vd ehk; vOjyhk;.
[Hg2+ (aq)][Hg(l)]
2+
Kc = [Hg 2 (aq)] ,q;Nf Kc = K'c [Hg(l)]
[Hg2+ (aq)]
,k;khjpupapy;> Kp f;fhd Nfhitia vOJtJ nghUj;jkhdjy;y Vnddpy; jhf;fpfs;

tpisTfs; vJTk; thA epiyapy; ,y;iy. RUf;fkhf> xU gy;ypdr; rkepiyapd;
njhFjpfspy;> J}a jpz;kk; my;yJ jputq;fs; rkepiy cz;lhtjw;F ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;>
Mdhy; mtw;wpd; nrwpTfs; my;yJ gFjp mKf;fq;fs; rkepiy khwpypapd; Nfhitapy;
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy. gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpy; xU jpz;kj; jhf;fpAk; kw;Wk; jput ePH cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gbDk;> rkepiyf; Nfhit ,uz;ilAk; nfhz;bUg;gjpy;iy.
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ⇌ 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Kc = [AgNO3(aq)] 2
[HNO3(aq)] 2
Fwpg;G : rkepiy khwpypapd; NfhitapypUe;J J}a jpz;kq;fs; J}a jputq;fs; kw;Wk;

fiug;ghd;fspd; nrwpTfs; jtpHf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Vnddpy; mit rkepiyailag;
NghJkhdjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ mit jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ Fwpg;gpljf;f mstpy;
khw;wkiltjpy;iy.
2.1.9 gygbj;jhf;fq;fSf;Fr; rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhitfs;
Kd;G fw;fhj xU jhf;fj;jpw;F my;yJ gy gbfspy; epfOk; jhf;fj;jpw;Fr; rkepiykhwpypia
mwpe;J nfhs;tJ mtrpak;. mj;jifa re;jHg;gq;fspy; ehk; tpUk;gpa jhf;fj;jpidg;
ngUk;ghYk; rkepiy khwpypfs; njupe;j NtW jhf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifahf vOjg;glyhk;.
mwpag;glhj jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpypiag; gpwjhf;fq;fspd; ml;ltizg;gLj;jg;gl;l
my;yJ fpilf;ff; $ba / kjpg;gPLfspypUe;J fzpf;fyhk; cjhuzkhf A + B ⇌ E+ F
vd;w njhFjpiaf; fUJq;fs; ,q;F KyhtJ jhf;fj;jpy; C Ak; D Ak; tpisthf
cz;lhfpd;wJ. ,t;tpisTfs; NkYk; jk;kpilNa jhf;fKw;W E IAk; F IAk; tpisthff;
nfhLfpd;wd. rkepiyapy; jhf;fq;fSf;F ,uz;L ntt;Ntwhd rkepiy khwpypfis ehk;
vOjyhk;.
A + B ⇌ C+ D
C + D ⇌ E+ F
[C][D] [E][F]
K'c = kw;Wk; K'c =
[A][B] [C][D]
,uz;L jhf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpid tpistpg;gij ehk;

fhzyhk;. vdNt
A + B ⇌ C+ D
C + D ⇌ E+ F
_____________
A + B ⇌ E+ F
83
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy khwpyp

[E][F]
Kc =
[A][B]
Kc I K'c , K"c Mfpatw;wpd; ngUf;fq;fshf ehk; fhzKbAk;.

[C][D] [E][F] [E][F]
K'c K"c = × =
[A][B] [C][D] [A][B]
Kc = K'c K"c
Fwpg;G : xU jhf;fj;ij ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifahf

ntspg;gLj;j KbAkhdhy;> xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp
jdpg;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd; rkepiy khwpypfspd; ngUf;fj;jhy; toq;fg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzkhf 100ºC ,y; N2(g), O2(g) cld; jhf;fKw;W NO2(g) I nfhLf;Fk; jhf;fj;ijf;
fUJNthk;. ,j;jhf;fk; nghJthf ,uz;L ntt;NtW gbfspy; epfo;fpd;wJ. KjyhtJ
jhf;fj;jpy; (I) N2(g)2 ld; O2(g) jhf;fKw;W NO(g) I nfhLf;fpd;wJ. cUthFk; NO(g)
gpd;dH NkYk; O2 ld; jhf;fKw;W jhf;fk; (II) ,y; NO2 If; nfhLf;fpd;wJ. nrwpTfs; epak
%yHjpwd; Co = 1.0 mol dm-3 rhHghf mstplg;gLfpd;wJ vd vLj;Jf;nfhs;Sq;fs;.
N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) : K`c = 2.0 × 10−25 ……(I)
2NO(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) : K"c = 6.4 × 109 ……(II)
jhf;fq;fs; (I) Ak; (II) IAk; $l;Lk;NghJ xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;ijf; nfhLf;fpd;wJ.
N2(g) + 2O2(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) Kc =?
[NO(g)]2 [NO2 (g)]2
K`c = = 2.0 ×10-25 K" c = = 6.4 ×109
[N2 (g)][O2 (g)] 2
[NO(g)] [O2 (g)]
[NO(g)]2 [NO2 (g)]2 [NO2 (g)]2 = Kc

K`c × K" c =
[N2 (g)][O2 (g)] × [NO(g)]2 [O2 (g)]
= 2
[O2 (g)] [N2 (g)]
vdNt Kc = K`c × K" c= (2.0 ×10-25) ( 6.4 ×109 ) = 1.28 ×10-15

Fwpg;G : gygbj; jhf;fq;fspd; rkepiy khwpypfSf;fpilapyhd njhlHig myF 11
,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sgb ,urhad ,af;ftpaypd; nfhs;ifapypUe;Jk; Gupe;J
nfhs;syhk;.
NkNy jug;gl;l cjhuzk; A + B ⇌ E+F I fUJq;fs; xNu jhf;fk; ,uz;L Kjd;ik

jhf;fq;fSldhd xU nghwpKiwiaf; nfhz;bUj;jy;
K`f
A + B ⇌ C + D
K`r
K"f
C + D ⇌ E +F
K"r
K`f [C][D] K``f [E][F]

K'c = = K"c = =
K`r [A][B] K"r [C][D]
84
K`f K"f [C][D] [E][F] [E][F]

K'c K"c = × = × = = Kc
K`r K"r [A][B] [C][D] [A][B]
RUf;fkhf epidtpy; nfhs;sNtz;ba Kf;fpakhd Fwpg;Gfs; gpd;tUkhW
yy rkepiy khwpyp xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU khwpyp my;yJ mJ ntg;gepiyapy;

jq;fpAs;sJ.
yy jpz;kj; jhf;fp ,dq;fspd; nrwpT mol dm-3 ,y; $wg;gLfpd;wJ. thA mtj;ijapy;
cs;stw;wpd; nrwpTfs; mol dm-3 my;yJ Pa (atm) ,y; $wg;gLfpwJ.
Kc xU vspa rkd;ghl;bd; %yk; Kp Ald; njhlHGilaJ.
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
yy J}a jpz;kq;fspd; J}a jputq;fspd; nrwpT (gy;ypdr; rkepiyapy;) fiug;ghdpd;
nrwpT (Xupdr; rkepiyapy;) rkepiy khwpypfSf;fhd Nfhitfspy; fhzg;glkhl;lh.
yy epak epge;jidiag; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; NghJ rkepiy khwpyp (Kc my;yJ Kp) gupkhzkw;w
fzpak;.
rkepiy khwpypapd; ngWkhdj;ij vLj;Jf;$Wk;NghJ> ehk; rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;ilAk;
ntg;gepiyiaAk; Fwpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
yy xU jhf;fj;ij ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifahf
ntspg;gLj;j KbAkhdhy; xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;jpw;fhfr; rkepiy khwpyp jdpg;gl;l
jhf;fq;fspd; rkepiy khwpypfspd; ngUf;fj;jhy; jug;gLfpd;wJ.
K ,d; ngWkhdk; rkepiyr; rkd;ghL vt;thW rkd; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gjpy;
jq;fpAs;sJ.
jpzpTj; jhf;ftpjpapd;gb rkepiyf; NfhitapYs;s xt;nthU nrwpTg; gjKk; rkd;
nra;j rkd;ghl;by; cs;s gPrkhdf; Fzfj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd tYthf caHj;jg;gLfpwJ.
ePq;fs; xU ,urhadr; rkd;ghL KOtijAk; ,ul;bg;ghf;fpdhy; mjDld; njhlHGila
rkepiy khwpyp Kjyhtjhd ngWkhdj;jpd; tHf;fkhf ,Uf;Fk;. ePq;fs; rkd;ghl;il
%d;W klq;fhfr; nra;jhy; rkepiy khwpyp Muk;gg;ngWkhdj;jpd; fdkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
kw;Wk; xU rkd;nra;aj rkd;ghl;by; cs;s Fzfq;fs; n My; ngUf;fg;gl;lhy;> Gjpa
rkepiykhwpyp Kjyhtjhd rkepiykhwpypia n tJ tYthy; caHj;jg;gLtjd; %yk;
ngwg;gLk;.
2.1.10 rkepiy khwpypapd; mbg;gilapy; jhf;fk; eilngWk; jpiria
vjpHT $WjYk; fzpg;gPLfSk;
mwpag;gl;l rkepiyr; nrwpTfspypUe;J nfhLf;fg;gl;l xU jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy khwpypiaf;
fzf;fpl KbAk; vd;gijf; fz;Nlhk;. rkepiy ntg;gepiy khwhtpbd; rkepiy khwpyp
kw;Wk; jhf;fpfspd; Muk;gr; nrwpTk; jug;gl;lhy;> rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; xd;W my;yJ
mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gjhu;j;jq;fspd; nrwpit ehk; fzf;fpl KbAk;. xU jhf;ff; fyit
rkepiyia miltjw;F ve;jj; jpirapy; jhf;fKWk; vd;gijf; fzpf;fr; rkepiy khwpypapd;
ngWkhdk; vkf;F cjTfpwJ. mj;Jld; jhf;fpfs;> kw;Wk; tpisTfspd; nrwpit rkepiy
mile;jTld; fzf;fplTk; cjTk;. rkepiy khwpypfspd; ,g; gad;ghLfs; ,e;jg; gpuptpy;
Muhag;gLfpd;wJ.
85
xU jhf;fj;jpd; jpiria vjpHT $Wjy;

nfhLf;fg;gl;l jhf;fk; ve;j xU epiyapYk; ve;jj; jpirapy; ,Uf;Fk; vd;gijf; fzpf;fr;
rkepiy khwpyp cjTfpd;wJ. ,e;j Nehf;fj;jpw;fhf> ehq;fs; rkepiykhwpypf; Nfhitapy;
Muk;gr;nrwpTfisg; gpujpapl;Lj; jhf;f <T Q I fzf;fpLfpNwhk;. jhf;f <T Q ( QC %yHr;
nrwpTfSld;> Qp gFjp mKf;fq;fSld;) KC I NghyNt tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ> Mdhy; QC
,y; ,Uf;Fk; nrwpTfs; rkepiyg; ngWkhdq;fshf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ mtrpakpy;iy.
xU nghJthd jhf;fj;Jf;F>
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
c
[C] t [D] dt
Qc =
[A] at [B] bt
,q;Nf fPo;f;FwpaPL t nrwpT jd;dpr;irahd t Neuj;jpy; mstplg;gLfpwJ> kw;Wk;

rkepiyapy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd mtrpak; ,y;iy vd;gNj ,jd; mHj;jkhFk;. xU
jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;f <T Q gaDs;sJ Vnddpy; ,jd; ngWkhdq;fis Kc Ald; xg;gpLtjd;
%yk; jhf;fj;jpd; jpiria vjpHT$w cjTfpwJ. Qc, Kc I tplf; Fiwthf (Qc < Kc
,Ue;jhy; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfshf khw;wg;gLtjd; %yk; rkepiyia Nehf;fpa ,af;fk;
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. (mjhtJ> ,q;F tpisAs; jhf;fk; ,lkpUe;J tykhfr; nry;fpd;wJ). Qc
ahdJ Kc I tplg; ngupajhf ,Ue;jhy; (Qc > Kc) tpisTfisj; jhf;fpfshf khw;Wtjd;
%yk; rkepiyia Nehf;fpa ,af;fk; Fiwfpd;wJ. (mjhtJ> epfuj; jhf;fk; tykpUe;J
,lkhfr; nry;fpwJ). Qc ahdJ Kc f;Fr; rkkhf ,Ue;jhy; (Qc = Kc) jhf;fk; Vw;fdNt
rkepiyapy; cs;sJ.NkYk; epfu jhf;fk; Vw;glhJ. ,t;thW jhf;fj;jpd; jpiriag;gw;wp
nghJthd nghJikg;gLj;jy;fis ehk; Vw;gLj;jKbAk;.
yy Qc > Kc Muk;g tpisTfSf;Fk; jhf;fpfSf;Fkpilapyhd nrwpT tpfpjk; kpfg;ngupaJ
rkepiyia miltjw;F tpisTfs; jhf;fpfshf khw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;. njhFjpr; rkepiy
miltjw;F tykpUe;J ,lkhf efUfpd;wJ. (tpisTfs; moptile;J jhf;fpfis
cUthf;FfpwJ)
yy Qc = Kc Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; rkepiyr; nrwpTfshf cs;sd. njhFjpr; rkepiyapy;
cs;sJ.
yy Qc < Kc tpisTfspd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfSf;Fk; jhf;fpfSf;Fkhd tpfpjk; kpfr; rpwpaJ.
rkepiyia miltjw;Fj; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfshf khw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;. rkepiyia
milaj; njhFjp ,lkpUe;J tykhf efu Ntz;Lk;. (jhf;fpfs; mopf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
tpisTfs; cUthfpd;wd.)
cU 2.7 y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s fUj;jpay; tiuglj;jhy; ,ij tpsf;fyhk;.
86
nrwpT
cU 2.7 K kw;Wk; Q ,d; gUkd;fspd; (magnitudes) tpsf;fj;jpw;fhd ntt;NtW ghHitfs;

(a) K kw;Wk; Q ,d; gUkd;fis xg;gpLfpwJ. (b) vg;gbj; jhf;fj;jpd; jpir my;yJ
rkepiyapd; epiy Q d; gUkDf;Nfw;g efUk; vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; (c)
ntt;NtW epiyfspy; jhf;ff; fyitapd; mikg;ig xg;gpLfpwJ> vq;Nf Q = K = 1.5
Mf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ jhf;ff;fyit rkepiyapy; nghUj;jkhd vz;zpf;ifapyhd jhf;fp
kw;Wk; tpisT %yf;$Wfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
cjhuzk; 2.4
2A ⇌ B + C jhf;fj;jpw;fhd Kc ,d; ngWkhdk; 2 × 10–3 MFk;. xU nfhLf;fg;gl;l
Neuj;jpy; jhf;ff; fyitapd; mikg;G [A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10–4 mol dm-3 MFk;.
vj;jpirapy; jhf;fk; njhlUk;?
tpil
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd jhf;f <T Qc gpd;tUkhW toq;fg;gLfpwJ.
[B] [D]
Qc =
[A]2
=(3 ×10–4) (3 × 10–4) / (3 ×10–4)2 = 1

Qc > Kc
MfNt jhf;fk; gpw;jpirapy; njhlUk;.
87
cjhuzk; 2.5
caH ntg;gepiyapy; nkNjd; (CH4(g)) ePuhtpAld; jhf;fk;Gupe;J IjuridAk; fhgd;
nkhndhf;irl;ilAk; gpd;tUkhW cUthf;fpd;wJ.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO(g) + 3H2(g)
900 K ,y; ,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp K = 2.4 × 10−4 MFk;. 1.2 × 10−2 %y;fs;
CH4, 8.0 × 10−3 %y;fs; H2O, 1.6 × 10−2 %y;fs; CO , 6.0 × 10−3 %y;fs; H2 Mfpad
%ba tpiwg;ghd ghj;jpuj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;L 900 K tiu ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
jhf;fk; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fkh my;yJ CO kw;Wk; H2 I cUthf;f tyJGwkhfj;
njhlUkh my;yJ CH4 IAk; H2O IAk; cUthf;f ,lJGwkhfj; njhlUkh?
tpil
Kjypy; fhzg;gLk; gjhu;j;jq;fspd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfisf; fz;Lgpbg;Nghk;. cjhuzkhf
1.2 × 10−2 moles CH4 ,2.0 dm3 nfhs;fydpy; cs;sJ. CH4(g)] = 1.2 × 10−2 mol/ 2.0 dm3
= 6.0 × 10−3 mol dm-3
,NjNghd;W ehk; gpd;tUk; nrwpTfisf; fzpf;fyhk;.
[H2O(g)] = 4.0 × 10−3mol dm-3, [CO(g)] = 8.0 × 10−3mol dm-3, [H2(g)] = 3.0 × 10−3mol dm-3.
[CO(g) ] [H2 (g)]3
Qc =
[CH4 (g)][H2 O(g)]
(8 ×10-3) (3 ×10-3)3
=
(6 ×10-3) (4 ×10-3)
= 9.0 ×10-6
Qc < K (2.4 ×10-4)
tpisTfspd; nrwpTfSf;Fk; jhf;fpfspd; nrwpTfSf;Fkpilapyhd tpfpjk; rkepiyf;

fyitf;fhd tpfpjj;jpYk; FiwT MfNt jhf;fk; tyJGwkhfj; njhlUk;. H2O, CH4
Mfpatw;wpd; jhf;fj;jpdhy; H2> kw;Wk; CO cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
88
cjhuzk; 2.6
1.5 mol, N2, 2.0 mol, H2, 8.0 mol NH3 vd;gdtw;iwf; nfhz;l fyit 20.0 dm3 tpiwg;ghd
%ba ghj;jpuj;jpw;Fs; 500 K ,y; cl;GFj;jg;gl;lJ. ,t;ntg;gepiyapy; ,t; N2(g)
+ 3H2(g) = 2NH3(g) jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiykhwpyp 1.7 × 102 ,t; jhf;ff; fyit
rkepiyapy; cs;sjh? ,y;iynadpy; jhf;fk; eilngWk; / ,lk;ngaUk; jpir vd;d?
tpil
N2(g) thAtpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT 1.5/20 = 7.5 ×10-2 mol dm-3 mNjNghd;W [H2(g)] = 1.0
×10-1 mol dm-3 kw;Wk; [NH3(g)] = 4.0 ×10-1 mol dm-1 ,r; nrwpTfis Q ,d; Nfhitapy;
gpujpapLk;NghJ>
[NH3(g) ]2 (4.0 × 10-1)2
Qc = =
[N2(g)] [H2(g) ]3 (7.5 ×10-2) (1.0 ×10-1) 3
= 2.1 ×104
Qc, Kc f;Fr; rkkhdjhf ,y;iy vd;gjhy;> jhf;ff; fyit rkepiyapy; ,y;iy.

Qc > Kc
vdNt jhf;fk; tykpUe;J ,lkhfj; njhlUk;. vdNt NH3 ,d; nrwpT Fiwfpd;wJ.
Qc = Kc Mf tUk; tiu N2 kw;Wk; H2 d; nrwpTfs; mjpfupf;Fk;.
NkNy vLj;Jf; $wg;gl;l cjhuzq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLk; mwpitf; nfhz;L Qc Neuj;Jld;

vt;thW khWgLfpd;wJ vd;gij cU 2.8 %yk; fhl;lyhk;.
rkepiy
Neuk;
cU 2.8 Neuj;Jld; Q d; khWghl;il tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. Muk;g Q thdJ K I tplf; Fiwthf
,Ug;gpd; Kd;Ndhf;fpa jhf;fk; rhjfkhfp Neuj;Jld; Q mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. Q , K I tpl
ngupjhf ,Ue;jhy; gpd;Kfj; jhf;fk; rhjfkhf Q = K vd;w epiyia milAk; tiu Q
Neuj;Jld; Fiwe;J nry;fpd;wJ.
cUf;fs; 2.5 kw;Wk; 2.8 ,d; cjtpAld;> gpd;tUtdtw;iw ehk; ftdpf;fyhk;.
rkepiyf;F Kd;G> ∆G < 0 mj;Jld; Q < K jhf;fk; Kw;jpirapy; jd;dpr;irahf cs;sJ.

rkepiyapy;> ∆G = 0 mj;Jld; Q = K
rkepiyf;F mg;ghy;> ∆G > 0 kw;Wk; Q > K jhf;fk; gpw;jpirapy; jd;dpr;irahdJ.
89
Fwpg;G : xU njhFjp rkepiyapy; cs;sjh vd;gijj; jPHkhdpf;fj; jhf;f <T (Q)

gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. mt;thW ,y;iynad;why; jhf;fj;jpiria vjpHT $Wtjw;F
cjTfpd;wJ.
2.1.11 rkepiyr; nrwpTfisf; fzf;fpLjy;

XH gpur;rpidapy; Muk;gr; nrwpTfis ehk; mwpe;jpUf;fpNwhk;. Mdhy; rkepiyr; nrwpTfs;
vJTk; njupahJ> vdNt gpd;tUk; %d;W gbfs; gpd;gw;wg;gLk;.
gb 1 jhf;fj;Jf;Fr; rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;il vOJq;fs;
gb 2 rkd;nra;j rkd;ghl;bd; fPo;> jhf;fj;jpy; <Lgl;Ls;s xt;nthU gjhHj;jj;jpw;Fk;
gl;baypLk; ml;ltizia cUthf;fTk;.
(a) Muk;gr; nrwpT
(b) rkepiyf;Fr; nry;Yk;NghJ nrwptpd; khw;wk; (χ)
(c) rkepiyr; nrwpT
ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;Gk;nghOJ χ I (my;yJ α) rkepiyf;Fr; nry;Yk;NghJ
rkepiyia miltjw;Fj; jhf;fk; GupAk; gjhHj;jq;fspd; xd;wpd; jhf;fKw;w nrwpthf
(mol dm-3) (my;yJ $l;lg;gpupif msT tiuaWj;J gpd;G jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhdj;ij
cgNahfpj;J kw;wg; gjhu;j;jq;fspd; nrwpTfis χ rhu;ghfj; jPu;khdpf;Ff.
gb 3 rkepiyr; nrwpTfisr; rkepiyf; Nfhitapy; gpujpapl;L> jPu;j;J χ Ig; ngWf.
ePq;fs; xU ,Ugbr;rkd;ghl;ilj; jPHf;f Ntz;Lnkd;why; ,urhad mHj;jKs;s
fzpjj; jPHitj; NjHT nra;f. χ ,d; fzf;fplg;gl;l ngWkhdj;ij cgNahfpj;J
rkepiyr; nrwpTfisf; fzf;fpLq;fs;.
cjhuzk; 2.7
H2(g) cld; I2(g) milAk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp KC 800 K ,y; 64.0
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
H2(g) ,d; 1.00 mol , I2(g) ,d; 1.00 mol Mfpad 10.0 dm3 ,d; tpiwg;ghd %ba
ghj;jpuj;jpy; 800 K ,y; jhf;fkila tplg;gl;ld. rkepiyapy; H2(g), I2(g), HI(g)
Mfpatw;wpd; nrwpTfs; vd;d? rkepiyf; fyitapd; mikg;G %y;fspy; ahJ?
tpil
Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; [H2(g)] = [I2(g)] = 1.00 mol / 10.0 dm3
= 0.10 mol dm-3
trjpf;fhfj; jhf;fKw;w H2(g) thAtpd; nrwpit х mol dm-3 vd tiuaWf;fTk;.
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;bd;gb H2(g) ,d; х mol dm-3 I2(g) ,d; х mol dm-3
cld; jhf;fKw;W 2хmol dm-3 HI(g) Ij; jUfpwJ. ,J H2(g) kw;Wk; I2(g) ,d; Muk;gr;
nrwpTfis 0.10 mol dm-3 ,ypUe;J (0.10 - х)mol dm-3 Mfr; rkepiyapy; Fiwtilar;
nra;fpd;wJ.
90
rkd; nra;j rkd;ghl;bd; fPo; ,tw;iw xU ml;ltizapy; RUf;fkhff; $wyhk;.

H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
-3
Muk;gk; / mol dm 0.1 0.1 0
khw;wk; / mol dm-3 -χ -χ +2χ
rkepiy / mol dm-3 (0.10 - χ) (0.10 -χ) 2χ
[HI(g)]2
rkepiy khwpyp Kc=
[H2 (g)] [I2 (g)]
2
(2χ)2 (2χ)2 (2χ)
ngWkhdq;fisg; gpujpaply; 64.0 = = = � �
(0.10-χ) (0.10-χ) (0.10-χ)2 (0.10-χ)
,Ugf;fKk; tHf;f %yj;ij + 8.0; = (2χ)

0.10 -χ
vLj;Jf; nfhs;Sk; NghJ
0.80 - 8χ = 2χ
vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy;
x = 0.08 mol dm-3
2χ
(- 8 = vd vLj;jhy;> x = 0.13 mol dm-3
(0.10-χ)
vdg; ngWfpNwhk;. Muk;gr; nrwpT 0.10mol dm-3 vd;gjhy; ,ij
Vw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ.)
[H2 (g) ] [I2 (g) ] = 0.02 mol dm-3 , [HI(g) ] = 0.16 mol dm-3
fyitapd; mikg;G H2 (g) = I2 (g) = 0.02 mol dm-3 × 10.0 dm3

= 0.2 mol
kw;Wk; HI(g) =1.6 mol
cjhuzk; 2.8
Kd;ida cjhuzj;jpy; cs;s jhf;fj;ij mNj ntg;gepiyapy; fUJf. H2(g),
I2(g)> kw;Wk; HI(g) Mfpatw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; KiwNa 0.006 mol dm-3,
0.004 mol dm-3, kw;Wk; 0.02 mol dm-3 MFk;. ,t; ,dq;fspd; nrwpTfisr; rkepiyapy;
fzpf;Ff.
tpil
Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; rkepiyr; nrwpTfis xj;jpUf;fhjjhy; rkepiyapy; H2(g) kw;Wk;
I2(g) ,d; nrwpTf; FiwT х mol dm-3 vd;f. jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhzj;jpypUe;J HI d;
nrwpT mjpfupg;G 2х Mf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Muk;gk; / mol dm-3 0.006 0.004 0.02
khw;wk; / mol dm-3 -χ -χ +2χ
rkepiy / mol dm-3 (0.006 - χ) (0.004 -χ) (0.02 +2χ)
[HI(g)]2 (0.02 +2 χ)2

rkepiy khwpyp Kc= = 64 =
([H2 (g)] [I2 (g)]) (0.006 - χ) (0.004 - χ)
91
ngUf;fy;> xU ,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;il mspf;fpwJ.

60х2 - 0.72 х + 11.34 × 10-4 = 0
,J aх2 + bх + c = 0 vd;Dk; tifahFk;. kw;Wk; х w;fhd jPHTfs;
х=
̶ b+ √b 2
̶ 4 ac
2a
,Ugb rkd;ghl;bw;F ,ijg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; х = 0.01 mol dm-3 my;yJ

0.002 mol dm-3 Ig; ngWfpNwhk;. ngWkhdk; 0.01 mol dm-3 rkepiyr; nrwpthf
Vw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ> Muk;gr; nrwpit tpl mjpfkhf ,Uf;f KbahJ vdNt х
w;F Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l ngWkhdk; 0.002 mol dm-3
,g;NghJ rkepiyr; nrwpTfs;
[H2 (g)] = (0.006 - 0.002) = 0.004 mol dm-3
[I2 (g)] = (0.004 - 0.002) = 0.002 mol dm-3
[HI(g)] = (0.02+ 0.004) = 0.024 mol dm-3
nrwpT
rkepiy
Neuk;
cU 2.9 H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) vDk; ,urhadj; jhf;fj;jpy; ,U jpirfspypUe;Jk; rkepiyia
milayhk;. jhf;fj;ijf; fyit H2(g) kw;Wk; I2(g) cld; my;yJ HI(g) cld; (tyJ
my;yJ ,lJ) ,UGwKk; njhlq;fyhk; vd;gJ tpsq;FfpwJ. H2(g) kw;Wk; I2(g) fyitAld;
njhlq;Fk;NghJ mtw;wpd; msT FiwfpwJ HI(g) msT mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. NtW topapy;
jhf;fj;ij HI(g) cld; njhlq;fpdhy;> H2(g) kw;Wk; I2(g) Mfpatw;wpd; msT Neuj;Jld;
mjpfupf;fpwJ. mNj Neuj;jpy; HI(g) ,d; msT FiwfpwJ.
92
cjhuzk; 2.9
0.15 %y;fs; N2O4 thA 1.0 dm3 %ba tpiwg;ghd jhf;fg; ghj;jpuj;jpy; 400 K ,y;
itf;fg;gl;L N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) vDk; rkepiyia mila mDkjpf;fg;gl;lJ.
rkepiyapy; nkhj;j mKf;fk; 9.0 × 105 Pa vdf; fz;lwpag;gl;lJ. rkepiyapy;
xt;nthd;wpdJk; gFjp mKf;fq;fisAk;> kw;Wk; Kp , KC IAk; fzpf;f.
tpil
N2O4(g); ,yl;rpa elj;ij cilaJ vdf; fUJf.
PV = nRT
PN = 0.15 mol × 8.314 J mol-1 K-1 × 400 K ≈ 5.0 ×105 Pa
2 O4
1 ×10-3m3

vdNt> Muk;g mKf;fk; = 4.98 ×105 Pa
jhf;fj;ijf; fUJq;fs; N2O4 (g) ⇌ 2NO2
Muk;g mKf;fk; / Pa 5.0 ×105 0
mKf;f khw;wk; / Pa -х 2х
rkepiy mKf;fk; / Pa (5.0 ×105 ̶ х ) 2х
rkepiyapy; nkhj;j mKf;fk; P = PN + PNO

2 O4 2
(9.0 ×10 Pa = [(5.0 ×10 –х ) + 2х ]Pa

5 5
x = 4.0 ×105 Pa
PN O = 1.0 ×105 Pa kw;Wk; PNO = 8.0 ×105 Pa
2 4 2
(PNO ) 2 (8.0 ×105 Pa)2

K p= 2 = =6.4 ×106 Pa
(PN O ) (1.0 ×105 Pa)
2 4
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n ; ∆n = 2 - 1 = 1
Kp 6.4 ×106 Pa×10-3
Kc= = 1.9 mol dm-3
(RT ) = 8.314×400 J mol-1

cjhuzk; 2.10
fhgd; nkhNdhf;irl;L %yk; mad; (II) xl;irl;il jho;j;jpaNghJ cNyhf ,Uk;igAk;>
fhgdPnuhl;irl;ilAk; jUfpd;wJ. 1000 K ,y; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp 0.25.
FeO(s) + CO(g) ⇌ Fe(s) + CO2(g)
Muk;gg; gFjp mKf;fq;fs; CO(g) kw;Wk; CO2(g) KiwNa 1.0 × 105 Pa, 0.50 × 105 Pa
vdpd;> 1000 K ,y; CO(g) kw;Wk; CO2(g) Mfpatw;wpd; rkepiyg; gFjp mKf;fq;fs;
ahit? fzf;fplg;gl;l ngWkhdq;fs; gw;wpf; fUj;Jj; njuptpf;fTk;.
tpil
Muk;gg;gFjp mKf;fq;fspypUe;J rkepiyg; gFjp mKf;fq;fisf; fzf;fpl KbAk;.
kw;Wk; mNjNghy; Muk;gr; nrwpTfspypUe;J rkepiyr; nrwpTfisf; fzf;fpl KbAk;
nrwpTfSf;Fg; gFjp mKf;fq;fisg; gpujpaPL nra;f.
93
FeO(s) + CO(g) ⇌ Fe(s) + CO2(g)

Muk;g mKf;fk; / Pa 1.0 ×105 0.50 ×105
mKf;f khw;wk; / Pa -х +х
rkepiy mKf;fk; / Pa (1.0 ×10 ̶ х )
5
(0.50×105 + х )
(PCO ) (0.50 ×105+ х)
Kp= 2 (g)
= 0.25 = (1.0 ×105- х)
(PCO (g))
0.25 ×105 - 0.25х = 0.50 ×105 + х

х = ̶ 0.20 ×105 Pa
∴ PCO(g) = 1.20 ×105 Pa
PCO (g) = 0.30 ×105 Pa
2
х ,w;fhd kiwg; ngWkhdk; vd;gJ rkepiy milaj; jhf;fk; tpisTfspypUe;J

0.5
jhf;fpfSf;Fr; nry;fpwJ vd;gjhFk;. ,J Muk;gj; jhf;f <T Qp = 1.0 = 0.5 >Kp
rkepiy khwpypia tplg; ngupjhfTs;sJ. ,jd; tpisthfj; jhf;fk; vg;nghOJk;
tpistpypUe;J jhf;fpfSf;F (tykpUe;J ,lkhf) nry;fpwJ. PCO(g) kw;Wk; PCO2 (g)
,d; ngwg;gl;l ngWkhdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp Kp ia kPsf; fzf;fpLtjd; %yk;
,jid cWjpg;gLj;jyhk;. ehk; ngWtJ K = (0.30 ×105 Pa) = 0.25 vdNt jug;gl;l
p (1.20 ×105 Pa)
jhf;fk; ,lJGwk; nry;fpwJ.
cjhuzk; 2.11
Cf;fp Kd;dpiyapy; vjpyPd; (C2H4) cld; Ijurd; H2 w;fhd ,urhadr; rkd;ghL
Cf;fpapd; Kd;dpiyapy; vNjhd; (C2H6) I nfhLf;fpwJ.
H2(g) + C2H4(g) ⇌ C2H6(g)
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp 25 °C ,y; Kc= 9.6 × 1018 , 0.200 mol dm-3 H2(g), 0.155
mol dm-3 C2H4(g) fyit J}shf;fg;gl;l Cf;fpapd; Kd;epiyapy; 25 °C Ngzg;gl;lJ>
rkepiyf; fyitapy; xt;nthU gjhHj;jj;jpdJk; nrwpT ahJ?
tpil
Kc ,d; kpfg;ngupa ngWkhdk; jhf;fk; epiwTngWk; vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mjhtJ>
H2 thAtpd; msTC2H4(g) (0.200 mol dm-3) C2H4(g) msit tpl caHe;j mstpy;
,Ug;gjpdhy;> C2H6 jahupf;f 0.155 mol dm-3 ,d; C2H4(g) Kw;whf Efug;gLfpwJ
vd;gJ njspT. vdNt H2(g) ,d; kPjKs;s msT (0.200 -0.155) mol dm-3 = 0.045 mol
dm-3 Kd;Ndhf;fpa jhf;fj;jpd; Kc kpf caHthf ,Ug;gjhy;> gpd;Kfj; jhf;fj;jpd;
rkepiy khwpyp kpfr; rpwpjha; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j mbg;gilapy; gpd;tUkhW ehk;
fUjyhk;. gpd;Kfj; jhf;fj;jpy; C2H4(g) Efug;gLk; msT х vd nfhz;L jhf;fk;
Kw;WngWk; NghJ gpd;tUkhW rkepiyf; fl;likg;G fUjg;gLfpwJ.
H2(g)+ C2H4(g) ⇌ C2H6(g)
-3
Muk;gk; / mol dm 0.045 0.0 0.155
khw;wk; / mol dm-3 +х +х ̶ х
rkepiy / mol dm -3
(0.045+х ) х 0.155 ̶ х
94
[C2 H6 (g)] (0.155 - х) (0.155 )

Kc= = 9.6 × 1018 = ≈ ( х kpfr; rpwpajhifahy;)
[H2 (g) ] [C2 H4 (g)] (0.045+х) х (0.045)х
х = 3.6 × 10-19 mol dm-3

[H2(g)] = 0.045 mol dm-3
[C2H4(g)] = 3.6 × 10-19 mol dm-3
[C2H6(g)] = 0.155 mol dm-3
Kc Nfhitapy; nrwpTfspd; ngWkhdq;fisg; gpujpapLtjd; %yk; tpilia

cWjpg;gLj;jyhk;.
[C2 H6 (g)] 0.155
Kc= ≈ = 9.6 ×1018
[H2 (g) ] [C2 H4 (g)] 0.045 (3.6 ×10-19)
mjhtJ mDkhdpf;fg;gl;lit rupahdjhFk;.
2.1.12 rkepiyiag; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;

NkYs;s fye;Jiuahly;fspypUe;J ,urhadr; rkepiy vd;gJ %ba tpiwg;ghd njhFjpapy;
xU khwh ntg;gepiyapy; Kd;Kf gpd;Kfj; jhf;fq;fspw;F ,ilapyhd xU rkg;gLj;jpa
epiyahFk;. gupNrhjid epge;jidfspy; khw;wk;> mr;rkg;gLj;jpa epiyiaf; Fog;gpf; $ba
my;yJ Fiwe;jsT tpUk;gpa tpisnghUs; cUthFkhW rkepiyj; jhdj;ij khw;Wk;.
cjhuzkhfr; rkepiyj;jhdk; tyg;Gwkhf efHfpd;wJ vdf; $wpdhy;> ehk; fUJtJ
ahnjdpd; tpisTfshf eilngWk; jhf;fk; ,lJGwj;jpypUe;J tyg;Gwkhf MFk;. my;yJ
mjw;F kWjiyahf MFk;. gupNrhjid thapyhff; fl;Lg;gLj;jf;$ba fhuzpfshtd
nrwpT> mKf;fk;> fdtsT> ntg;gepiy Nghd;wd MFk;. ,q;F ehk; rkepiyapYs;s xU
njhFjpia xt;nthU khwpAk; vt;thW ghjpf;fpd;wJ vd;gJ gw;wpg; guPl;rpg;Nghk;. rkepiyf;
fyitapd; mikg;ig NkYs;s khwpfs; vt;thW gz;gwpuPjpahfg; ghjpf;Fk; vd;gijg;
gpnuQ;R ,urhapdp n`d;wp -Y}ap]; ,ypr;rw;wNyaH ((Henri-Louis Le Chātelier) vd;gtuhy;
Kjypy; gpuNahfpf;fg;gl;l jj;Jtj;ij cgNahfpj;J vjpHT $wyhk;.
,yPr;rw;wpNyaupd; jj;Jtk; Le Chātelier’s principle:

xU njhFjpapd; rkepiy epge;jidfisj; jPHkhdpf;Fk; VjhtJ fhuzpfspd; khw;wk;>
njhFjpia mk;khw;wj;jpd; tpisitf; Fiwg;gjw;F my;yJ <Lnra;tjw;F Vw;g khw;wkilar;
nra;Ak;
yy NrHf;fg;gl;l jhf;fp / tpisTr; nrwptpd; mOj;jk; NrHf;fg;gl;l gjhHj;jk; Efug;gLk;
tpisAs; jhf;fk; epfo;tjd; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;.
yy mfw;wg;gl;l jhf;fp / tpisTfs; nrwptpd; mOj;jk;> mfw;wg;gl;l gjhHj;jk;
kWgbAk; cUthFk; jpirapy; tpisAs; jhf;fk; epfo;tjd; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;.
my;yJ NtnwhU tpjkhf : 'rkepiyapYs;s jhf;fj;jpy;> VjhtJ xU jhf;fpapd; my;yJ
tpistpd; nrwptpy; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jpdhy;> nrwpT khw;wj;jpd; tpisit ,opthf;FkhW
rkepiyf; fyitapd; mikg;G khw;wkilAk;".
gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;ijf; fUJNthk;. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
rkepiyapYs;s jhf;ff; fyitapDs; H2(g) Ir; NrHj;jhy;> jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy
Fog;gg;gLfpd;wJ. mjid kPz;Lk; mila> jhf;fk; H2(g) Efug;gLk; jpirapy; Kd;Ndhf;fp
eilngWk;. mjhtJ $Ljyhd H2(g), I2(g) jhf;fp 2HI(g) cUthFk;> ,Wjpapy; rkepiy
tyg;Gwkhf (Kd;Ndhf;fp) efUk;. ,J ,ypr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtg;gb epfo;fpd;wJ> jhf;fp
95
my;yJ tpisitr; NrHf;Fk; nghOJ jhf;fp / tpistpd; nrwpT NrHj;j gpd;G cs;sjpYk;
FiwthfTk; Mdhy; Muk;g jhf;ff; fyitapYk; caHthfTk; ,Uf;FkhW fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ.
Muk;g rkepiy Gjpa rkepiy
Neuk;
cU 2.10 H2(g) Ir; NrHg;gjdhy; ngwg;gLk; tpistpdhy; vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpd; jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs;
Mfpatw;wpd; nrwpTfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk;.
jhf;f <T Qc vd;Dk; gjj;jpd; %yk; ,t; elj;ijia tpsf;fyhk;.

[HI(g)]2
Qc =
[H2 (g)] [I2 (g) ]
rkepiyapy; Ijuridr; NrHj;jy;> tpFjpapd; ngWkhdj;jpy; mjpfupg;ig Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ>

,jdhy;> Qc apd; ngWkhdk;> Kc apYk; ghHf;ff; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. vdNt ,t; mOj;jj;ij
tpLtpf;ff; $Ljyhd H2(g) Efug;gl;L Kd;Kfj; jhf;fk; MSfpd;wjhfpd;wJ. vdNt njhFjp
Kd;Kfj; jhf;fj;ij Kd;Ndhf;fp efHj;jp> njhFjp kPsr; rupnra;J xU Gjpa Kd;Kfj;
jhf;fj;ij Kd;Ndhf;fp efHj;jp tpisTfspd; nrwpit mjpfupf;Fk;.
Ma;Tr; rhiyapy; vspikahfg; gupNrhjpf;ff; $ba ,d;ndhU rkepiyj;njhFjp Iron (III)
njhFjpahFk;. [Fe(SCN)3] ,yFtpy; ePupy; fiue;J rptg;G epwf; fiuriyj; jUk;.
rptg;G epwj;jpw;Ff; fhuzk; ePH Vw;wg;gl;l [FeSCN]2+ madhFk;. Fe3+ SCN-mad;fspw;Fk;
$l;lg;gpupifailahj [FeSCN]2+ apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd rkepiy fPNo fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
[FeSCN]2+(aq) ⇌ Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq)
rptg;G epwk; ,sk;kQ;rs; epwk; epwkw;wJ
fiurypDs; Nrhbak; jNahraNdw;W (NaSCN) ,l;lJk;> rkepiyj; njhFjpf;Fg; gpuNahfpj;j
mOj;jk; SCN-(aq) nrwpit mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,t;tOj;jj;ij tpLtpf;f> rpy Fe3+(aq)
mad;fs; NrHf;fg;gl;l SCN-(aq) mad;fSld; jhf;fKw;W> rkepiy tyg;Gwj;jpypUe;J
,lg;Gwkhf efHe;J fiurypd; rptg;G epwk; mjpfupf;Fk;. ,NjNghy; Fe3+(aq) mad;fis
Muk;g fiurypDs; NrHj;jhy; rptg;Gepwk; mjpfupf;Fk;> fhuzk; Nkyjpf Fe3+(aq) mad;fs;
rkepiyia tyg;Gj;jpypUe;J ,lg;Gwkhf efHj;Jfpd;wJ.
NkYk; ehk; NkYs;s rkepiyiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjpdhy;>
Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) ⇌ [FeSCN]2+(aq)
,sk;kQ;rs; epwk; epwkw;wJ rptg;G
ehk; njupTnra;J ,Lk; jhf;fp my;yJ tpisnghUisg; nghWj;J ,r;rkepiy Kd;Kfkhf
my;yJ gpd;Kfkhf efuyhk;. Fe3+(aq) my;yJ SCN-(aq) mad;fis mfw;Wk; Nrhjidg;
nghUl;fisr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; rkepiyia vjpHj; jpirapy; efur; nra;ayhk;.
cjhuzkhf> xl;rhypf;F mkpyk; (H2C2O4), Fe3+(aq) mad;fSld; jhf;fKw;W cWjpahd
96
rpf;fy; mad; [Fe(C2O4)3]3– Ij; Njhw;Wtpj;J RahjPd Fe3+(aq) nrwpit Fiwf;fpd;wJ.

,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtg;gb Fe3+(aq) I mfw;Wtjdhy; cs;s nrwpT mOj;jk;> [Fe(SCN)]2+
gpupifailtjdhy; kPs cUthFk; Fe3+(aq) mad;fspdhy; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. [Fe(SCN)]2+
nrwpT Fiwtiltjdhy; rptg;G epwr; nrwpT Fiwtilfpd;wJ.
,t;tpisitf; fPNo fhl;ba jhf;fq;fspdhy; tpsq;fg;gLj;jyhk;.
3H2C2O4(aq) + Fe3+(aq) → [Fe(C2O4)3]3- (aq) + 6H+(aq) kw;Wk;
[FeSCN]2+(aq) ⇌ Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq)
HgCl2 it ,LtJk; rptg;G epwr; nrwpitf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ. fhuzk; Hg2+(aq) MdJ
SCN–(aq) mad;fSld; jhf;fKw;W cWjpahd rpf;fy; [Hg(SCN)4]2– I cUthf;Ffpd;wJ.
RahjPd SCN–(aq) I mfw;wy;> SCN–(aq) mad;fis kPsg;ngWtjw;F rkepiyia
tyg;Gwj;jpypUe;J tyg;Gwkhf efHj;Jk;. kWgf;fkhf KSCN Ir; NrHj;jhy; fiurypd;
epwr; nrwpit mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
HgCl2(aq) + 4SCN-(aq) → [Hg(SCN)4]2-(aq) + 2Cl- (aq) kw;Wk;
[FSCN]2+(aq) ⇌ Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq)
cjhuzk; :
mNkhdpahtpd; cw;gj;jpf;fhd VgH KiwapYs;s rkepiyj; njhFjpiaf; fUJNthk;.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) KC = 0.291 at 700 K
0.50 mol dm-3 N2(g), 3.00 mol dm-3 H2(g), 1.98 mol dm-3 NH3(g) vd;gdtw;iwAila 700 K apYs;s
rkepiyf; fyit vk;kplk; cs;snjdpd;> N2(g) nrwpit 1.50 mol dm-3 Mf mjpfupj;J.
ehk; rkepiyiaf; Fog;gpdhy;> N2(g) nrwpT mjpfupg;gpdhy; cs;s mOj;jj;ijr; rpy N2(g)
I NH3(g) Mf khw;wp tpLtpf;fyhk; vd ,ypr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; $Wfpd;wJ. Kd;Kfj;
jpirapy; thA %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if Fiwtile;J mOj;jj;ij tpLtpf;fpd;wJ
vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. mjhtJ N2(g) nrwpT FiwtilAk;nghOJ rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;bd;
gPrkhdg;gb H2(g) nrwpTk; Fiwa Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; NH3(g) nrwpT mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,k;khw;wq;fisg; gpd;tUk; cU 2.11 ,dhy; tpsf;fyhk;.
Muk;g rkepiy Gjpa rkepiy
rkepiy
ay;y
Neuk;
cU 2.11 N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) vd;Dk; jhf;fj;jpy; N2 itr; NrHg;gjd; tpistpdhy;> jhf;fpfs;>
tpisTfs; vd;gdtw;wpd; nrwpTfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wk;
rkepiyf;F ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;ijg; gpuNahfpf;f> N2(g) my;yJ H2(g) nrwpit

mjpfupj;J my;yJ NH3(g) nrwpitf; Fiwj;J tpisT mNkhdpahit mjpfupf;fyhk; vd
tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. fPNoAs;s tupg;glk; rkepiyj; jhf;fj;jpy; tpisT gw;wpa xU mOj;jj;ij
vkf;Fj; jUfpd;wJ.
97
mjpfupj;jy; mjpfupjy; Fiwjy;

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Fiwjy; Fiwjy; mjpfupj;jy;
rptg;G : rkepiy tyJg;Gwk; efu;jy;
ePyk; : rkepiy ,lJGwk; efu;jy;
cU 1 N2(g) my;yJ H2(g) nrwpT mjpfupg;G my;yJ (NH3(g) nrwpTf; FiwT rkepiyia
,lg;Gwj;jpypUe;J tyg;Gwkhf efHj;Jfpd;wJ. N2(g) my;yJ H2(g) nrwpTf; FiwT
my;yJ NH3(g) nrwpT mjpfupg;G rkepiyia tyg;Gwj;jpypUe;J ,lg;Gwkhf
efHj;Jfpd;wJ.
,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;JtkhdJ gpuNahfpf;fg;gLk; mOj;jj;Jld; rkepiyf; fyitapd;
mikg;G khw;wq;fis vjpHT $Wfpd;wNjnahopa> mJ Vd; mt;thwhd khw;wq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd.
vd;gij tpsf;ftpy;iy. vdpDk; jhf;f <it Qc> fUj;jpnyLj;J ehk; mt;tpisit
tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;. 0.50 mol dm-3 N2(g), 3.00 mol dm-3 H2(g), 1.98 mol dm-3 NH3(g) vd;gtw;iw
cila Muk;gr; rkepiyf; fyitf;F 700 K apy; Qc ahdJ rkepiy khwpyp Kc apw;Fk;
rkk; (0.291) fhuzk; njhFjp rkepiyapYs;sJ.
[NH3 (g) ]2 [1.98]2
Qc = = = 0.29 = Kc
[N2 (g) ] [H2(g) ]3 [0.5][3.0]3
N2 (g) nrwptpid 1.50 mol dm-3 Mf mjpfupj;Jr; rkepiyiaf; Fog;Gk;NghJ> rkepiy

khwpypf; Nfhitapd; tpFjp mjpfupf;fpd;wJ> Qc ahdJ Kc ngWkhdj;jpYk; Fiwe;j
mstpw;Ff; Fiwfpd;wJ.
[NH3 (g) ]2 [1.98]2
Qc = = = 0.0968 < Kc
[N2 (g) ] [H2(g) ]3 [0.5][3.0]3
njhFjp Gjpa rkepiyj; jhdj;jpw;F efHtjw;F> Qc mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ rkepiy

khwpypf; Nfhitapd; njhFjp mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;> tpFjp FiwaNtz;Lk;. ,J N2 (g),
H2(g) MdJ NH3(g) Mf khWk; epfu khw;wk; ,ypr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT $wpathW
epfo;fpd;wJ vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;Lf;fpd;wJ. cU 2.11 ,y; fhl;bathW Gjpa rkepiy
va;jg;gLk;nghOJ nrwpTfs; gpd;tUkhW 1.31 mol dm-3 N2(g), 2.43 mol dm-3 H2(g), 2.36 mol
dm-3 NH3(g), Qc kPz;Lk; Kc apw;F rkkhfpd;wJ.
[2.36]2
Qc = = 0.29 = Kc
[1.31] [2.43]3
cjhuzk; :
jpz;kk; ⇌ thAj; njhFjpfspw;F ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;jpd; gpuNahfk;:
,Uk;Gj;jhJ ,Uk;G cNyhfkhf CJiyapy; jho;j;jg;gLk;NghJ> Iron (III) Oxide ,w;Fk;
fhgd; Xnuhl;irl;bw;Fk; ,ilapy; jhf;fk; epfo;fpd;wJ.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ⇌ 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
98
rkepiyf; fyit gpd;tUkhW Fog;gg;gLk;nghOJ epfuj; jhf;fj;jpd; jpiria vjpHT $w

ehk; ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;ijg; gad;gLj;JNthk;.
a. Fe2O3 Ir; NrHj;jy;
b. CO2 it mfw;wy;
c. CO it mfw;wy;> jhf;f <it Qc gad;gLj;jp khw;wj;jpw;Ff; fhuzk; $wy;
(a) Fe2O3 J}a jpz;kkhjyhy;> mjd; nrwpT 1 ,w;Fr; rkd;> Fe2O3 ia $Ljyhfr;
NrHf;Fk;NghJ mJ khwhJ. MfNt ,q;F nrwpT mOj;jk; ,y;iy. Vw;fdNtAs;s
rkepiyiaf; Fog;gg;glkhl;lhJ.
(b) CO2 it mfw;Wtjdhy; cs;s nrwpT mOj;jk;> CO2 it NkYk; Njhw;Wtpf;ff;
$bathW epfuj;jhf;fk; jhf;fpfspypUe;J tpistpw;F efuy; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
vd ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT $wg;gLfpd;wJ.
(c) mfw;wg;gLk; CO tpdhy; cs;s nrwpT mOj;jk;> tpisTfspypUe;J jhf;fpfSf;F
epfuj;jhf;fk; efHtjdhy; NkYk; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLk; CO tpdhy; tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ
vd ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT $Wfpd;wJ.
[CO2 (g) ]3
jhf;f <T Qc =
[CO(g) ]3
CO(g) I Fiwg;gjd; %yk; rkepiy Fog;gg;gbd; Qc mjpfupf;fpd;wJ> MfNt Qc > Kc
njhFjp Gjpa rkepiyia Nehf;fp efHtjw;F> Qc Fiwa Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ [CO2] Fiwa
Ntz;Lk;. [CO] mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;. MfNt epfuj;jhf;fk; ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT
$wpathW jhf;fpfis Nehf;fpr; nry;y Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; : 1
gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;f <af;fhgNdw;whdJ> <a xl;irl;lhfTk; fhgd;<nuhl;irl;lhfTk;

gpupifailfpd;wJ.
PbCO3(s) ⇌ PbO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 Ak; PbO Tk; jpz;kq;fshjypdhy;> rkepiy khwpyp K = [CO2(g)] xU jug;gl;l

ntg;gepiyapy;> jpz;k PbCO3 IAk; jpz;k PbO itAk; cila VjhtnjhU njhFjp>
jpz;kq;fspd; tpfpjk; my;yJ msTfspy; rhHe;jpuhJ xNu nrwpT PbCO3 it rkepiyapy;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,J cU 2.12 tpdhy; tpsq;Ffpd;wJ> ,jpy; [CO2(g)] vjpH ,lg;gLk; jpz;k
PbCO3 msT tiugpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. Muk;gj;jpy; ,lg;gLk; PbCO3 Kw;whf CO2(g)
Mfg; gpupifailfpd;wJ> fhuzk; rkepiy K apw;F rkkhd CO2(g) nrwpit toq;Ftjw;F
PbCO3 apd; msT NghJkhdjy;y MFk;. MfNt tiugpd; ,lJgf;fk; rkepiyapy; ,y;yhj
njhFjpiag; gpujpgypf;fpd;wJ> fhuzk; mjpy; CO2(g) ck; PbO(g) ck; kl;Lk; cz;L.
,jw;F khwhf> kl;L kl;lhfg; NghjpasT PbCO3 ,l;Lg; ngwg;gLk; [CO2(g)] =K vdpd;
njhFjp rkepiy mile;Js;sJ> NkYk; PbCO3 NrHj;jy; CO2(g) nrwptpy; xU tpisitAk;
Vw;gLj;jhJ> MfNt tiuG xU fpilf;NfhlhFk;. MfNt fpilf;Nfhl;by; ,y;yhj VNjDk;
CO2(g) nrwpT rkepiyay;yhj epiyiaf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ> njhFjpapy; NghjpasT PbCO3 Ak;
PbO Tk; cs;sNghJ mjd; mikg;igr; rkepiyia va;JkhW rupg;gLj;Jk;. cjhuzkhf
cU 2.12 apy; A vd milahskpl;l Gs;sp A apy; CO2(g) tpd; nrwpT fpilf;Nfhl;bw;F
NkNy cs;sJ. vdNt rkepiyapYs;s [CO2(g)] apYk; caHe;jsT CO2(g) nrwptpidf;
Fwpf;fpd;wJ. (Q > K). rkepiyia miltjw;Fj; njhFjp [CO2(g)] If; Fiwj;jy; Ntz;Lk;>
mJ CO2(g) jpz;k PbO Tld; jhf;fKw;Wj; jpz;k PbCO3 Njhd;Wtjdhy; kl;LNk epfoKbAk;.
MfNt jhf;fk; ,lJGwkhf> [CO2(g)] MFk;tiu epfOk;. khwhf B vd milahskpl;l
Gs;sp cUtpy; fpilf;Nfhl;bw;Ff; fPNo cs;sJ> [CO2(g)] fpilf;Nfhl;bw;F fPNo cs;sJ.
99
MfNt mJ CO2(g) ,d; rkepiyr; nrwptpYk; Fiwe;j nrwpT CO2(g) If; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. (Q
< K) rkepiyia miltjw;Fj; njhFjp PbO I mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;> ,J jpz;k PbCO3
MdJ CO2(g) IAk; jpz;k PbO itAk; juf;$bathW gpupifailtjdhy; kl;Lk; epfOk;.
MfNt jhf;fk; vOjpagb tyJ Gwj;ij Nehf;fp [CO2(g)] = K MFk; tiu epfOk;.
rkepiy
cU 2.12 Muk;gj;jpy; CO2(g) ,d; nrwpT jpz;k PbCO3 msTld; rPuhf mjpfupf;fpd;wJ> PbCO3
ahdJ CO2(g) MfTk; jpz;k PbO MfTk; gpupifailfpd;wJ. CO2(g) ,d; nrwpT>
rkepiyapy; cs;s nrwpit mile;jTld; ,lg;gLk; Nkyjpf jpz;k PbCO3 MdJ
[CO2(g)] tpd; kPJ> ntg;gepiy khwhjpUf;Fk; tiu xU tpj tpisitAk; Vw;gLj;jhJ.
cjhuzk; : 2
fl;kpak; xl;irl;lhdJ Ijurdhy; jho;j;jg;gl;L cNyhff; fl;kpaKk; ePuhtpAk; ngwg;gly;

,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk;gw;wpf; $Ljyhd tpsf;fj;ijf; fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ.
CdO(s) + H2(g) ⇌ Cd(s) + H2O(g)
rkepiy khwpyp Kc = [H2O(g)] / [ H2(g)].
cjhuzkhf :
rkepiyapy; [H2O(g)] ,ul;bf;fg;gbd;> njhFjp rkepiyapy; ,Ug;gjw;F [H2(g)] Tk;

,ul;bf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk; rkepiyapy; [H2O(g)] vjpH [ H2(g)] tiuG Kc gbj;jpwd; cila
xU NeHf;NfhlhFk;. rkepiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk; epiyfspYs;s [H2O(g)] , [ H2(g)] Nrhbfs;
nrwpTfNs Nfhl;by; fhzg;gLk; Nfhl;by; Nrhbfspd; nrwpTfisf; Fwpf;Fk; ahNjDk;
Gs;sp rkepiyay;yhj epiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk;. ,t;thwhd tiffspy; rkepiyf;Nfhl;il
Nehf;fpf; fyitapd; mikg;G efUk; jpirapy; jhf;fk; epfOk;. cjhuzkhf cU 2.13
,y; cs;s Gs;sp A Nfhl;bw;Ff; fPNo cs;sJ. ,J [H2O(g)] [ H2(g)] tpfpjk;> rkepiyf;
fyitapy; cs;s tpfpjj;jpYk; FiwT (Q < K) MfNt jhf;fk; tyg;Gwkhf epfOk;
[H2(g)] gad;gLj;jg;gLk; [H2O(g)] cUthf;fg;gLk; ,J nrwpT tpfpjj;ij NkNy caHj;jp
,lg;Gwkhfr; rkepiyf; Nfhl;il milAk;. ,jw;F khwhf Gs;sp B cU 2.13 ,y; Nfhl;bw;F
NkNy cs;sJ> ,J [H2O(g)] / [H2(g)] nrwpT tpfpjk;> rkepiyf; fyitapy; cs;sjpYk;
caHT vd;gijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. (Q > K) MfNt jhf;fk; NkNy vOjpathW ,lg;Gwkhf
epfOk;> [H2O(g)] gad;gLj;jg;gLk;> [ H2(g)] cUthf;fg;gLk; ,J nrwpT tpfpjj;ijf; fPNo
efHj;jp tyg;Gwkhfr; rkepiyf;Nfhl;bid milAk;.
100
cU 2.13 VjhtnjhU H2O(g) rkepiyr; nrwptpw;F xU H2(g) rkepiyr; nrwpT kl;LNk cz;L.
fhuzk; ,U nrwpTfspdJk; ngWkhdq;fs; NeHtpfpj rkk;> rkepiyapy; H2O(g) ,d;
ngupa ngWkhdj;jpw;F ngupa H2(g) Njitg;gLk;> ,jd; kWjiyAk; cz;ikahFk;.
,e;j tifapy; Nfhl;bd; gbj;jpwd; Kc apw;Fr; rkdhFk;.
mKf;fj;jpYk; fdtstpYk; khw;wq;fs;

fstsT khw;wj;jpdhy; Vw;gLk; mKf;f khw;wk; xU rkepiyf; fyitia vt;thW ghjpf;Fk;
vd;gij vLj;Jf; fhl;Ltjw;F mNkhdpahtpd; VgHKiw cw;gj;jpf;F kPz;Lk; tUNthk;.
jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghL jhf;fpfs; gf;fk; 4 %y;fs; thAf;fisAk; tpisT
gf;fk; 2 %y;fs; thAitAk; cilaJ.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) Kc = 0.29 700 K
fdtsitf; Fiwj;J ehk; mKf;fj;ij mjpfupj;jhy; rkepiyapy; fyitapd; mikg;gpw;F

ahJ epfOk;> (khwhj ntg;gepiyapYk; khwhj thA %y; vz;zpf;ifapYk; ,yl;rpa
thAtpd; mKf;fk; fdtstpw;F NeHkhW tpfpj rkk;). ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtg;gb>
tpisAs; jhf;fkhdJ mKf;f mjpfupg;gpd; mOj;jj;ij tpLtpf;Fk; jpirapy; epfOk;>
fhuzk; Kd;Kfj; jhf;fk; 4 %y;fs; thAj;jhf;fpfis 2 %y;fs; thA tpisTfshf
khw;Wfpd;wJ. nghJthf ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT $WtJ>
yy fdtsitf; Fiwj;J mKf;fj;ij mjpfupj;jy;> epfuj; jhf;fj;ij thA %y;fspd;

vz;zpf;if FiwTk; jpirapy; epfo;j;Jfpd;wJ.
yy fdtsit mjpfupj;J mKf;fj;ijf; Fiwj;jy;> epfuj; jhf;fj;ij thA %y;fspd;
vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk; jpirapy; epfo;j;Jfpd;wJ.
,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; Vd; mKf;f (fdtsT) khw;wq;fspw;Fr; nraw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gijg;

ghHg;gjw;F> ehk; kPz;Lk; jhf;f <it> 0.50 mol dm-3 N2(g), 3.00 mol dm-3 H2(g) , 1.98 mol dm-3
NH3(g) vd;gdtw;iw 700 K apy; cila rkepiyf; fyitf;Fg; ghHg;Nghk;. ,q;F jhf;f
<T Qc rkepiy khwpyp Kc (0.291) apw;Fr; rkk;> fhuzk; njhFjp rkepiyapy; cs;sJ.
[NH3 (g) ]2 [1.98]2
Qc = = = 0.29 = Kc
[N2 (g) ] [H2 (g) ]3 [0.5][3.0]3
ehk; rkepiyapy;> fdtsit fhuzp 2 ,dhy; Fiwj;J Fog;gpdhy;> ehk; nkhj;j mKf;fj;ij
,Uklq;fhf;FtJ kl;Lkd;wp> ehk; gFjp mKf;fj;ijAk; ,Uklq;fhf;Ffpd;Nwhk;.> vdNt
xt;nthU jhf;fp> tpisT Mfpadtw;wpd; %yHr;nrwpitAk; (%yj;jpwd; = n/V = P/RT)
,Uklq;fhf;Ffpd;Nwhk;. rkg;gLj;jpa rkd;ghL jhf;fpfspd; thA %y;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia
thA tpisTfspYk; ghHf;ff; $bastpy; nfhz;Ls;sjhy;> rkepiy khwpypf; Nfhitapy;
101
tpFjpapd; mjpfupg;G> njhFjpapd; mjpfupg;gpYk; $LjyhftpUf;Fk; vdNt Qc apd; Gjpa

ngWkhdk; rkepiy khwpypapYk; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
[NH3 (g) ]2 [3.96]2
Qc = = = 0.073 < Kc
[N2 (g) ] [H2 (g) ]3 [1.0][6.0]3
njhFjpahdJ Gjpa rkepiyf;Fupa epiyia Nehf;fp efUtjw;F> Qc mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lk;>

mjhtJ epfuj; jhf;fk; ,ypr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; vjpHT $wpaJ Nghd;W jhf;fpfspypUe;J
tpisit Nehf;fp epfo Ntz;Lk;. nraw;Kiwapy;> VgH Kiwapy; mNkhdpahtpw; tpisT
caH mKf;fj;jpy;> vLj;Jf; fhl;lhf 130 – 300 atm tpYk; jhf;fj;ij epfo;j;Jtjdhy;
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
rlj;Jt thAitr; NrHg;gjdhy; cs;s tpisT

%ba tpiwg;ghd njhFjpapy; gupNrhjidiar; nra;tjd; %yk; fdtsit khwhJ itj;J>
Mfd; Nghd;w jhf;fj;jpy; gq;nfLf;fhj thAitr; nrYj;jpdhy;> rkepiyapy; Fog;gk;
Vw;glhJ. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk; khwhf; fdtstpy; rlj;Jt thAit cl;GFj;jy; jhf;fj;jpy;
gq;nfLf;Fk; gjhHj;jq;fspd; gFjp mKf;fq;fis my;yJ %yHr; nrwpTfis khw;whJ.
NrHf;fg;gLk; thAj; jhf;fj;jpy; gq;nfLf;Fk; jhf;fp my;yJ tpisthf ,Ue;jhy; khj;jpuNk
jhf;f <T khWgLk;.
ntg;gepiy khw;wj;jpd; tpisT

rkepiyahdJ nrwpT> mKf;fk; my;yJ fdtsT khw;wj;jpdhy; Fog;gg;gbd;> rkepiyf;
fdtstpd; mikg;G khWk; fhuzk; jhf;f <T MdJ rkepiyj; jhf;fj;jpd; khw;wk;.
rkepiy khwpyp Qc apw;F rkkhftpUf;fhJ> ,J rkepiy khwpypg; ngWkhdj;ij khw;whJ.
vdpDk; ntg;gepiyapy; khw;wk; Vw;gLk;NghJ rkepiy khwpyp Kc ngWkhdj;jpd; khw;wk;
Vw;gLk;. nghJthf> rkepiy khwpypapd; ntg;gepiyapy; jq;fpAs;s jd;ik jhf;fj;jpd; ΔH
,d; Fwpapy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
yy Gwntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fupa (ΔH kiwg;ngWkhdhk; cilaJ) rkepiy khwpyp

ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;ff; FiwtilAk;.
ehk; jhf;fj;ij : jhf;fpfs; ⇌ tpisTfs; + ntg;gk; (Δ < H) vd vOjyhk;.
yy mfntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fupa (NeH ΔH) rkepiy khwpyp ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;f
mjpfupf;Fk;
ehk; jhf;fj;ij : jhf;fpfs; + ntg;gk; ⇌ tpisTfs; (ΔH > O) vd vOjyhk;.
NkYs;s jhf;fq;fspd;gb> Gwntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpy; ntg;gj;ij xU tpisnghUshff;
fUjyhk;> mfntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpy; xU jhf;fpahff; fUjyhk;. xU njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiyia
mjpfupj;jhy;> njhFjpf;F ntggj;ijr; NrHj;jiyf; Fwpf;Fk;. xU njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiyia
mjpfupj;jhy; (ntg;gk; NrHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ) ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtg;gb Gwntg;gj;jhf;fk;
,lg;Gwkhf (jhf;fpfs; gf;fk;) efUk;. khwhf mfntg;gj;jhf;fj; njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiyia
mjpfupj;jhy; tyg;Gwkhf (tpisTfs;) gf;fkhf efUk; xU jhf;fk; ntg;g ,af;ftpay;
uPjpahf eLepiyahf ,Ue;jhy; (ΔHrxn = 0)> ntg;gepiy khw;wk; rkepiyf; fyitapd;
mikg;ig khw;whJ.
102
cjhuzk; : 3
ΔH = +58 kJ mol-1 MfTila N2O4(g) MdJ NO2(g)> Mfg; gpupifailAk; jhf;fj;jpy;
ntg;gepiyapd; tpisit ehk; gupNrhjpf;fyhk;. ,j;jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
58 kJ + N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
[NO2 (g) ]2
Kc =
[N2O4(g)]
ntg;gepiyia mjpfupj;jy; (njhFjpf;F ntg;gj;ij NrHj;jy;) jhf;fj;ij Kd;Ndhf;fpr;

nrYj;Jk; xU mOj;jkhFk;. MfNt ntg;gepiyia mjpfupj;jy;> rkepiyapy; N2 (g)
,w;Fk; N2O4(g) w;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;> ,J rkepiy khwpyp Kc ia
mjpfupf;Fk;.
rkepiyapy; cs;s xU njhFjpapy; ntg;gepiyapd; mjpfupg;gpd; tpisitg; gpd;tUkhW
RUf;fpf; $wyhk;. xU mfntg;gj;jhf;fj;jpy; ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;G> rkepiy khwpypapd;
ngWkhdj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;> xU Gwntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fr; rkepiy khwpyp FiwAk;>
ntg;gtpay; uPjpahf eLepiyahd jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy khwpypapy; tpisit Vw;gLj;jhJ.
RUf;fkhf> xU rkepiyj; njhFjpapd; mikg;ig %d;W tpjkhd mOj;jq;fshf khw;wyhk;.
jhf;fpfs; my;yJ tpisTfisr; NrHj;jy; my;yJ mfw;wy;> nkhj;j mKf;fj;ij my;yJ
fdtsit khw;wy;> njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiyia khw;wy;. cfe;jjy;yhj rkepiy khwpypia
cila xU jhf;fk;> jhf;fj;jpd; tpisnghUl;fspy; xd;iwj; njhlHr;rpahf mfw;Wtjd; %yk;
Kw;Wg; ngwr; nra;ayhk;. ntt;NtW vz;zpf;if %yf;$Wfis cila thAj;jhf;fpfs;
thA tpisnghUl;fs; cila rkepiyfs;> fdtsT my;yJ mKf;f khw;wq;fSf;F
czHjpwDilait> caH mKf;fq;fs;> Fiwe;jsT thA %yf;$Wfs; cila
gf;fkhfr; rhj;jpakhf ,Uf;Fk;. Gwntg;gj;jhf;fj;jpypUe;J ntg;gj;ij mfw;wy; tpisTfs;
cUthtijr; rhj;jpakhf;Fk;> mfntg;gj; jhf;fj;jpypUe;J ntg;gj;ij mfw;wy; jhf;fpfs;
cUthtijr; rhj;jpakhf;Fk;.
rkepiyapy; Cf;fpapd; tpisT

xU jhf;fj;jpw;F Cf;fpiar; NrHj;jhy; jhf;fpfs; tpisTfshf khw;wg;gLk;. xU Gjpa jho;e;j
- rf;jp kw;Wk; ghijia toq;fpj; jhf;f tPjj;ij mjpfupf;Fk; Kd;Kf gpd;Kf jhf;fq;fs;
xNu jhz;ly; epiyapD}lhfr; nry;tjdhy;> xU Cf;fp Kd;Kf> gpd;Kf jhf;fq;fspd;
Vtw; rf;jpiaj; jpl;lkhf xNu msthy; Fiwf;Fk;. Cf;fp ,y;yhjNghJ jhf;ff; fyit
rkepiyapy; ,Ug;gpd; (mjhtJ Kd;Kf> gpd;Kf jhf;f tPjq;fs; rkk;)> Cf;fpiar; NrHj;j
gpd;Gk; mJ rkepiyapNyNa ,Uf;Fk;. fhuzk; Kd;Kf gpd;Kf tPjq;fs; tpiuthdit
vdpDk; rkkhfNt fhzg;gLk;. jhf;ff; fyit rkepiyapy; ,y;yhjpUg;gpd; Cf;fp rkepiyia
milAk; tPjj;ij MHKLfyiliar; nra;Ak;> Mdhy; rkepiyf; fdtstpd; mikg;gpy;
khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;jhJ> fhuzk; rkepiyr; nrwpTfspy; Cf;fp tpisit Vw;gLj;jhJ.
Cf;fp rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkd;ghl;by; fhzg;gLtJk; ,y;iy rkepiy khwpypf; Nfhitapy;
fhzg;gLtjpy;iy. (Cf;fp jhf;fj;jpy; nrytoptjpy;iy> mit nkhj;j tPjr; rkd;ghl;by;
fUjg;gLtjpy;iy> ,jdhy; Cf;fp> jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiyiag; ghjpf;fhJ> jhf;f tPjj;ij
khj;jpuk; ghjpf;Fk;) Cf;fp rkepiyj; jhf;fj;ij khw;Wtjpy;iyahapDk;> jhf;fj;jpw;Fupa
rpwg;G epge;jidfisj; njupT nra;tjpy; Kf;fpakhfr; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ.
103
Cf;fpapy;yhj NghJ Cf;fpapy;yhj NghJ
Cf;fpAld; Cf;fpAld;
jhf;fpfs; jhf;fpfs;
tpisTfs; tpisTfs;
jhf;ftpUj;jp jhf;ftpUj;jp
cU 2.14 Cf;fp cs;sNghJk;> Cf;fp ,y;yhjNghJk; jhf;f tiuglq;fis xg;gply;. xU

jhf;fj;jpw;F Cf;fpiar; NrHf;Fk;NghJ> (a) apy; fhl;bathW xU Gjpa jho;e;j rf;jp
cila khw;Wg; ghijia toq;Ftjd; %yk; tPjj;ij mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; (b)
apy; fhl;bathW jhf;fk; gygbfis cila xj;j ghijia ,ilepiyapD}lhfj;
njupT nra;ayhk;.
cjhuzkhf mNkhdpahit VgH Kiwj; njhFg;gpy;> jhf;fk; N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Gwntg;gj;jpw;FupaJ. mjd; rkepiy khwpyp ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;Gld; Fiwfpd;wJ>
jho;ntg;gepiyfspNyNa NH3(g) ,d; rpwg;ghd msT tpisTfs; ngwg;gLfpd;wd. vdpDk;
mj;jho; ntg;gepiyfspy; rkepiyfs; rpwe;jsT tpisTfisj; jUfpd;wd> Mdhy;
nkJthd tPjq;fs;> caH ntg;gepiyfs; jpUg;jpaspf;ff; $ba tPjq;fisj; jUfpd;wd.
Mdhy; kpff; Fiwe;jsT tpisTfs; ,e;jr; rpf;fyhd epiyf;fhd tpil xU Cf;fpiag;
gad;gLj;jy; MFk;. rpy cNyhf xl;irl;LfSld; fyf;fg;gl;l ,Uk;Gf; Cf;fp jhf;fj;ij
rkepiyapy; NH3(g) apd; nrwpT epahakhd cfe;jsthf ,Uf;Fk; ntg;gepiyapy; jhf;fk;
jpUg;jpaspf;ff; $ba tPjj;jpy; epfor; nra;fpd;wJ. NH3(g) ,d; tpisitj; jhf;fj;ij caH
mKf;fj;jpy; elhj;Jtjd; %yk; NkYk; tpUj;jp nra;ayhk;. mNkhdpahitf; ifj;njhopy;
uPjpahfj; njhFg;gjpw;Fupa vLj;Jf;fhl;lhd jhf;f epge;jidfs; 400 – 500 oC ²® 130 - 300
atm ck; MFk;.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz xU rkepiyj; njhFapy; gpuNahfpf;Fk; mOj;jq;fspw;Fg; gjpyspf;FkhW
rkepiyapd; efHtpidr; RUf;fpaspf;fpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 2.1 gpuNahfpf;fg;gLk; mOj;jq;fspw;Fr; rkepiyj; njhFjpapd; ntspg;ghL
mOj;jk; njhFjpapd; ntspg;ghL rkepiy khwpypapy;

tpisT
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; nrwpT njhFjpapd; rkepiy ,lg;gl;l khw;wk; ,y;iy
mjpfupg;G jhf;fp my;yJ tpisitf; jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs;>
Fiwf;FkhW efUk; ahtw;wpdJk; nrwpTfs;
tpfpjj;ij khwhJ
itj;jpUf;FkhW
khw;wkilAk;
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; nrwpT mfw;wg;gl;l jhf;fp my;yJ khw;wk; ,y;iy
Fiwg;G tpisit mjpfupf;FkhW jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs;
njhFjpapd; rkepiy efUk; ahtw;wpdJk; nrwpTfs;
tpfpjj;ij khwhJ
itj;jpUf;FkhW
khw;wkilAk;.
104
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; njhFjpapd; rkepiy khw;wk; ,y;iy

fdtsT mjpfupg;G (mKf;f thA ,dq;fspd; msT jhf;fpfs;> tpisTfs;
Fiwg;G) $Ljyhd gf;fk; efUk;. ahtw;wpdJk; nrwpTfs;
(,U gf;fq;fspYk; thA tpfpjk; khwh
,dq;fspd; vz;zpf;if rkk; jpUf;FkhW khWk;
vdpd;) (Gwntg;g/mfntg;gj;
jd;ikiaf; fUJf)
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; njhFjpapd; rkepiy khw;wk; ,y;iy jhf;fpfs;>
fdtsT Fiwg;G thA ,dq;fspd; msT tpisTfs; ahtw;wpdJk;
(mKf;fj;jpy; mjpfupg;G) FiwAk; gf;fkhf efUk; nrwpTfs; tpfpjk; khwh
(,U gf;fq;fspYk; thA jpUf;FkhW khWk;.
,dq;fspd; vz;zpf;if rkk;
vdpd;) (Gwntg;g/mfntg;gj;
jd;ikiaf; fUJf)
ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;G NrHf;fg;gLk; ntg;gj;ij rkepiy khw;wkilAk;
cgNahfpj;J mfntg;gj; fhuzk; rkepiyj;jhdk;
jhf;fk; rhj;jpakhf;fg;gLk;. efHfpd;wJ.
ntg;gepiy Fiwg;G $Ljyhd ntg;gj;ij rkepiy khwpyp khw;w
ntspapl;L Gwntg;g jhf;fk; kilAk; fhuzk;
rhj;jpakhf;fg;gLk; rkepiyj; jhdk;
efHfpd;wJ.
xU Cf;fpia NrHj;jy; njhFjpapy; khw;wk; ,y;iy khw;wk; ,y;iy
fhuzk; Cf;fp Kd;Kf>
gpd;Kfj; jhf;f tPjq;fis
xNuastpw;F mjpfupf;Fk;
,q;F epfo;tJ njhFjpr;
rkepiyia tpiuthf miltJ
kl;LNkahFk;.
xU rlj;Jt thAitr; njhFjpapy; khw;wk; ,y;iy. khw;wk; ,y;iy
NrHj;jy; fhuzk; mJ jhf;fj;jpy;
gq;nfLg;gjpy;iy
105
2.2 ePu;f;fiury;fspy; mad;rkepiy

,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l gjhu;j;jq;fspd; Xupdkhd fyit vd xU fiuriy
tiuaWf;fyhk;. rpwpa mstpy; fhzg;gLk; my;yJ fiuf;fg;gl;l gjhu;j;jk; fiua
khFk;. mjpfstpy; fhzg;gLk; gjhu;j;jk; fiug;ghd; MFk;. xU fiury; thAthf
(tsp) Nghd;w) jpz;kkhf (fyg;GNyhfk; Nghd;w) my;yJ jputkhff; (cjhuzkhf
fly; ePu;) fhzg;glyhk;. ,g;gFjpapy; ehk; ePu;f; fiury;fis khj;jpuk; fye;JiuahL
Nthk;. ,f;fiury;fspy; fiuak; Muk;gj;jpy; jputkhf my;yJ jpz;kkhfTk; fiug;ghd;
ePuhfTk; fiury; Njhd;wpaTld; gjhu;j;jk; mad; tbtj;jpy; ePu; mtj;ijapy; rkepiyap
Ys;sjhfTk; fUJNthk;.
cjhuzkhf : rkepiyj;jpirapy;> nrwpT khw;wj;jpd; tpistpy; ehk; Kd;G mad;fs;
rk;ge;jg;gLk; gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; fUjpAs;Nshk;.
Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) ⇌ [Fe(SCN)]2+(aq)
mad;fs; khj;jpuk; rk;ge;jg;gLk; ngUkstpyhd rkepiyfs; cs;sd. rPdpapd; ePu;f;
fiury; kpd;idf; flj;Jtjpy;iy vd;gJ kpfTk; njupe;j xd;whFk;. vdpDk; nghJthd
cg;ig (Nrhbak; FNshiul;L) ePupDs; ,l;lJk;> mf;fiury; kpd;idf; flj;Jk;.
mj;Jld; kpd;flj;Jjpwd; nghJ cg;gpd; nrwpT mjpfupf;f> mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. gjhu;j;
jq;fis mtw;wpd; kpd;flj;Jjpwid mbg;gilahf cgNahfpj;J ikf;fy; guNl mtw;iw
,U tiffshfg; ghFgLj;jpdhu;. xU tifg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; mtw;wpd; ePu;f;fiury;fspy;
kpd;idf; flj;Jk;> mit kpd;gFnghUl;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;. kw;iwa tif kpd;idf;
flj;jkhl;lh> mit kpd;gfhg;nghUl;fs; vdg;gLk;. guNl kpd;gFnghUl;fis NkYk;
td;> nkd; kpd;gFnghUl;fs; vdg; ghFgLj;jpdhu;. td;kpd;gFnghUl;fs; ePupy; fiuAk;
NghJ mNdfkhf Kw;whf madhf;fkilAk;> nkd;kpd;gF nghUl;fs; gFjpahf khj;jpuk;
madhf;fkilAk;. cjhuzkhfr; Nrhbak; FNshiul;bd; ePu;f;fiury; KOtJk; Nrh-
bak; mad;fs;> FNshiul;L mad;fs; vd;gtw;iw cilaJ> mjhtJ
NaCl (S) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gdTk; kpd;gFnghUl;fs; MFk;. IjNuhf;FNshupf;fkpyk; (HCl)>
iej;jpupf;F mkpyk; (HNO3) Nghd;w rpy mkpyq;fs; td;kpd;gFnghUl;fs; ,t;tkpyq;fs;
ePupy; Kw;whf madhf;fkilfpd;wd: cjhuzkhf Ijurd; FNshiul;L thA ePupy; fiuAk;
NghJ> ePNuw;wg;gl;l H+ ck; Cl- ck; cUthfpd;wd.
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
my;yJ jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
vdpDk; mrw;wpf;F mkpyk; gpujhdkhf madhf;fkilahj mrw;wpf;F mkpy %yf;
$Wfis cilaJ mj;Jld; rpy mrw;Nww;W mad;fisAk; GNuhj;jd;fisAk; cilaJ.
mjhtJ>
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) +H+(aq)
my;yJ jhf;fj;ij ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) +H3O+(aq)
(jdp mk;Gf;Fwp)> HCl ,d; Kw;whd my;yJ mNdfkhf 100% madhf;fj;ijf; Fwpg;gjw;Fg;
gad;gLj;Jtij ehk; mtjhdpf;fyhk;. mj;Jld; HCl fiury; RahjPd HCl(aq)
%yf;$W fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjpy;iy vdTk; mit H3O+(aq) MfTk; Cl-1(aq) MfTk;
Kw;whfg; gpupifaile;Js;sijAk; ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;. mrw;wpf;F mkpyj;jpy;
106
xU ⇌ (,ul;il mk;Gf;Fwp)> ePupy; mjd; madhf;fk; gFjpahd my;yJ 5% madhf;

fj;jpYk; FiwthdijAk; jhf;fk; kPs; jd;ikAilaJ vdTk; Fwpf;fg; gad;gL-
j;jg;gLfpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; xU Fwpj;j vz;zpf;if CH3COOH %yf;$Wfs; CH-
3
COO-(aq), H+(aq) mad;fshf cilf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Neuk; nry;y> rpy CH3COO-(aq),
H+(aq) mad;fs; kPs ,ize;J CH3COOH %yf;$Wfshfpd;wd. gpd;G mkpy
%yf;$Wfs; madhf;fkilAk; tPjKk;> mad;fs; kPs ,izAk; tPjKk; rkdhfpd;w
epiy va;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;epiy ,urhadr; rkepiyahFk;. njhFjpapYs;s xt;nthU
,dj;jpdJk; ngsjPfepiy Fwpj;Jf; fhl;lg;gLtJ kpf Kf;fpakhFk;. ,dq;fs; ePu; Clfj;
jpYs;sd vdf; Fwpg;gjw;F (aq) cgNahfpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk; ePupd; (fiug;ghd;)
msT kpf mjpfkhfTs;sNghJ> jdpg;GNuhj;jd; H+ kpfTk; jhf;FjpwDs;sJ. ePu;f;
fiury;fspy; H+ jdpj;J ,Uf;fKbahJ. vdNt mJ fiug;ghd; ePu; %yf;$wpd; xl;rprd;
mZTld; gpizf;fg;gl;L Kf;Nfhzf; $k;gf tbtKila ePNuw;wg;gl;l GNuhj;jidj;
jUfpd;wJ. mJ IjNuhdpak; mad;> H3O+(aq) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. H+(aq), H3O+(aq)
Mfpa ,uz;Lk; xd;iwNa Fwpf;fpd;wd vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ
xU GNuhj;jd; my;yJ xU ePNuw;wg;gl;l GNuhj;jd;.
NkYs;s vspa tpsf;fq;fspd;gb> nkd;kpd;gFnghUl;fspy; mad;fspw;Fk; madhfhj
%yf;$Wfspw;Fkpilapy; rkepiy cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij ehk; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;syhk;.
,t;tifahd ePu;f;fiurypYs;s mad;fs; rk;ge;jg;gLk; rkepiy mad; rkepiy vd
miof;fg;gLk;. mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs;> cg;Gfs; vd;gd kpd;gFnghUl;fs; vd;Dk; tiff;Ff;
fPNo tUfpd;wd. mit td; my;yJ nkd; kpd;gFnghUl;fshfj; njhopw;glyhk;.
2.2.1 mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; (kw;Wk; cg;Gfs;)

,aw;ifapy; mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs;> cg;Gfs; gue;j mstpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. IjNuhf;
FNshupf;F mkpyk; ehnshd;Wf;F 1.2 -1.5 L mstpy; vkJ cjuj;jpd; (tapw;wpd;) Rtupdhy;
Ruf;fg;gLk; cjur;rhwpy; cz;L> ,t;tkpyk; rkpghl;Lr; nraw;ghLfSf;F mj;jpahtrpa
khdJ. mrw;wpf;F mkpyk; tpdhfpupapy; Kf;fpa $W vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. vYkpr;rk;gok;>
Njhlk;gok; vd;gtw;wpd; rhWfs; rpj;jpupf;F mkpyk;> m];Nfhgpf;F mkpyk; vd;gtw;iw
cilad. mNdf mkpyq;fs; Gspg;Gr; RitAilad. mkpyk; (acid) vd;Dk; nrhy; Gspg;G
vd;Dk; fUj;Jila yj;jPd;nkhopr; nrhy; 'acidusi" ,ypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ. mkpyq;fs; ePyg;
ghrpr;rhaj;jhisr; rptg;ghf khw;Wk; vdTk; cNyhfq;fSld; jhf;fKWk;NghJ <u;Ijurid
(H2) ntspNaw;Wk; vdTk; mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. ,NjNghy; %yq;fs; rptg;Gg; ghrpr;rhaj;jhis
ePyepwkhf khw;Wk;> frg;G Rit cilad> tOtOg;ghd czu;Tilad. xU %yj;jpw;Fg;
nghJthd cjhuzk; fOTtjw;Fg; gad;gLj;Jk; fOtw;Nrhlh MFk;. mkpyq;fisAk;
%yq;fisAk; rupahd tpfpjj;jpy; fyf;Fk;nghOJ mit xd;Nwhnlhd;W jhff;Kw;W
cg;Gfisj; jUk;. rpy nghJthf mwpag;gl;l cg;GfSf;F cjhuzq;fshtd Nrhbak;
FNshiul;L> Ngupak; ry;Ngw;W> Nrhbak; iej;jpNuw;W. ePupy; IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyj;
jpd; madhf;fj;ij mrw;wpf; mkpyj;Jld; xg;gpLk; nghOJ ,uz;Lk; KidTg; gq;fPl;L
%yf;$Wfshf cs;sNghJk; Kd;idaJ (HCl(aq) mjd; Mf;ff;$W mad;fshf
Kw;whf madhf;fkile;Js;sJ> mNjNtis gpd;idaJ (CH3COOH(aq)) gFjpahfNt
kl;Lk; madhf;fkile;Js;sJ (<5%) vt;tsT J}uj;jpw;F madhf;fkile;Js;sJ vd;gJ
gpizg;G typikapYk;> cUthFk; mad;fs; vt;tsT J}uj;jpw;F ePNuw;wg;gLfpd;wd
vd;gjpYk; jq;fpAs;sJ.
mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; MupdpaR vz;zf;fU

MupdpaR nfhs;ifg;gb mkpyq;fs; vd;gd ePupy; gpupifaile;J Ijurd; mad;fis
H+(aq) jUk; gjhu;j;jq;fs; MFk;. %yq;fs; vd;gd Ijnuhl;rpy; mad;fis OH-(aq)
cUthf;Fk; gjhu;j;jq;fs; MFk;. xU mkpyk; HX(aq) d; madhf;fk; gpd;tUk; rkd;
ghLfs; %yk; vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;glyhk;.
HX(aq) H+(aq) + X-(aq)
107
my;yJ
HX(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) +X-(aq)
,NjNghy; MOH(aq) Nghd;w %y %yf;$W ePu;f;fiurypy; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;f
madhf;fkilAk;:
MOH(aq) M+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ijnuhl;rpy; maDk; ePu;f;fiurypy; ePNuw;wg;gl;l tbtj;jpy; (H3O2-(aq)) epyTfpd;wJ.
(fhzg;gLk;) mkpyk;> %yk; Mfpatw;wpd; MupdpaR vz;zf;fU ePu;f;fiury;fSf;F
kl;LNk gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;. mj;Jld; Ijnuhl;rpy; $l;lj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;fhj mNkhdpah
Nghd;w gjhu;j;jq;fspd; %yj;jd;ikf;Fg; nghWg;Gf; $wtpy;iy vd;gtw;wpypUe;J vy;i-
yg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mkpyq;fs; %yq;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; GNuhd;];ul; - nysup (Bronsted - Lowry)

tiutpyf;fzk;
,urhapdp (,urhad tpQ;Qhdp)> N[hMd;]; GNuhd;];ul; (Johannes Bronsted) Mq;fpy
,urhapdp Njhk]; M. nysup (Thomas M. Loury) Mfpa ,UtUk; kpfTk; nghJthd xU
tiutpyf;fzj;ij mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpw;Ff; nfhLj;jdu;. GNuhd;];ul; nysup
nfhs;ifg;gb mkpyk; vd;gJ xU Ijurd; maid H+ toq;Fk; Mw;wy; cila gjhu;j;jk;>
%yq;fs; vd;gd xU Ijurd; maid> H+ Vw;Fk; Mw;wy; cila gjhu;j;jq;fs; MFk;.
RUf;fkhf mkpyq;fs; vd;gd GNuhj;jd; toq;fpfs;> %yq;fs; vd;gd GNuhj;jd; thq;fpfs;.
cjhuzkhf> HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ,q;F HCl(aq) %yf;$W xU
GNuhj;jid ePupw;F toq;fp Cl-(aq), H3O+(aq) mad;fs; cUthtij ehk; ghu;f;fyhk;.
mjhtJ HCl(aq) I GNuhd;];ul; mkpykhfg; ghFgLj;jyhk;> fhuzk; mJ xU H+
maid toq;fyhk;. (mj;Jld; H2O(l) %yf;$W mg;GNuhj;jid Vw;fpd;wJ> %ykhfj;
njhopw;gLtij ehk; ghu;f;fyhk; : NkYk; ,j;jd;ikapd; Mokhd mwpT ,iz mkpy
- %yr; Nrhbfs; gw;wpa gpd;ida gFjpapy; tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gLk;.)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH -(aq)
,q;F ehk; NH3(aq) %yf;$W ePupypUe;J xU GNuhj;jid Vw;W NH4+(aq) Ak; OH-(aq)Ak;
Njhw;Wtpg;gijg; ghu;f;fyhk;. MfNt NH3(aq) xU H+ maid Vw;ff;$bajhf ,Ug;gjhy;
mjid GNuhd;];l; %yk; vdg; ghFgLj;jyhk;.
Y}ap]; mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs;

1923,y; G.N.Y}ap]; mkpyj;ij ,yj;jpud; Nrhb thq;fp ,dkhfTk;> %yj;ij ,yj;-
jpud; Nrhb toq;fp ,dkhfTk; tiuaWj;jhu;. %yq;fisf; fUJk;nghOJ GNuhd;];ul;
- nysupf;Fk; Y}ap]; vz;zf;fUf;fspw;fpilNa ngupa NtWghL ,y;iy> ,uz;bd
Jk; %yk; jdpr;Nrhbia toq;Ffpd;wJ. vdpDk; Y}ap]; vz;zf;fUtpy; mjpfsT
mkpyq;fs; GNuhj;jd;fisf; nfhz;bUg;gjpy;iy. ,yj;jpud; gw;whf;FiwAila BF3
ahdJ NH3Ald; epfo;j;Jk; jhf;fk; xU khjpup cjhuzkhFk;. BF3 ahdJ GNuhj;jidf;
nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy> vdpDk; NH3 Ald; mjpYs;s jdpr;Nrhb ,yj;jpud;fis Vw;W
mkpykhfj; jhf;fk; Gupfpd;wJ. ,j;jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.
BF3 + :NH3 BF3 : NH3
,yj;jpud; gw;whf;FiwAila ,dq;fs; AlCl3, Co3+, Mg2+ Nghd;wd Y}ap]; mkpyq;fshfj;
njhopw;glyhk;. mNjNtis xU ,yj;jpud; Nrhbia toq;ff;$ba ,dq;fshd H2O,
NH3, OH- Nghd;wd Y}ap]; %yq;fshfj; njhopw;glyhk;.
108
2.2.2 ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbfs;

mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; GNuhd;];ul; tiutpyf;fzj;ij ,iz mkpy - %yr;
Nrhb vd;Dk; vz;zf;fUtpw;F NkYk; tpupTgLj;jyhk;. ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbia
xU mkpyk; mjd; ,iz %yk; my;yJ xU %yk; mjd; ,iz mkpyk; vd tiu
tpyf;fzg;gLj;jyhk;. GNuhd;];ul; mkpyj;jpypUe;J xU GNuhj;jid mfw;wpa gpd;G vQ;Rk;
kPjp mg;Gnuhd;];ul; mkpyj;jpd; ,iz%yk; MFk;. vjpupilahf xU GNuhd;];ul; %yj;
jpw;F xU GNuhj;jidr; Nru;g;gjdhy; ,iz mkpyk; (cUthfpd;wJ) tpisthfpd;wJ.
ePupy; NH3(aq) tpd; gFjpahd gpupifiaf; fUJf.
%yk; 1 ,iz mkpyk; 1

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

mkpyk; 1 ,iz%yk;1
Ijnuhl;rpy; mad;fspd; gpurd;dk; fhuzkhf xU fhur;fiury; Njhd;wpAs;sJ. ,j;jh-
f;fj;jpy;> ePu;%yf;$W GNuhj;jd; toq;fpahfTk; mNkhdpah %yf;$W GNuhj;jd; thq;fpah-
fTk; njhopw;gLfp d;wd. MfNt ,it KiwNa nysup - GNuhd;];ul; mkpyk;> %yk;
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. vjpu; khwhd jhf;fj;jpy; NH4+(aq) ypUe;J H+ MdJ OH-(aq) w;F
khw;wPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. ,jpy; NH4+(ag) xU Gnuhd;];ll; mkpykhfTk; mNjNtis
OH-(aq) Gnuhd;];ll; %ykhfTk; njhopw;gLfpd;wd. xU GNuhj;jdhy; khj;jpuk; NtWgLk;
mkpy - %yr;Nrhb ,iz mkpy - %yr;Nrhb vd miof;fg;gLk;. vdNt OH-(aq) MdJ
mkpyk; H2O tpd; ,iz %yk; vdTk; NH4+ (aq) MdJ %yk; NH3(aq) tpd; ,iz mkpyk;
vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. GNuhd;];ul; mkpyk; xU td;dkpyhf ,Ug;gpd; mjd; ,iz
%yk; nkd;%ykhfTk; mjd; kWjiyahfTk; fhzg;gLk;. ,iz mkpyk; xU Nkyjpf
GNuhj;jidAk; xt;nthU ,iz %yKk; xU GNuhj;jd; FiwitAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;
vdf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
ePupy; mrw;wpf; mkpyj;jpd; CH3COOH(aq) madhf;fj;ij cjhuzkhff; fUJf.
CH3COOH(aq) xU GNuhj;jid ePu; %yf;$wpw;F toq;Ftjd; %yk; mkpykhfTk; ePu;
%ykhfTk; njhopw;gLk;.
%yk; 1 ,iz mkpyk; 1

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

mkpyk; 1 ,iz%yk; 1
NkYs;s rkd;ghl;by; ePu; GNuhj;jid Vw;gjdhy; %ykhfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjidg;
ghu;f;fyhk;. CH3COOH(aq) tpypUe;J ePu; GNuhj;jid Vw;gjdhy; H3O+(aq) vd;Dk; ,dk;
cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt CH3COO-(aq) MdJ CH3COOH(aq) mkpyj;jpd; ,iz
%ykhFk;. CH3COOH(aq) MdJ CH3COO-(aq) %yj;jpd; ,iz mkpykhFk;. ,NjNghy;
H2O thdJ H3O+(aq) mkpyj;jpd; ,iz %ykhFk;. H3O+(aq) MdJ %yk; H2O tpd;
,iz mkpykhFk;.
ePuhdJ mkpykhfTk; %ykhfTk; ,ul;il tfpgq;fpid tFj;jiy mtjhdpj;jy; Rthu\;a
khfTs;sJ. CH3COOH mkpyj;Jldhd jhf;fj;jpy;> ePu; xU %ykhfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ>
mNjNtis mNkhdpahTld; ePuhdJ GNuhj;jid toq;fp mkpykhfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
109
cjhuzk; 2.12
(i) gpd;tUk; GNuhd;];ul; mkpyq;fSf;F ,iz %yq;fshff; fhzg;glf;$bait
vit? HF, H2SO4, HCO3-
tpil
xt;nthU tifapYk; ,iz %yq;fs; xt;nthU GNuhj;jidf; Fiwthff; nfhz;bUf;f
Ntz;Lk;. MfNt xt;nthU GNuhj;jd; FiwthfTs;s %yq;fshtd KiwNa F-,
HSO4-, CO32-
(ii) gpd;tUk; GNuhd;];ul; %yq;fSf;Fupa ,iz mkpyq;fis vOJf: NH2-, NH3,
HCOO-
tpil
xt;nthU tifapYk; ,iz mkpyk; xt;nthU GNuhj;jid Nkyjpfkhff;
nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. MfNt ,iz mkpyq;fs;: KiwNa NH3, NH4+, HCOOH
2.2.3 mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; madhf;fk;

,urhad> capupay; njhFjpfspy; mNdf madhf;fq;fs; ePu; Clfj;jpy; epfo;tjhy; mkpyq;fs;>
%yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpw;F MupdpaR vz;zf;fU mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; madhf;
fj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ. Ngu;FNshupf;F mkpyk; (HClO4) IjNuhFNshupf;F mkpyk;
(HCl), IjNuhGNuhkpf;F mkpyk; (HBr), IjNuhmabf;F mkpyk; (HI) iej;jpupf;F mkpyk;
(HNO3), ry;g+upf;F mkpyk;(H2SO4) Nghd;w td;dkpyk;fSf;F td;ik vd;Dk; gjk; cgNah
fpg;gjd; fhuzk; mit mNdfkhf Kw;whf mtw;wpd; '$W" mad;fshf ePu; Clfj;jpy;
gpupifailfpd;wd. mjd; %yk; GNuhj;jd; (H+) toq;fpfshfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wd> mNj
Nghy; ,ypj;jpak; Ijnuhf;irl;L (LiOH), Nrhbak; Ijnuhf;irl;L (NaOH), nghw;whrpak;
Ijnuhf;irl;L (KOH), rPrpak; Ijnuhf;irl;L (CsOH), Ngupak; Ijnuhf;irl;L Ba(OH)2
Nghd;w td;%yq;fs; ePu; Clfj;jpy; mNdfkhf Kw;whf mad;fshfg; gpupifaile;J
Ijnuhl;rpy; mad;fisj; jUfpd;wd. Mupdparpd; vz;zf;fUtpd;gb mit td; mkpyq;fs;>
%yq;fs;> fhuzk; mit Clfj;jpy; Kw;whfg; gpupifaile;J KiwNa H3O+, OH-
mad;fis cUthf;Fk;.
mkpyk; my;yJ %yj;jpd; td;ik> mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; GNuhd;];ul; - nysup
vz;zf;fUtpYk; mstplg;glyhk;. td;dkpyk; Fwpg;gJ rpwe;j GNuhj;jd; toq;fpiaAk;>
td; %yk; Fwpg;gJ rpwe;j GNuhj;jd; thq;fpiaAk; MFk;. nkd;dkpyk; HA apd; mkpy
- %y gpupifr; rkepiyiaf; fUJf.
%yk; 1 ,iz mkpyk; 1

HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

mkpyk; 1 ,iz%yk; 1
ehk; Kd;G ghu;j;jthW mkpyk; (my;yJ %yk;) gpupifr; rkepiy ,af;fj;jpw;FupaJ>
Kd;Kf> gpd;Kf jpirfspy; GNuhj;jd; ,lkhw;wk; epfo;fpd;wJ. rkepiy ,af;fj;jpw; FupaJ
vdpy; Neuj;Jld; vr;rkepiy rhjfkhf;fg;gLk; vd;Dk; Nfs;tp vOfpd;wJ. ,jd; gpd;dhy;
,af;Ffpd;w tpir ahJ? ,t;tpdhf;fSf;F tpilaspf;f ehk; gpupifr; rkepiyapy;
<Lgl;Ls;s ,U mkpyq;fspd; (my;yJ %yq;fspd;) typikfis xg;gpLtijg; ghu;g;
Nghk;. NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l mkpy - gpupifr; rkepiyapYs;s ,U mkpyq;fs; HA, H3O+
vd;gtw;iwf; fUJf. ,tw;wpy; vJ typikahd GNuhj;jd; toq;fp vd;gij ehk; ghu;f;f
110
Ntz;Lk;. vJ GNuhj;jd; toq;fypy; kw;iwaij tpQ;Rfpd;wNjh mjid typikahd

mkpyk; vdf; Fwpf;fyhk;. rkepiy typik Fiwe;j mkpyg; gf;fk; efu;j;jg;gLk;. HA(aq)
MdJ H3O+(aq) tpYk; typik $ba mkpyk; vdpd;> HA(aq) GNuhj;jid toq;Fk;>
H3O+(aq) my;y> fiury; gpujhdkhf A-(aq), H3O+(aq) mad;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. rk
epiy typik Fiwe;j mkpyk;> typik Fiwe;j %yk; Mfpad cUthFk; jpirapy;
efUk;. fhuzk; typikahd mkpyk; typikahd %yj;jpw;F xU GNuhj;jid toq;Fk;.
ePupy; td;dkpyk; Kw;whfg; gpupifailtjhy;> cUthFk; %yk; kpf nkd;ikahff;
fhzg;gLk;. mjhtJ td;dkpyq;fs; kpf nkd; ,iz %yq;fis cilad. Ngu;FNshupf;F
mkpyk; (HClO4), IjNuhf;FNshupf;F mkpyk; (HCl), IjNuhGNuhkpf;F mkpyk; (HBr),
IjNuh mabf;F mkpyk; (HI), iej;jpupf;F mkpyk; (HNO3), ry;g+upf;F mkpyk; (H2SO4)
Nghd;w td;dkpyq;fs; KiwNa ClO4-, Cl-, Br-, I-, NO3-, HSO4- Mfpa ePupYk; kpf typik
Fiwe;j ,iz %y mad;fisj; jUfpd;wd. mNjNghy; xU kpf td; %yk;> kpf
nkd; ,iz mkpyj;ijj; jUfpd;wJ. kWgf;fkhf xU nkd;dkpyk; HA ePu; Clfj;-
jpy; gFjpahf khj;jpuNk gpupifailtjdhy;> fiury; gpujhdkhf gpupifailahj; HA
%yf;$Wfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. iej;jpuR mkpyk; (HNO2), IjNuhGNshupf;F mkpyk;
(HF), mrw;wpf;F mkpyk; (CH3COOH) Mfpad nkd;dkpyq;fs; MFk;. nkd;dkpyq;fs;
kpf td; ,iz %yq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf> NH2-, O2-, H- vd;gd kpfr; rpwe;j GNuhj;jd; thq;fpfs;> ePupYk; (H2O) kpf
typikahd %yq;fs;.
vdNt ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbfs; gw;wp ehk; gpd;tUtdtw;iwj; njhFf;fyhk;.
yy mkpyk; td;ikahff; fhzg;gbd; mjd; ,iz %yk; mstplf;$ba typikiaf;
nfhz;bUf;fhJ. MfNt td;dkpyk; HCl ,d; ,iz %yk; Cl- MdJ kpf nkd;
%ykhFk;.
yy ePu; Clfj;jpy; fhzg;glf;$ba kpf td;dkpyk; H3O+ MFk;. H3O+ ,Yk; typikahd
mkpyq;fs; ePUld; jhf;fp H3O+ IAk; mtw;wpd; ,iz %yq;fisAk; cUthf;Fk;.
MfNt H3O+ ,Yk; typikahd mkpyk; HCl, ePUld; Kw;whfj; jhf;fp H3O+ IAk; Cl-
IAk; cUthf;Fk;.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H3O+ ,Yk; typik Fiwe;j mkpyq;fs; ePUld; Fiwe;jstpy; jhf;fp H3O+ IAk;
mtw;wpd; ,iz %yq;fisAk; jUk;. cjhuzkhfg; gpd;tUk; rkepiy gpujhdkhf
,lg;Gwkhff; fhzg;gLk;.
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)
yy ePu;f; fiurypy; fhzg;glf;$ba kpf td; %yk; OH- madhFk;. OH- ,Yk; typik$-
ba %yq;fs; ePUld; jhf;fKw;W OH- IAk; mtw;wpd; ,iz mkpyq;fisAk; jUk;.
cjhuzkhf> xl;irl;L mad; (O2-) OH- ,Yk; typik$ba %yk;> vdNt mJ
ePUld; gpd;tUkhW Kw;whfj; jhf;fKWk;:
O2-(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH-(aq)
,jd; fhuzj;jpdhy; ePu;f;fiury;fspy; xl;irl;L mad; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.
2.2.4 ePupd; madhf;f khwpyp mjd; mad;ngUf;fk;

ePUk; rpy gjhu;j;jq;fSk; mkpykhfTk; %ykhfTk; njhopw;gLtjpdhy; jdpj;Jtkh-
dit. NkYs;s gFjpapy; ePupy; ,jid mtjhdpj;Js;Nshk;. mkpyk; HA Kd;dpiyapy;
ePu; GNuhj;jid Vw;W %ykhfTk;> mNjNtis xU %yk; B- Kd;dpiyapy; ePu; GNuhj;-
jid toq;fp mkpykhfTk; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ. J}a ePupy;> xU H2O %yf;$W xU GNuh-
j;jid toq;fp mkpykhfTk;> kw;iwa ePu; %yf;$W GNuhj;jid thq;fp %ykhfTk; xNu
111
Neuj;jpy; njhopw;gLfpd;wd. gpd;tUk; rkepiy fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
mkpyk; %yk; ,izmkpyk; ,iz%yk;
NkYs;s jhf;fj;jpd; $l;lg;gpupif khwpyp gpd;tUkhW jug;gLfpd;wJ.
[H3O+(aq)] [OH- (aq)]
K=
[H2O(l)]2
ePu; Xu; J}a jputk;> mjd; nrwpT khwpypahff; fhzg;gLk;.

(1.00dm3 fiurypy; ePupd; nrwpT 103gdm-3 / 18gmol-1 = 55.55moldm-3, xU khwpyp) MfNt
ePupd; nrwpT tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. MfNt [H2O(l)] I rkepiy khwpypAld; ,izj;J xU
Gjpa khwpyp Kw jug;gLk;. ,J ePupd; mad; ngUf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
mjhtJ K [H2O(l)] 2 = Kw = [H3O+ (aq)] [OH-(aq)
298 K apy; gupNrhjid thapyhf H3O+(aq), OH-(aq) nrwpTfs; 1.0x10-7moldm-3 Mfj;
Jzpag;gl;Ls;sd.ePupd; madhf;fk; rk vz;zpf;ifahd H3O+(aq), OH-(aq) mad;fisj;
jUfpd;wJ. 298K apy; Kw ,d; ngWkhdk;.
Kw = [H3O+(aq)] [OH-(aq)] = (1 x 10-7 mol dm-3)2 = 1 x 10-14mol2 dm-6
Kw ntg;gepiyapy; jq;fpAs;sJ> xU rkepiy khwpyp vd;gd Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;. [H3O+(aq)] = [OH-(aq)] MfTs;sNghJ> ePu;f;fiurypy; eLepiyahdJ. mkpyf;
fiurypy; kpifahd IjNuhdpak; mad;fs; cz;L> [H3O+(aq)] > [OH-(aq)]. fhuf;
fiurypy; (%yj;jd;ikAila fiurypy;) kpifahd Ijnuhf;irl;L mad;fs; cz;L>
[H3O+(aq)] < [OH-(aq)].
2.2.5 pH msTj;jpl;lk;
IjNuhdpak; mad; nrwpit %yu;j;jpwdpy; $ba trjpAilajhf klf;if msTj;jpl;lj;
jpy; vLj;Jf;fhl;LtJ pH msTj;jpl;lk; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. IjNuhdpak; my;yJ
Ijurd; mad; njhopw;ghl;bd; (aH O+(aq)) my;yJ (aH+(aq)) klf;if mb 10 ,d; kiw
3
ngWkhdk; xU fiurypd; pH vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Ijhd fiury;fspy; (<0.01mol
dm-3) Ijurd; madpd; njhopw;ghlhdJ [H3O+(aq)] apdhy; vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLk; %yu;j;
jpwdpw;F vz; ngWkhdj;jpy; rkk;. ,jw;F myF ,y;iy vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;> mJ gpd;tUkhW tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
(aH O+(aq) my;yJ (aH+(aq) = [H3O+(aq)] / 1mol dm-3
3
MfNt pH ,d; tiutpyf;fzj;jpypUe;J>

pH = -log(aH O+(aq) ) = -log{[(H3O+(aq)] / 1mol dm-3}
3
-3
[H3O+(aq)] w;F mol dm myF cs;sjdhy;>
pH = -log{[H3O+(aq)] mol dm-3 / mol dm-3}
pH = -log{[H3O+(aq)]}
mjhtJ pH ngWkhdj;jpw;F myF ,y;iy.
MfNt (10-2moldm-3) HCl mkpyf; fiurypd; pH = 2 Mff; fhzg;gLk;. ,NjNghy; [OH-
(aq) = 10-4moldm-3 ck; [H3O+(aq) = 10-10 moldm-3 MfTs;s NaOH fiurypd; pH =10 Mff;
fhzg;gLk;. 25ºCapy; J}a ePupy; IjNuhdpak; my;yJ Ijurd; mad;fspd;> [H3O+]
my;yJ [H+]=10-7moldm-3. MfNt J}a ePupd; pH,
112
pH = log (10-7moldm-3 / moldm-3) = 7

mkpyf; fiury;fspy; Ijurd; mad; nrwpT> [H+]>10-7moldm-3 mNjNtis fhuf;
fiury;fspy; Ijurd; mad; nrwpT> [H+]<10-7mol dm-3 vdNt
ehk; gpd;tUkhW RUf;fpf; $wyhk;.
mkpyf; fiury; pH<7 cilad
fhuf;fiury; pH>7 cilad
eLepiyahd fiurypy; pH = 7
mkpytpay;G eLepiy %ytpay;G

cU 2.15: pH msTj;jpl;lj;jpd; vspa Njhw;wk; (ghu;it) pH7.0 ,y; fiury;fs; eLepiyahdit
vdf; $wg;gLfpd;wd. jho;e;j PH gf;fkhfr; nry;yy; mkpyj;jd;ik mjpfupj;jyhFk;
mNjNtis kWgf;fkhfr; nry;yy; fiury;fspd; %yj;jd;ik mjpfupj;jyhFk;.
Kw = [H3O+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
rkd;ghl;bd; ,Ugf;fq;fspYk; klf;ifapd; kiwg;ngWkhdj;ij vLf;Fk;NghJ> ehk;

ngWtJ
-logKw = -log {[H3O+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]}
pKw = -log [H3O+(aq)] -log[OH-(aq)]
pKw = pH + pOH
my;yJ
pH + pOH = 14
Kw ntg;gepiyAld; khWgbDk;> ntg;gepiyAld; pH khw;wk; kpfr; rpwpajhy; ehk;
mjidg; ngUk;ghYk; Gwf;fzpf;fpd;Nwhk; vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;f. pKw ePu;f;fiu
ry;fSf;F xU Kf;fpakhd fzpak;> Ijurd; mad;> Ijnuhl;rpy; mad; Mfpatw;wpd;
nrwpTfspd; ngUf;fk; khwpypahdjhy; pKw Ijurd;> Ijnuhl;rpy; mad;fspd; rhu;Gr;
nrwpTfisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. pH msTj;jpl;lk; klf;ifAld; njhlu;Gilajdhy;> pH
khw;wj;jpd; xU myF Fwpg;gJ [H+] khw;wj;jpd; 10 klq;F fhuzpiaNa MFk;. ,Nj
Nghy;> Ijurd; mad; nrwpT> [H+] khw;wk; 100 klq;F fhuzpahFk;NghJ> pH khw;wk; 2
myFfshFk;. ,g;nghOJ cq;fSf;F ntg;gepiyAld; pH khw;wk; mNdfkhf Vd; Gwf;
fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ vd;gJ Gupfpd;wJ.
capupay;> moF rhjdg;nghUl;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; gpuNahfq;fisf; ifahSk;NghJ pH
ngWkhdk; njupe;jpUf;f Ntz;Lkhjyhy; xU fiurypy; pH I mstply; kpf mj;jpahtrpa
khdJ. ntt;NtW pH cila fiury;fspy; pH jhs; NtWgl;l epwq;fisj; jUtjdhy; xU
fiurypd; pH I mz;zsthf msg;gjw;F pH jhisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. 1-14 pH tPr;rpDs;
mz;zsthf 0.5 jpUj;jj;Jld; pH jhisg; gad;gLj;jp pH I msf;fyhk;. Ma;Tr;rhiyapy;
fiurypd; pH I pH khdp cgNahfpj;Jk; mstplg;gLk;.
pH I mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Ls;s fzpj;jy;fs; cl;gLk; gpd;tUk; cjhuzq;fisg;
ghu;g;Nghk;.
113
cjhuzk; 2.13
1.0 x 10-4 moldm-3 HCl fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;Ff.
tpil
pH = -log (log 1.0 × 10–4 moldm-3 / moldm-3) = 4
cjhuzk; 2.14
xU NaOH fiurypy; [OH-] 1.0 x 10-4moldm-3 ,f;fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;Ff.
tpil
[OH-] = 1.0 x 10-4 moldm-3
POH = -log (10-4moldm-3 / moldm-3) = 4
MfNt PH = 14 - 4 =10
my;yJ
[OH-] = 1.0 x 10-4 moldm-3 [H+] = 1.0 x 10-10moldm-3
pH = -log (10-10moldm-3 / moldm-3) = 10
cjhuzk; 2.15
1.0 x 10-8 moldm-3 HCl fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;Ff.
tpil
,f;fzpj;jypy; rpyu; gpioahd mZFKiwiaf; ifahsyhk; pH I pH = -log(10-
8
moldm-3 / moldm-3) = 8 vd vOjyhk;.
,q;F xUtu; HCl ,ypUe;J ngwg;gLk; [H+] ePupd; Ra madhf;fj;jpdhy; ngwg;gLk;
[H+] ,Yk; (ie 1.0 x 10-7 moldm-3) FiwT vd;gijf; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. MfNt
HCl, ePu; Mfpa ,uz; bypUe;Jk; ngwg;gl;l [H+] If; fUj Ntz;Lk;. jug;gl;l HCl
fiurypypUe;J ngwg;gl;l [H+] 1.0 x 10-8moldm-3, ePupypUe;J ngwg;gl;lij x vd
vLf;f.
MfNt [OH-] = x, [H3O+] = 10-8 + x
Kw = [H3O+(aq)] [OH-(aq)] = 10-14 = (10-8 + x) X
x2 + 10-8 x -10-14 = 0
NkYs;s ,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;ilj; jPu;j;jhy;> vkf;Ff; fpilg;gJ [OH-] = 9.5 x 10-8
moldm-3, MfNt POH = 7.02, pH = 6.98
NkYs;s cjhuzq;fspd; fzpj;jy;fspy;> HCl, NaOH Mfpad KiwNa td;dkpyk;>

td;%ykhf ,Ug;gjdhy; Kw;whf madhf;fkilfpd;wd. MfNt [H+], [OH-] nrwpT
fisj; jPu;khdpg;gjpy; vkf;Fr; Rygkhf cs;sJ. vdpDk; nkd;dkpyq;fs;> nkd;%yq;fs;
vd;gdtw;wpd; ePu;f;fiury;fs; vkf;F cs;sNghJ> mit gFjpahfg; gpupifailtjdhy;
njhFjp gw;wpa rpy Nkyjpf juTfs; Njitg;gLk;. mLj;j gFjpapy; ehk; nkd;dkpyq;fs;>
nkd;%yq;fs; vd;gtw;wpd; gpupifia mtw;wpd; rkepiyfSf;F mOj;jk; nfhLj;Jf;
fUJNthk;.
114
2.2.6 nkd;dkpyq;fs;> mtw;wpd; madhf;f ($l;lg;gpupif) khwpyp

xU GNuhj;jpupf;F nkd;dkpyk;> HA iaf; fUJf. ePupy; mjd; madhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW
vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLk;.
,t; madhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiyf; Nfhit>
[H3O+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
K=
[HA(aq)] [H2O(l)]
[H3O+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
K[H2O(l)] =
[HA(aq)]
[H2O(l)] xU khwpypahdjhy;> K[H2O(l)] = Ka xU khwpypahf vLj;J ehk; gpd;tUkhW

vOjyhk;.
[H3O+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
Ka =
[HA(aq)]
Ka MdJ nkd;dkpyj;jpd; $l;lg;gpupif my;yJ madhf;f khwpyp vd miof;fg;gLk;.

,J mkp yj;jpd; madhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpypahFk;. xU jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy;>
mkpyk; HA apd; typikahdJ> mstwpuPjpahf Ka apd; ngWkhdj;jpdhy; mstplg;gLk;.
ngupa Ka, Fwpg;gJ mkp yk; typikahdJ vd;gjid MFk;. mjhtJ ePu;f;fiurypy;
madhf;fk; fhuzkhf rkepiyapy; cau;e;j [H3O+(aq)] my;yJ [H+(aq)] nrwpit MFk;.
nkd;dkpyq;fs; khj;jpuk; mtw;Wld; ,ize;j Ka ngWkhdq;fis cilad.
NkYs;s mkpyj;jpd; madhf;f khwpypapd; tiutpyf;fzj;ijg; gpd;tUkhWk; ePu;f;
fiurypy; HA apd; gFjpahd madhf;fj;ijf; fUjp gupe;Jiuf;fyhk;. gpupifailahj
mkpyj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpit C vdTk; madhf;fkile;j J}uk; (my;yJ madhf;f
msT) ∝ vdTk; fUjpr; rkepiyia gpd;tUkhW ehk; vLj;Jiuf;fyhk;.
Muk;gr; nrwpT / moldm-3 C 0 0
nrwpT khw;wk; / moldm-3 -c∝ + c∝ + c∝
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 c(1-∝) c∝ c∝
+ -
[H3O (aq)] [A (aq)] c∝ c∝ c∝2
Ka = = =
[HA(aq)] C(1-∝) (1-∝)
C∝2
/ Ka =
1- ∝
xU nkd;dkpyj;jpd; madhf;fk; kpfr; rpwpajdhy;> ∝ kpfr; rpwpaJ my;yJ (1-∝) ~ 1 vdf;

fUjyhk;. MfNt Ka = C∝2
,J xRthypd; Ijhf;fy; tpjp vd miof;fg;gLk;
Fwpg;G : ,J ePu;f;fiury;fspYs;s nkd;%yq;fSf;Fk; nghUe;Jk;.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy; 298K apy; rpy nkd;dkpyq;fspd; madhf;f khwpypfspd;
ngWkhdq;fs; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
115
ml;ltiz 2.2 rpy njupT nra;ag;gl;l nkd;dkpyq;fspd; madhf;f khwpypfs; (298K

apy;)
mkpyk; Ka
IjNuhGNshupf; mkpyk;(HF) 3.5 x 10-4
ieju]; mkpyk; (HNO2) 4.5 x 10-4
mrw;wpf; mkpyk; (CH3COOH) 1.74 x 10-5
ngd;Nrhapf; mkpyk; (C6H5COOH) 6.50 x 10-5
cgFNshu]; mkpyk; (HClO) 3.00 x 10-8
IjNuhradpf;F mkpyk; (HCN) 4.90 x 10-10
gPNdhy; (C6H5OH) 1.30 x 10-10
Fwpg;G : vy;yh ,dq;fspdJk; epak epiyr; nrwpT 1moldm-3 vd tpsq;fpdhy; Ka xU

gupkhzkw;w fzpak;. mjhtJ rkepiy khwpypf;fhd Nfhitapy; fhzg;gLk; vy;yhr;
nrwpTg; gjq;fSk; 1moldm-3 My; gpupf;fg;gLk;. ,y;yhtpbd; rkepiy khwpypf; NfhitAld;
njhlu;ghd myFfis ehk; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;LNthk;.
pKw (-log Kw) tpw;Fg; Gwk;ghf Ijurd; mad; nrwptpw;fhd pH msTj;jpl;lk; kpfTk;
gaDs;sJ> mJ kw;iwa ,dq;fSf;Fk;> fzpaq;fSf;Fk; tpupTgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
vdNt :
pKa = -log(ka)
xU mkpyj;jpd; madhf;f khwpyp Ka, mjd; Muk;gr; nrwpT C vd;gd mwpag;gl;lhy;>
vy;yh ,dq;fspdJk; rkepiyr; nrwpTfs;> mkpyj;jpd; madhf;f msT> fiurypd; PH
Mfpatw;iwf; fzpf;fyhk;. xU nkd;kpd;gFnghUspd; pH I kjpg;gPL nra;tjw;F xU
nghJthd gbKiw> mZFKiwiag; gpd;tUkhW gpd;gw;wyhk;.
gb 1 - gpupiff;F Kd;ghf cs;s ,dq;fs; GNuhd;]; nysup mkpyq;fs; / %yq;fshf
,dq; fhzg;gLk;.
gb 2 - vy;yhg; nghUj;jkhd jhf;fq;fspw;Fk; rkg;gLj;jg;gl;l rkd;ghLfs; mjhtJ
mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; Mfpa ,uz;Lkhfj; njhopw;gLk; ,dq;fSld; vOJjy;.
gb 3 - cau;e;j Ka cila jhf;fk; Kjd;ikj; jhf;fkhf ,dq;fhzg;gLk;> kw;iwaJ
cg (,uz;lhk; gl;rkhd) jhf;fkhff; fUjg;gLk;.
gb 4 - Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpYs;s xt;nthU ,dj;jpw;Fk; gpd;tUk; ngWkhdq;fis
ml;ltiz tbtj;jpy; gjpT nra;f.
(a) Muk;gr; nrwpT> C
(b) rkepiyia milAk;nghOJ> ∝ (madhf;f msT) gjk; rhu;ghf nrwpT
khw;wk;
(c) rkepiyr; nrwpT
gb 5 - Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpypr; rkd;ghl;by; rkepiyr; nrwpTfisg;
gpujpapl;Lj; jPu;j;J ∝ Ig; ngWf.
gb 6 - Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd; ,dq;fspd; nrwpTfisf; fzpf;Ff.
gb 7 - PH If; fzpf;Ff pH = - log [H3O+] my;yJ [H3O+] = 10 -pH I cgNahfpj;J pH njupe;jhy;
[H3O+] If; fzpf;Ff.
gpd;tUk; cjhuzq;fs; pH If; fzpj;jypy; NkYs;s mZFKiwia vLj;Jf;fhl;L

fpd;wd.
116
cjhuzk; 2.16
298K apy; HF
,d; madhf;f khwpyp 3.2x 10-4 0.20moldm-3 HF fiurypy; mjd; madhf;f
msitf; fzpf;f.
tpil
nra;Kiw I
gpd;tUk; GNuhj;jd; gupkhw;wj; jhf;fq;fs; rhj;jpakhdit MFk;.
HF(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + F-(aq) (1)
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) (2)
Mdjhy; jhf;fk; (1) ngUkstpyhd jhf;fk; vd;gjid

Ka (3.2 x 10-4) >> Kw(1.0 x 10-14)
ehk; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
Muk;gr; nrwpT / moldm-3 0.2 O O

nrwpT khw;wk; / moldm-3 _
0.2∝ + 0.2∝ +0.2∝
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 _
0.2 (1-∝) 0.2 ∝ 0.2∝
Kjd;ikj; jhf;fj;jpd; rkepiyf;fhd Nfhitapy; rkepiyr; nrwpTfisg; gpujpapLk;
nghOJ
0.2∝ x 0.2∝ 0.22∝2
Ka = =
0.2(1-∝) 0.2 (1-∝)
fUjg;gLk; mkpyk; nkd;dkpykhjyhy;> madhf;f msit Muk;g mkpyr; nrwpTld;

xg;gpLk;nghOJ kpfr; rpwpjhff; fUjyhk; 1-∝ ̴ 1 my;yJ 0.2(1-∝) ̴ 0.2.
Ka apy; gpujpapLk;nghOJ
0.2 ∝ x 0.2 ∝ (0.2 ∝ )2
Ka = ̴ = 3.2 x 10-4
0.2 (1-∝) 0.2
∝2 = 1.6 x 10-3
∝ = 4.0 x 10-2
[H3O ] = [F ] = C ∝ = 0.2 moldm x 0.04 = 8.0 x 10-3 moldm-3
+ - -3
[HF] = C(1- ∝) = 0.2moldm-3 (1-0.04) = 19.2 x 10-2moldm-3

MfNt> PH = -log[H3O+] = -log(8.0 x 10-3) = 2.10
ehk; Nkw;nfhz;l mz;zsthf;fj;jpd; nry;YgbahFk; jd;ikia mkpyj;jpd;
Muk;gr; nrwpT rhu;ghf madhf;fj;jpd; E}w;W tPj msitf; fzpg;gjd; %yk;
rup ghu;f;fyhk;. E}w;W tPj msT 5% ,Yk; Fiwthf ,Ug;gpd; ehk; nghJthf
mz;zsthf;fj;ij Vw;Wf;nfhs;Nthk;> ,y;yhtpbd; ∝ tpd; msitg; ngWtjw;F
,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;ilj; jPu;j;Jg; ngwNtz;Lk;.
NkYs;s kjpg;gPL nra;j ngWkhdk; 0.04 ypUe;J ehk; ngWtJ>
0.04 x 100%
= 2.0%
0.20
MfNt cgNahfpj;j mz;zsthf;fj;ij Vw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;.
117
NkYk; ehk; ,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;il jPu;j;Jg; ngwg;gLk; ∝ tpd; ngWkhdj;ij cgNah-

fpj;J mjd; rhu;G tpyfy; tPjj;ijg; ngw;Wk; NkYs;s mz;zsthf;fj;ij cWjp
nra;ayhk;.
NkYs;s cjhuzj;jpy;
0.2 ∝ x 0.2 ∝
Ka = = 3.2 x 10-4
0.2 (1-∝)
ehk; gpd;tUk; ,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;ilg; ngWNthk;
∝2 + 1.6 x 10-3 ∝ - 1.6 x 10-3 =0
Fwpg;G : ax2 + bx + c = o vd;Dk; ,Ugbr;rkd;ghl;by; x ,w;fhd ngWkhdk; gpd;tUkhW
-b + √b2- 4ac
x=
2a
∝ cld; cs;s ,Ugbr; rkd;ghl;ilj; jPu;j;jhy; ngwg;gLk; ∝ ,d; ,U ngWkhdq;
fs;>
∝ = + 3.92 x 10-2 ck; -4.08 x 10-2
kiwg;ngWkhdk; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;glkhl;lhJ>
MfNt ∝ = 3.92 x 10-12
,g;nghOJ ehk; rhu;G tpyfy; E}w;W tPjj;ijf; fzpf;fyhk;>

0.04 - 3.92 x 10-2
x 100% = 2.0 %
0.04
NkYs;s ,U KiwfspYk; neUf;fkhd xw;Wikia ehk; ghu;f;fyhk;. MfNt
,t;tifahd fzpj;jy;fSf;F ehk; nghJthff; $wg;gl;l mz;zsthf;fj;ijr;
nra;fpd;Nwhk;.
Fwpg;G : NkYs;s mz;zsthf;fj;ij mkpyk; / %yj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT> mkpyj;jpd;
madhf;f khwpyp Ka apYk; kpfg; ngupjhf cs;s NghJ (Fiwe;jJ %d;W tupirg;
ngWkhdk;) gpupNahfpf;fyhk;.
NkYs;s cjhuzj;jpy; Muk;gr; nrwpT 0.2moldm-3, Ka = 3.2 x 10-4, MfNt tpfpjk;
2 x 10-1
-4
̴ 103
3.2 x 10

MfNt mz;zsthf;fj;ijr; nra;ayhk;.
118
nra;Kiw II
NkYs;s cjhuzj;ijg; gpd;tUkhWk; fUjyhk;. njhFjpapYs;s gpujhd / ngUksT
jhf;fj;ij ehk; mwpNthk;> mJ
,g;nghOJ gpupifaile;j nrwpit my;yJ khw;wkilAk; nrwpit x vdf; fUJNthk;> ehk;
gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;>
nrwpT khw;wk; / moldm-3 - x +x +x
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 0.2-x x x
rkepiyf;fhd Nfhitapy;> rkepiyr; nrwpTfisg; gpujpapLk;nghOJ>
x×x x2
Ka = =
(0.2 - x) (0.2 - x)
fUjg;gLk; mkpyk; nkd;dkpykhjyhy;> mkpyj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTld; xg;gpLk;
nghOJ madhf;f msT rpwpnjdf; fUjyhk;. 0.2 - x ~ 0.2
x2
Ka apy; gpujpapLk;nghOJ> Ka = = 3.2 x 10-4
0.2
x2 = 6.4 × 10-5
x = 8.0 × 10-3mol dm-3
[H2O+] = [F-] = 8.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3
[HF] = 0.2 - × = 0.2 - 0.008 = 19.2 × 10-2 mol dm-3
MfNt pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (8.0 x 10-3) = 2.10
Fwpg;G : Kiw II rkepiyr; nrwpTfis Neubahfj; jUfpd;wJ.
119
cjhuzk; 2.17
0.10mol dm-3 xU %yk; mkpyk; HA(aq) apd; pH MdJ 4.50 MFk;. rkepiyapy;
,dq;fs; H+(aq) A-(aq), HA(aq) vd;gtw;wpd; nrwpTfisf; fzpf;f. mj;Jld;> xU
%y mkpyj;jpd; Ka, pKa Mfpatw;iwj; jPu;khdpf;f.
tpil
pH = -log [H3O+]
MfNt [H3O+] = 10-pH = 10-4.50 = 3.16 x 10-5
[H3O+] = [A-] = 3.16 x 10-5 mol dm-3
[HA]rkepiy = 0.1 - (3.16 x 10-5) ~ 0.1mol dm-3
,tw;iw ehk; gpd;tUkhW RUf;fp vOjyhk;.
nrwpT khw;wk; / moldm-3 -3.16 x 10-5 3.16 x 10-5 3.16 x 10-5
rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 (0.1- 3.16 x10-5) 3.16 x 10-5 3.16 x 10-5
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 0.10 3.16 x 10-5 3.16 x 10-5
[H3O+(aq)] [A- (aq)]
MfNt Ka =
[HA(aq)
Ka = (3.16 x 10-5)2 / 0.1 = 1.0 x 10-8moldm-3
pKa = -log (10-8) = 8
2.27 nkd; %yq;fs;> mtw;wpd; madhf;f khwpypfs;

%yk; BOH ,d; madhf;fk; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bdhy; Fwpj;Jf; fhl;lg;glyhk;.
BOH(aq) ⇌ B+(aq) + OH-(aq)
,j;jhf;fj;ij ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;
B(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
xU nkd;%yk; BOH(aq) apy; B+(aq), OH-(aq) mad;fshfg; gFjpahd madhf;fk; epfo; fp-
d;wJ. ,J mkpyf; $l;lg;gpupifr; rkepiyia xj;jJ. %yj;jpd; madhf;fj;jpd; rkepiy
khwpyp %y madhf;f khwpyp vd miof;fg;gLk;. Kb apdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. ,J rkepiy
apYs;s %yu;j;jpwd; nrwpTfs; vd;Dk; gjq;fspy; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bdhy; Fwpj;Jf;
fhl;lg;gLk;.
[BH+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
K=
[B(aq)] [H2O(l)]
nkd;dkpyq;fspy; fUjpathW>
[BH+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
K [H2O(l)] =
[B(aq)]
[BH+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
Kb =
[B(aq)]
120
my;yJ BOH(aq) ⇌ B+(aq) + OH-(aq) vd;Dk;

[B+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
jhf;fj;jpw;F> Kb =
[BOH(aq)]
C = %yj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT> ∝ = rkepiy va;jpaTld; %yj;jpd; madhf;f msT vdpd;
rkepiy khwpypiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
C ∝2
Kb =
(1-∝)
%yj;jpd; madhf;fj; jhf;fj;jpy; Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fspd; cUthf;fj;jpd; fUj;J
[OH-(aq) > [H+(aq)] MfNt PH>7
gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy; 298K apy; xU rpy %yq;fspd; madhf;f khwpypfs; (298K apy;)
%yk; Kb
,Unkijy; mkpd; (CH3)2NH 5.40 × 10-4
%vdjy; mkpd; (C2H5)3N 6.45 × 10-5
mNkhdpah NH3 my;yJ NH4OH 1.77 × 10-5
gpupBd; (C5H5N) 1.77 × 10-9
mdpyPd; (C6H5NH2) 4.27 × 10-10
a+upah CO(NH2)2 1.30 × 10-14
nkd;%yq;fspy; gpurpdq;fisj; jPu;g;gjw;F nkd;dkpyq;fSf;Fg; gad;gLj;jpa mNj

nrad;Kiw iag; gpd;gw;WNthk;. gpujhd NtWghL ahnjdpd;> [H+(aq)] tpw;Fg; gjpyhf
Kjypy; [OH-(aq)] I ehk; fzpg;Nghk;. gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; ,e;j mZFKiwiaf;
fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 2.18
0.40moldm-3 mNkhdpahf; fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;f. Kb = 1.80 × 10-5
tpil
gpd;tUk; rkepiyj; jhf;fk; epyTk;> NH4+(aq), OH-(aq) vd;gtw;wpd; rkepiyr; nrwpT-
fis moldm-3 ,y; x vd;f. RUf;fkhf>
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
nrwpT khw;wk; / moldm-3 -
x +x +x
rkepiyr; nrwpT / moldm-3 0.4 - x x x
[NH4+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
Kb = = 1.80 × 10-5
[NH3(aq)]
(x) (x)
-5
(0.4 - x) =1.80 × 10
mz;zsthf;fj;ijg; gpuNahfpf;Fk;nghOJ> 0.40 - x ~ 0.4
x2
0.4 =1.80 × 10-5
x = [OH-(aq)] = 2.7 × 10-3moldm-3
121
2.7 × 10-3
Fwpg;G : mz;zsthf;fj;ijg; gupNrhjpf;f> 0.4 ×100 = 0.68%
mjhtJ mz;zsthf;fk; nry;YgbahFk;.

/ pOH = -log(2.7 × 10-3) = 2.57
pH + pOH = 14.00 vDk; njhlu;igg; gpuNahfpg;gpd;> ehk; gpd;tUtdtw;iwg; ngwyhk;.
pH = 14.00 - 2.57 = 11.43
my;yJ [OH-(aq)] = (2.7 × 10-3)
MfNt [H+(aq)] = 10-14 / (2.7 × 10-3) = 3.7 × 10-12
MfNt pH = 11.43
2.2.8 Ka, Kb vd;gtw;Wf;fpilapyhd njhlu;G

Ka, Kb Mfpad KiwNa mkpyk;> %yk; vd;gdtw;wpd; typikia vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd.
,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbapy;> mit vspikahd Kiwapy; njhlHGilad> mtw;wp
Ds; xd;W njupe;jhy; kw;iwaij ca;j;jwpayhk;. gpd;tUk; cjhuzj;ijf; fUJf.
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
[H3O+(aq)] [CH3COO-(aq)]
Ka =
[CH3COOH] (aq)
,iz %yk; CH3COO-(aq) gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;f ePUld; jhf;f KWfpd;wJ.
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) = OH-(aq) + CH3COOH (aq)
[OH-(aq)] [CH3COOH(aq)]
Kb =
[CH3COO-(aq)]
,t;tpU madhf;f khwpypfspd; ngUf;fj;ijf; fUJf>
[H3O+(aq)][CH3 COO-(aq)] [OH-(aq)] [CH3COOH(aq)]
Ka × Kb = ×
[CH3COOH(aq)] [CH3COO-(aq)]
Ka × Kb = [H3O+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]
Ka × Kb = Kw
,U jhf;fq;fisAk; $l;Lk;nghOJ ehk; vspikahf ePupd; Ra madhf;fj;ijg; ghHf;-
fyhk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) +CH3COO-(aq) -----Ka
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ OH- (aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ----- Kb
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
H2O(l)+ H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) ----- Kw
ehk; Kd;G ,urhadr; rkepiyapy; fye;Jiuahba nghJthd tpjpiag; gpd;gw;Wfpd;wJ.
Fwpg;G : xU jhf;fj;ij ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifahfj;
njspthff; $wpdhy;> epfuj; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp> jdpg;gl;l jhf;fq;fspd;
rkepiy khwpypfspd; ngUf;fj;jpdhy; jug;gLk;.
122
Ka, Kb = Kw vd;Dk; njhlHig nkd; %yj;jpd; madhf;fj;ijf; fUjpAk; ngwyhk;.

,jpypUe;J vkf;F fpilg;gJ Ka× Kb= Kw
MfNt Kw , K =
Ka = Kw
b
Kb Ka
,jpypUe;J mkpyk; $ba typikahf (ngupjstpyhd (Ka)) cs;sNghJ ,iz %yk;
typik Fiwe;jjhf (rpwpjstpyhd (Kb)) fhzg;gLk;> ,jd; kWjiyAk; cz;ikahff;
fhzg;gLtijAk; ehk; ghHf;fyhk;.
2.2.9 cg;Gf;fspd; ePH gFg;G> mtw;wpd; fiury;fspd; pH

jpl;lkhd tpfpjq;fspy; mkpyq;fspw;Fk; %yq;fspw;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ
cUthFk; cg;Gfs; ePupy; madhf;fkilfpd;wd. cg;Gfspd; madhf;fj;jpdhy; cUth-
Fk; fw;wad;fs;/md;dad;fs; ePHf;fiury;fspy; ePNuw;wg;gl;l mad;fshff; fhzg;glyhk;
my;yJ cg;Gfspd; jd;ikiag; nghWj;J ePUld; ,ilj;jhf;fkile;J mkpyq;fs;/%y-
q;fis kPs cUthf;fyhk;. cg;Gfspd; fw;wad;/md;dad;fs; my;yJ ,uz;L tifahd
mad;fspw;Fk; ePupw;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilj;jhf;fk; ePHg;gFg;G vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;
,ilj;jhf;fq;fspdhy; fiurypd; pH ghjpf;fg;gLk;. td; %yq;fspd; fw;wad;fs; (c+k;:
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Ba2+,) td; mkpyq;fspd; md;dad;fs; (c+k;: Cl–, Br–, NO3–, ClO4-etc.)
ePNuw;wkilAk;> Mdhy; ePHg;gFg;G milakhl;lh> MfNt td;dkpyq;fs;> td;%yq;fs;
Mfpatw;wpypUe;J cUthFk; cg;Gf;fspd; fiury;fs; eLepiyahdit MFk;. mjhtJ
mtw;wpd; pH 7. cjhuzkhf
NaNO3(s) → Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
vdpDk;> kw;iwa tifiar; NrHe;j cg;Gfs; ePHg;gFg;gilAk;.
,g;nghOJ ehk; gpd;tUk; tiffSf;Fupa cg;Gfspd; ePHg;gFg;igf; fUJNthk;.
(i) nkd;dkpyj;jpdJk; td;fhuj;jpdJk; cg;Gf;fs; c+k; CH3COONa
(ii) td;dkpyj;jpdJk; nkd;%yj;jpdJk; cg;Gf;fs; c+k; NH4Cl.
(iii) nkd;dkpyj;jpdJk; nkd;%yj;jpdJk; cg;Gf;fs; c+k; CH3COONH4.
KjyhtJ tifapy;> CH3COONa MdJ nkd;dkpyk; CH3COOH ,dJk; td;%yk; NaOH>
,dJk; cg;G Mdjhy;> td;%yk; NaOH> ePHf;fiurypd; Kw;whf madhf;fkilAk;.
CH3COONa(aq) → CH3COO–(aq)+ Na+(aq)
cUthFk; mrw;Nww;W mad; ePupy; ePHg;gFg;gile;J mrw;wpw;F mkpyj;ijAk; OH–
mad;fisAk; jUk;.
CH3COO–(aq)+H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) +OH–(aq)
mrpw;wpf;F mkpyk; nkd;dkpyk; Mdjhy; (Ka = 1.8 × 10–5) fiurypy; gpujhdkhf madhf;f
kilahJ / $l;lg;gpupifailahJ fhzg;gLk;. ,J fiurypy; OH– mad; nrwpT
mjpfupg;ig tpistpj;J fiuriyf; fhuj;jd;ik cilajhf;Ffpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd fiurypd;
pH 7 ,Yk; caHthdJ.
123
cjhuzk; 2.19
0.10 mol dm-3 Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;Wf; fiurypd; (CH3COONa) pH If; fzpf;f.
Kb(CH3 COO- ) = 5.6 ×10-10
tpil
CH3COONa fiurypy;> CH3COO–(aq) , Na+(aq) mad;fshf Kw;whf madhf;f
kiltjdhYk;> CH3COO–(aq) mad; ePHg; gFg;giltjdhYk;
CH3COO–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH–(aq)
Muk;gr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.10 0 0
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 -x +x +x
rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.10-x +x +x
ehk; ,g;nghOJ ePHg;gFg;gpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp my;yJ %yj;jpd; madhf;f
khwpypia vOjyhk;.
[OH- (aq) ][CH3 COOH(aq)]
Kb=
[CH3 COO- (aq)]
rkepiyapYs;s NkYs;s ngWkhdq;fisg; gpujpapLk;nghOJ>

x2
Kb = = 5.6 ×10-10
(0.10-x)
Kb kpfr; rpwpajhf cs;sjhdhYk;> %yj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT caHthf cs;s-
jdhYk;> 0.10 – x ~ 0.10 vd;Dk; mz;zsthf;fj;ij ehk; gpuNahfpf;fyhk;.
x2
~ 5.6 ×10 -10
0.10
x2 = 5.6 ×10 -11
x=[OH- (aq) ] = 7.5 ×10-6 mol dm-3
∴ pOH = 5.13
pH=14.00 - 5.13 = 8.87
,NjNghy; nkd;%yk;> NH4OH td;dkpyk;> HCl Mfpatw;wpypUe;J cUthFk; NH4Cl

ePupy; Kw;whfg; gpupifailfpd;wJ.
NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+(aq) +Cl–(aq)
mNkhdpak; mad;fs; ePUld; ePHg;gFg;gile;J NH4OH(aq) Tk; H+(aq) mad;fSk;
cUthfpd;wd.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4OH (aq) + H+(aq)
mNkhdpak; Ijnuhf;irl;L xU nkd;%yk; (Kb = 1.77 × 10–5) MfNt fiurypy; mNdfkhf
madhf;fkilahJ fhzg;gLk;. ,J fiurypy; H+ mad; nrwpT mjpfupg;ig Vw;gLj;J
fpd;wJ. fiury; mkpyj;jd;ik cilajhfpd;wJ. MfNt ePupy; NH4Cl fiurypd; pH 7
,Yk; FiwT
nkd;dkpyk;> nkd;%yj;jpypUe;J cUthfpa cg;G CH3COONH4 tpd; ePHg;gFg;igf;
fUJf. cUthfpa mad;fs; gpd;tUkhW ePHg;gFg;gilfpd;wd:
CH3COO–(aq) + NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + NH4OH(aq)
124
CH3COOH ck; NH4OH ck; gFjpahfg; gpupifaile;j tbtj;jpYk; fhzg;gLk;.

CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
NH4OH(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
vdpDk; nkd;dkpyk; nkd;%yk; Mfpadtw;wpd; rhHG typikfisg; nghWj;J NkYs;s
tif cg;Gf; fiury; mkpykhf> %ykhf my;yJ eLepiyahff; fhzg;glyhk;.
,f;fiury;fs; njhlHghf ehk; gz;gwpuPjpahd gpd;tUk; vjpHT $wy;fis cUthf;fyhk;.
yy Kb >Ka (pKb< pKa); mjhtJ md;dadpd; Kb fw;wadpd; Ka apYk; ngupJ> mg;nghOJ
md;dad; ePHg;gFg;gilAk; msT fw;wadpYk; caHT fhuzkhf fiury; fhu
,ay;Gilajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. rkepiyapy; OH_ mad;fs; H+ mad;fspYk;
$Ljyhf fhzg;gLk;.
yy Kb< Ka (pKb > pKa); md;dadpd; Kb ahdJ fw;wadpd; Ka apYk; rpwpanjdpd;>
fiury; mkpyj;jd;ikAilajhf ,Uf;Fk;> fhuzk; fw;wadpd; ePHg;gFg;gile;j
msT md;dad; ePHg;gFg;gpYk; $LjyhftpUf;Fk;.
yy Ka~Kb (pKb~ pKa); Ka ahdJ Kb apw;F mz;zsthfr; rkk; vdpd; fiury; mz;zsthf
eLepiyahftpUf;Fk;.
2.2.10 xU nghJ maidf; nfhz;l ePHf;fiury;fs;

Ke;jpa gFjpfspy; mkpy - %y madhf;fk;> cg;Gf;fspd; ePHg;gFg;G Mfpatw;wpy; ehk;
xU fiuaj;ij cila fiury;fspd; ,ay;GfisNa fye;JiuahbNdhk;. xNu maid
my;yJ nghJ maid cila ,U fiuf;fg;gl;l fiuaq;fis cila fiury;fspd;
,ay;Gfs; NtWgl;litahff; fhzg;gLk;. xU nghJ mad; xU nkd;dkpyk; my;yJ
xU nkd;%yj;jpd; madhf;fj;ij mlf;Ffpd;wJ (Fiwf;fpd;wJ).
cjhuzkhf Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;Wk; mrw;wpf; mkpyKk; xNu fiurypy; fiuf;fg;gl;Ls;s
nghOJ> mit ,uz;Lk; gpupifAk; madhf;fKk; mile;J CH3COO– mad;fis
cUthf;Fk;. fPNoAs;s rkd;ghLfspy; fhl;bthW CH3COONa(aq) Kw;whfg; gpupifail
fpd;wJ> mNj Neuk; CH3COOH(aq) gFjpahfg; gpupiff;Fs;shfpd;wJ.
CH3COONa(s) → CH3COO–(aq) + Na+(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtg;gb> xU CH3COOH fiurypDs; ,lg;gLk; CH3COONa
apypUe;J ngwg;gLk; CH3COO- mad;fs;> rkepiyia tyg;Gwj;jpypUe;J ,lg;Gwkhf
efHj;Jtjdhy; CH3COOH ,d; madhf;fj;ijf; Fiwj;J Ijurd; mad; nrwptpy; Fiwit
Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; CH3COOH IAk; CH3COONa IAk; cila fiury; mNj
nrwpTila CH3COOH I kl;Lk; cila fiurypYk; Fiwe;j mkpyj; jd;ikAilaJ.
mrw;wpf; mkpyj;jpd; madhf;fj;jpd; rkepiyapy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; efHtpw;Ff; fhuzk;
cg;gpypUe;J ngwg;gLk; mrw;Nww;W madhFk;. CH3COOH, CH3COONa Mfpa ,uz;bdhYk;
CH3COO- toq;fg;gLtjdhy;> ,t;tad; nghJ madhFk;.
fiuf;fg;gl;l gjhHj;jq;fSld; nghJ madhfTila xU NrHitiar; NrHg;gjd; %yk;
rkepiyapy; efHit Vw;gLj;jy; nghJmad; tpisthFk;.
nghJ mad; tpisthdJ> xU fiurypd; pH, rpwpjstpy; fiuAk; cg;gpd; fiujpwd;
Mfpatw;iwj; jPHkhdpg;gjpy; Kf;fpa gq;fpid tfpf;fpd;wJ.
xU nkd;dkpyk; HA iaAk; NaA Nghd;w nkd;dkpyj;jpd; fiuAk; cg;igAk; nfhz;l
xU fiurypd; pH If; fUJNthk;.
125
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) +A–(aq)

[H3 O+ (aq) ][A– (aq)]
Ka =
[HA(aq) ]
Ka [HA(aq)]
[H3 O+ (aq) ] =
[A– (aq)]
,Ugf;fq;fspYk; -log vLf;Fk;nghOJ>
[HA(aq) ]
-log [H3 O+ (aq) ] = -log Ka -log
[A - (aq) ]
-log [H3 O+ (aq) ] = -log Ka + log [A- (aq) ]
[HA(aq) ]
pH = pKa + log [A- (aq) ]

[HA(aq) ]
[,iz%yk;]
pH = pKa+log
[mkpyk;]
NkYs;s Nfhit Henderson-Hasselbalch rkd;ghL vd miof;fg;gLk;.

Ka> mkpyk;> mkpyj;jpd; cg;G vd;gdtw;wpd; nrwpTfs; vkf;Fj; njupe;jhy; fiurypd;
pH I ehk; fzpf;fyhk;.
nghJ mad; tpisT rk;ge;jg;gLk; gpurpdq;fspy;> vkf;Fg; nghJthf nkd;dkpyk;
HA, NaA Nghd;w mjd; cg;G vd;gdtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfs; jug;gLfpd;wd.
,t;tpdq;fspd; nrwpT epahakhd cau;thf (0.10 mol dm-3) cs;s tiu> ehk;
mkpyj;jpd; madhf;fk;> cg;gpd; ePHg;gFg;G vd;gdtw;iwg; Gwf;fzpf;fyhk;. ,J
xU nry;Ygbahfpd;w mz;zsthf;fk; fhuzk; HA xU nkd;dkpyk;> A–(aq) tpd;
ePHg;gFg;gsT nghJthf kpfr; rpwpaJ. NkYk;> cg;G NaA apypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
–
nghJ mad; A (aq) apd; gpurd;dk; HA apd;madhf;fj;ijf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ>
madhf;fkilahj HA apd; gpurd;dk; NkYk; A–(aq) tpd; ePHg;gFg;igf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ.
vdNt Henderson-Hasselbalch rkd;ghl;by; ehk; Muk;gr; nrwpTfisr; rkepiyr;
nrwpTfshf cgNahfpf;fyhk;.
126
cjhuzk; 2.20
i. 0.20 mol dm-3 CH3COOH IAk; 0.40 mol dm-3 CH3COONa IAk; cila xU
fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;f.
ii. cg;G ,y;yhjnghOJ> 0.20 mol dm-3 CH3COOH fiurypd; pH ahjhf
tpUf;Fk;?
Ka(CH3 COOH) =1.8 × =10-5)
tpil
i. CH3COONa(s) xU td;kpd;gFnghUshjypdhy; mJ Kw;whfg; gpupifaile;J
0.40 mol dm-3 nrwpTila CH3COO-(aq) I toq;Ffpd;wJ. CH3COOH
mkpyj;jpd; gpupif kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtjdhy;> mkpyj;jpypUe;J ngwg;gLk;
[CH3COO-(aq)] I ehk; Gwf;fzpf;fyhk;. vdNt ehk; [CH3COO-(aq)] I
0.40 mol dm-3 MfTk; [CH3COOH (aq)] I 0.20 mol dm-3 MfTk; vLf;fyhk;.
CH3COONa(s) → CH3COO- (aq) + Na+(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO– (aq) + H3O+(aq)
0.20 mol dm-3 0.40 mol dm-3
[H3 O (aq) ] [CH3 COO– (aq) ]
+
Ka = = 1.8 ×10-5
[CH3 COOH(aq) ]
(0.20)
[H3 O+ (aq) ] = × 1.8 ×10-5 = 9.0 ×10 -6 mol dm-3
(0.40)
pH = -log[H3 O+ (aq) ] = 5.04

my;yJ
pH = pKa+log ([,iz%yk;])
[mkpyk;]
pH = -log( Ka)+log ([,iz%yk;])

[mkpyk;]
pH = 4.74+log 0.40
0.20
pH = 4.74+log2
pH = 5.04
(ii) nghJ mad; ,y;yhjnghOJ> gpd;tUk; rkepiy kl;Lk; fhzg;gLk;
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 - χ +χ +χ
rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.20 - χ +χ +χ
0.20 –χ ~ 0.20 vd;Dk; vLNfhSld; gpujpapLf.
127
[H3 O+ (aq) ][CH3 COO- (aq) ]

Ka = = 1.8 ×10-5
[CH3 COOH(aq) ]
(x)2
= 1.8 ×10-5
0.20
x= 2×10-3 mol dm-3
[H3 O+ (aq) ] = 2×10-3 mol dm-3
pH = 2.70
nghJmad; CH3COO– ,d; gpurd;dk;> mkpyk; CH3COOH ,d; madhf;fj;ij
kl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ vd;gij ,J njspthff; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
mkpyj;jpdJk; cg;gpdJk; nrwpTfs; rkkhf cs;sNghJ> xU Kf;fpakhd epiyikiag;

gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 2.21
0.1 mol mrw;wpw;F mkpyj;ijAk; 0.10 mol Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;iwAk; NrHj;Jg;
ngw;w 1.0 dm3 fiurypd; pH If; fzpf;Ff.
tpil
,e;j tifapy; [CH3COO-(aq)] MdJ CH3COONa nrwpthFk; fhuzk; mJ
Kw;whf madhf;fkilfpd;wJ. vdNt ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+(aq)
Muk;gr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.10 0.1 0
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 - χ +χ +χ
rkepiyr; nrwpT/ mol dm-3 0.10 - χ 0.1+χ χ
[H3 O+ (aq) ][CH3 COO- (aq) ]

Ka = = 1.8 ×10-5
[CH3 COOH(aq) ]
(χ (0.10+χ)
= 1.8 ×10-5
(0.10 - χ)
χ rpwpjhjypdhy;> gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.

(χ (0.10)
= 1.8 ×10-5
(0.10)
χ= [H3 O+ (aq) ] = 1.8×10 -5 mol dm-3

∴pH =4.74
mjhtJ pH = pKa
NH3, Nghd;w nkd;%yj;ijAk;> NH4Cl. Nghd;w mk;%yj;jpd; cg;igAk; cila

fiurypYk; nghJ mad; tpisT nraw;gLfpd;wJ. rkepiyapy;
NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
128
,q;F NH4+(aq) MdJ NH4Cl ,d; Kw;whd madhf;fj;jpdhy; ngwg;gLtjpdhy;

NH3(aq) kPJ Mjpf;fk; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ. vdNt NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
vd;Dk; rkepiy xLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt ,f;fiurypy;> pH gpd;tUk; rkepiyapdhy;
Kf;fpakhff; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
[H3O+ (aq) ][NH3(aq)]

Ka =
[NH4+(aq)]
Ka [NH4+(aq)]
+
[H3O (aq)] =
[NH3(aq)]
[NH4+(aq)]
-log [H3O+(aq)] = -log Ka - log
[NH3(aq)]
[NH3(aq)]
-log [H3O+(aq)] = -log Ka + log
[NH4+(aq)]
[NH3(aq)]
pH = -log Ka + log
[NH4+(aq)]
[,iz%yk;]
pH = -log (Ka) + log
[mkpyk;]
NH3 IAk; mjd; cg;igAk;> NH4Cl nfhz;Ls;s fiury; mNj nrwpTila NH3 I kl;Lk;
nfhz;Ls;s fiurypYk; Fiwe;j %yj;jd;ik cilaJ> nghJ mad; NH4+> %yj;ijAk;
cg;igAk; nfhz;Ls;s fiurypy; NH3 apd; madhf;fj;ij kl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
2.2.11 fdkhd epakpg;Gfs;
epakf; fiury; vd miof;fg;gLk; nrwpT njupe;j xU fiuriy cgNahfpj;J NtnwhU
fiurypd; nrwpitj; jPHkhdpf;Fk; nrad;Kiw epakpg;G MFk;. ,jpy; nghJthf ehk;
fdtsT mstPLfis Nkw;nfhz;L xd;Wld; Kw;whfj; jhf;fKwj; Njitahd kw;iwa
fdtsT fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLk;. jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk; fdtsT jhf;fk; Kw;Wg;ngWtijf;
fz;Lgpbf;Fk; tpjj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJ.
rktYg;Gs;spfs;> KbTepiyg; Gs;spfs;
xU epakpg;G jpUj;jkhf ,Ug;gjw;F gPrkhdj;jpw;Fr; rkkhd epakdpia (mstpapYs;s
nrwpT njupe;j fiury;) gFg;gpw;Fs;shf;fg;gLk; fiurypDs; (analyte epakpg;Gf;
FLitapYs;s nrwpT njupahj fiury;) ehk; NrHf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;jg; gPrkhdf;
fyitia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd epakdpapd; fdtsit ehk; rktYg;Gs;sp> Veq
vd miog;Nghk;.
epakpg;Gj; jhf;fj;jpd; (jhf;fq;fspd;) gPrkhdj;ij mwpe;jhy;> gFg;gpw;Fs;shf;fg;gLk;
gjhHj;jj;jpd; (analyte) %y; msTfis ehk; fzpf;fyhk;. Jujp\;ltrkhf mNdfkhd
epakpg;Gfspy; rktYg;Gs;spia mile;jjpw;fhd epiyiaj; njspthfr; Rl;bf;fhl;Lfpd;w
jd;ik vk;kplk; ,y;iy. gjpyhf ehk; njupT nra;Ak; KbTepiyg; Gs;spia
mile;jJk; epakdpia ,Ltij ehk; epWj;JNthk;. gFg;Gf;Fupa gjhHj;jj;ij cila
fiurypDs; ,lg;gLk; xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; epwkhw;wk; ngUk;ghYk; KbTepiyg; Gs;spiar;
Rl;bf;fhl;Lk;. ,t;thwhd gjhHj;jq;fs; fhl;bfs; vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. nghJthff;>
fhl;bfs; fiurypd; pH khw;wj;Jld; mtw;wpd; epwkhw;wj;ijf; fhz;gpf;Fk;> KbT
epiyg;Gs;spia milaj; Njitahd epakdpapd; fdtsT> rktYg;Gs;spf; fdtstpYk;
rpwpjsT kpifahff; (epakdpapd; 1 Jsp my;yJ 0.05 cm3) fhzg;gLk;. KbTepiyg;
129
Gs;spf;Fk; rktYg;Gs;spf;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrk; epakpg;G tO vd miof;fg;gLk;.

fdtsTfspYs;s tpj;jpahrk; kpfr; rpwpanjdpDk;> ,J pH ,y; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT khw;wj;ij
Vw;gLj;Jtij ehk; ghHf;fyhk;. vdNt KbTepiyg; Gs;spapYk; rktYg;Gs;spapYk;
cs;s pH ngWkhdq;fs; xg;gplj;jf;fdty;y. epakdpapdJk; gFg;gha;Tf;Fs;shFk;.
gjhHj;jj;jpdJk; nrwpTfs; njupe;j tifapy; xU mstplg;gl;l ,ay;gpy; (cjhuzkhf pH)
epakdpapd; fdtsTld; khw;wj;jpd; khjpupia ehk; cUthf;fyhk;> ,e;j topapy; rktYg;
Gs;spiaj; njspthf tiuaWf;fyhk;. fPNoAs;s cUf;fs; epakpg;gw;fhd mikg;igAk;
rktYg;Gs;sp> Kbepiyg;Gs;sp Mfpa ,uz;bdJk; xg;gPl;ilAk; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
mstp
mstpj;
jhq;fp pH ,y; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT khw;wk; kpfr; rpwpasT
fdtsT
tpj;jpahrk;
epakpg;Gf; KbT
FLit rktYg;Gs;sp epiyg; Gs;sp
epakdpapd; fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.16 (a) epakpg;G mikg;gpd; tuptbtk; : nrwpT mwpag;glhj fiury; epakpg;Gf;

FLitapDs; itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,f;fiury; mstpapYs;s epakdpf;F vjpuhf
mjid nkJthfr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; epakpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. (b) KbTepiyg;
Gs;spf;Fk; rktYg;Gs;spf;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrj;ijf; fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ>
KbTepiyg;Gs;sp fhl;bia cgNahfpj;Jj; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ> ,q;F
rpwpjsT Nkyjpf epakdp (~ 0.05 cm3) vkf;Ff; fhl;bapd; epwkhw;wj;ij
mtjhdpf;fj; Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. rktYg;Gs;spapy; jpl;lkhf gPrkhd msTfs;
jhf;fKWfpd;wd. MfNt rktYg;Gs;spf; fdtsT vg;nghOJk; KbT
epiyg;Gs;spf; fdtstpYk; vg;nghOJk; FiwT. ,e;jr; rpwpa fdtsT
tpj;jpahrk;> pH ,y; kpfg; ngupa tpj;jpahrj;ij Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
mkpy - %y epakpg;Gfs;
,e;jg; gFjpapy; ehd;F tifahd epakpg;Gfisf; fUJNthk;.
(i) xU td;fhuk;> xU td;dkpyk;
(ii) xU nkd;dkpyk;> xU td;fhuk;
(iii) xU td;dkpyk;> xU nkd;fhuk;
(iv) xU nkd;dkpyk;> xU nkd;fhuk;
nkd;dkpyk;> nkd;fhuk; njhlHghd epakpg;Gf;fs; cUthFk; cg;gpd; fw;wad;> md;dad;
Mfpa ,uz;bdJk; ePHg;gFg;Gf; fhuzkhfr; rpf;fy; jd;ikAilad.
gpd;G cs;s gFjpapy;> ehk; NkYs;s tif epakpg;Gfspy; KiwNa mtw;wpd;
rktYg;Gs;spfis tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tJld; epakpg;gpd;NghJ (epakdpapd; fdtsTld;)
pH If; fzpj;jy;> mjd; khw;wk; vd;gtw;iwf; fUJNthk;. ,J nrwpT njupe;j
epakpg;gpw;Fs;shFk; gjhu;j;jj;jpw;Fk; nrwpT njupe;j epakdpf;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;igf;
fUj;jpy; vLj;J nfhs;if uPjpahd pH khw;wj;ij vspjhf tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sy; vd;gjidf;
Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ehk; nfhs;if uPjpahf epakpg;G tiuGfis (fdtsT vjpH
pH) cUthf;fyhk;. xU epakpg;G tiuG vkf;F pH Nghd;w xU ,ay;G epakdpiar;
130
NrHf;Fk;nghOJ vt;thW khWfpd;wJ vd;Dk; xU ghHf;ff; $ba glj;ij toq;Ffpd;wJ.
td;dkpy - td;%y epakpg;Gfs;

0.100 mol dm-3NaOH. cld; 25.00cm3, 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl ,d; epakpg;igf; fUJf.
(Fwpg;G : 0.00 cm3 jpUj;jj;Jld; fdtsTfs; mstp> Fohap vd;gd cgNahfpj;J
mstplg;gLfpd;wd.)
epfOk; jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)→NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
HCl(aq), NaOH(aq), NaCl(aq) Mfpad td;kpd;gF nghUl;fs; vd;gjdhy;> NkYs;s
rkd;ghl;il ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH– (aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l)
fiurypd; pH ,lg;gLk; NaOH ,d; fdtstpd; xt;nthU epiyapYk; fhzg;gLk;
H+(aq) , OH–(aq) mad;fspd; rhHGr; nrwptpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. MfNt rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH>
rktYg;Gs;spf;F Kd;G pH rktYg;Gs;spf;F gpd;G pH Nghd;w epiyfisf; fUjyhk;.
Kjypy; rktYg;Gs;spia milaj; Njitahd NaOH ,d; fdtsitf; fzpg;Nghk;.
rktYg;Gs;spapy; HCl %y;fspd; msT = NaOH %y;fspd; msT (HCl apw;Fk; NaOH
apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd gPrkhdk; 1:1 vd;gjdhy;)
vspa rkd;ghl;ilg; gpuNahfpf;f CaVa = CbVb mbapy; vOjg;gLk; ‘a’ mkpyk; HCl> If;
Fwpf;fpd;wJ. mbapy; vOjg;gLk; ‘b’ %yk; NaOH: If; Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
(i) MfNt rktYg; Gs;spia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd NaOH fdtsT
0.100 × 25.00 = 0.100 Vb

∴Vb = 25.00 cm3
(ii) Muk;gj;jpy; fiury; 0.100 mol dm-3 MFk;. HCl td;dkpykhjyhy;>
pH = –log[H3O+] = –log[HCl] = –log(0.100) = 1.00

(iii) rktYg;Gs;spf;F Kd;G HCl kpifahf cs;sJ. pH MdJ kpifahfTs;s HCl
nrwptpdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;. 10.00cm3 NaOH HCl Ir; NrHj;j gpd;G> mjhtJ
NaOH Ir; fhzg;gLk; HCl ,d; msTld; xg;gpLk;NghJ NaOH> gPrkhd tpfpjg;gb
Fiwthf cs;sJ> kpifahf cs;s (my;yJ vQ;rpAs;s) HCl nrwpT Jzpag;gly;
Ntz;Lk;.
131
Muk;g HCl msT (%yq;fspy;) 0.100 mol 1.0 dm3

= × 25.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
0.100 mol 1.0 dm3
NrHj;j NaOH msT = 1.0 dm3 × 10.00 cm3 ×
1000 cm3
=1.0×10-3 mol
jhf;fKw;w HCl msT = 1.0×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s NaOH msT = (2.50×10-3- 1.00×10-3) mol
= 1.50×10-3 mol
1.5×10-3 mol 1000 cm3

vQ;rpAs;s HCl (H3O+) nrwpT = ×
35.00 cm3 1.0 dm3
= 0.043 mol dm-3
pH = -log (0.043) = 1.37
(iv) rktYg;Gs;spapy; (25.00 cm3 NaOH Ir; NrHj;j gpd;G) H+ , OH- mad;fs; ahTk;
cl;nfhs;sg;gl;Ltpl;ld. mj;Jld; Na+ , Cl- Mff; fhzg;gLk; cg;G NaCl ePHg;gFg;
giltjpy;iy. MfNt> td;dkpyj;Jld; td;%yj;jpd; jhf;fj;jpw;F rktYg;Gs;spapy;
Kf;fpakhd rkepiyj; jhf;fk; (epfuj; jhf;fk;) gpd;tUkhW khj;jpukhFk;.
H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq) ⇌ 2H2O(l)
rktYg;Gs;spapy;> [H+ (aq)]=[OH–(aq)] fiurypd; pH 7.00 MFk;.

(v) 35.00 cm3 NaOH> ,l;l gpd;G> HCl fhzg;gLk; HCl msTld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ
gPrkhd tpfpjg;gb caHe;jsT kpifahfTs;s (my;yJ vQ;rpAs;s) NaOH nrwpT
Jzpag;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
3
Muk;g HCl msT (%y;fspy;) = 0.100 mol 3 1.0 dm
1.0 dm3 × 25.00 cm × 1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
1.0 dm3
NrHj;j NaOH msT = 0.100 mol × 35.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 3.50×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s HCl msT = (3.50×10-3 - 2.50×10-3 ) mol
= 1.0×10-3 mol
-3
vQ;rpAs;s NaOH (OH-) nrwpT = 1.0×10 mol × 1000 cm3
60.00 cm3 1.0 dm3
= 0.017 mol dm-3
∴ pOH = -log (0.017) = 1.77
∴ pH = 14.00 - 1.77 = 12.23
132
Kf;fpakhdJ : pH=7 apw;F mz;ikapy; pH tisapapy; rpy tpyfiy ,g;nghOJ ehk;

fhzyhk;. rktYg;Gs;spf;F mz;ikapy; pH ,y; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis
ehk; ghHg;Nghk;.
24.90 cm3 NaOH Ir; NrHj;jy;:
24.90 cm3 NaOH, I ,l;l gpd;G> mjhtJ HCl msTld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ gPrkhd
tpfpjj;jpYk; Fiwe;jsT NaOH fhzg;gLk;. kpifahd (vQ;Rk;) HCl
nrwpT Jzpag;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
3
Muk;g HCl msT (%y;fspy;) = 0.100 mol × 25.00 cm3 × 1.0 dm 3
1.0 dm3 1000 cm
= 2.50×10-3 mol
0.100 mol × 24.90 cm3 × 1.0 dm3

NrHj;j NaOH msT = 3 3
1.0 dm 1000 cm
= 2.49×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s HCl msT = (2.50×10-3- 2.49 × 10-3) mol

= 1.00×10-5 mol
-5
vQ;rpAs;s HCl (H3O+) msT = 1.00×10 mol 1000 cm3
×
3
49.90 cm 1.0 dm3
= 2.00×10-4 mol dm-3
∴ pH = -log (2.00 × 10-4)) = 3.7
25.10 cm3 NaOH Ir; NrHj;jy; :

0.100 mol 1.0 dm3
Muk;g HCl msT (%y;fspy;) = × 25.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
0.100 mol 1.0 dm3
,lg;gl;l NaOH msT = × 25.10 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 2.51×10-3 mol
vQ;Rk; NaOH msT = (2.51×10-3 - 2.50×10-3) mol
= 1.0×10-5 mol
1.0×10-5 mol 1000 cm3
kpFjpahfTs;s NaOH (OH-) nrwpT = ×
50.10 cm3 1.0 dm3
= 2.00×10-4 mol dm-3
∴pOH = -log (2.00×10-4)) = 3.7

∴pH = 14.00 - 3.70 = 10.30
,lg;gLk; NaOH fdtsTfs; 25.00 cm3, ,Yk; caHthf cs;snghOJ> mjhtJ

fhzg;gLk; HCl msTld; xg;gpLk; nghOJ gPrkhdtpfpjg;gb NaOH msT caHthf
cs;sJ> kpifahd (kPjpahfTs;s) NaOH nrwpT Jzpag;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
,e;j td; mkpyk; vjpu; %yk; epakpg;gpy; rktYg;Gs;spf;F mz;ikapy; ngupasT pH
khw;wj;ij (0.020 cm3 fdtsT ,ilntspapDs; 6.6 pH myFfs; khw;wk;) ehk; fhzyhk;>
133
ntt;NtW fdtsTfs; NaOH I NrHf;Fk;NghJ fzpj;j pH ngWkhdq;fis ntt;NtW

fdtsTfs; NaOH ,w;F vjpuhf tiughf;fk; nra;J cUf;fs; 2.17(a), 2.17(b) cs;sthW
pH tiuigg; ngwyhk;. mkpyk;> %yk; Mfpadtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT khw;wj;Jld; pH
elj;ij tiuGfis ,t;TUf;fs; fhz;gpf;fpd;wd.
gpNdhj;jyPd;
GNuhNkhijNkhy; ePyk;
epakdpf; fdtsT (NaOH) / cm3 epakdpf; fdtsT (NaOH) / cm3
cU 2.17 (a) 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH. cld; 25.00 cm3, 0.100 mol dm-3HCl ,d; epakpg;gjw;fhd epakpg;G
tiuG. 25.00 cm3 HCl cld; ngw;w rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH = 7.0 rktYg;Gs;spf;F
mz;ikapy; pH ,y; ngupa khw;wk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. (b) HCl, NaOH Mfpadtw;wpd; Muk;gr;
nrwpTfSld; pH khw;w tiuGfisf; fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ. Muk;gr; nrwpT FiwAk;nghOJ
pH tiugpd; tpahgfj;jd;ik Fiwfpd;wJ. gpNdhj;jypd; GNuhNkhj;ijNghy; ePyk;
Mfpa fhl;bfspd; ebgq;F gpd;G NtnwhU gFjpapy; fye;Jiuahlg;gLk;.
nkd;dkpy - td;%y epakpg;Gfs;

mrw;wpf; mkpyj;jpw;Fk; (xU nkd;dkpyk;) Nrhbak; Ijnuhf;irl;bw;Fk; (xU td;%yk;)
,ilapyhd jhf;fj;ijf; fUJf.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)→ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
NaOH td;%ykhdjhy; ehk; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW kPs vOjyhk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)→ CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l)
ehk; Kd;G fye;JiuahbathW> CH3COO- (aq) ePHg;gFg;giltjdhy;> ,j;jhf;fk; epakpg;gpd;
rktYg;Gs;spapd; pH Ij; jPHkhdpf;Fk;.
mrw;Nww;W mad; gpd;tUkhW ePHg;gFg;gilAk;.
CH3COO- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
MfNt rktYg;Gs;spapy;> Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;W kl;Lk; cz;L> mrw;Nww;W mad;fspd;
ePHg;gFg;gpdhy; kpifahd OH-(aq) ngwg;gLtjdhy; pH 7 ,Yk; caHthf ,Uf;Fk;.
nkd;dkpyk; td;fhuj;jpdhy; epakpf;fg;gLk; NghJs;s epakpg;G tifapd; epakpg;G
tiugpid ehk; tpsq;Ftjw;F vj;jdpg;Nghk;.
0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH cld; 25.00 cm3 , 0.100 mol dm-3 CH3COOH(aq) ,d; epakpg;igf; fUJf.
Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.80 ×10-5
,lg;gLk; NaOH fdtstpd; xt;nthU epiyapYk; fiurypd; pH> $l;lg;gpupifailahj

CH3COOH(aq) mkpyk;> CH3COO–(aq) mad;fs; (CH3COONa(aq) Mf cUthfpd) Mfpad
tw;wpd; rhHGr; nrwpTfspy; jq;fpAs;sij ehk; ghHf;fyhk;. td;dkpyj;jpw;Fk;
td;%yj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;igg; Nghd;W> rktYGs;spapd; pH, rktYg;Gs;spf;F
Kd;G pH, rktYg;Gs;spf;F gpd;G pH Nghd;w epiyikfisf; fUjyhk;.
134
Kjypy; ehk; rktYg;Gs;spia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd NaOH fdtsitf; fzpg;Nghk;.

rktYg;Gs;spapy;> CH3COOH %y;fspd; msT = NaOH %y;fspd; msT (CH3COOH
tpw;Fk; NaOH apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd gPrkhdk; 1:1 vd;gjdhy;)
vspa rkd;ghl;ilg; gpuNahfpf;f CaVa = CbVb
mbapy; vOjg;gLk; ~a| mkpyk; CH3COOH If; Fwpf;Fk;. mbapy; vOjg;gLk; ~b| %yk;>
NaOH If; Fwpf;Fk;
(i) MfNt rktYg;Gs;spia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd NaOH fdtsT>

0.100 ×25.00 = 0.100 ×Vb
∴Vb = 25.00 cm3
(ii) Muk;gj;jpy; fiury; 0.100 mol dm-3 CH3COOH MFk;. CH3COOH nkd;dkpykhdjhy;
[H3O+] mjd; gFjpahd madhf;fj;jpd; %yk; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;> mjhtJ
Ka apypUe;J [H3O+] fzpf;fg;gLk;.

Muk;gr; nrwpT/ mol dm-3 0.1 0 0
nrwpT khw;wk;/ mol dm-3 -χ +χ +χ
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT/ mol dm-3 (0.10 -χ) +χ +χ
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT/ mol dm-3 0.10 +χ +χ
(0.10 -χ)~ 0.1) vd;Dk; vLNfhSld;
[H3 O+ (aq) ][CH3 COO- (aq) ] χ2
Ka = = =1.80 ×10-5
[CH3 COOH(aq) ] (0.1)
χ2 =1.80 ×10-6
χ =1.34 ×10-3
pH = –log[H3O+] = –log[1.34 ×10-3)] = 2.87
my;yJ
[H3 O (aq) ][CH3 COO- (aq) ]
+
Ka =
[CH3 COOH(aq) ]
[H3 O+ (aq) ]2
Ka =
C0
,q;F mkpyj;jpd; Muk;gr; nrwpT C0 MFk;.
1
+
2
[H3 O (aq) ] =(KaC0)
1 1
-log[H3O+ (aq) ] = -log(Ka) 2 -log(C0 ) 2
1 1
-log[H3O+ (aq) ]= - 2 log(Ka) - 2 log (C0)
1 1
pH = 2
pKa - 2
log(C0)
135
(iii) rktYg;Gs;spf;F Kd;G> ,lg;gLk; NaOH msT gPrkhd tpfpjg;gb fiurypy;

fhzg;gLk; CH3COOH mkpyj;jpd; mstpYk; FiwthFk;. vdNt fiury; $l;lg;
gpupif ailahj CH3COOH mkpyj;ijAk; cg;G CH3COONa. IAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;
NtW tpjkhff; $wpdhy; ,g;nghOJ vk;kplk; nkd;dkpyj;ijAk; mjd; cg;igAk;
(,iz%yk;) nfhz;Ls;s xU fyit cz;L. mjhtJ xU jhq;fw; fiury;
cz;L. pH If; fzpg;gjw;F> ehk; Henderson-Hasselbalch rkd;ghl;il> jhq;fw;
fiury;fs; gw;wpa mwpTld; cgNahfpf;fyhk;.
10.00 cm3 , 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH ,lg;gl;l gpd;Gs;s jhf;fj;ijf; fUJNthk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
CH3COOH ,d; Muk;g msT = 0.100 mol × 25.00 cm3 × 1.0 dm3
1.0 dm3 1000cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
0.100 mol 1.0 dm3
3
Nru;f;fg;gl;l NaOH msT = × 10.00 cm ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
-3
= 1.0×10 mol
jhf;fKw;w CH3COOH msT = 1.0×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s CH3COOH msT = (2.50×10-3- 1.00 × 10-3 ) mol =1.5 ×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s CH3COOH nrwpT
1.5×10-3 mol × 1000 cm3
=
35.00 cm3 1.0 dm3
= 0.043 mol dm-3
cUthfpa CH3COONa msT = Nru;j;j NaOH msT =1.0×10-3 mol
cUthfpa CH3COONa nrwpT 1.0×10-3 mol 1000 cm3

= 3 ×
35.00 cm 1.0 dm3
= 0.029 mol dm-3
,g;ngWkhdq;fisg; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;by; gpujpapLk;nghOJ>
pH = pKa+log [,iz%yk;]
[mkpyk;]
(0.029)
pH = 4.74+log
(0.043)
pH = 4.57
(iv) rktYg;Gs;spapy; (25.00 cm3 NaOH I NrHj;j gpd;G) vy;yh CH3COOH ck; NaOH
ck; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. (,uz;Lk; KOtJk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;) fhzg;gLk; cg;G
CH3COONa gpd;tUkhW ePHg;gFg;gilAk;.
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) vd;Dk; rkd;ghl;bw;F ,zq;f>
cUthfpa CH3COONa (CH3COO-(aq)) msT = 2.50×10-3 mol
2.5×10-3 mol 1000 cm3
/ cg;gpd; nrwpT = 3 ×
50.00 cm 1.0 dm3
= 0.05 mol dm-3
136
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)

Muk;gr; nrwpT/ mol dm-3 0.05 0 0
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 χ +χ +χ
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 (0.05 -χ) +χ +χ
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.05 +χ +χ
(0.05 -χ)~ 0.05) vd;Dk; mz;zsthf;fj;Jld;
NkYs;s ePHg;gFg;Gj; jhf;fj;jpw;F> Kb apw;fhd Nfhitiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;>
[OH- (aq)][CH3 COOH(aq)] χ2 Kw
Kb= = = = 5.6 ×10-10
[CH3 COO- (aq)] 0.05 Ka
χ = [OH- (aq)] = 5.3 ×10-6 mol dm-3

∴pH= 5.28
∴ pH = 14.00- 5.28
∴pH = 8.72
my;yJ
-
Kb = [OH (aq)][CH3 COOH(aq)]
[CH3 COO- (aq)]
- 2
Kb = [OH (aq)]
S
,q;F S vd;gJ cg;gpd; nrwpthFk;.
1
[OH- (aq)]=(Kb S)2 1 1
2
-log[OH- (aq)] = -log(Kb ) 2 -log (S)
-log[OH- (aq)] = - 12 log(Kb ) - 1 log S
2
pOH = 12 pKb - 12 log S

pH+ pOH = pKw , pKa+ pKb= pKw Mfpatw;iwg; gpujpapLk; NghJ

pKw-pH= 12 (pKw -pKa) - 12 log S
1 1
∴pH = 2 pKa+ 2 pKw 12 + log S
(v) rktYg;Gs;spf;Fg; gpd;G> Muk;gj;jpy; cs;s CH3COOH msT KOtJk; cg;G

CH3COONa Mf khw;wg;gLk; mj;Jld; kpif NaOH MdJ OH- Mff; fhzg;gLk;.
MfNt fyitapd; pH kpifahfTs;s [OH-(aq)] nrwptpdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;. 35.00
cm3 NaOH NrHj;j gpd;G> mjhtJ fhzg;gLk; CH3COOH msTld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ
caHe;jsT NaOH fhzg;gLk;. kpifahd (my;yJ kPjpahfTs;s) NaOH, nrwpT
Jzpag;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
137
0.100 mol 1.0 dm3

Muk;g msT CH3COOH %y;fs; = 1.0 dm3 × 25.00 cm3 ×
1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
1.0 dm3
Nru;j;j msT NaOH = 0.100 mol × 35.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 3.50×10-3 mol
jhf;fKw;w CH3COOH msT = 2.5×10-3 mol
vQ;rpAs;s NaOH msT
= (3.50×10-3 - 2.50×10-3 ) mol
= 1.0×10-3 mol
-3
vQ;rpAs;s NaOH (OH-) nrwpT = 1.0×10 mol × 1000 cm3
60.00 cm3 1.0 dm3
= 0.017 mol dm-3
∴ pOH = -log (0.017) = 1.77
∴ pH = 14.00 - 1.77 = 12.23
Kw
my;yJ> rktYg;Gs;spf;Fg; gpd;G> [H3O+ (aq)]
[OH- (aq)]
[OH (aq)] vd;gJ td;%yj;jpd; kpifahTs;s nrwpthFk;.
-
kpifahfTs;s [OH- (aq)] = B vd;f.

Kw
[H3O+ (aq)] =
B+
-log [H3 O+ (aq)] = -log(Kw) - (-log B+ )
pH = pKw+ log(B +)
rktYg;Gs;spapd; miuthrpapy;
pH = pKa+log [,iz%yk;]
[mkpyk;]
mkpyr; nrwpTk;> ,iz %yr; nrwpTk; rkk; / pH = pKa

gpd;tUk; cU 2.18 ,y; cs;s pH tiugpy; NkYs;stw;iwr; RUf;fkhff; fhz;gpf;fyhk;.
138
jhq;fw; fiury;
gFjp
epakdpf; fdtsT (NaOH) / cm3 epakdpf; fdtsT (NaOH) / cm3
cU 2.18 (a) 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH Ald; 25.00 cm3, 0.100 mol dm-3 CH3COOH ,d; epakpg;gpw;fhd
epakpg;G tiuG rktYg;Gs;sp pH ngWkhdk; 8.72 tpy; fhukhd gFjpapy; ngwg;gLk;.
,e;j epakpg;Gf;fspy; rktYg;Gs;spf;F Kd;G xU jhq;fw; fiury; cUthfpd;wJ.
(NtnwhU gFjp 12.3 ,y; ,J tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gLk;). pH njhopw;ghLfspd; rpwg;gpay;ghd
Gs;spfSk; Fwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. (b) nkd;dkpyj;jpd; typikAld; NtWgLk; pH
tiuGfs; xg;gplg;gl;Ls;sd. mkpyj;jpd; typik FiwAk;NghJ> rktYg;Gs;sp
$Ljyhf %yg;gf;fk; efHfpd;wJ.
td;dkpy - nkd;%y epakpg;Gfs;

nkd;%yk; NH3 apw;Fk; td;dkpyk; HCl> apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;igf; fUJNthk;:
epfOk; jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4Cl(aq)
my;yJ vspikahf H+(aq) +NH3(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq)
NH4+(aq) ,d; ePHg;gFg;Gf; fhuzkhf rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH ngWkhdk; 7 ,Yk; Fiwthf
,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
mNkhdpah ePHf;fiurypd; MtpahFk; jd;ik fhuzkhf> mNkhdpahf; fiurypDs;
mstpapypUe;J HCl mkpyj;ij ,Ljy; $Ljyhf trjpahdjhftpUf;Fk;.
cjhuzk;
25.00 cm3, 0.10 mol dm-3 NH3, nkd;%ykhdJ 0.10 mol dm-3 HCl xU td;dkpyj;Jld;
epakpf;fg;gLtjhff; fUJf.
,lg;gLk; HCl fdtstpd; xt;nthU epiyapYk; fiurypd; pH, $l;lg;gpupifailahj
NH3, NH4Cl Mfpatw;wpd; rhHGr; nrwpTfspy; jq;fpAs;sij ehk; fhzyhk;. vdNt
nkd;dkpy - td;fhu epakpg;G tifapy; fUjpathW rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH, rktYg;Gs;spf;F
Kd;G pH, rktYg;Gs;spf;F gpd;G pH Mfpatw;iwf; fUJtjw;fhd rhj;jpak; cz;L.
Kjypy; ehk; rktYg;Gs;spia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd HCl ,d; fdtsitf;
fzpg;Nghk;. rktYg;Gs;spapy;> NH3 %y;fspd; msT = HCl %y;fspd; msT (NH3 apw;Fk;
HCl apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd gPrkhdk; 1:1 vd;gjhdhy; MFk;.)
rkd;ghl;ilg; gpuNahfpf;f> CaVa = CbVb
139
(i) MfNt rktYg;Gs;spia miltjw;Fj; Njitahd HCl fdtsT>

0.100 × Va = 0.100 × 25.00
∴Va = 25.00 cm3
(ii) Muk;gj;jpy; fiury; 0.100 mol dm-3 NH3 MFk;. NH3 xU nkd;%ykhjyhy; [OH-]
mjd; gFjp madhf;fj;ijf; fUj;jpw;nfhz;L jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;> mjhtJ
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
Kb apypUe;J gpd;tUkhW [OH-] fzpf;fg;gLk;.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 -х + х +х
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 (0.10-х) + х +х
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.10 + х +х
(0.10 -х ~ 0.1) vd;Dk; vLNfhSld;
[NH4+ (aq) ] [OH- (aq) ] χ2
Kb = = = 1.80 × 10-5
[NH3 (aq) ] (0.1)
х2 =1.80 ×10-6
х =1.34 ×10-3
pOH = –log[OH-(aq)] = –log[1.34 ×10-3)] = 2.87

∴pH = 14.00 – 2.87 = 11.13
(iii) rktYg;Gs;spf;F Kd;G ,lg;gLk; HCl msTg; gPrkhdg;gb fiurypy; fhzg;gLk;

NH3 mstpYk; FiwT MFk;. MfNt fiury; $l;lg;gpupifailahj NH3 iaAk;
cg;G NH4Cl IAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,d;ndhU tpjkhff; $wpdhy;> ,g;nghOJ
vk;kplk; nkd;%yj;jpdJk; mjd; cg;gpdJk; (,iz mkpyk;) fyit cz;L.
mjhtJ xU jhq;fw;fiury; cz;L. pH If; fzpg;gjw;F> jhq;fw; fiury;fs;
gw;wpa vkJ mwpitg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
10.00 cm3, 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl I ,l;l gpd;G cs;s jhf;fj;ijf; fUJNthk;.
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4Cl(aq)
Muk;g NH3 msT = 0.100 mol 3 1.0 dm3
1.0 dm3 × 25.00 cm × 1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
1.0 dm3
Nru;j;j HCl msT = 0.100 mol × 10.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 1.0×10-3 mol
jhf;fKw;w NH3 msT = 1.0×10-3 mol
kpFjpahfTs;s NH3 msT = (2.50×10-3 - 1.00×10-3 ) mol

= 1.50×10-3 mol
kpFjpahfTs;s NH3) nrwpT = 1.5×10-3 mol × 1000 cm3
3 3
35.00 cm 1.0 dm
= 0.043 mol dm-3
140
cUthfpa NH4Cl msT = Ch¨£mh HCl msT

= 1.0×10-3 mol
-3 3
cUthfpa NH4Cl nrwpT = 1.0×10 mol × 1000 cm
3
35.00 c3 1.0 dm
= 0.029 mol dm-3
ngWkhdq;fisg; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;by; gpujpapl>
pOH = pKb+log [,iz mkpyk;]

[%yk;]
pOH = 4.74+log (0.029)
(0.043)
pOH = 4.57
∴pH = 14.00 – 4.57 = 9.43
(iv) rktYg;Gs;spapy; (25.00 cm3 HCl I ,l;l gpd;G) NH3, HCl Mfpad ahTk; jhf;fKWk;.
fhzg;gLk; cg;G NH4Cl gpd;tUkhW ePHg;gFg;gilAk;
NH4+(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) (vd;w rkd;ghl;bw;F ,zq;f>)
cUthfpa NH4Cl (NH4+ (aq)) msT = 2.50×10-3 mol

-3
/ NH4Cl cg;gpd; nrwpT = 2.5×10 mol
3 ×
1000 cm3
= 0.05 mol dm-3
50.00 cm 3
1.0 dm
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
nrwpT khw;wk; / mol dm-3 х + х +х
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 (0.05-х) + х +х
/ rkepiyr; nrwpT / mol dm-3 0.05 + х +х
(0.05 -х ~ 0.05) vd;Dk; vLNfhSld;
NkYs;s ePHg;gFg;Gj; jhf;fj;jpw;F (Ka) apw;fhd Nfhitiag; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;.
[NH3 (aq) ][H3 O+ (aq) ]

Ka =
[NH4+ (aq) ]
х2
5.6 ×10 =-10
mz;zsthf;f vLNfhSld;
(0.05)
х2 = 28×10-12
х = [H3 O+ (aq) ] = 5.3 ×10-6
∴pH = 5.28
(v) rktYg;Gs;spapd; gpd;G> Muk;gj;jpy; fhzg;gl;l NH3 KOtJk; cg;G NH4Cl Mf

khw;wg;gLk;> mj;Jld; kpifahd HCl , H3O+ Mff; fhzg;gLk;. MfNt fyitapd;
pH MdJ kpifahfTs;s [H3O+(aq)] nrwptpdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;.
141
35.00 cm3 HCl I ,l;l gpd;G pH If; fzpg;gjw;F mjhtJ fhzg;gLk; NH3 msT
rhHghf gPrkhdg;gb caHe;jsT HCl cs;sNghJ> kpifahfTs;s (my;yJ kPjpahfTs;s)
HCl nrwpT Jzpag;gLk;.
Muk;g msT NH3 0.100 mol 1.0 dm3

= 1.0 dm3 × 25.00 cm3 ×
1000 cm3
= 2.50×10-3 mol
1.0 dm3
Nru;j;j HCl msT = 0.100 mol × 35.00 cm3 ×
1.0 dm3 1000 cm3
= 3.50×10-3 mol
jhf;fKw;w NH3 msT = 2.5 ×10-3 mol
kpFjpahfTs;s HCl msT = (3.50×10-3 - 2.50×10-3 ) mol

= 1.0×10-3 mol
-3
kpFjpahfTs;s HCl (H3O+(aq) nrwpT = 1.0×10 mol × 1000 cm3
3 3
60.00 cm 1.0 dm
= 0.017 mol dm-3
∴pH = -log (0.017) = 1.77
jhq;fw; fiury;
gFjp
epakdp (HCl) fdtsT / cm3 epakdp (HCl) fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.19 (a) 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl cld; 25.00 cm3 , 0.100 mol dm-3 NH3 apd; epakpg;gpw;fhd epakpg;G
tiuG rktYg;Gs;spahdJ pH ngWkhdk; 5.28 ,y; mkpyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
,t;epakpg;Gf;fspy; xU jhq;fw; fiury; rktYg;Gs;spf;F kpfTk; NkNyNa cUthfpd;wJ.
(b) nkd;%yq;fspd; typikAld; pH tisapfspd; khw;wq;fs; xg;gplg;gLfpd;wd.
%ytypik Fiwtilar; rktYg;Gs;sp $Ljyhf mkpyg;gf;fkhf efHfpd;wJ.
nkd;dkpy nkd;%y epakpg;G

nkd;dkpykhd mrw;wpf;fkpyk; nkd;%ykhd mNkhdpahTld; jhf;fKWk;nghOJ> epfOk;
jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW>
CH3COOH(aq)+ NH3(aq) → NH4+(aq) + CH3COO–(aq)
142
tpisTfs; %yk; CH3COO- IAk; mkpyk; NH4+ IAk; nfhz;bUg;gij ehk; fhzyhk;.
MfNt rktYg;Gs;spapd; pH MdJ ,tw;wpd; ePHg;gFg;G typikapdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH3(aq)+ H3O+(aq) : Ka
CH3COO–(aq)+ H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) : Kb
NkYs;s jhf;fq;fspypUe;J H3O+ , OH- Mfpa mad;fs; cUthtijf; fhzyhk;.
mit eLepiyahf;ffq;fspy; <LgLk; eLepiyahf;fk; epfopDk; H3O+, OH- msTfs;
rkkpy;yhJ fhzg;glyhk;> MfNt rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH≠ 7 mJ Ka , Kb vd;gdtw;wpd;
rhHG typikfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. Ka >Kb vdpd; fiury; mkpyj;jd;ik cilaJ. Ka < Kb
vdpd; fiury; %yj;jd;ik cilaJ. Ka = Kb vdpd; fiury; eLepiyahdJ.
,e;j tif epakpg;gpy; ,d;ndhU Kf;fpakhd mk;rk; ahnjdpd;> pH tiugpy; jpBH pH
khw;wg;gFjp fhzg;gLtjpy;iy> mJ gpujhdkhf xU tpyfy; Gs;spiaf; fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ.
vdNt rktYg;Gs;spapd; ,Ug;gplj;ijf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;Ff; fhl;biag; gad;gLj;Jtjpy;
fbdk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. vdNt nkd;dkpyj;jpw;Fk; nkd;%yj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;igr;
nra;tjpy;iy. ,e;j tifahd epakpg;gpy; cs;s pH khw;wj;ij cU 2.20 fhzg;gpf;fpd;wJ.
Fwpg;G : ,t;tifahd fiury;fspd; pH MdJ gpd;tUk; fzpjr; rkd;ghl;by; mkpyk;>
%yk; Mfpadtw;wpd; pK ngWkhdq;fis cgNahfpj;Jj; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk; vd;gjidf;
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
pH = 7 + ½ (pKa – pKb)
pKa , pKb vd;gdtw;wpw;fpilapyhd tpj;jpahrk; NeHg;ngWkhdk; cilanjdpd; fiurypd;
pH 7 ,Yk; caHthff; fhzg;glyhk;> tpj;jpahrk; kiwg;ngWkhdk; cilanjdpd; (pH
7 ,Yk; Fiwthff; fhzg;glyhk;. pKa = pKb vdpd; pH 7 Mff; fhzg;glyhk;.
rktYg; Gs;sp pH ,y; rLjpahd

/ nrq;Fj;jhd
khw;wk; ,y;iy
epakdpf; fdtsT
cU 2.20 0.100 mol dm- 3 NH3 cld; 25.00 cm3 , 0.100 mol dm-3 CH3COOH ,d; epakpg;gpw;fhd
epakpg;G tiuG. mkpyj;jpdJk; %yj;jpdJk; rhHG typikfspy; rktYg;Gs;sp
jq;fpAs;sjdhy; mjd; ,Ug;gplj;ij kjpg;gpLjy; fbdk;. ,t;tifahd njhFjpfspy;
pH ,y; nrq;Fj;jhd khw;wk; ,y;iy.
143
epakdp (NaOH) fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.21 NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l0.100 mol dm- 3 mkpyj;Jld; (xU %y) 0.100 mol dm-3 %yj;jpd;
(Xukpy) ehd;F tif epakpg;Gf;fspd; RUf;fk; (SA td;dkpyk;> SB td;%yk;> WA-
Weak nkd;dkpyk;> WB-Weak nkd;%yk;)
2.2.12 ,U> gy;%y mkpyq;fs;> ,U> gy;ykpy %yq;fs;

xl;rhypf;F mkpyk; H2C2O4, ry;g+upf;F mkpyk; (H2SO4) ngh];Nghupf; mkpyk; (H3PO4)
Nghd;w rpy mkpyq;fs; %yf;$nwhd;wpw;F madhf;fj;jf;f GNuhj;jid xd;wpw;F Nky;
nfhz;Ls;sd. ,t;thwhd mkpyq;fs; gy;%y my;yJ gy;GNuhj;jpupf;F mkpyq;fs;
(polybasic my;yJ polyprotic acids) vd mwpag;gl;Ls;sd. ,U%y mkpyk; H2A apd;
madhf;fj; jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghLfspdhy; vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;gLfpd;wd.
H2A(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HA–(aq)
HA–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A2–(aq)
xj;j rkepiy khwpypfs;( mkpyj;jpd; madhf;f khwpypfs;) fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
[H3 O+ (aq) ] [HA- (aq)]
Ka1=
[H2 A(aq)]
[H3 O+ (aq) ] [A2- (aq)]
Ka2=
[HA- (aq)]
,NjNghy; ,U mkpy %yk; B2- ,d; madhf;fj; jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghLfspdhy;

vLj;Jf; fhl;lg;gLfpd;wd.
B2- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H B-(aq) + OH- (aq)
HB-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2B (aq) + OH- (aq)
xj;j rkepiy khwpypfs; (%yj;jpd; madhf;f khwpypfs;) fPNo jug;gl;Ls;d.
[HB- (aq)] [OH- (aq)]
Kb1 =
[B2- (aq) ]
[H2 B(aq)] [OH- (aq)]
Kb2 =
[HB- (aq)]
144
gy;ykpy %yj;jpd; epakpg;Gf;fs;

Nrhbak; Ijnuhf;irl;Lld; IjNuhf;FNshupf;F mkpyj;jpd; epakpg;gpw;fhd pH tiuG
xU rktYg;Gs;spia (KbTg; Gs;spia) khj;jpuk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. (cU 2.17) Mdhy;
Na2CO3(aq) tpw;F HCl(aq) it (epakdp) NrHg;gjdhy; ngwg;gLk; pH tiuG ,U
rktYg;Gs;spfisf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ> mjhtJ ,uz;L tpiuthd pH khw;wk; cz;L. ,q;F>
cjhuzkhf ,uz;L mLj;jLj;j jhf;fq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd. cU 2.22 ,y; cs;s ,uz;L
KbTepiyg; Gs;spfs; ,uz;L tpj;jpahrkhd GNuhj;jd; khw;wPLr; rkd;ghLfspdhy;
tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
Nrhbak; fhgNdw;W xU td;kpd;gF nghUs;> Na+(aq), CO32-(aq) mad;fshf Kw;whfg;
gpupifailfpd;wJ.
Na2CO3(aq)→2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
MfNt fyitapYs;s ngUk;ghyhd ,dq;fs; Na+(aq), CO32-(aq) , H2O(l) MfpadthFk;.
epakpg;gpd; Muk;gj;jpy; HCl(aq) tpypUe;J ngwg;gLk; H+(aq) mad;fs; CO32-(aq) mad;fSld;
jhf;fKWk;> fhuzk; njhlf;ff; fyitapy; typik $ba %ykhf CO32- mad;fs;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → HCO3-(aq)
gpd;G ,uz;lhtJ jhf;fj;jpy;> HCl(aq) tpypUe;J ngwg;gLk; GNuhj;jd;fs; Kjyhk;
jhf;fj;jpy; cUthfpa Ijurd; fhgNdw;W mad;fSld; jhf;fKWk;.
H+(aq) + HCO3- (aq) → H2CO3(aq)
KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; fyitapy; gpd;tUk; rkepiy epyTjy; njspthf cs;sJ.
MfNt pH ahdJ HCO3-(aq) mad;fspd; ePHg;gFg;gpdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) + OH- (aq)
,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; fyitapy; gpd;tUk; rkepiy epyTfpd;wJ> MfNt pH
ahdJ H2CO3 (aq) mkpyj;jpd; ePHg;gFg;gpdhy; (H2CO3 (aq) tpd; KjyhtJ madhf;fk;)
jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;.
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
NkYs;s ,U jhf;fq;fisAk; mtjhdpg;gjd; %yk; fyit KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy;
%ykhfTk;> mNj Neuk; ,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; mkpykhfTk; cs;sJ vd;gij
xUtH Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.
cjhuzk;
0.10 mol dm-3 HCl(aq) mkpyj;Jld; 25.00 cm3 , 0.10 mol dm-3 Na2CO3(aq) fiurypd; epakpg;igf;
fUJf. fhNghdpf;F mkpyk;> H2CO3 ,d; mkpyf; $l;lg;gpupif khwpypfs; Ka1 = 4.3 ×
10-7 mol dm-3 , Ka 2 = 4.7 × 10-11 mol dm-3.
fiury;fspd; %yu;j;jpwd;fspypUe;J> KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;sp HCl mkpyj;jpd; 25.00
cm3 ,Yk; ,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;sp 50.00 cm3 ,Yk; cs;sJ vd;gij xUtH Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;syhk;.
H2CO3 mkpyj;jpd; gpupifia ehk; fUjpdhy;>
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq) : Ka1
HCO3-(aq)+ H2O(l) ⇌ CO32-(aq) + H3O+(aq) : Ka 2
145
MfNt>
[H3 O+ (aq) ][HCO3- (aq)]
Ka1 = = 4.3 ×10-7 mol dm-3
[H2 CO3 (aq)]
[H3 O+ (aq) ][CO32- (aq)]
Ka2 = = 4.7 ×10-11 mol dm-3
[HCO3- (aq)]
Muk;g pH (HCl ,d; fdtsT 0.00 cm3)

,g;Gs;spapy; mkpyk; ,lg;glhjjpdhy;> 0.10 mol dm-3 Nrhbak; fhgNdw;Wf; fiury;>
(Na2CO3(aq)) kl;LNk cs;sJ. MfNt pH MdJ HCO3-(aq) , OH-(aq) vd;gdtw;iwj;
jUtjw;fhd ePUld; fhgNdw;W madpd; jhf;f mstpdhy; jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;.
CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)
,q;F ePH %ykhd CO32- ,w;F xU GNuhj;jid toq;fp mkpykhfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ.
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp gpd;tUkhW vOjg;gLk;.
[HCO3- (aq)] [OH - (aq)]
K' =
[CO32- (aq)]
gpd;tUtdtw;iwf; fUJf>
Kw [H3 O+ (aq)] [OH- (aq)] [HCO3- (aq)] [OH- (aq)]
= [H O+ (aq)] [CO 2-(aq)] = = K' =Kb1
Ka2 3 3 [CO32- (aq)]
[HCO3- (aq)]
-14 2 -6
Kb1 = 1.0×10 mol dm -4
= 2.13 ×10 mol dm
-3
-11 -3
4.7 ×10 mol dm
[OH- (aq)]2
∴Kb1 = ([HCO3 - (aq)]= [OH- (aq)] vd;gjdhy;)
[CO32- (aq)]
[OH- (aq)]2 = Kb1 [CO32- (aq)] = 2.13 ×10-4 mol dm-3× 0.10 mol dm-3
= 2.13 ×10-5 mol dm-3
∴[OH- (aq)] =4.61 ×10-3 mol dm-3

[H3 O+ (aq)] = 2.2 ×10-12 mol2 dm-6
∴pH = 11.71
KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;sp S(25.00 cm3 HCl ,y;)
Kd;G tpsf;fpathW> KjyhtJ rkepiyg; Gs;spapy; gpd;tUk; rkepiy epyTfpwJ.
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) + OH-(aq) ………. (1)
NkYs;s rkepiyf;F> ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;>
[H2 CO3 (aq)] [OH- (aq)]
K=
[HCO3- (aq)]
,t; K ahdJ fhNghdpf; mkpyj;jpd; Ka1 Ald; gpd;tUkhW Neubj; njhlHG cilaJ>
Kw [H3 O+ (aq) ][OH- (aq) ] [H2 CO3 (aq)] [OH- (aq) ]
K = = [H O+ (aq) ][HCO - (aq)] = = Kb 2
Ka1 3 3 [HCO3- (aq)]
[H2 CO3 (aq)]
146
Kb 2 MdJ CO32-(aq) tpd; ,uz;lhtJ madhf;f khwpyp MFk;.

CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq) : Kb1
HCO3-(aq)+ H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) + OH-(aq) : Kb2
[H2 CO3 (aq)][OH- (aq)] 1.0×10-14 mol2 dm-6
∴Kb2 = = -8
= 2.33 ×10 mol dm
-3
[HCO3- (aq)] -7
4.3 ×10 mol dm -3
jhf;fk; 1 ,w;F>
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)
-
Kb2 = [H2 CO3 (aq)][OH (aq) ]
[HCO3- (aq)]
rkepiyapy; :
- 2
Kb2 = [OH (aq)] ([H2 CO3 (aq)] =[ OH- (aq) ] vd;gjdhy;)
-
[HCO3 (aq)]
25.00 cm3 HCl ,lg;gLk;nghOJ KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;sp ngwg;gLtjdhy;
-3 -3 3
[HCO3- (aq)] = 0.10 mol dm × 25.00 ×10 dm = 0.05 mol dm-3
50.00 ×10-3 dm3
∴[OH- (aq) ]2 = Kb2 [HCO3- (aq)] = 2.33 ×10-8 mol dm-3 × 0.05 mol dm-3
∴[OH- (aq) ] =3.4 ×10-5 mol dm-3
[H3 O+ (aq) ] = 2.9 ×10-10 mol dm-3
∴pH = 9.47
,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;sp (50.00 cm3 HCl ,y;):
Kd;G tpsf;fpathW> ,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; gpd;tUk; rkepiy epyTfpd;wJ>
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq) ………….. (2)
NkYs;s rkepiyf;Fg; gpd;tUkhW vOjyhk;>
[HCO3- (aq) ][H3 O+ (aq) ] [H3 O+ (aq) ]2
K' = =Ka1 =
[H2 CO3 (aq) [H2 CO3 (aq) ]
([HCO3- (aq)] = [H3 O+ (aq)] vd;gjdhy;)
KjyhtJ rkepiyg;Gs;spf;F gpd;G> ,uz;lhtJ rktYg; Gs;spia miltjw;F NkYk;

25.00 cm3 , HCl Njitg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt ,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; [H2CO3(aq)] Ig;
gpd;tUkhW fzpf;fyhk;.
0.10 mol dm-3 × 25.00 ×10-3 dm3
[H2CO3(aq) ] = = 0.03 mol dm-3
75.00 ×10-3 dm3
[H3 O+ (aq) ]2= Ka1 [H2CO3 (aq) ]
[H3O+ (aq) ]2 = 4.3 ×10-7 mol dm-3 × 0.03 mol dm-3 = 1.3 ×10-8 mol2 dm-6
[H3O+ (aq) ] = 1.14 ×10-4 mol dm-3
∴pH = 3.94
NkYs;s fz;Lgpbg;Gfspd;gb KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH MdJ 9.4 MFk;. ,uz;lhtJ
rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH 4.0 MfNt xU gupNrhjidapy; KjyhtJ rktYg;Gs;spiaf;
fz;lwpa gpNdhj;jypd; fhl;bAk;> mNjNtis ,uz;lhtJ rktYg;Gs;spiaf; fz;lwpa
nkijy; nrk;kQ;rs; fhl;bAk; nghUj;jkhdJ vdTk; njspthfj; njupfpd;wJ. cU 2.22
epakpg;gpd; nghOJ pH khw;wj;ijf; fhz;gpf;fpd;wJ.
147
gpNdhj;jyPd;
nkijy; nrk;kQ;rs;
epakdp (HCl) fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.22 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl cld; 25.00 cm3, 0.100 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 ,d; epakpg;gpw;fhd
epakpg;G tiuG. ,uz;L rktYg;Gs;spfs; cz;L. KjyhtJ HCl cld; CO32- ,d;
jhf;fj;jpdhy; HCO3- cUthFjy;> ,uz;lhtJ HCO3- I H2CO3 Mf khw;Wk; nghOJ
ngwg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.2.13 mkpy - %yf; fhl;bfs;

Kd;ida gFjpapy; mkpy - %y epakpg;gpd;NghJ ngwg;gLk; rktYg;Gs;spia>
Muk;gj;jpy; fiurypy; fhzg;gl;l H+ %y;fSf;Fr; rkkhd %y;fs; OH- ,lg;gl;l Gs;sp
vdf; fye;JiuahbNdhk;. xU epakpg;gpy; rktYg;Gs;spiaj; jPHkhdpg;gjw;F> epakpg;Gf;
FLitapYs;s mkpyj;jpw;Fs;> mstpapypUe;J jpUj;jkhf vf;fdtsT %yf;fiuriyr;
NrHf;f Ntz;Lk; vd vkf;Fj; njupa Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j ,yf;if miltjw;fhd xU
top ahnjdpy; epakpg;gpd; Muk;gj;jpy; mkpyf; fiurypDs; mkpy - %yf; fhl;b vd
miof;fg;gLk; xU me;epa (rk;ge;jkpy;yhj) gjhHj;jj;jpd; rpy Jspfisr; NrHj;jy;
MFk;.
fhl;bapd; cjtpAld; KbTepiyg; Gs;spiaj; Jzpjy;

Nrjdr; rhaq;fspd; ngWjpfshd nkd;dkpyq;fs;> nkd;%yq;fs; vd;gd ftdj;ijf;
ftUfpd;w ,e;jf; $l;lkhd fhl;bfshFk;. fhuzk; ,t;thwhd NrHitfs; caHe;j
epwq;fis cila Mff; Fiwe;jJ xU ,iz mkpyk; - %yk; ,dq;fis cilad.
mit epakpg;gpy; cgNahfpf;Fk;NghJ pH khw;wj;Jld; epwkhw;wj;ijf; fhl;Lk; ,e;epw
khw;wk; xU epakpg;gpd; KbTepiyiaj; jPHkhdpg;gjw;F xU cgNahfkhd fUtpahfj;
njhopw;glyhk;. ,e;epwkhw;wk; epakpg;gpd; rktYg;Gs;spapy; Vw;glNtz;Lk;. fhl;b mjd;
madhfhj> madhfpa tbtq;fspy; njspthd tpj;jpahrkhd epwq;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
,e;j ,Utbtq;fSk; fhl;b fiuf;fg;gl;l fiurypd; pH cld; njhlHGilad. xU mkpy
-%yf; fhl;b epwkhw;wj;ijf; fhz;gpf;Fk; pH mjd; mkpyf; $l;lg;gpupif khwpypapdhy;
jPHkhdpf;fg;gLk;. xU GNuhj;jpupf;F nkd;dkpyk; HIn MfTs;s xU fhl;bapy; gpd;tUk;
$l;lg;gpupifj; jhf;fk; epfOk;.
HIn(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + In–(aq)
-
-log[H3 O+ (aq) ] = -logKIn+ log [In (aq)]
[HIn(aq)]
[In- (aq)]
pH= pKIn + log
[HIn(aq)]
rkd;ghl;by; xt;nthU gf;fj;jpYk; kiw klf;ifia vLj;J pH If; fhz;gjw;F kPs

xOq;FgLj;Jk;NghJ guPl;irakhd rkd;ghL fpilf;fpd;wJ.
148
[H3 O+ (aq)] [In– (aq)]

KIn =
[HIn(aq)]
fhl;bapd; ,Utbtq;fs;> HIn, In- vd;gd tpj;jpahrkhd epwq;fis cilad. fhl;bia

cila fiurypd; epwk;> HIn ,d; nrwpT Fiwe;J In- ,d; nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ
njhlHe;J khw;wk; milAk;. HIn IAk; In- IAk; rkkhd msT ,yFj;jd;ikAld;
fz;lwpag;glyhk; vdf; fUjpdhy; ,U epwq;fspdJk; jhz;ly; epiyia ,U nrwpTfSk;
rkkhfTs;sNghJ eLg;Gs;spapy; milAk; my;yJ pH MdJ fhl;bapd; pKIn ,w;F
rkkhfTs;sNghJ milAk;. rktYg;Gs;spAk; KbTg; Gs;spAk; xj;jpUf;Fk; MfNt
rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH ,w;F rkkhd pKIn cila fhl;biaj; njupT nra;J epakpg;igf;
fhl;bapd; epwk; jpUj;jkhf HIn ,w;Fk; In- ,w;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l miuthrp topapy; cs;s
tiuf;Fk; njhlHe;jhy; rktYg;Gs;spAk; KbTg; Gs;spAk; nghUe;Jk;.
Jujp\;ltrkhf> rktYg;Gs;spapy; jpUj;jkhd pH mg+HtkhfNt njupAk;. Nkyjpfkhf>
epwkhw;wk; Ez;zpajhf ,Ue;jhy; HIn, In- Mfpadtw;wpd; nrwpTfs; rkkhf cs;s
epiyiaf; fz;Lgpbg;gJ fbdkhf ,Uf;fyhk;. HIn> ,d; nrwpT In- ,d; nrwptpYk;
gj;J klq;F $Ljyhf ,Ug;gpd; fhl;bf; fiurypd; epwk; HIn> ,d; epwkhfTk;> HIn>
,d; nrwpT In- ,d; nrwptpYk; gj;J klq;F Fiwthf ,Ug;gpd; In- ,d; epwKilajhf
,Ug;gjhfTk; ehk; fUjpdhy; fhl;bapd; epwkhw;wj;ij mtjhdpf;ff; $ba xU pH
tPr;ir cUthf;fyhk;.
mjhtJ fhl;b NghjpasT mkpy Clfj;jpy; fhzg;gbd;> rkepiy ,ypr;rw;wNyaupd;
jj;Jtg;gb ,lg;Gwkhf efHe;J fhl;bapd; jiyikahd epwk; madhf;fkilahj
tbtj;jpd; HIn epwkhFk;. kWgf;fkhf> xU %y Clfj;jpy;> rkepiy tyg;Gwkhf efHe;J
fiurypd; epwk; ,iz%yj;jpd; In- epwkhftpUf;Fk;. MfNt fhl;bapd; fhz;gpf;Fk;
epwj;ij vjpHT $w ehq;fs; gpd;tUk; nrwpTfspd; tpfpjj;ijg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
[HIn(aq)]
≥10 Mf cs;s nghOJ
[In- (aq)]
1
pH= pKIn + log
10
pH= pKIn -1
∴ HIn mkpyj;jpd; epwk; Nkd;ikailAk;> njd;gLk;>
[In- (aq)]
≥10 Mf cs;s nghOJ
[HIn(aq)]
10
pH= pKIn + log
1
pH= pKIn +1
,iz %yk; In- ,d; epwk; Nkd;ikailAk;> njd;gLk;.
149
cU 2.23 xU fhl;bapd; elj;ij> HIn(aq) + H2O(l) = H3O+(aq) + In–(aq)
xU fhl;bapd; KbTepiyg;Gs;sp xU Fwpg;gpl;l pH ,y; epfohJ: xU Fwpg;gpl;l pH tPr;rpDs;

KTepiyg;Gs;sp epfOk;. nrad;Kiwapy; epakpg;G tiugpd; epiyf;Fj;Jg; gFjpapy; KbT
epiyg; Gs;spia cila fhl;bia ehk; njupT nra;Nthk;. fhuzk; rktYg;Gs;spAk;
tiugpd; epiyf;Fj;Jg; gFjpapy; fhzg;gLk; ,t;thwhd njupT rktYg;Gs;spapy; pH>
fhl;b epwkhw;wj;ijf; fhz;gpf;Fk; tPr;rpDs; cs;sij cWjpg;gLj;Jk;. cjhuzkhf
NaOH apw;Fk; HCl apw;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;gpw;F gpNdhj;jyPd; xU nghUj;jkhd fhl;b
MFk;. gpNdhj;jyPd; mkpyk;> eLepiy Mfpa fiury;fspy; epwkw;wJ> Mdhy; %yf;
fiury;fspy; rptg;Gr; NrHe;j nkd;rptg;G epwk; cilaJ. pH = 8.3 y; fhl;b epwkw;wJ
vd;gij mstPLfs; fhz;gpf;fpd;wd> Mdhy; pH 8.3 I kPWk; nghOJ rptg;G NrH
nkd;rptg;G epwkhf khWtjw;F Muk;gpf;fpd;wJ. cU 2.21 ,y; fhl;bathW rktYg;Gs;spf;F
mz;ikapy; pH tiugpd; epiyf;Fj;Jj; jd;ik Fwpg;gJ> kpfr; rpwpa msT NaOH Ir;
~ 0.05 cm3 NrHj;jy; fiurypd; pH ,y; ngUksT mjpfupg;ig Vw;gLj;Jtij MFk;.
vdpDk; Kf;fpakhdJ ahnjdpy;> pH tiugpd; epiyf;Fj;Jg;gFjp> gpNdhj;jyPd; epwkw;w
epiyapypUe;J rptg;Gr; NrH nkd;rptg;G epwkhFk; tPr;ir cs;slf;Ffpd;wJ.
,t;thwhd xd;Wf;nfhd;W xw;Wik epfOk; Nghnjy;yhk;> epakpg;gpd; rktYg;Gs;spiaf;
fz;Lgpbf;ff; fhl;biag; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
ml;ltiz 2.4 rpy nghJthd mkpy - %yf; fhl;bfs;
fhl;b mkpyj;jpy; epwk; %yj;jpy; epwk; pH tPr;R pK In

ijNkhy; ePyk; rptg;G kQ;rs; 1.2 - 2.8 1.7
GNuhNkhgPNdhy; ePyk; kQ;rs; Cjh 3.0 - 4.6 4.1
nkijy; nrk;kQ;rs; nrk;kQ;rs; kQ;rs; 3.1 - 4.4 3.7
nkijy; rptg;G rptg;G kQ;rs; 4.2 - 6.3 5.0
FNshNuhgPNdhy; rptg;G kQ;rs; rptg;G 5.2 - 6.8 6.0
GNuhNkhijNdhy; ePyk; kQ;rs; ePyk; 6.0 - 7.6 7.1
fpupNrhy; rptg;G kQ;rs; rptg;G 7.2 - 8.8 8.2
gpNdhj;jyPd; epwkw;wJ rptg;G Nru; nkd;rptg;G 8.3 - 10.0 9.6
150
kyfapl;L gr;ir
ijNkhy; ePyk;
nkijy; nrk;kQ;rs;
GNuhNkhfpupNrhapl; gr;ir
nkijy; rptg;G
GNuhNkhijNkhy; ePyk;
fpupNrhy; rptg;G
gpNdhj;jypd;
ijNkhy;g;jypd;
`yprupd;kQ;rs;
cU 2.24 rpy fhl;bfspd; epwkhw;w pH tPr;Rfs;
xU epakpg;gpw;Ff; fhl;biaj; njupT nra;jy;

VjhtJ fhl;b epwkhw;wj;ijf; fhzgpf;Fk; rhHgstpyhd gue;j pH fspd; tPr;R> xU
epakpg;gpd; rhj;jpaj;jd;ikf;fhd Nkyjpf tiuaiwfSf;F ,lq;nfhLf;fpd;wJ. epakpg;gpd;
tOit ,opthf;f my;yJ epakpg;ig Vw;Wf; nfhs;sf;$ba caHe;j jpUj;jj;Jld;
epfo;j;Jtjw;F> fhl;bapd; KO epwj; jhz;lYk;> rktYg;Gs;spf;F mz;ikapy; epfOk;
rLjpahd pH jhz;lypDs; fhzg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. vdNt cU 2.25 (a) apy; 0.1 mol dm-3
NaOH cld; 0.1 mol dm-3 mrw;wpf;F mkpy epakpg;gpy;> gpNdhj;jyPd; nghUj;jkhd fhl;bahf
,Ug;gij ehk; ghHf;fyhk;. kWGwkhf nkijy; rptg;G> nghUj;jkhd fhl;bay;y> mjd;
epwkhw;wk;> Muk;g rLjpahd pH mjpfupg;gpw;F Kd;G Muk;gpf;fpd;wJ> ,jdhy; rhHgstpy;
ngupa fdtsTfspd; tPr;rpy; fhzg;gLk;. KjypNyNa epfOk; epwkhw;wk; jpUj;jkw;w
ngWNgWfisg; ngWtjw;fhd epfo;jfit mjpfupf;fpd;wJ> mj;Jld; rhj;jpakhd
KbTg;Gs;sp fdtsTfspd; tPr;Rj; jpUj;jk; Fiwe;j ngNgWfisg; ngWtjw;fhd
epfo;jfit mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. cU 2.25(b) 0.1 mol dm-3 HCl cld; 0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH ,d;
epakpg;gpw;F mjhtJ td;dkpyk; vjpH td;%y epakpg;gpy; gpNdhj;jyPd;> nkijy; rptg;G
Mfpa ,Ufhl;bfisAk; cgNahfpf;fyhk; vd;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
151
rktYg; Gs;sp gpNdhj;jyPd; rktYg; Gs;sp gpNdhj;jyPd;

epwkw;w tPr;R epwkw;w tPr;R
nkijy; rptg;G nkijy; rptg;G

epwkw;w tPr;R epwkw;w tPr;R
epakdp (NaOH) fdtsT / cm3 epakdp (NaOH) fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.25 jug;gl;l xU epakpg;gpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd fhl;biaj; njupT nra;jy; nkd;dkpy -

td;%y epakpg;gpw;F gpNdhj;jyPd; nghUj;jkhd fhl;bahFk;. nkijy; nrk;kQ;ry;
fhl;bf;F (a) apy; fhl;bathW epwkw;w pH tPr;R> rktYg;Gs;spf;F mz;ikapYs;s
pH khw;w tPr;rpapDs; fhzg;gltpy;iy. (b) apy; fhl;bathW xU td;dkpyj;jpw;Fk;
td;%yj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd epakpg;gpw;F ,U fhl;bfSk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
2.3 jhq;fw; fiury;fs;

vspa gupNrhjid %yk;> 1.0 dm3 ePupw;F nrwpe;j HCl ,d; 0.10 cm3 Nghd;w rpwpa
fdtsitr; NrHf;Fk;nghOJ pH 7.0 ,ypUe;J 3.0 ,w;F efUtij ehk; mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
mj;Jld; 1.0 dm3 ePupw;F mz;zsthf 0.1 cm3 nrwpe;j NaOH Ir; NrHj;jy; pH I
7.0 ,ypUe;J 11.0 ,w;F efHj;Jfpd;wJ. mNjNeuk; mNj HCl I my;yJ NaOH I
nkd;dkpyk;> mjd; ,iz%yk; Mfpa ,uz;Lk; 0.10 mol dm-3 MfTila xU fiurypDs;
NrHf;Fk;nghOJ pH ,y; Vw;gLk; khw;wk; Gwf;fzpf;fj; jf;fjhfTs;sJ. ,t;thwhd
fiury;fs; jhq;fw; fiury;fs; vd miof;fg;gLk;> mtw;wpd; jhq;fw; njhopw;ghL pH
,w;Fk; ,iz nkd;dkpyk; / nkd;%yr; Nrhbfspd; rhHGr; nrwpTfSf;Fkpilapyhd
njhlHgpd; tpistpdhyhd gydhFk;.
mjhtJ xU jhq;fw; fiuryhdJ xU nkd;dkpyk; my;yJ nkd;%yk; mj;Jld; mjd;
cg;gpdJk; xU fiuryhFk;. ,f;fiurypw;F rpwpa msTfspy; mkpyk; my;yJ
%yj;ijr; NrHf;Fk;nghOJ pH khw;wq;fis vjpHf;Fk; Mw;wy; cz;L.
xU jhq;fw; fiury; ,iz nkd;dkpyk; / nkd;%yk; Nrhbia cila xU fiury;>
rpwpa fdtsTfs; xU td;dkpyk; my;yJ td;%yj;ijr; NrHf;Fk;nghOJ pH Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;ij vjpHf;Fk;.
NkYs;s tiutpyf;fzj;jpd;gb> xU jhq;fw;fiury; mjw;Fr; NrHf;fg;gLk; VjhtJ OH-
mad;fSld; jhf;fKWtjw;Fr; rhHgstpy; ngupa nrwptpy; mkpyj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;f
Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; NrHf;fg;gLk; VjhtJ H+ mad;fSld; jhf;fKWtjw;F xj;j nrwpT
%yj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. jhq;fw; fiurypd; mkpyk;> %yk; Mfpa $Wfs; xU
eL epiyahf;fw; jhf;fj;jpy; xd;iwnahd;W cl;nfhs;shJ / mopf;fhJ ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,j;Njit xU ,iz mkpy - %yr; Nrhbahy; g+u;j;jpahf;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf xU
nkd;dkpyk; mjd; ,iz %yKk; (xU cg;gpdhy; toq;fg;gLk;) my;yJ xU nkd;%yKk;
mjd; ,iz mkpyKk; cila (XU cg;gpdhy; toq;fg;gLk;.) mkpyj;jpd; pKa my;yJ
%yj;jpd; pKb vd;gd gw;wpa mwpTlDk; cg;G mkpyk; Mfpadtw;wpd; my;yJ cg;G>
%yk; Mfpadtw;wpd; tpfpjj;ijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; %yKk; njupe;j pH cila jhq;fw;
fiury;fis ehk; jahupf;fyhk;. mrw;wpf; mkpyj;ijAk; Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;iwAk; nfhz;l
fyit mz;zsthf pH 4.75 cila jhq;fw; fiuryhfj; njhopw;gLk;. mNkhdpak;
FNshiul;ilAk; mNkhdpahitAk; cila fyit mz;zsthf pH 9.25 cila
jhq;fw; fiuryhfj; njhopw;gLk;. xg;gplf; $ba msTfspy; mrw;wpf;F mkpyj;ijAk;
152
(CH3COOH) mjd; cg;G Nrhbak; mrw;Nww;iwAk; (CH3COONa) ePupw;Fr; NrHj;Jj;

jahupj;j jhq;fw; fiuriyf; fUJNthk;. mkpyj;jpdJk; mjd; ,iz %yj;jpdJk;
(CH3COONa ,ypUe;J ngw;w) rkepiyr; nrwpTfis mtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfSf;Fr;
rkk; vdf; fUJf. nghJ madpd; gpurd;dk; nkd;dkpyk; / nkd;%yj;jpd; gpupifiaf;
Fiwf;Fk;. ,t;tpUgjhHj;jq;fisAk; cila fiurypw;F ,lg;gLk; mkpyj;ij my;yJ
,lg;gLk; %yj;ij eLepiyahf;Fk; Mw;wy; cz;L. fiurypYs;s td;kpd;gFnghUs;
CH3COONa ePupy; Kw;whfg; gpupifailAk;.
CH3COONa(aq) → CH3COO-(aq) + Na+(aq)
mkpyj;ijr; NrHj;jhy;> H+ mad;fs; jhq;fw; fiurypYs;s ,iz %yj;jpdhy;> CH3COO¬
gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;f cl;nfhs;sg;gLk; / eLepiyahf;fg;gLk;.
CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq)
jhq;fw; njhFjpf;F %yj;ijr; NrHj;jy;> OH- mad;fs; jhq;fw;fiurypYs;s mkpyj;jpdhy;
eLepiyahf;fg;gLk;.
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l)
,NjNghd;W xg;gplj;jf;f msTfs; mNkhdpahitAk; (NH3) mjd; cg;G mNkhdpak;
FNshiul;ilAk; (NH4Cl) ePupw;Fr; NrHj;Jj; jahupj;j jhq;fw; fiuriyf; fUJf. nghJ
madpd; gpurd;dk; nkd;%yk; NH3 apd; $l;lg;gpupifia xLf;Ftjd; %yk; mjd; ,iz
mkpyk; (NH4Cl) Mfpadtw;wpd; rkepiyr; nrwpTfis mtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfSf;Fr;
rkk; vdf; fUjyhk;. ,t;tpU gjhHj;jq;fisAk; nfhz;Ls;s xU fiurypw;Fr;
NrHf;fg;gLk; mkpyj;ij my;yJ NrHf;fg;gLk; %yj;ij eLepiyahf;Fk; Mw;wy; cz;L.
fiurypYs;s td;kpd;gFnghUs;> (NH4Cl) ePupy; Kw;whff; $l;lg;gupifailfpd;wJ.
NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
xU mkpyj;ijr; NrHgpd;> H+ mad;fs; jhq;fw;njhFjpapYs;s %yj;jpdhy; cl;nfhs;sg;gLk;
/ eLepiyahf;fg;gLk;.
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) ⇌ NH4+(aq)
xU %yj;ijr; Nru;j;jhy;> OH- mad;fs; jhq;fw;njhFjpapYs;s> ,iz mkpyj;jpdhy;
NH4+ gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bw;fpzq;f clnfhs;sg;gLk; / eLepiyahf;fg;gLk;.
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
jhq;fw; fiury;fspd; pH ,w;fhd nghJthd Nfhit
xU ePHf;fiurypYs;s nkd;dkpyk;> HA> mjd; ,iz nkd;%yj;jpd; cg;G NaA
Mfpatw;wpy; epfOk; gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fisf; fUjjpw;nfhz;L xU nghJthd jhq;fw;
rkd;ghl;il epWtyhk;. fiurypYs;s ,dq;fs; njhlHghd jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
NaA(aq) → Na+(aq) + A–(aq)
HA(aq)+ H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+ A–(aq)
2H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq)+ OH–(aq)
,q;F ehk; [A–(aq)] I NaA apypUe;J ngw;w [A–(aq)] apd; nrwpthff; fUjyhk;> nghJ
madhff; fhzg;gLk; A–(aq) tpdhy; HA apd; gpupif xLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. vk;kplKs;s
nkd;dkpyj;jpd; Ka apw;fhd Nfhitapy; ,g;gjq;fisg; gpujpapl>
[H3 O+ (aq)] [A- (aq)]
Ka =
[HA(aq)]
ePupypUe;J ngwg;gLk; H3O+, OH- Mfpatw;wpd; nrwpTfisg; Gwf;fzpf;fyhk;> ,g;ngW

khdq;fs; HA, NaA vd;gdtw;wpd; Muk;gr; nrwpTfSld; xg;gpLk;nghOJ kpfr; rpwpad.
153
MfNt
[HA(aq)]
[H3 O+ (aq)] = Ka
[A- (aq)]
,Wjpahf ehk; ngWk; rkd;ghL

[A- (aq)]
pH = pKa + log
[HA(aq)]
my;yJ
[,iz %yk;]
pH = pKa + log
[mkpyk;]
mjhtJ Henderson-Hasselbalch rkd;ghL
,e;j Henderson-Hasselbalch rkd;ghL> xU jhq;fw;fiurypd; pH I fzpg;gjw;F> td;dkpyk;>
td; %yk; vd;gdtw;iwr; NrHf;Fk; NghJ Vw;gLk; pH khw;wj;ijj; jPHkhdpg;gjw;F xU
vspa topiaj; jUfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 2.22
pH 9.0 cila jhq;fw;fiuriyj; jahupg;gjw;F 1.0 dm3, 0.10 mol dm-3 NH3
fiurypDs; Nrfupf;fg;gl Ntz;ba NH4Cl %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if ahJ? Kb(NH3)
= 1.8 10-5
tpil
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH–(aq)
Kjypy; ehk; [NH4+(aq)] kjpg;gpl Ntz;Lk;.
[NH4+ (aq)] [OH- (aq)]

Kb = = 1.8 ×10-5
[NH3 (aq)]
fiurypd; pH njupe;jpUg;gjpdhy; [OH- (aq)] If; fzf;fplyhk;.
pOH = 14 – pH = 5.0 MfNt [OH- (aq)] = 1.0 ×10-5 mol dm-3
[NH3(aq)]
[NH4+ (aq)] = Kb
[OH- (aq)]
0.10 mol dm-3

=1.8 ×10-5 mol dm-3 ×
1.0 ×10-5 mol dm-3
=0.18 mol dm-3
NH4 %y;fspd; vz;zpf;if = 0.18 mol dm-3 × 1.0 dm3
+
= 0.18 mol
154
cjhuzk; 2.23
1.0 mol dm-3 CH3COOH IAk; 2.0 mol dm-3 CH3COONa IAk; cila jhq;fw;
njhFjpapd; pH If; fzpf;Ff. 1.0 dm3 ,f;fiurypDs; 0.10 %y; HCl Ir;
NrHj;j gpd;G cs;s jhq;fw; njhFjpapd; pH ahJ? HCl Ir; NrHj;jnghOJ
fiurypd; fdtstpy; khw;wk; ,y;iy vdf; fUJf.
Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.8 ×10-5mol dm-3
tpil
CH3COONa(aq) tpypUe;J ngw;w nghJ mad; CH3COO– cs;sjdhy;> CH3COOH
,d; madhf;fj;ijAk; CH3COO- ,d; ePHg;gFg;igAk; Gwf;fzpf;fyhk; MfNt,
[CH3COOH(aq)] = 1.0 mol dm-3, [CH3COO–(aq)] = 2.0 mol dm-3
[H3 O+ (aq)] [CH3 COO- (aq)]
Ka = = 1.8 ×10-5
[CH3 COOH(aq)]
1.0
[H3 O+ (aq)] = × 1.8 ×10-5
2.0
[H3 O+ (aq)] = 9.0 ×10-6 mol dm-3
pH = 5.05
1.0 dm3 jhq;fw; fiurypDs; 0.1 mol HCl Ir; NrHj;j gpd;G [H+(aq)] = 0.10 mol
dm-3 HCl mkpyj;jpd; Kw;whd madhf;fk; epfo;fpd;wJ.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
0.10 0.10 0.10 mol dm-3
gpd;G HCl ,ypUe;J ngw;w H+ MdJ 2.0 mol dm-3 CH3COONa ,dhy; eLepiy
ahf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
H+(aq) + CH3COO– (aq) ⇌ CH3COOH(aq)
0.10 0.10 0.10 mol dm-3
(jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp kpf caHT> MfNt jhf;fk; Kw;Wg; ngWtjhff;
fUjyhk;> 0.10 mol dm-3 CH3COOH Ij; jUfpd;wJ.
1.0 dm3 fiurypYs;s mrw;wpf;F mkpy %y;fs;> mrw;Nww;W mad;fspd;
%y;fs; gpd;tUkhW>
CH3COOH(aq) = 1.10 mol my;yJ [CH3COOH(aq)] = 1.10 moldm-3
CH3COO– (aq) = 1.90 mol my;yJ [CH3COO–(aq)] = 1.90 moldm-3
,g;ngWkhdq;fis Ka apw;fhd Nfhitapy; gpujpapl
1.1
[H3 O+ (aq)] = × 1.8 ×10-5
1.9
[H3 O+ (aq)] = 1.04 ×10-5 mol dm-3
pH = 4.98
155
Fwpg;G : jhq;fw;fiurypd; Muk;g mkpyr; nrwpTk; cg;Gr; nrwpTk; rkk; vdpd;

cjhuzkhf 1. 0 mol dm-3 vdpd; xU mkpyKk; my;yJ %yKk; ,lhjNghJ>
vkf;Ff; fpilg;gJ>
1.0
[H3 O+ (aq)] = = 1.8 ×10-5
1.0
[H3 O+ (aq)] = 1.8 ×10-5
pH = 4.74
mjhtJ pH = pKa
,jidr; rkd;ghl;ilg; gpuNahfpj;J ,yFtpy; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
[A- (aq)]
pH = pKa + log
[HA(aq)]
pH = pKa + log 1.0

1.0
∴ pH = pKa
cjhuzk; 2.24
0.020 mol dm-3 NH3 iaAk; 0.030 mol dm-3 NH4Cl IAk; cila jhq;fw;fiurypd;
pH If; fzpf;Ff. 0.10 dm3 jhq;fw; fiurypDs; 1.00 cm3 , 0.10 mol dm-3 NaOH
Ir; NrHj;j gpd;G fiurypd; pH If; fhz;f. NH4+ ,d; mkpy madhf;f khwpyp
5.70 × 10–10mol dm-3
tpil
ehk; gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;il Neubahf cNahfpf;fyhk;.
[NH3(aq)]
pH = pKa + log
[NH4+(aq)]
(0.02)
pH = 9.24+ log
(0.03)
pH = 9.06
NrHf;fg;gLk; NaOH ,d; xU gFjp NH4+ I NH3 Mfg; gpd;tUk; jhf;fk;

fhuzkhf khw;Wk;.
NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
,j;jhf;fj;jpw;fhd rkepiy khwpyp caHthdjhy;> ,j;jhf;fk; Kw;Wg;ngWtjhff;
fUjyhk;. MfNt Gjpa NH4+ ,NH3 nrwpTfs;>
Muk;g NH4+%y;fs; - Nru;j;j OH- %y;fs;

[NH4 (aq)] =
+
nkhj;jf; fdtsT
156
(0.03)×(0.1) -(0.1)×(1.0 ×10-3)

[NH4 (aq)] =
+
mol dm-3 = 0.029 mol dm-3
0.101
Muk;g NH3 %y;fs; + ,lg;gl;l OH- %y;fs;
[NH3(aq)] =
nkhj;jf; fdtsT
(0.02)×(0.1) + (0.1)×(1.0 ×10-3)

[NH3(aq)] = = 0.021 mol dm-3
(0.101)
[NH3(aq)]
pH = pKa + log
[NH4+(aq)]
(0.021)
pH = 9.24+ log
(0.029)
pH = 9.10
NkYs;s cjhuzq;fspypUe;J> rpwpjsT mkpyk; my;yJ rpwpjsT %yk; NrHj;jy; jhq;fw;

fiurypd; pH I Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT khw;whJ vdg; ghHj;Njhk;. ,e;jj; jd;ik cU 2.26
tpy; tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jpy; mkpyk; my;yJ %yk; jhq;fw; fiurypDs;
NrHf;fg;gly;> ePupDs; mkpyk; my;yJ %yk; NrHf;fg;gLtJld; xg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. mj;Jld;
ntt;NtW nrwpTfis cila mkpy - %yr; NrhbfSila jhq;fw; fiury;fSk;
xg;gplg;gl;Ls;sd. cU 2.27 mkpyk; my;yJ %yk; Nru;f;fg;gLk; nghOJ jhq;fw;
fiury;fspy; eilngWk; epfo;Tfis tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. ,Wjpahfg; gpd;tUtdtw;iwj;
jhq;fw; fiury;fspd; mbg;gilr; rpwg;gpay;Gfshff; fUjyhk;.
(i) rhHgstpy; ngupa nrwpTfis cila xU nkd;dkpyj;ijAk; (nkd;%yk;) mjd;
,iz %yj;ijAk; (mkpyk;) nfhz;Ls;sJ.
(ii) mkpyj;ij ,Lk;nghOJ> mJ ,iz %yj;Jld; jhf;fKWfpd;wJ.
(iii) %yj;ijr; NrHf;Fk;nghOJ> mJ ,iz mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fKWfpd;wJ.
(iv) pH MdJ mkpyj;jpw;Fk; %yj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjj;ij cgNahfpj;Jj;
jPHkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
,r; rpwg;gpay;Gfs; cU 2.26> cU 2.27 vd;gdtw;wpy; tptukhf tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
157
ePu;
ePu;
NaOH fdtsT / cm3 HCl fdtsT / cm3
cU 2.26 mkpyj; jd;ikAila> %yj;jd;ik cila jhq;fw; fiury;fspd; jhq;fw; njhopw;ghL

KiwNa (a), (b) Mfpatw;wpy; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
jhq;fw; fiurypy; mkpyj;jpdJk; cg;gpdJk; (,iz %yk;) typik caHthfTs;sNghJ>

mkpyk; my;yJ %yk; NrHf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; pH khw;wk; ,opthfTs;sJ. ePupw;F mkpyk;
my;yJ %yk; NrHf;Fk;NghJ> jdpNa mkpyj;jpw;F (my;yJ jdpNa %yj;jpw;F) mkpyk;
my;yJ %yk; NrHf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; pH khw;wKk; xg;gPl;bw;fhfj; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
jhq;fw; fiurypd; jhq;fw; fiurypd;

Muk;g pH my;yJ ,Wjp pH Muk;gj;jpw;F
[A-(aq)] / [HA(aq)] mz;ikapYs;sJ.
,lg;gLk; OH-(aq)
-
A (aq) ,dhy; khw;wPL
nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. mj;Jld;
[A-(aq)] / [HA(aq)] Vwj;jho
xNu khjpupahf cs;sJ.
H+(aq) I ,l;lJk; ,lg;gLk;

H+(aq) MdJ A-(aq) ,dhy;
khw;wPL nra;ag;gLk;.
mj;;Jld; [A-(aq)] / [HA(aq)]
Vwj;jho xNu khjpupahf
cs;sJ.
cU 2.27 jhq;fw; njhopw;ghl;bd; RUf;fk;

nkd;%yj;jpw;Fk;> nkd;dkpyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd nrwpT tpfpjk; 0.1 ,w;Fk; 10 ,w;Fk;
,ilg;gl;ljhfTs;sNghJ mkpy - %y jhq;fw; fiury;fs; ,Ug;gjhf ehk; fUJNthk;.
Henderson–Hasselbalch rkd;ghl;ilg; gpuNahfpf;f>
158
1
pH = pKa + log pKa-1
10
10
pH = pKa + log pKa+1
1
∴pH = pKa ±1
vdNt mkpy - %yj; jhq;fw; fiury;fs; pH = pKa ±1 tPr;rpDs; ,Ug;gijf; fhzyhk;.
2.4 fiujpwd; rkepiyfs;

ePupy; mad; jpz;kq;fspd; fiujpwd; ngupJk; khWgLk;. ,tw;wpy; rpy (fy;rpak;
FNshiul;L> Nrhbak; FNshiul;L) ePupy; kpfTk; fiuaf;$bait. ,it ,aw;ifapy;
ePiu cwpQ;Rk;. (ePH fhl;Lfpd;w) jd;ik cilad. kw;Wk; tspkz;lyj;jpYs;s
ePuhtpiaAk; cwpQ;rf; $bad. Vidait kpff; Fiwthd fiujpwid cilajhf
,Ug;gjdhy; mit nghJthff; fiuakhl;lnjd vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. fiujpwd;
gy fhuzpfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. mtw;wpy; Kf;fpakhdit> cg;gpd; rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw
kw;Wk; fiurypYs;s mad;fspd; fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siw vd;gd xU cg;ghdJ
fiug;ghdpy; fiutjw;F mtw;wpd; mad;fSf;fpilapyhd td;ikahd ftHr;rp
tpirahdJ (rhyf ntg;gTs;Siw) mad; - fiug;ghd; ,ilj;jhf;fq;fspdhy; kPwg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;. mad;fspd; fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;gTs;SiwahdJ fiug;ghNdw;wk; vd;Dk;
gjj;jhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J vg;NghJk; kiwahFk;. mjhtJ> fiug;ghNdw;wr;
nrad;Kiwapd;NghJ rf;jp ntsptplg;gLk;. fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siwapd; msT
fiughdpd; jd;ikapy; jq;fpAs;sJ. Kidthf;fkw;w fiug;ghid vLj;jhy; (gq;fPL)
fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;gTs;Siw rpwpjhFk;. vdNt cg;gpd; rhyf ntg;gTs;Siwia
kPwg; NghJkhdjhf ,y;iy. ,jd; tpisthf cg;ghdJ Kidthf;fkw;w fiug;ghdpy;
fiuahJ. nghJthd tpjpahf xU cg;G xU Fwpg;gpl;l fiug;ghdpy; fiutjw;F> mjd;
fiug;ghNdw;w ntg;gTs;SiwahdJ mtw;wpd; rhyf ntg;gTs;SiwapDk; ngupjhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; gpd;Gs;sJ Kd;Gs;sjhy; kPwg;glyhk;. ,f;fUj;jpd;gb fiujpwd;
vd;Dk; gjj;ijg; gpd;tUk; Kiwahy; tpsf;fpf;nfhs;s Muk;gpf;fyhk;. Kjypy; mad;
cg;Gfspd; fiujpiwidg; ghHf;fTk;. gpd;G %yf;$w;Wr; NrHitfspd; / gq;fPl;Lr;
NrHitfspd; fiujpwid tpsq;fpf; nfhs;sTk;. gpd;G epuk;gw; fiurypy; mupjpw; fiuAk;
cg;GfSld; fiujpwd; cs;s NtWghl;ilf; fhzyhk;.
2.4.1 mad; kw;Wk; gq;fPl;LNrHitfspd; fiury;fs;

fiury;fs; fiuak; kw;Wk; fiug;ghd; vDk; ,uz;L $Wfshy; Mdit. ntt;NtW
tifahd fiury;fspw;F mNdf cjhuzq;fs; cs;sd. mitahtd> jpz;k - jpz;k
(cNyhf - fyg;GNyhfq;fs;) jpz;k - jput (cg;G - ePH) jput - jput (mw;fNfhy; - ePH)
jput - thA (Nrhlh Nghd;w FspHghdq;fs;) kw;Wk; thA - thA (tsp) vd;gd. ,jpy;
njhFjpapy; ,U $WfSk; Vftpdkhfg; gq;fplg;gl;L xU mtj;ijapy; fhzg;gLij ehk;
ghHf;fyhk;. ,g;gFjpapy; ehk; Kf;fpakhfj; jpz;k - jput njhFjpfisf; ifahSfpd;Nwhk;.
,q;F fiug;ghd; ePH MFk; my;yJ ,d;ndhU tpjkhf mad; rkepiyfSld;
ifahSfpd;Nwhk;.
mad; my;yJ gq;fPl;Lf; fiury; vd;gJ fiuaj;jpy; nrwpT rpwpjhf my;yJ fiury;
kpfTk; Ijhf cs;sNghJ xU mtj;ijiaf; nfhz;Ls;s xU Vftpdf; fyit vd;gij
ehk; mwpNthk;. cg;Gg; Nghd;w mad; fiurypy; NaCl ePupy; fiue;J Na+(aq) kw;Wk; Cl-
(aq) I cz;lhf;Fk;. mNj Neuj;jpy; gq;fPl;Lf; fiurypy; rPdp Nghd;w gq;fPl;Lg; gjhHj;jk;
ePupy; fiuf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ mad; NrHitfs; mtw;iw xj;j mad;fshfg;
gpupifailtjd; %yk; fiufpd;wd kw;Wk; gq;fPl;Lg; gjhHj;jq;fs; KO %yf; $whff;
fiufpd;wd. vdNt gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fs; %yk; ,t;tpU NrHitfisAk; vspjhf
NtWgLj;jyhk;.
159
mad; NrHitfs; NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

gq;fPl;Lr; NrHitfs; C6H12O6(s) → C6H12O6(aq)
mad; fiury;fs; kpd;gFnghUl;fis cilajhy; flj;J jpwidf; fhl;Lfpd;wd.
mNjNtis gq;fPl;L my;yJ %yf;$w;Wf; fiury;fs; kpd;gfhg;nghUl;fis cilajhy;
kpd;idf; flj;j khl;lhjd vd mwptjw;F ,J ekf;F cjTfpd;wJ. mad; cg;Gfidf;
fUjpdhy;> xt;nthU cg;Gk; mjd; rpwg;gpay;ghd fiujpwid cilaJ. ,J ntg;gepiyapy;
jq;fpAs;sJ. gpd;tUk; %d;W tiffspy; cg;Gf;fis mtw;wpd; fiujpwd; mbg;gilapy;
tifg;gLj;j KbAk;.
tif I fiuAk; - fiujpwd; > 0.10 mol dm-3
tif II rpwpjsT fiuAk; 0.01 mol dm-3 < fiujpwd; < 0.10 mol dm-3
tif III %d;W mupjpw; fiuAk; - fiujpwd; 0.01 mol dm-3
tof;fkhf 0.10 mol jpz;k NaCl ePupy; fiuf;fg;gl;L 1.00 dm3 fiuryhf;fg;gl;lhy;
fiurypd; nrwpT 0.10 mol dm-3 MFk;. ,jd; tpisthf 0.10 mol dm-3 Na+(aq), 0.1 mol dm-3
Cl- I cz;lhFtjd; %yk; Kw;whd $l;lw;gpupifiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
NaCl(s) + ePu; → NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq
0.10 0.1 0.1 mol dm-3
fiujpwid tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;F xU njhFjp epge;jidfisf; fUj;jpw;nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. Kjypy; mjpfsT fiuak; fiuf;fg;gl;l epuk;gw; fiury; Njitg;gLfpwJ.
mj;Jld; mupjpw; fiuAk; cg;Gf;fis vLj;jhy; XusT fiuak; kPjpahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
MX(s) ⇌ M+(aq) + X-(aq)
,e;epge;jidfspd; fPo; fiujy; tPjKk; gbjy; my;yJ gspq;fhjy; tPjKk; rkkhf
,Ug;gjhy; njhFjpapy; gy;ypdr; rkepiy ,Ug;gij ehk; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
,d;ndhU tpjkhf $wpdhy; njhFjp ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; cs;sJ vdyhk;. vspjhf
gpd;tUk; rkd;ghL ,e;j epiyikia tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
fiujy; jhf;fk;
$l;lw;gpupif
rkepiy
tPjk;
gbjy; jhf;fk;
Neuk;
cU 2.28 epuk;gw; fiury;fspy; fiuahj jpz;kq;fspw;Fk; kw;Wk; fiurypYs;s mad; Jzpf;if
fSf;FkpilNa xU ,af;fr; rkepiy fhzg;gLk;. vdNt Nrhbfs; njhlu;e;J
jpz;kq;fis cz;lhf;Fk; kw;Wk; fiury; nray;Kiwapd; tPjKk; gbjy; tPjKk;
rkdhFk;.
xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; fiujpwd;> Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; epuk;gw; fiurypYs;s gjhHj;jj;jpd;

rkepiyr; nrwpT MFk;;. my;yJ fiujpwd; vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;Ls;s ntg;gepiyapy;
fiug;ghdpy; vt;tsT fiuaj;ijf; fiuf;f KbAk;. vd;gjw;fhd xU mstPL MFk;.
vdNt mstwpg;ngWkhdk; Kf;fpakhf %yu;j; fiujpwd; vdr; nrhy;yg;gLfpd;wJ.
(mol dm-3) fiujpwid njuptpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; NtW myFfs; g dm-3, g cm-3
160
vd;gd. fiujpwidg; gupNrhjid uPjpahf msg;gjw;Fj; njupe;j fdtsT epuk;gw;

fiuriyj; jahupg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd fiuaj;jpd; msitj; njupjy; mtrpakhFk;.
Fwpg;G : cg;G MX ,d; epuk;gw; fiuriy ,uz;L tpjkhfj; jahupf;fyhk;.
i. Neub Kiw :- Nkyjpf MX cg;G Kfitapd; mbapy; kPjpahf ,Uf;Fk;tiu
jpz;k MX cg;ig ePupDs; NrHj;J tpiuthff; fyf;fTk;.
ii. kiwKf Kiw :- M+ If; nfhz;Ls;s xU fiury; X- If; nfhz;Ls;s kw;iwa
fiury; ,U fiury;fisAk; xd;whff; fyf;fTk;. Fwpg;gpl;l epiyapy; MX ,d;
epuk;gw; fiury; cUthFk;.
cjhuzk; 2.25
1.8 × 10-3 g AgCl jpz;kj;ij ePupy; Kw;whf fiug;gjd; %yk; 0.00dm3
AgCl ,d; epuk;gw; fiury; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ (AgCl : 143.4 g mol-1) AgCl ,d;
%yu;f;fiujpwidf; fzpf;f.
tpil
%yu;f;fiujpwid mol dm-3 vd;Dk; myfpdhy; nfhLf;fg;gLtjdhy;
AgCl = 1.8 10-3 g / 143.4 g mol-1 = 1.26 × 10-5 mol
AgCl ,d; %y;fs; = 1.8 × 10-3g / 143.4 g mol-1 = 1.26 × 10-5 mol
%yu;f;fiujpwd; 1.26 × 10-5 mol/1.00 dm3 = 1.26 × 10-5mol dm-3
,jid ,d;ndhU myfpYk; nfhLf;fyhk;. 1.8 × 10-3 gdm-3
2.4.2 fiujpwd; ngUf;fk;> (fiujpwd; ngUf;f khwpyp)

jpz;k MX(s) mjd; epuk;gpa ePHf;fiurYld; njhLifapDs;sjhff; fUJf. epuk;gpa
fiurypYs;s fiuahj jpz;kj;jpw;Fk; mjd; mad;fSf;Fkpilapyhd rkepiyahdJ>
gpdtUk; rkd;ghl;bdhy; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
MX(s) ⇌ M+(aq) + X-(aq)
rkepiy khwpyp K MdJ gpd;tUk; rkd;ghl;bdhy; nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
[M+(aq)] [X-(aq)]
K=
[MX(s)]
J}a jpz;k gjhHj;jq;fspw;Fr; nrwpT khwpypahf cs;sjhy;>

K [MX(s)]=[M+ (aq)][X- (aq)]
∴Ksp = [M+ (aq)][X- (aq)]
Ksp fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; MFk;.
nghJthfg; gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; nfhz;bUe;jhy; MmXn(s) ⇌ mMn+(aq) + nXm-(aq)
fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; Ksp = [Mn+(aq)]m[Xm-(aq)]n
Ksp MdJ fiujpwd; ngUf;f khwpyp my;yJ vspjhff; fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; vdf;
$wg;gLk;. kw;Wk; ,jd; NfhitahdJ> jhf;fp jpz;kkhifahy; tpFjpiaf; nfhz;bUf;f
khl;lhJ. epuk;gpa fiury;fspw;F khj;jpuk; fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;bUf;fpwJ
161
vd;gijf; Fwpg;gply; Ntz;Lk;. fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpd; ngupa ngWkhdq;fs; tpisTfs;

rhjfkhf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijf; fhl;Lk;. vdNt Ksp P ,d; ngupa ngWkhdq;fs; $basT
mad;fis Fwpg;gjdhy; NrHitahdJ $basT fiujpwid cilajhFk;. tof;fkhf
nrwpthdJ epak epge;jid rhHghf 1.0 mol dm-3 vd mstplg;gLk;NghJ> rkepiy
khwpypapy; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sthW ,jw;F ve;j myFfSk; ,y;iy. epak epge;jid
gw;wpf; Fwpg;gplg;glhtpbd; fiujpwd; ngUf;ff; Nfhitapy; Njhd;Wk; nrwpTfs; rhHghd
myFfisr; NrHj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. fiujpwd; ngUf;ff; Nfhitf;F Vw;gf; fiujpwd; ngUf;f
myFfs; NtWgLk;.
nghJthfr; rkepiy gpd;tUkhW fhzg;gbd;>
MmXn(s) ⇌ mMn+(aq) + nXm-(aq)
fiujpwd; ngUf;fk;
Ksp= [Mn+(aq)]m[Xm-(aq)]n
myFfs; (molmdm-3m) (molndm-3n)
mol(m+n)dm-3(m+n)
vspa rkepiy : MX(s) = M+(aq) + X-(aq) ,w;F
Ksp = [M+ (aq)][X- (aq)] mol2 dm-6
myFfs; mol2 dm-6
2.4.3 fiujpwd; kw;Wk; fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpw;fhd fzpg;Gf;fs;

Kd;ida rkepiyf; fzpg;Gf;fspDk; ghHf;f Ksp rk;ge;jg;gl;l fzpg;Gfspy; jhf;fp
jpz;kkhf ,Ug;gjhy; rkepiyf; Nfhitapy; jtpHf;fg;gLtjdhy; vspjhditahFk;.
kw;Wk; ,uz;L tifahd fzf;Ffs; kl;Lk; jPu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
(a) fiujpwd; juTfspypUe;J Ksp If; fzpj;jy;
(b) Ksp ,ypUe;J fiujpwidf; fzpj;jy;
cjhuzk;
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) : Ksp = [Ag+ (aq)][Cl- (aq)]
298 K ,y; Ksp=1.60 ×10-10 mol2 dm-6
vdpy; AgCl(s) ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwidf; fzpf;f.
NkNy cs;s rkepiyiaf; fUjpdhy;> nts;sp FNshiul;bd; %yu;f; fiujpwdpw;F
,uz;L mad;fspd; nrwpTfSk; rkdhFk;. %yu;f;fiujpwd; s vdpy;>
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
rkepiyapy; : s s mol dm-3
298 K ,y; Ksp=1.60 ×10-10 mol2 dm-6 = s×s = s2
∴ s = 1.26 ×10-5 mol dm-3
vdNt 298 K ,y; nts;spf; FNshiul;bd; %yu;f;fiuj;jpwd; 1.26 ×10-5 mol dm-3 ,w;F
rkdhFk;.
jpz;k cg;gpd; nghJr; #j;jpuk; MmXn vdpy; epuk;gw; fiurypy; rkepiyahdJ gpd;tUkhW
fhzg;gLk;.
MmXn(s) ⇌ mMn+(aq) + nXm-(aq)
ms ns
162
rkepiyapy; %yu;f;fiujpwd; s vdpy;

vdNt>
Ksp = [Mn+(aq)]m[Xm-(aq)]]n
Ksp = (m s)m(n s)n = mm nn s(m+n)
Ksp
S(m+n) =
mm nn
1/(m+n)
Ksp
S =
mm nn
cjhuzk; 2.26
Zr3(PO4)4 (s) ,d; epuk;gpa ePHf;fiurypd; fiujpwdpw;fhd (s) Nfhitia 298
K ,y; ngWf.
tpil
Zr3(PO4)4 (s) ⇌ 3Zr4+(aq) + 4PO43-(aq)
rkepiyapy; 3s 4s
4+ 3 3- 4 3 4 7
Ksp = [Zr (aq)] [PO4 (aq)] = (3s) (4s) = 6912 (s)
Ksp
∴S = ( ) 1/7
6912
,t; cjhuzj;jpy; Fwpg;gplf; $baJ I Ksp = [Zr4+(aq)]3[PO43-(aq)]4 nfhz;bUf;Fk;
myF (moldm-3)7
vdNt (s) ,d; myF [(mol dm-3) 7 ] (1/7) = mol dm-3
,J %yu;f;fiujpwdpd; myfhFk;.
cjhuzk; 2.27
298 K ,y; 5.60 × 10-2 g PbI2 (s) ePupy; fiue;Js;s epiyapy; 100.00 cm3
epuk;gpa PbI2 ePHf;fiury; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ. Ksp If; fzpf;f.
tpil
Kjypy; Ksp ,d; %yHf; fiujpwidf; fzpf;f
PbI2 ,d; %y = 5.60 × 10−2g / 461 g mol-1 = 1.21 × 10–4 mol
PbI2 ,d; %yHf;fiujpwd; = 1.21 × 10–4 mol/ 0.100 dm3
= 1.21 × 10–3 mol dm-3
mLj;jjhf mad;fspd; nrwpitf; fzpj;J> Ksp ,w;fhd Nfhitapy; gpujpaply;
PbI2(s) ⇌ Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq)
rkepiyapy; :[ Pb2+(aq)] = 1.21 × 10–3 mol dm-3 ,
[I–(aq)] = 2 × 1.21 × 10–3 mol dm-3 = 2.42 × 10–3 mol dm-3
Ksp = [ Pb2+(aq)] [I–(aq)]2
Ksp = (1.21 × 10–3 mol dm-3) (2.42 × 10–3 mol dm-3)2
Ksp = 7.1 × 10–9 mol3 dm-9
163
cjhuzk; 2.28
298 K ,y; mupjhff; fiuAk; ,uz;L cg;Gf;fs; Ni(OH)2 ,AgCN vd;gdtw;wpd;
Ksp ngWkhdq;fs; KiwNa 2.0 × 10–15mol3 dm-9 , 6 × 10–17 mol2 dm-6 vt; cg;G
$Ljyhff; fiuaf;$baJ?
tpil
Ni(OH)2(s) ,d; rkepiyiaf; fUJf. Ni(OH)2(s) ⇌ Ni2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
Ni(OH)2(s) ,d; fiujpwd; χ vdpy;>
rkepiyapy; : х 2х
Ksp = [ Ni2 +(aq)] [OH–(aq)]2 = X × (2x)2 = 4χ3
4χ3 = 2.0 × 10–15 mol3 dm-9
χ = 7.94× 10–5 mol dm-3
,t;thNw AgCN(s) ,d; rkepiyiaf; fUJf. AgCN(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + CN–(aq)
AgCN(s) ,d; fiujpwd; y, vdpy;
rkepiyapy; : y y
Ksp= [ Ag+(aq)] [CN–(aq)] = y2
y2 = 6 × 10–17 mol2 dm-6
y = 7.8 × 10–9 mol dm-3
NkNy cs;s fzpg;Gf;fspypUe;J x>y
vdNt> Ni(OH)2(s) , AgCN(s) ,Yk; fiuAk; jd;ik $bajhFk;.
(,jid Ksp ngWkhdq;fis xg;gpLtjd; %yKk; vjpu;T$wyhk;. Ksp (Ni(OH)2(s))
>Ksp (AgCN(s)), MfNt Ni(OH)2(s) ,d; fiujpwd; AgCN(s)) apYk; cau;T.)
Ksp ,ypUe;J mad; nrwpTfisf; fzpj;jy; :
cjhuzk; 2.29
298 K ,y; Ag2CO3 ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypYs;s [Ag+(aq)] I kjpg;gpLf.
Ksp (Ag2CO3) = 8.1 10-12 mol3 dm-9
tpil
Ag2CO3(s) ,d; rkepiyiaf; fUJf. kw;Wk; %yHf; fiujpwd; χ vd;f.
Ag2CO3(s) ⇌ 2 Ag+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
rkepiyapy; : 2х х mol dm-3
Ksp = [ Ag+(aq)]2 [CO32- (aq)]
= (2х)2 × (х) = 4х3
∴ 4х3 = 8.1 × 10-12 mol3 dm-9
/ х = (8.1 × 10-12 mol3 dm-9)1/3
х = 1.26 × 10-4 mol dm-3
∴[Ag+(aq)] = 2х = 2 ×1.26 ×10-4 mol dm-3 = 2.53 × 10-4 mol dm-3
164
cjhuzk; 2.30
298 K ,y; AgCl my;yJ Ag2CO3 ,d; epuk;gw; fiury;fspy;> vJ caH [Ag+(aq)]
cilaJ? Ksp (AgCl)(s) = 1.8 ×10-10 mol2 dm-6 , Ksp (Ag2CO3)(s) = 8.1 ×10-12 mol3 dm-9
tpil
,f; fzf;fhdJ cjhuzk; 2.29 I xj;jJ vdf; Fwpg;gply; KbAk;. vdpDk;
[Ag+(aq)] kjpg;gply; Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld; ,U Ksp ngWkhdq;fSk; ntt;NtW
myFfis cilajhy;> Ksp ngWkhdq;fis xg;gply; KbahJ vd;gijAk;
Fwpg;gply; Ntz;Lk;. vdNt AgCl ,y; Ag2CO3 ,y; Ag+ nrwpit kjpg;gply;
NjitahdjhFk; my;yJ ,d;wpaikahjJ MFk;.
Kd;ida cjhuzq;fspypUe;J AgCl , Ag2CO3 vd;gtw;wpy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLk;
[Ag+(aq)] KiwNa 1.26 ×10-5 mol dm-3 , 2.52 × 10-4 mol dm-3
Ksp (Ag2CO3) <Ksp (AgCl) Mf ,Ug;gpDk; Ag2CO3 ,d; epuk;gw; fiury; caH
[Ag+(aq)] If; nfhz;Ls;sijf; fhzyhk;.
2.4.4 tPo;gbT Njhd;Wtij vjpHT $wy;

mad;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s ,U fiury;fs; fyf;fg;gLk; nghOnjy;yhk; tPo;gbT cz;lhjy;
rhj;jpakhfyhk;. mad;fspd; nrwpT 0.10mol dm-3 my;yJ mjpYk; $lntdpy;
Fiwe;j fiujpwid cila vg;gjhHj;jKk; tPo;gbAk;. vdpDk; mad;fspd; nrwpT
0.10mol dm-3 ,Yk; Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy; tPo;gbtpd; cUthf;fj;ij vjpHT $Wtjw;F
fzpg;G xd;W Nkw;nfhs;sg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
cjhzkhfr; rkfdtsT 0.20 mol dm-3 AgNO3 kw;Wk; NaCl fiury;fisf; fye;jhy; AgCl(s)
tPo;gbT cz;lhFtJld; NO3- , Cl- mad;fs; gq;Fgw;whky; ,Uf;Fk;. ,jpy; AgNO3 kw;Wk;
NaCl vd;gd td;kpd;gFnghUs; Mifahy; 0.2 mol dm-3 nrwpTila fiury;fspypUe;J
AgCl tPo;gbthFk;. vdpDk; kpfTk; Ijhd fiury;fSld; ,e;epiyik NtWgl;lJ
(nrwpT 0.10 mol dm-3) ,U fiuaj;jf;f cg;Gf;fspd; fiury;fs; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ
xU fiurypYs;s fw;wad; kw;iwa fiurypYs;s md;dadpw;F mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,t;thNw kWjiyAk;> Gjpa mad; NrHf;iffspy; (fw;wad; kw;Wk; md;dad;) xd;W
my;yJ ,uz;LNk Fiwe;j fiujpwidf; nfhz;bUf;ff;$Lk;. fiujpwd; Fiwthd
mNdf mad;fs; cs;s epiyik ,Ue;jhy; (epuk;gw; fiurypw;F NjitahdjpYk;
$lthf) tPo;gbT tpisthf ,Uf;Fk;.
epuk;gw; nrwpit milaf; Fiwe;j fiujpwid cila mad;fs; Nghjpajhf ,yyhtpbd;
tPo;gbT cz;lhf khl;lhJ kw;Wk; mad;fs; fiurypy; fiue;j epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.
,e;epiyikfspy; tPo;gbT cz;lhtij vjpHT $Wtjw;F mad; ngUf;ff; fzpg;Gf;fs;
NjitahdjhFk;. ,U fiury;fs; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ tPo;gbT cz;lhFkh ,y;iyah
vd;gij ca;j;jwptjw;F ,f; fyitfspd; mad;ngUf;fj;ijf; fzf;fpl KbAk;. mj;Jld;
gpd;tUk; epge;jidfs; tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
mad;ngUf;fk;> cz;ikahd Ksp ,Yk; ngupjhapd;/$lthapd; Fiwe;j fiujpwidAila
mad;fspd; nrwpT epuk;gpajpYk; $lthf ,Ug;gjhy; tPo;gbT cz;lhFk;.
mad;ngUf;fk; cz;ikahd Ksp ,Yk; rpwpjhapd; Fiwe;j fiujpwid cila
mad;fspd; nrwpT> epuk;giy mila KbahJ. vdNt tPo;gbT cz;lhfhJ.
NkNy $wpatw;iw gpd;tUkhW RUf;fkhf vOjyhk;.
IP > Ksp vdpy; tPo;gbT cz;lhFk;.
IP = Ksp vdpy; fiury; epuk;gyhFk;. tPo;gbT cz;lhfhJ.
IP < Ksp vdpy; epuk;ghf; fiuryhFk;. tPo;gbT cz;lhfhJ.
165
cjhuzk; 2.31
50.00 cm3 fdtsTk; 5.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3 nrwpTila Mg(NO3)2 fiurYk; 50.00
cm3 fdtsTk; 1.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3 nrwpTila K2CO3 fiurYk; fyf;fg;gl;lhy;
tPo;gbT cz;lhFkh? Ksp(MgCO3) = 3.5 ×10-8 mol2 dm-6
tpil
Kjypy; Mg(NO3)2(aq) ,w;Fk; K2CO3 (aq) ,w;Fkpilapyhd jhf;fj;ij vOJf.
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + MgCO3(s)
,U fiury;fs; fyf;fg;gl;lhy; Ijhf;fk; Vw;gLfpwJ. vdNt fiury;fs;
fyf;fg;gl;lhy; mtw;wpd; nrwpT khw;wkilAk;
fiurypd; nkhj;jf; fdtsT = 100.00cm3
[Mg(NO3)2(aq)] = (5.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3 × 50 × 10 -3 dm3) / 100 × 10 -3dm3
= 2.5 × 10-3 mol dm-3
[K2CO3(aq)] = (1.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3 × 50 × 10 -3 dm3) / 100 × 10 -3dm3
= 5.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3
Mg(NO3)2(aq) ck; K2CO3(aq) Kw;whff; $l;lg;gpupifailtjhy;> gpd;tUkhW
vOjyhk;
Mg(NO3)2(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
2.5 × 10-3 2.5 × 10-3 mol dm-3
K2CO3 (aq) → 2K+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
5.0 × 10-3 5.× 10-3 mol dm-3
cz;lhFk; tPo;gbT MgCO3: Mifahy;
MgCO3(s) ⇌ Mg2+(aq) + CO32-( aq)
Ksp= [Mg2+(aq)] [CO32-(aq)]
mad;ngUf;fk; = [Mg2+(aq)] [CO32-(aq)] = (2.5 × 10-3) (5.0 ×10-3) mol2 dm-6
= 1.25 × 10-5 mol2 dm-6
If; IP (1.25 ×10-5 mol2 dm-6) >Ksp (MgCO3) (3.5 10-8 mol2 dm-6)
vdNt MgCO3 tPo;gbT cz;lhFk;.
166
cjhuzk; 2.32
50.00 cm3 fdtsTk; 1.0 × 10-3 mol dm-3 nrwpTilaJkhd CaCl2 fiuriy 50.00
cm3 fdtsTilaJk; 1.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3 nrwpTilaJkhd Na2SO4 fiurypw;Fs;
NrHf;fg;gl;lhy; tPo;gbT cz;lhFkh? KspCaSO4) = 2.4 × 10-5 mol2 dm-6
tpil
Kjypy; CaCl2 ,w;Fk; Na2SO4 ,w;Fkhd jhf;fj;ij vOJf.
CaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →2NaCl(aq) + CaSO4(s)
,U fiury;fSk; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ Ijhf;fk; Vw;gLk;. vdNt ,U fiyry;fSk;
fyf;fg;gl;lhy; nrwpT khw;wkilAk;.
nkhj;jf; fdtsT = 100 cm3
[CaCl2(aq)] = (1.0 ×10-3 mol dm-3 × 50 ×10 -3 dm3)/ 100 × 10 -3dm3
= 5.0 ×10-4 mol dm-3
[Na2SO4 (aq)] = (1.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3 × 50 ×10 -3 dm3)/ 100 × 10 -3dm3
= 5.0 ×10-3 mol dm-3
CaCl2(aq) ck; Na2SO4(aq) ck; Kw;whff; $l;lw;gpupif miltd.
vdNt>
CaCl2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
5.0 ×10-4 5.0 ×10-4 mol dm-3
Na2SO4(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
5.0 ×10-3 5.0 ×10-3 mol dm-3
cz;lhFk; tPo;gbT CaSO4(s) Mifahy;
CaSO4 (s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + SO42-( aq)
Ksp = [Ca2+(aq)][ SO42-(aq)]
mad; ngUf;fk; [Ca2+(aq)][ SO42-(aq)] = (5.0 ×10-4) × (5.0 ×10-3) mol2dm-6
= 2.5 × 10-6 mol2 dm-6
mad; ngUf;fk; (2.5 ×10-6 mol2 dm-6) <Ksp(CaSO4) = 2.4 ×10-5 mol2 dm-6
vdNt CaSO4 tPo;gbT cz;lhfhJ.
167
cjhuzk; 2.33
0.020 mol dm-3 K2SO4 fiurypy; SrSO4 tPo;gbT cz;lhfhky; ,Ug;gjw;F
fiurypy; ,Uf;f $ba caH [Sr2+(aq)] ahJ? Ksp(SrSO4) = 3.2 × 10-7 mol2 dm-6
tpil
K2SO4(aq) → 2K+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
2.0 × 10-2 2.0 × 10-2 mol dm-3
SrSO4 (s) ⇌ Sr2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Ksp = [Sr2+(aq)][SO42-(aq)]
3.2 × 10-7 mol2 dm-6 =[Sr2+(aq)]( 2.0 × 10-2mol dm-3)
[Sr2+(aq)] = 1.6 × 10-5mol dm-3
SrSO4 tPo;gbahky; ,Ug;gjw;F K2SO4 fiurypy; cs;s cau;
[Sr2+(aq)]= 1.6 × 10-5 mol dm-3
cjhuzk; 2.34
XA(s) kw;Wk; YA(s) vd;gd ePupy; mupjpw;fiuAk; ,U cg;Gf;fshFk;. 298 K>
,y; Ksp(XA)(s) = 1.80 × 10-10 mol2 dm-6 , Ksp(YA) (s) = 1.80 × 10-7 mol2 dm-6 . Kw;whf
ePupy; fiuAk; NaA cg;ghdJ 0.100 mol , X+ IAk; Y+(aq) IAk; nfhz;Ls;s
(1dm3) fiurypw;Fs; nkJthfr; NrHf;fg;gl;lJ.
(i) ,t; cg;Gf;fspy; vJ Kjypy; tPo;gbthFnkd vjpHT $Wf.
(ii) ,uz;lhtJ cg;G tPo;gbaj; njhlq;Fk; NghJ fiurypy; fhzg;gLk;
Kjyhtjhf tPo;gbthfpa cg;gpd; fw;wad; nrwpitf; fzpf;f.
tpil
(i) cg;G XA If; fUJf. XA(s) ⇌ X+(aq) + A-(aq) 0.100 mol dm-3
Ksp= [X+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
[A-(aq)] = Ksp/ [X+(aq)] = (1.80 × 10-10/ 0.100) mol dm-3 = 1.80 10-9 mol dm-3
cg;G YA If; fUJf. YA(s) ⇌ Y+(aq) + A-(aq) 0.1 mol dm-3
Ksp= [Y+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
[A-(aq)] = Ksp/ [X+(aq)] = (1.80 × 10-7/ 0.100) mol dm-3 = 1.80 × 10-6 mol dm-3
XA tPo;gbaj; Njitahd [A-(aq)] ,YA tPo;gbaj; Njitahd [A-(aq)] ,Yk;
Fiwthf ,Ug;gjhy; XA Kjypy; tPo;gbthFk;.
(ii) Ksp (XA) = [X+(aq)] [A-(aq)]
,e;epiyapy; [A-(aq)] YA tPo;gbaj; Njitahd [A-(aq)] MFk;.
,uz;lhtJ cg;G tPo;gbaj; njhlq;Fk;NghJ fiurypYs;s KjyhtJ
cg;gpd; [X+(aq)] = (1.80 × 10-10 / 1.80 × 10-6) mol dm-3
= 1. 0 × 10-4 mol dm-3
168
cjhuzk; 2.36
0.10 mol dm-3 A2+(aq) IAk; kw;Wk; 0.20 mol dm-3 B3+(aq) IAk; nfhz;Ls;s ePH
fiuriyf; fUJf.
Ksp(AI2) = 9.0×10-9mol3 dm-9 , Ksp(BI3) = 1.6×10-18 mol4 dm-12
i. A2+(aq) , B3+(aq) tPo;gbaj; njhlq;Ftjw;Fj; Njitahd kpff; Fiwe;j
I-(aq) ,d; nrwpT ahJ?
AI2 If; fUjpdhy; BI3 If; fUjpdhy;
AI2(s) ⇌ A2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) BI3(s) ⇌ B3+(aq) + 3I-(aq)
Ksp = [A2+(aq)] [I-(aq)]2 Ksp = [B3+(aq)] [I-(aq)]3
3 Ksp
[I-(aq)] = Ksp [I-(aq)] =
2 [A2+(aq)] [B3+(aq)])
3
9.0 ×10-9 mol3 dm-9 1.6×1012 mol3 dm-12
2 0.10 mol dm-3 0.20 mol dm-3
= 3.0 10-4 mol dm-3 = 2.0 × 10-6 mol dm-3
ii. B3+(aq) khj;jpuk; tPo;gbtjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jf; $ba I-(aq) ,d; nrwpT tPr;R
ahJ?
2.0 ×10-6 mol dm-3<[I-(aq)] < 3.0 ×10-4 mol dm-3
2.4.5 fiujpwidg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;

nghJ - mad; tpisT
298 K, ,y; AgCl ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypd; gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; fUJf.
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
[Ag+(aq)] If; $l;bdhy; ,yw;rw;wpypNaapd; jj;Jtg;gb> rkepiy khwpypapd; ngWkhdj;ij
mjhtJ Ksp I khwpypahf itj;jpUg;gjw;Fr; rkepiyahdJ ,lJ gf;fkhf efUk;.
[Ag+(aq)] ,d; ,t; mjpfupg;ig> AgNO3 Nghd;w ePupy; fiuaf; $ba cg;ig Muk;g
rkepiyf;Fr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; mila KbAk;. ,e;j efHtpd; fhuzkhf $basT AgCl(s)
cz;lhf;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt AgCl ,d;fiujpwd; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. ,J nghJ mad;
- tpisT vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Vnddpd; Vw;fdNt rkepiyapd; xU gFjpahf
,Uf;Fk; xU mad; NrHf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,jidg; gpd;tUkhWk; $wyhk;. rkepiyia ,lJgf;fk; efHtjw;F Vw;gLj;jpdhy;
gspq;fhjy; tPjk; fiuAk; tPjj;jpYk; $Ljyhf mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. $basT Ag+ mad;fSk;
Cl- mad;fSk; xd;W NrHe;J jpz;k AgCl I cz;lhf;Fk;. kw;Wk; mjd; fiujpwd;
Fiwtilfpd;wJ.
,yw;rw;wpypNaapd; jj;Jtg;gb vjpHkhWk; cz;ikahFk;. rkepiyia tyJgf;fk;
efHtjw;F Vw;gLj;jpdhy; fiuAk; tPjk; gspq;fhjy; tPjj;jpYk; $Ljyhf mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
kw;Wk; $basT jpz;k AgCl fiutilAk;> mj;Jld; mjd; fiujpwd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
169
cjhuzk; 2.36
0.10 mol dm-3 NaOH fiurypy; Ni(OH)2 ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwidf; fzpf;f.
Ksp(Ni(OH)2) = 2.0×10–15mol3 dm-9
(Ni(OH)2) ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwd; s vd;f.
Ni(OH)2(s) ⇌ Ni2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
rkepiyapy; : s 2s + 0.10
Ksp= [ Ni2+(aq)] [OH–(aq)]2
= s (2s + 0.10)2
Ksp rpwpjhifahy;> (2s<< 0.10)
∴(2s+ 0.10) = 0.10
2.0 × 10–15 mol3 dm-9 = s(0.10)2 mol2 dm-6
s = 2.0 × 10–13 mol dm-3
nghJ mad; ,y;iynadpy; fiujpwd; 7.94 × 10–6 mol dm-3.
cjhuzk; 2.37
BaCrO4 ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwid
(i) 0.100 mol dm-3,
(ii)1.00×10–3 mol dm-3BaCl2 fiurypy; fzpf;f. Ksp(BaCrO4) = 1.2 × 10–10mol2 dm-6
tpil
(i) BaCrO4 ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwd; s vd;f. BaCrO4(s) ⇌ Ba2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq)
rkepiyapy; : s + 0.100 s
Ksp = [ Ba2+(aq)] [CrO42- (aq)] = (s + 0.10)s
Ksp rpwpjhifahy;> (s<< 0.100)
∴(s + 0.100) ≈ 0.100
1.2 × 10–10 mol2 dm-6 = s(0.100) mol dm-3
s = 1.2 × 10–9 mol dm-3
(ii) BaCrO4 ,d; %yu;f;fiujpwd; s vd;f. BaCrO4(s) Ba2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq)
rkepiyapy; : s + 0.001 s
Ksp = [ Ba2+(aq)] [CrO42- (aq)]= (s + 0.001)s
Ksp rpwpjhifahy;> (s<< 0.001)
∴ (s+ 0.001) = 0.001
1.2 × 10–10 mol2 dm-6 = s(0.001) mol dm-3
s = 1.2 × 10–7 mol dm-3
,k; KbTfs; BaCrO4(s) ,d; fiujpwd; Ijhd fiury;fspy; mjpfkhf ,Ug;gijf;
Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
170
,yw;rw;wpypNaapd; jj;Jtg;gbehk; rkepiyia tyJ gf;fk; efHj;Jtjw;F Vw;gLj;jpdhy;

gspq;fhjy; tPjj;jpYk; ghHf;ff; fiujy; tPjk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. vd;gij mwpaf; $bajhf
cs;sJ.
gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; fUJf.
PbCl2(s) ⇌ Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
[Pb2+(aq)] my;yJ [Cl–(aq)] If; Fiwg;gjd; %yk; PbCl2(s) ,d; fiujpwid mjpfupf;f
KbAk;.
Pb2+ tPo;gbthf;ff; $ba rpy mad;fisr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; Pb2+(aq) If; Fiwf;f KbAk;.
gpd;tUk; mad;fspy; VjhtJ xd;W : Br–, I–, SO42–, S2–, OH–,CO32–, SO32-, Pb2+ I tPo;gbthf;Fk;
vdpDk; NkNy cs;s mad;fspy; VjhtJ xd;iwr; NrHf;ff; $bajhf ,Ug;gpDk;> mit
vy;yhk; [Pb2+(aq)] If; Fiwf;fhJ. Gjpa tPo;gbT PbCl2 ,Yk; Fiwe;j fiujpwid
cilajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. vdNt cjhuzkhf I– mad;fisf; nfhz;Ls;s KI Nghd;w
ePupy; fiuaf;$ba cg;igj; NjHe;njLf;fyhk;. Vnddpy; PbI2 ,y; Ksp (PbI2) =1.4 × 10
–8
mol3 dm-9 kw;Wk; PbCl2 ,d; Ksp(PbCl2) = 1.8 × 10–5 mol3 dm-9 MfTk; cs;sJ. ,t;thNw
[Cl–(aq)] If; Fiwg;gjw;F Ag2NO3 Ir; NrHf;fyhk;. ,J AgCl Mf tPo;gbfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; 2.38
0.10 mol dm-3 nrwpTila gpd;tUk; fiury;fspy; CaC2O4(s) ,d; rhH fiujpwd;fis
xg;gpLf.
(i) NaOH, (ii) KCl , (iii) Ca(NO3)2
tpil
CaC2O4(s) ePupy; mupjpw; fiuaf; $baJ vdNt
CaC2O4(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq)
i. NaOH(aq) fiurypy; NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca2+(aq) cld; Ca(OH)2
OH-(aq), Mf tPo;gbAk;. vdNt Ca2+(aq) Fiwtiltjhy; rkepiy tyJ
gf;fj;jpw;F efHtjhy;> CaC2O4(s) ,d; fiujpwd; mjpfupf;Fk;.
(ii) KCl(aq) fiurypy; : KCl(aq) → K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
K+(aq) , Cl-(aq) vd;gd rkepiyapy; ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;jhJ.
(iii) Ca(NO3)2 (aq) ,y; Ca(NO3)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
Ca2+(aq) nghJ mad; Mf cs;sjhy;> [Ca2+(aq)] mjpfupf;fr; rkepiy
,lJ gf;fk; efHtjhy;> $basT CaC2O4(s). cUthf;fg;gLtjhy; CaC2O4(s)
,d; fiujpwd; FiwtilAk;.
2.4.6 pH ,d; tpisT

mNdfkhd NrHitfspd; fiujpwd; fiurypd; pH ,y; $Ljyhfj; jq;fpAs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf mNdf mupjhff; fiuaf; $ba cg;Gf;fspYs;s mdadhdJ nkd;dkpyj;jpd;
,iz%ykhFk;. ,J fiurypd; GNuhj;jpuNdw;wj;jpw;Fl;glyhk;. ,jw;F Nkyjpfkhf>
xl;irl;Lf;fs; kw;Wk; ry;igl;Lf;fs; Nghd;w vspa Jtpjr; NrHitfspd; fiujpwd;>
,uz;Lk; td;%yq;fshjyhy; pH ,y; ngUk;ghYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. cjhuzkhf nkd;dkpyk;
HA ,d; ,iz%ykhd A− ,d; cg;G MA ,d; fiujpwdpy; pH ,d; tpisitf; fUJf.
cg;G ePupy; fiuAk;NghJ> gpd;tUk; jhf;fk; eilngWfpwJ.
171
MA(s) ⇌ M+(aq) + A−(aq) : Ksp = [ M+(aq)][ A−(aq)]……..(1)

mdad; ePHgFg;Gj; jhf;fj;jpy; ePUld; jhf;fk; GupAk;
A−(aq) +H2O(l) ⇌ OH−(aq)+HA(aq)……..(2)
NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l jhf;fk; (2) ,d; fhuzkhf (1) ,y; cUthFk; A− jhf;fk; (2)
,dhy; mfw;wg;gLk;NghJ cg;G MA ,d; fiujpwd; mjpfupf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf S2−, PO43
my;yJ CO32− Nghd;w %y mdaid cila mupjpw; fiuAk;. cg;gpd; fiujpwd;
mjpfupf;Fk; vd vjpHT $wg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjw;Fg; gjpyhf xU td;dkpyk; NrHf;fg;gl;l
H+ Kf;fpakhf Kw;whf A− cld; jhf;fkile;J HA I cUthf;Fk;. ,j; jhf;fj;jpy;
[A−(aq)] FiwfpwJ. ,J mad;ngUf;fj;jpd; ngWkhdj;ijf; Fiwf;fpd;wJ. (IP = [ M+(aq)]
[A−(aq)]) vdNt xU mkpy pH MdJ fpl;lj;jl;l vy;yh mupjpw;fiuAk; cg;Gf;fspd;
fiujpwid mjpfupf;fpwJ. mjd; mdad; nkd;dkpyj;jpd; ,iz %ykhFk;.
gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; fUJf. Ag3PO4(s) ⇌ 3Ag+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
HNO3(aq) NrHf;fg;gl;lhy;> gpd;tUk; jhf;fk; eilngWk;.
H3O+(aq)+ PO43-(aq) ⇌ HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l)
,j;jhf;fj;jpy; [PO43-(aq)] fiurypy; Fiwf;fg;gLtjhy; mjpf jpz;k Ag3PO4 fiue;JtpLk;.
NO3- mad;fs; ve;jnthU epfo;TfspYk; gq;Fgw;whky; ghHitahsHfshff; fiurypy;
cs;sd.
gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; fUJf.
Cu(OH)2(s) ⇌ Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
yy pH I mjpfupg;gJ vd;gJ [OH-] I mjpfupg;gJ kw;Wk; rkepiyia ,lJ Gwkhf
efHj;JtJ vd;gjhFk;. ,jdhy; rpy Cu(OH)2 tPo;gbthf ntspNaWk; my;yJ mjd;
fiujpwd; FiwAk;.
yy pH Fiwf;fg;gl;lhy; [OH-] Fiwf;fg;gLk; kw;Wk; rkepiy tyJ gf;fj;jpw;F
efHj;jg;gLk. ,jdhy; jpz;k Cu(OH)2 fiuAk; my;yJ mjd; fiujpwd; mjpfupf;Fk;.
yy (MOH)n tifahd NrHitfspd; fiujpwd; pH mjpfupf;fpd;wJ vdpy; FiwAk;
kw;Wk; pH FiwfpwJ vdpy; mjpfupf;Fk;.
vdNt fiuahj %y cg;Gf;fs; mkpyf; fiury;fspy; fiue;JtpLk;. ,t;thNw fiuahj
mkpy cg;Gf;fs; fhuf; fiury;fspy; fiue;JtpLk;.
172
cjhuzk; 2.39
298 K ,y; Cu(OH)2(s) ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypy; Cu2+(aq) ,d; nrwpitf; fzpf;f.
(i) pH =10.0 vdpy; (ii) pH = 5.00 vdpy;> Ksp(Cu(OH)2 = 2.2 × 10-20 mol3 dm-9.
tpil
(i) pH = 10.00 vdpy;>
[H+(aq)] = 1.0×10-10 mol dm-3 kw;Wk; [OH-(aq) ] = 1.0×10-4 mol dm-3
Cu(OH)2(s) ⇌ Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq), Cu2+ ,w; fiujpwd; x vd;f.
rkepiyapy;: x 1.0×10-4 mol dm-3
2.2 × 10-20 mol3 dm-9
Ksp = [ Cu (aq)] [OH (aq)] = 2.2 × 10 mol dm , χ =
2+ - 2 -20 3 -9
(1.0 × 10-4)2 mol2 dm-6
χ (1.0×10 mol dm ) = 2.2 × 10 mol dm
-4 -3 2 -20 -3
∴χ = [Cu2+(aq)] = 2.2 × 10-12 mol dm-3

(ii) pH = 5.00 vdpy;>
[H+(aq)] = 1.0×10-5 kw;Wk; [OH-(aq) ] =1.0×10-9 mol dm-3
Cu(OH)2(s) ⇌ Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
χ 1.0×10-9
rkepiyapy; :
Ksp = [Cu2+(aq)] [OH-(aq)] 2= 2.2 × 10-20
χ(1.0×10-9 mol dm-3)2 = 2.2 × 10-20 mol3dm-9
∴χ = [Cu2+(aq)] = 2.2 × 10-2 mol dm-3
,t;thwhd cNyhf Ijnuhl;irl;Lf;fspd; fiujpwd;> pH FiwtilAk;NghJ
mjpfupg;gij ehk; Fwpg;gpl KbAk;.
NkNy cs;s cjhuzj;jpy; mdad; OH- ePupypUe;J ngwg;gLfpwJ. vdNt Clfj;jpy;

H+ tpisit ehk; fUj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;. ,t;thwhd pH ,y; jq;fpAs;s fiujpwd;
ePupypUe;J ngwg;gl;l mdad;fisf; nfhz;l cg;Gf;fSf;F kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy
(cNyhf Ijnuhl;irl;Lf;fs;)
cjhuzkhf CaF2 MdJ %y mdaidf; nfhz;Ls;s mupjpw; fiuAk; cg;G MFk;.
298 K ,y; fPNo cs;s rkepiyiaf; fUJf.
CaF2(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + 2F−(aq) ; Ksp =3.45×10−11 mol3 dm-9 (m)
CaF2 ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypw;F td;dkpyk; NrHf;fg;gLk; NghJ> gpd;tUk; jhf;fk;
eilngWfpwJ.
H+(aq) +F−(aq) ⇌ HF(aq)
Kw;whf;fj;jpy; (m) d; GNshiul; mad; nrwpitf; Fiwg;gjhy;> njhFjpapy; cs;s
mOj;jj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;Ff; $basT CaF2 fiuAk; kw;Wk; td;dkpyj;Jld; CaF2 ,d;
epfu jhf;fk; ,t;thW cs;sJ.
CaF2(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2HF(aq)
173
,d;ndhU cNyhf fhgNdw;iw vLj;jhy; MCO3(s)

MCO3(s) ⇌ M2+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ⇌ HCO3-(aq)
nkhj;j jhf;fk; ,t;thW> MCO3(s) + H+(aq) ⇌ M2+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
mjhtJ njhFjpapd; mOj;jj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;Ff; $basT MCO3 fiutijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
mjhtJ pH ,d; mjpfupg;Gf; fiujpwidf; Fiwf;fpwJ. mNj Neuj;jpy; pH ,d; Fiwg;G
fiujpwid mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
NkNy cs;stw;wpypUe;J ehk; Fwpg;gplf;$baJ> GNshiul;Lf;fs; xl;rNyw;Wf;fs;
fhgNdw;Wf;fs;> ngh];Ngw;Wf;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; nkd;dkpyq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLk; mupjpw;
fiuAk; cg;Gf;fs; mkpyf; fiurypy; $basT fiuaf;$bad.
gpd;tUk; cjhuzj;ijf; fUJf.
PbC2O4, PbI2 kw;Wk; PbSO4 vd;gd mupjpw; fiuAk; cg;Gf;fshFk;. 298 K ,y; ,tw;wpd;
Ksp ngWkhdq;fs; KiwNa 4.8 × 10−10 mol2 dm-6 ,9.8 × 10−9 mol3 dm-9 kw;Wk; 2.5 × 10−5 mol2
dm-6 MFk;. ,tw;wpd; epuk;gw;fiury;fspw;Fs; td;dkpyk; NrHf;fg;gl;lhy; mtw;wpd; rhH
fiujpwd;fis xg;gpLf.
PbC2O4(s) ⇋ Pb2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) ; Ksp= 4.8 × 10−10 mol2 dm-6
PbI2(s) ⇋ Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ;Ksp = 9.8 × 10−9 mol3 dm-9
PbSO4(s) ⇋ Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ; Ksp = 2.5 × 10−5mol2dm-6
NkYs;s rkepiyfspy; cz;lhFk; C2O42-,I– kw;Wk; SO42- mdad;fs; vy;yhk; SO42-
kw;Wk; H2C2O4, HI kw;Wk; H2SO4 mkpyq;fspd; ,iz %yq;fshFk;. td; ,iz %yk;
MdJ td;dkpyj;ijr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; $Ljyhfg; ghjpf;fg;gLtjhy;> rhH fiujpwid
mtw;wpd; rhH %yj;jd;ikiaf; nfhz;L njhlHGgLj;jyhk;.
HI td;dkpykhjyhy;> PbI2 ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypw;Fs; td;dkpyj;ijr; Nru;g;gjhy; mjd;
fiujpwidg; ngupJk; ghjpf;fhJ vd vjpHT $wyhk;. mkpyk; vspjhff; $l;lg;gpupifaile;J
H+(aq) IAk; mtw;wpd; madaidAk; nfhLf;Fk;.
C2O42- xU GNuhj;jpudpw;F caH ehl;lj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sJ kw;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ
GNuhj;jpudpw;F jho; ehl;lKilaJ. vdNt td;dkpyj;ij PbC2O4(s) ,d; epuk;gw;
fiurypw;Fr; NrHj;jhy; gpd;tUk; jhf;fq;fis tpistpw;Fk;.
C2O42-(aq) + H+(aq) ⇋ HC2O4-(aq)
kw;Wk;
HC2O4-(aq) + H+(aq) ⇋ H2C2O4 (aq)
,j; jhf;fq;fs; [C2O42−(aq)] If; Fiwf;Fk;> ,jdhy; <a xl;rNyw;W fiue;J njhFjpapd;
mOj;jj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk;.
PbSO4 (s) ,d; epuk;gw; fiurypw;Fs; td;dkpyj;ijr; NrHf;Fk; NghJ gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpw;F
toptFf;Fk;.
SO42-(aq) + H+(aq) ⇋ HSO4-(aq)
HSO4-(aq) ,d; pKa (1.99) << pKa2 xl;rhypf; mkpyk; vdNt NkNy cs;s rkepiyahdJ
$Ljyhf ,lJ gf;fj;jpw;Fr; rhjfkhdjhFk;. ,d;ndhU tpjkhff; $wpdhy;> xl;rhypd;
mkpyj;jpd; %yj;jd;ik >>> ry;g+upf; mkpyj;jpd; %yj;jd;ik vdNt PbSO4 ,d;
fiujpwdpy; NrHf;fg;gLk; td;dkpyj;jpd; tpisT PbC2O4 ,Yk; fzprkhd msT FiwT
MFk;.
174
,t; cjhuzj;jpypUe;J ePHg;gFg;gpw;Fl;glhj mdad;fisf; (Cl-, Br`-, I-) Nghd;w nfhz;Ls;s

cg;Gf;fspd; fiujpwd;fs; pH My; ghjpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy vd;gijAk; ehk; Fwpg;gpl KbAk;.
cjhuzk; 2.40
xU khjpupahdJ mkpyf; fiurypy; 3.0 × 10-6 mol dm-3 ,d; M3+(aq) If;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. GSl;Nlhdpak; M(OH)3 Mf tPo;gbaj; njhlq;Ftjw;Ff; fiury;
vg; pH ,w;Fr; rup nra;ag;gly; Ntz;Lk;?
tpil
Ksp = 2.7 x 10-20 mol4 dm-12
M(OH)3(s) ⇋ M3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)
Ksp = [ M3+(aq)] [OH-(aq)]3 = 2.4 × 10-20 mol4 dm-12

√
3 2.4 ×10-20
[OH-(aq)] =
3.0 ×10 -6
= 2.0 ×10-5 mol dm-3

∴pOH = 4.7
pH = 9.3
,jdhy; pH I 9.3 Mfr; rup nra;ag; NghJkhd %yk; NrHf;fg;gLk;. tiu
fiurypy; tPo;gbaj; njhlq;fhJ.
2.4.7 gz;gwpgFg;gpy; (fw;wad;) fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpd; gpuNahfk;

gz;gwpgFg;gpy; fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;jpd; gpuNahfq;fs; xU ePHf;fiurypy; Fwpg;gpl;l
mad;fs; cs;sij vt;thW fz;lwptJ vd;gij mwptjw;F gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;
kw;Wk; ,q;F gad;gLj;jg;gLk; nray;Kiw gz;gwpgFg;gpd; fPo; tUfpwJ. ,J xU
khjpupapy; vd;d ,Uf;Fk; vd;w Nfs;tpf;Fj; jPHT fhz;fpwJ. xU gz;gwpgFg;gpd;
mbg;gil cz;ik vd;dntdpy;> mad;fshdJ Fwpg;gpl;l Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSld;
Fwpg;gpl;l jhf;fq;fspy; <Lgl;L mtjhdpf;fj;jf;f tpisTfisf; nfhLf;Fk; vd;gjhFk;.
cjhuzkhf nts;sp mad; IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyj;Jld; tPo;gbe;J ePupy; fiuahj
nts;sp FNshiul; jpz;kj;ij tpisthff; nfhLf;Fk;. Vnddpy; mNdf fw;wad;fs;
,k;khjpup IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyj;Jld; jhf;fkilakhl;lhJ. ,t; vspa jhf;fkhdJ
ePupy; fiuahj FNshiul;Lf;fis cUthf;Fk; mad;fis Ntwhf;f gad;gLj;jyhk;.
cz;ikapy; fyitapYs;s mad;fspd; gz;gwpuPjpapyhd fz;lwpjy; nghJthf
Kiwahd gFg;gha;T %yk; epiwNtw;wg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; tPo;gbTj; jhf;fq;fs; Kf;fpag;
gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd.
fw;wad;fspd; ntt;Ntwhd cg;Gf;fs; ePupy; ntt;Ntwhd fiujpwd;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd.
,t; cg;Gf;fspd; fiujpwd;fspy; cs;s NtWghLfs; mad;fisg; gpupg;gjw;F mDkjpf;Fk;
tifapy; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;. cjhuzkhff; fw;wad;fspd; fyitapd; ePH fiurypw;Fs;
nghUj;jkhd ,urhadr; Nrhjidg; nghUisr; NrHj;jy; xd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l
fw;wad;fis xU tPo;gbit cUthf;fj; NjHe;njLf;Fk;. mNj Neuj;jpy; xd;W my;yJ
mjw;F Nkw;gl;l fw;wad;fs; ePupy; fiue;J tpLk;.
NrHitfspd; fiujpwd;fSf;F Vw;g mtw;wpd; fw;wad;fis Ie;J gpujhd $l;lq;fshfg;
gpupf;fyhk; vd;gij ehq;fs; mwpNthk;.
$l;lk; I (Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+) fw;wad;fs; fiuahj FNshiul;Lf;fis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd.
vdNt mit Ijhd HCl cld; tPo;gbthf;fg;glyhk;. kw;iwa vy;yhf; fw;wad;fSk;
fiurypy; cs;sd.
175
$l;lk; II (Cu2+, Bi3+, Cd2+, Hg2+, As3+, Sb3+, Sn4+/Sn2+) fw;wad;fs; kpfTk; fiuahj
-25
ry;igl;Lfis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. (Ksp ngWkhdk; 10 ,Yk; FiwT) vdNt mit
Fiwe;j mstpyhd ry;igl;L madpdhy; tPo;gbthf;fg;glyhk;. cNyhf mad;fspd;
mkpy fiurypw;Fs; H2S Ir; NrHg;gjd; %yk; ,jid mila KbAk;.
$l;lk; III (Al3+, Cr3+, Fe2+, Fe3+) fw;wad;fs; kpfTk; fiuahj Ijnuhl;irl;Lf;fis
cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. kw;Wk; mit Fiwe;j msT Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fisr; NrHg;gjd;
%yk; tPo;gbthf;fg;glyhk;.
$l;lk; IV (Zn2+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+) fw;wad;fs; rpwpjsT fiuaf; $ba ry;igl;Lf;fis
cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. (Ksp ngWkhdq;fs; 10-20 ,Yk; $lthFk;) vdNt mit $basT
ry;igl;L mad;fspdhy; tPo;gbthf;fg;glyhk;. cNyhf mad;fspd; fhuf;fiurypw;Fs;
H2S Ir; nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; ,jid mila KbAk;.
$l;lk; V (Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+) NkNy cs;s $l;lq;fspd; vy;yhf; fw;wad;fSk; fiuahj
fhgNdw;Wfis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. vdNt Kjy; ehd;F $l;lq;fspd; fw;wad;fSk;
fiuahj fhgNdw;Wfis cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. vdNt Kjy; ehd;F $l;lq;fspd; fw;wad;fs;
mfw;wg;gl;lTld; fhgNdw;iwr; NrHg;gjd; %yk; mit tPo;gbthf;fg;glyhk;.
(Mg 2+, Na+, K+, NH4+) fw;wad;fs; NkNy cs;s ve;jnthU Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSlDk;
tPo;gbit cz;lhf;Ftjpy;iy.
$l;lk; I ,d; fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; ,urhadk;

IjNuhFNshupf; mkpyj;jpd; Ijhd fiury; $l;lk; I ,d; tPo;gbthf;fr; Nrhjidg;
nghUshFk;. kw;Wk; tPo;gbthFk; mad;fshtd nts;sp Ag+> Nkf;fpa+up (I), Hg22+> <ak;
(II), Pb2+ epfu mad; jhf;fq;fshtd>
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Hg22+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Hg2Cl2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → PbCl2(s)
nghJ mad; tpisTf;F Vw;g> tPo;gbTfspd; fiujpwidf; Fiwg;gjw;Fr; rpwpjsT
Nkyjpf FNshiul;L mad; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. MapDk; $l fiurypy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
nrwpT <a mad; ,Ug;gjw;F <a FNshiul;bd; fiujpwd; NghJkhdjhf caHthf
cs;sJ. ,tw;wpy; $basT $l;lk; II Nrhjidg; nghUSld; tPo;gbthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
$l;lk; II ,d; fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; ,urhadk;

$l;lk; II mad;fs; (kw;Wk; $l;lk; IV)> mtw;wpd; fiuahj ry;igl;Lf;fshf
tPo;gbthf;fj; jpdhy; Ntwhf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,it ePupy; kl;LNk rpwpjsT fiuaf; $bad.
(25°C ,Yk; tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk; epuk;gpa ePH fiury; Vwj;jho 25°C %y; I xU
yPw;wupy; nfhz;Ls;sJ.) fiue;j %yf;$w;W Ijurd; ry;igl;lhdJ Ijurd; mad;fs;
(H+(aq))Ijurd; ry;igl;L mad;fs; (HS- (aq)) kw;Wk; ry;igl;L (S2- (aq)) mad;fshff;
$l;lg;gpupif milfpwJ. kw;Wk; gpd;tUk; rkepiyfis ehk; fUj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;.
%d;W rkepiyfs; rk;ge;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
H2S(g) ⇋ H2S(aq)
[H+ (aq) ] [HS-(aq)]

H2S(aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + HS ̶ (aq); K1 = = 9.1 ×10-8 mol dm-3
[H2 S(aq)]
[H+ (aq) ][S2- (aq)]
HS ̶ (aq) ⇋ H+(aq) + S2 ̶ (aq); K2 = = 1.0 ×10-19 mol dm-3
[HS- (aq) ]
176
ePHf; fiury; kpfTk; %yj;jd;ik cilaJ ,y;iy vdpy; K2 ,d; Fiwe;j ngWkhdk;>
kpfr; rpwpjsT RahjPd S2- ,Ug;gijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. vdNt> cNyhf ry;igl;Lf;fspd;
tPo;gbthf;fk; rpwg;ghf vOjg;gl;Ls;sJ.
M2+(aq)+H2S(aq) ⇋ MS(s) + 2H+(aq)
ve;jr; rkepiyAk; NghyNt jhf;fj;jpd; msT tpisTfspdJk; jhf;fpfspdJk;
rhH nrwpTfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. ,e;j tplaj;jpy;> fiuriy mkpykhf;FtJ cNyhf
ry;igl;Lf;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;ijj; jLf;Fk;. xU mkpyj;ijr; NrHg;gJ NkNy cs;s
rkepiyia ,lJ gf;fkhf efHj;Jfpd;wJ. $l;lk; II cNyhf ry;igl;Lf;fspd; Ksp
ngWkhdq;fs; kpff; Fiwthf my;yJ ,d;ndhU tpjkhff; $wpdhy;> kpff; Fiwe;j
fiujpwd; cila cNyhf ry;igl;Lf;fs; Mifahy;> $l;lk; II fw;wad;fs; mkpy
Ijurd; ry;igl;L fiury;fspypUe;J tPo;gbthf;fg;gLk; mNj Neuj;jpy; fiujpwd; $ba
cNyhf ry;igl;Lf;fs; ($l;lk; IV) fiurypy; ,Uf;Fk;. H+(aq) nrwpitf; fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ>
fw;wad;fis mtw;wpd; ry;igl;Lf;fspd; fiujpwdpy; cs;s NtWghLfspypUe;J
Ntwhf;Ftjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. $l;lk; II ngUk;ghYk; mkpy Ijurd; ry;igl;L $l;lk;
vd;W miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Ijurd; mad;nrwpT 0.1 mol dm-3 - 0.3 mol dm-3 (pH = 0.5 -1.0)
tPr;rpy; cs;sNghJ mjhtJ $l;lk; II ,d; ry;igl;Lf;fspd; mad;ngUf;fq;fs; mtw;wpd;
fiujpwd; ngUf;fq;fis kPWtjw;F kl;Lk; H+ nrwpT rupnra;ag;gLk;. mt;thW vdNt
$l;lk; II fw;wad;fs; tPo;gbthf;fg;gLk;. vdpDk; $l;lk; IV ,d; fw;wad;fs; my;y>
mtw;wpd; ry;igl;Lf;fs; $Ljyhff; fiuaf; $bait. ,e;epiyikfis Ijhd HCl
H2S(g) I $l;lk; I ,d; Nthwhf;fspd; tbjputj;jpw;Fr; nryj;Jtjd; %yk; mila
KbAk;. $l;lk; II fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbT rk;ge;jg;gl;l jhf;fq;fs; gpd;tUkhW
Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g) → CuS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Cd2+(aq) + H2S(g) → CdS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Hg2+(aq) + H2S(g) → HgS(s) + 2H+(aq)
2Bi3+(aq) + 3H2S(g) → Bi2S3(s) + 6H+(aq)
2As3+(aq) + 3H2S(g) → As2S3(s) + 6H+(aq)
2Sb3+(aq) + 3H2S(g) → Sb2S3(s) + 6H+(aq)
Sn4+(aq) + 2H2S(g) → SnS2(s) + 4H+(aq)
Sn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → SnS(s) + 2H+(aq)
$l;lk; III fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; ,urhadk;

$l;lk; III fw;wad;fspd; Inuhl;irl;Lf;fspd; KspngWkhdq;fs; kpfTk; Fiwthdit.
vdNt Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;fspd; nrwpit kpff; Fiwthff; fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
mtw;iw Ijnuhf;irl;lhf tPo;gbthf;fyhk;. ,t;Ntwhf;fypy; Ijurd; ry;igl;Lf;fiury;
$Ljyhf %ykhf ,y;yhjthW ftdk; vLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. Ijnuhf;irl;L madpd; nrwpT
NghjpasT caHthf ,Ue;jhy;> kfdPrpak; Ijnuhf;irl;bd; Njitaw;w tPo;gbthf;fk;
eilngWk;. Njitahd msT nrwpT Ijnuhf;irl;L mad; nrwpit miltjw;F
(Vwj;jho 1 × 10-5 mol dm-3) mNkhdpah - mNkhdpak; FNshiul;L jhf;fw; fiury;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. mNkhdpah fiurypy; gpd;tUk; mad;rkepiy eilngWk;.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ NH4+(aq) + OH ̶ (aq)
NH4Cl(aq) → NH4+(aq) + Cl ̶ (aq)
0.10 mol dm-3 NH3 fiury; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lhy;> Ijnuhl;irl;L madpd; nrwpT 1.3 × 10-3
mol dm-3 MFk;. ,J kfdPrpak; Ijnuhl;irl;L tPo;gbtjw;Fg; NghJkhdjhf caHthf
cs;sJ. NrHf;fgLk; mNkhdpak; FNshiul;bd; mNkhdpak; mad; nrwpT mNkhdpah
177
rkepiyia ,lJ gf;fj;jpw;F efHj;Jtjhy; (nghJ mad; tpisT) Ijnuhl;irl;L mad;

nrwpT FiwfpwJ. rpwpjsT fiuAk; mYkPdpak; kw;Wk; FNuhkpak; Ijnuhl;irl;Lf;fs;
tPo;gbtjw;F Vwj;jho [OH ̶ (aq)] , 1 × 10-5 mol dm-3 NghJkhdJ> Mdhy; mjpfk;
fiuaf; $ba kfdPrpak; Ijnuhf;irl;L mt;thW my;y. mtw;wpd; Ksp ngWkhdq;fis
xg;gpLtjd; %yk; ,ij ehq;fs; Gupe;J nfhs;s KbAk;. Ksp(Al(OH)3) = 1.8 ×10-33 mol4 dm-12, Ksp
(Cr(OH)3) = 3.0 × 10-29 mol4 dm-12, Ksp (Fe(OH)3) = 1.4 × 10-28 mol4 dm-12 , Ksp (Mg(OH)2) = 1.8× 10-11 mol3 dm-9.
$l;lk; III fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghLfs;.

Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 3NH3 (aq) → Al(OH)3 (s) + 3NH4+(aq)
Cr3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 3NH3 (aq) → Cr(OH)3 (s) + 3NH4+(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O(l) + 3NH3 (aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NH4+(aq)
,e;jf; $l;lj;jpy; Mg(OH)2 tPo;gbtjw;Fg; [OH-(aq)] NghjpasT caHthf ,Ue;jhy;
Mg(OH)2 tPo;gbthFk;.
Mg2+(aq) + OH ̶ (aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
$l;lk; IV fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; ,urhadf;

IV fw;wad;fs;> Ijurd; ry;igl;bd; %yf; fiurypUe;J %yu;f;fiurypy; mtw;wpd;
ry;igl;Lf;fshf tPo;gbthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. H2S ,d; madhf;fk; $basT eilngWtjhy; S2 ̶
nrwpT mjpfupf;fpd;wJ ,J caHthFk;NghJ> $l;lk; IV ry;igl;Lf;fspd; mad;ngUf;fq;fs;
mtw;wpd; fiujpwd; ngUf;fq;fs; kPWtjhy; mit tPo;gbthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
H2S(g) ⇋ H2S(aq)
H2S(aq) ⇋ 2 H+(aq) + S2 ̶ (aq)
OH-(aq) mad;fs; Kd;dpiyapy; H+(aq) mad;fs; eLepiyahf;fg;gLfpd;wd. vdNt
$l;lk; IV fw;wad;fis mtw;wpd; ry;igl;Lf;fshf tPo;gbtjw;Fg; NghJkhd msT XusT
caH S2 ̶ (aq) nrwpitf; fiury; nfhz;Ls;sJ. $l;lk; IV ry;igl;Lf;fspd; fw;wad;fs;
$l;lk; II I Ijurd; ry;igl;bd; mkpyf;fiurypy; tPo;gbtjw;F S2- nrwpT NghJkhdjhf
,y;iy. vdpDk; Ijurd; ry;igl;bd; %yf;fiurypy; tPo;gbthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
$l;lk; IV fw;wad;fs; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; rkd;ghLfs;
Zn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → ZnS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Ni2+(aq) + H2S(g) → NiS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Co2+(aq) + H2S(g) → CoS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Mn2+(aq) + H2S(g) → MnS(s) + 2H+(aq)
$l;lk; V fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpd; ,urhadk;

$l;lk; V ,d; fw;wad;fs; %yf;fiurypy; mtw;wpd; fhgNdw;Wf;fshf tPo;gbthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,e;j epiyiaf; $l;lk; IV ,d; tbjputj;jpDs;Ns cs;s H2S I nfhjpf;f itg;gjd;
%yk; mfw;wp Nkyjpfkhf NH4Cl / NH4OH Ir; NrHg;gjd; %yk; milaKbAk;. (NH4)2CO3
fiuriyr; NrHj;jy; $l;lk; V fw;wad;fs; tPo;gbthtjw;Fr; rhj;jpakhFk;. $l;lk; V
fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpw;fhd rkd;ghLfs; (NH4Cl / NH3(aq) / (NH3)2CO3)
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Sr2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → SrCO3(s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → BaCO3(s)
178
$l;lk; VI fw;wad;fspd; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpw;fhd ,urhadk;

Mg2+ mad;fs; khj;jpuk; fiurypy; ,Ue;jhy; vspa Nrhjidfs; %yk; ,dk; fhz;gJ
vspJ. vdpDk; fw;wad;fspd; fyitapy; ,dk;fhz;gJ fbdk;. vdNt Mg2+ I
tPo;gbT %yk; ,dk;fhz;gjw;F 8- Ijnuhl;rpfpa+dyPDld; xU Fwpg;gpl;l Nrhjid
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. ,J kQ;ry; - gr;ir tPo;gbit my;yJ rpf;fiy cUthf;Fk;.
Na+, K+, NH4+ fw;wad;fs; NkNy cs;s ve;jr; Nrhjidg; nghUl;fSlDk; tPo;gbahJ
kw;Wk; tof;fkhfr; Rthiyr; Nrhjidapy;> mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;ghd epw;q;fisr;
Rthiyapy; mtjhdpg;gjd; %yk; ,dk; fhzyhk;.
gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l tPo;gbthf;fj;jpy; pH ,d; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
tpsf;Ffpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; : 2.41
xU fiuryhdJ 0.1 mol dm-3 Zn2+ kw;Wk; 0.1 mol dm-3 Fe2+ mad;fisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ. H2S thAit fiurypDlhfr; nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; mit
Ntwhf;fg;gl ntz;Lkhdhy;> fiurypd; pH vd;dthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;?
Ksp ZnS = 1.6 × 10-24 mol2 dm-6 kw;Wk; Ksp FeS= 6.3 × 10-18 mol2dm-6 vd;gd
jug;gl;Ls;sd. fiurypy; H2S(aq) , 0.10 mol dm-3 nrwpitf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
H2S(g) If; fiurypD}lhfr; nryj;jpdhy; gpd;tUk; rkepiyfs; cs;sd.
tpil
H2S(g) ⇋ H2S(aq)
[H3 O+ (aq) ][HS- (aq)]

H2S(aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ H3O (aq) + HS (aq); Ka1 =
+ ̶
[H2 S(aq) ]
= 9.1 ×10-8mol dm-3

[H3 O+ (aq) ] [S2- (aq)]
HS ̶ (aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ H3O +(aq) + S2 ̶ (aq); Ka2 =
[HS- (aq)]
= 1.0 ×10-19 mol dm-3
,t;tpU rkd;ghLfspy; ,Ue;J
jug;gl;Ls;stw;iwg; gpujpaPl;lhy;
Ka1 × Ka2 × [H2 S(aq) ]= [H3 O+ (aq) ]2 [S2- (aq) ]
jug;gl;Ls;stw;iwg; gpujpapl;lhy;
[H3 O+ (aq) ]2 [S2- (aq) ] = (9.1 ×10-8) ) (1.0 ×10-19) (0.1 ) mol3 dm-9
= 9.1 × 10-28 mol3 dm-9
jug;gl;l juTfspypUe;J
Ksp(ZnS) = [Zn2+(aq)] [S2-(aq)] = 1.6 × 10-24 mol2 dm-6 kw;Wk;
Ksp(FeS) = [Fe2+(aq)] [S2-(aq)] = 6.3 × 10-18 mol2 dm-6
[Zn2+(aq)]= 0.1 mol dm-3 vdpy; (ZnS) tPo;gbtjw;Fj; Njitahd kpff; Fiwe;j
[S2-(aq)] I gpd;tUkhW fzpf;fyhk;.
1.6 ×10-24
[S2- (aq) ] = = 1.6 ×10-23 mol dm-3
0.1
179
,k; kpff; Fiwe;j S2- mad;nrwpTld; njhlHGila H3O+ ,d; caH nrwpitg;
gpd;tUk; rkd;ghL %yk; fzpf;fyhk;.
[H3 O+ (aq) ]2 [S2- (aq) ] = 9.1 × 10-28 mol3 dm-9
9.1 ×10-28
[H3 O+ (aq) ]2 = = 5.7 ×10-5 mol2 dm-6
1.6 ×10-23
∴ [H3 O+ (aq) ] = 7.6 ×10-3 mol dm-3

pH = -log [H3 O+ (aq) ] = 2.1
MfNt ZnS ,d; tPo;gbthf;fj;jpw;Fj; Njitahd kpff; Fiwe;j pH = 2.1
,t;thNw [Fe2+(aq)] = 0.1 mol dm-3

FeS tPo;gbtjw;Fj; Njitahd kpff; Fiwe;j [S2-(aq)]
6.3 ×10-18
[S2- (aq) ] = = 6.3×10-17 mol dm-3
0.1
9.1 ×10-28
kw;Wk; Njitahd cau; [H3 O+ (aq)], [H3O+ (aq)]2 = =
-28
[S2-(aq)]
9.1 ×10
[H3 O+ (aq)]2 = -11 2 -6
6.3 ×10-17 = 1.4 × 10 mol dm
∴[H3 O+ (aq) ] = 3.7 ×10-6 mol dm-3
pH = -log [H3 O+ (aq) ] =5.4
MfNt FeS tPo;gbtjw;F kpff; Fiwe;j pH = 5.4 ,jpypUe;J H3O+ madpd;

nrwpT 10-5.4 mol dm-3 ,Yk; $lntdpy; (3.7 ×10-6 mol dm-3) Fe2+ tPo;gbahJ
mNjNeuj;jpy; Zn2+ tPo;gbthFk;. ,U mad;fisAk; Ntwhf;Ftjw;Ff; fiurypd;
pH MdJ 2.1 kw;Wk; 5.4 ,w;F ,ilapy; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
2.5 mtj;ijr; rkepiy

ntt;NtW mtj;ijfSf;F ,ilapyhd rkepiy
ehk; Vw;fdNt nfhz;Ls;s fUj;jpd;gb jpz;kk; jputk; kw;Wk; thAntd %d;W
mtj;ijfspy; rlkhdJ fhzg;gLfpwJ vd;gJld; rlkhdJ xU mtj;ijapypUe;J
kw;nwhd;Wf;F mtj;ij khw;wpfl;F cl;gLk;NghJ njhFjpapy; ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa
,ay;Gfs; khwhjpUf;Fk;. mNj Neuk; Ez;ghHitf;Fupa ,ay;Gfs; khw;wq;fSf;F
cl;gLfpwJ. toikahf> njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiy my;yJ mKf;fk; khw;wg;gLk;NghJ
mtj;ij khw;wq;fs; epfo;fpd;wd. mj;Jld; mtj;ij khw;wq;fs; vdg;gLk; ngsjpf
khw;wq;fs; ,it %yf;$w;W khw;wq;fshy; Vw;gLk; elj;ijfshFk;. %yf;$Wfs;
jpz;k mtj;ijapy; Mff;$ba xOq;Fj;jd;ikAilad> Mdhy; thA mtj;ijapy;
vOkhw;wKilad. ,g;gFjpapy; ehk; jput - Mtp rkepiy njhFjpfisf; ifahs;fpNwhk;.
jput - Mtp rkepiyfs;
jputj;jpd; %yf;$Wfs; jpz;kj;jpd; %yf;$Wfisg; Nghy ,Wf;fkhf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.
mj;Jld; thA%yf; $Wfistplf; Fiwe;j RahjPdKilad ,Ue;jNghJk; mit khwhj
,af;fKilad. jputq;fs; thAf;fis tplf; $ba %yf;$w;W ,ilf; ftHr;rpailad.
Mjyhy; thA mtj;ijapy; miktjid tpl %yf;$Wfs; kj;jpapyhd Nkhjy; tPjk;
caHthFk;. cU 12.5.1 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lthW jputj;jpYs;s Jzpf;iffspd; ruhrupr; rf;jp
ntg;gepiypd; Ml;rpf;Fl;gLk;. jputj;jpYs;s Jzpf;iffspd; ruhrupr; rf;jp ntg;gepiyapy;
Ml;rpf;Fl;gLk;. jputj;jpYs;s %yf;$Wfs; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J jg;Gtjw;Fg; NghJkhd
rf;jpia nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ mtj;ij khw;wk; epfo;fpd;wJ. Mtpg;gwg;G my;yJ
Mtpahjy; vd;gJ jputkhdJ thAepiyf;F khw;wg;gLk; nray;KiwahFk;.
180
%yf;$w;W gpd;dk;
%yf;$Wfs; cs;s
,af;fr; rf;jp
cU 2.29 300K , 400K Mfpa ,U ntg;g epiyfspy; jput %yf;$Wfspd; ,af;frf;jpg;

guk;gyhFk;. ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;gpy; caH rf;jpf;Fupa caHGs;sp ,lkhw;wg;gLtJld;
tiuG mfykhf;fg;gLfpwJ. Eevap ,y; ghHf;ff; $ba ,af;fr; rf;jpAila %yf;$Wfs;
kl;Lk; jput mtj;ijapypUe;J jg;gp Mtpatj;ijf;Fs; Eioa KbAk;> mj;Jld;
KE > Eevap cila %yf;$Wfspd; tpfpjkhdJ caHntg;gepiyapy; caHthFk;.
cjhuzkhfj; jpwe;j nfhs;fynkhd;wpYs;s xU jputj;ij (ePH my;yJ mw;fNfhy;)

ehk; fUj;jpy;nfhs;Sk;NghJ> jug;gl;l ve;epiyapYk; jput mtj;ijapYs;s xU
rpwpa gpd;dkhd %yf;$Wfs; tpiuthf ,aq;fKbAk;. ,tw;wpnyhd;W Nkw;gug;Gf;F
mUfhfTk; Nky;Nehf;fpAk; gazpf;Fk; NghJ mjw;F mUfpYs;s %yf;$WfspDldhd
,ilf;ftHr;rpfspypUe;J KOikahfj; jg;gp thA mtj;ijf;Fs; Eioa KbAk;.
caHrf;jpAila %yf;$Wfs; ,t;thW ntspr;nry;Yk;NghJ jputj;jpYs;s %yf;$Wfspd;
ruhrupr; rf;jpapy; FiwT Vw;gLfpwJ. mj;Jld; #oypUe;J rf;jpahdJ ntg;grf;jpahf
cwpQ;rg;gLtjhy; jputj;jpy; ntg;gepiy FiwT Vw;gLfpwJ> ,jd; tpisthf ckJ
NjhypypUe;J ePH my;yJ mw;fNfhy; MtpahFk;NghJ ck;khy; czuKbAk;. ntg;g
cwpQ;rg;glyhdJ jput %yf;$Wfs; ruhrup fjpiag; Ngz cjTtjhy;> jputk;
KOikahf Mtpahtjw;Fg; Nghjpa Neuk; toq;fg;gLfpwJ. KOikahf ,r;nraw;ghl;bw;F>
cwpQ;rg;gLk; ,t;ntg;gkhdJ Mtpahjypd; ntg;g cs;FiwahFk;. MtpahjyhdJ jput
Nkw;gug;gpy; kl;Lk; epfo;fpd;wJ. #upa xspapy; ePH Mtpahtij ehk; mtjhdpf;Fk;NghJ
Fkpo;fis ehk; mtjhdpf;f KbahJ. ePH %yf;$Wfs; Nkw;gug;gpid vspikahf cilj;J
jg;gpr; nry;Yk; nrad;KiwahdJ nfhjpj;jypypUe;J Fkpo;fs; ntspg;gLtjid ehk;
mtjhdpg;gjpypUe;J NtWgl;ljhFk;. ,J cU 12.5.2 ,y; ntspf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
$ba rf;jpAila
%yf;$Wfs; jg;Gjy;
jputj;jpy; Nkw;gug;G
cU 2.30 jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; jpwe;jnfhs;fyd; xd;wpypUe;J xU jputj;jpy; Mtpahjy;

nraw;ghL. caH rf;jpAila %yf;$Wfspy; ngUk;ghyhdit Mtpatj;ijFs;
jg;gpr; nrd;wgpd; kPz;Lk; jput Nkw;gug;gpy; NkhJtjpy;iy vd;gJld; jput
mtj;ijf;F kPs;tJk; ,y;iy. cldbahf mit thA mtj;ijf;Fs; mit gutp
nfhs;fyj;jpypUe;J tpyfptpLfpd;wd.
181
2.5.1 xU %ba nfhs;fyj;jpYs;s jputj;jpd; Mtpahjy;

%ba nfhs;fyd; xd;wpYs;s xU jputj;ij Kjypy; Nehf;FNthkhdhy;> mjd;
Mtpahjiyg; ghHf;f Kbtjpy;iy mj;Jld; Neuj;Jld; kiwe;JtpLtJkpy;iy. Mdhy;
xU khwhj Mtpahjy; Nkw;gug;gpy; epfo;fpd;wJ. jput Nkw;gug;gpy; ,Ue;J Jzpf;iffs;
njhlHr;rpahf ntspNaWk;. Mdhy; ,Nj rkak; jput Nkw;gug;ghy; mit ifg;gw;wTk;gLk;.
jputj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G jputj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G
Muk;gj;jpy; rpwpJ Neuj;jpd; gpd;
cU 2.31 Mtpahf;fj;jpy; %yf;$Wfspd; ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa tpsf;fkhFk;. jug;gl;l xU

ntg;gepiyapy; xU jputk; %ba nfhs;fyj;jpy; itf;fg;gLk;NghJ rpy %yf;$Wfs;
Mtpahfj; njhlq;Ffpd;wd. mj;Jld; mtw;wpy; vJTk; jputj;jpw;Fs; kPs;Eiotjpy;iy.
rpwpJ Neuj;jpy; Mtp mtj;ijapYs;s %yf;$Wfspd; mlHj;jp $LtJld; rpy
%yf;$Wfs; xLq;fTk; Muk;gpf;fpd;wd.
ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa kl;lj;jpy;> jputNkw;gug;gpypUe;J %yf;$Wfs; NkNyAs;s Mtpf;Fs;

jg;gpr; nry;fpd;wNghJk; MtpAk; nfhs;fyj;jpDs;Ns njhlHe;Jk; mikfpd;wJ> kw;iwa
thAf;fisg; Nghd;Nw Mtp %yf;$WfSk; ele;Jf;nfhs;tjhy;> mit #oTs;s
jkf;Fs;Sk; nfhs;fyj;jpd; RtHfSlDk; Nkhjp mijg;gjdhy; jput Nkw;gug;gpd;kPJ XH
mKf;fj;ij cQw;Wfpd;wd. ,t;tifapy; ,r; RtHfspy; jputNkw;gug;Gk; xd;whFk;. xU
Kiw xU %yf;$whdJ jput Nkw;gug;gpy; NkhJk;NghJ mj;jputj;jpw;Fs; mk;%yf;$W
kPs;EioAk; xU Nghf;F mikfpd;wJ.
jputj;jpid Kjypy; nfhs;fyj;jpw;Fs; NrHf;Fk;NghJ Mtp%yf;$Wfs; rpyNt mq;F
fhzg;gLtjhy; kPs;ifg;gw;wy; / xLf;fy;tPjk; kpfTk; FiwthFk;. Mdhy; NkYk;
%yf;$Wfs; MtpahFk;NghJ kPs;ifg;gw;Wtjw;fhd re;jHg;gq;fSk; NeHtpfpjrkkhf
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,Wjpapy; Mtpahf;fk; milAk;NghJ kPs;ifg;gw;wy; tPjkhdJ jg;gy;
tPjj;ijr; rkepiyg;gLj;Jk;. mjd; gpd; Njwpa tpisthfj; jputj;jpd; MtpahjNyh
my;yJ thAtpd; xLf;fNkh ,y;iy mjhtJ Mtp mNj msthf mikAk; Vnddpy;
jputj;Jf;Fs; kPs;EioAk; mNj tpiutpy; mjpypUe;J jg;GjYk; mikAk;.
,e;epiyia Mtp - jputj; njhFjp milAk;NghJ jputk; kw;Wk; Mtp ,uz;bw;Fk;
cupa ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa ,ay;Gfshd njhif> fdtsT> mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy>
mlHj;jp Nghd;wd ahTk; Neuj;Jld; khwhJ mikAk;. MfNt njhFjpahdJ xU
rkepiy milAk;. Mtpahjy; kw;Wk; xLq;fy; Mfpa ,U vjpnujpH Ez;ghHitf;Fupa
,ay;GfSk; rktPjj;jpy; epfo;tjhy; njhFjpapd; ngUk;ghHitf;Fupa kl;lj;jpy; vJtpj
khw;wKk; ,y;iy. njhFjpapd; ,e;Ez;ghHitf;Fupa epfo;Tf;Fk; njhlHe;Jk; ,af;fj;jpy;
miktjhy; njhFjpahdJ ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; mikAk;. ,j;Jzpf;iffs; nfhs;fyj;jpy;
RtHfis NkhJtjhy; mit xU mKf;fj;ij cQw;Wk;. jputj;Jld; ,af;fr; rkepiyapy;
mikAk;NghJ MtpahdJ cQw;Wk; mKf;fk; mj;jputj;jpd; rkepiy MtpaKf;fk; vd
tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. (jputj;jpd; epuk;gyhtpaKf;fk; vdTk; rpyrkak; miof;fg;gLk.) cU
2.5.1 ,y; ,r; nraw;ghL fhl;lg;gLtJld; ,q;F Mtpahjy; tPjk; Neuj;Jld; khwhJ
mikAk; mj;Jld; xLq;fy;tPjk; Neuj;Jld; mjpfupj;Jr; rkepiyia milAk; vd;gjid
ehk; Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;.
182
Mtp
tPjk;
Mtpg;gwg;G jputk;
,af;f
rkepiy
XLq;fy;
Neuk;
cU 2.32 jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapy;> %ba nfhs;fyndhd;wpYs;s xU jputj;jpd; Mtpahjy;

kw;Wk; xLq;fy; tPjj;jpd; Neuj;Jldhd khWif jug;gl;Ls;sJ. Mtpahjy; tPjk;
khwhjpUf;Fk; mNj rkaj;jpy; Mtpatj;ijapYs;s %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if
mjpfupg;gjdhy; ,UtPjq;fSk; rkkhFk; tiu xLf;fy;tPjKk; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
,g;Gs;spapy; njhFjpahdJ xU ,af;fr;l rkepiyia miltjhy; khwh ntg;gepiyapy;
jputkhdJ rkepiy MtpaKf;fj;ijf; nfhz;likAk;.
xU jputj;jpy; MtpaKf;fj;jpd; gUkd; gpujhdkhf ,Ufhuzpfspy; jq;fpAs;sJ. mit

%yf;$Wfis xd;whf ,izj;Jitj;Js;s tpirfspd; typik kw;Wk; ntg;gepiyAk;
MFk;. mjid ,yFthff; fhzyhk;> ,q;F %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; eype;jd vdpy;
MtpaKf;fk; caHT. ,NjNghd;W kWjiyAk; mikAk;. xg;gPl;L mstpy; jputj;jpypUe;J
%yf;$Wfs; ,yFthf jg;Gtjid eype;j %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; mDkjpf;Fk;. MfNt
%yf;$Wfs; ,yFthfj; jg;Gtjid eype;j %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; mDkjpf;Fk;.
MfNt %yf;$Wfs; jg;GtPjk; caHthFk;. kPs;EioAk; tPjkhdJ jg;gy;tPjj;ijr;
rkepiygLj;j Kd;G thA mtj;ijapy; %yf;$Wfspd; nrwpT caHthf;ff;fg;gLk;.
mjd; tpisthf MtpaKf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk;.
2.5.2 rkepiy MtpaKf;fj;jpid msj;jy;

fPNo tpgupf;fg;gl;lthW vspa ,urg; - ghukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jpr; rkepiy MtpaKf;fj;ij
msf;fKbAk;. tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy; Hg epuypd; cauk; 760 mm MFk;. [100 kPa
= 760 mmHg (~,urj;jpd; kpy;yp kPw;wH~)]. ,J cU 2.33 (a) ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Foha;f;Fs; rpy Jspfs; jputk; NrHf;fg;gl;lNghJ> NkHf;$upkPJ kpjf;Fk; nky;ypa
glyj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJr; rpwpJ jputk; MtpahtJld; rkepiy milag; ngWfpd;wJ.
,e;epiyapy; NkHf;$upkPJ rpwpa vQ;rpapUf;Fk;. jputj;jpd; MtpaKf;fk; jputkl;lj;jpy;
xU ,wf;fj;ijg; gpuNahfpf;Fk; NkHf;$up kl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; ,wf;fk; jputj;jpd;
epuk;ghtpaKf;fj;jpd; ngWkhdj;ij> mt;ntg;gepiyapy; jUfpd;wJ.
xU jputj;jpd;
MtpaKf;fk;
jputk;
cU 12.5.5 epuk;gyhtpaKf;fj;ij msj;jy; (a) tspapy; NkHf;$up (,urk;) ghukhdp mikAk;NghJ>

thrpg;G 760 mmHg. (b) Hg ,w;Fs; xU jputk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lNghJ> ghukhdpapDs;
cs;s NkHf;$up kPJ nry;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; Hg ,d; kl;lj;jpy; tPo;r;rp Vw;gLfpwJ.
,t;NtWghL jputj;jpd; epuk;gyhtpaKf;fkhFk;.
183
2.5.3 ntg;gepiyAld; epuk;gyhtpaKf;f khWif

ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ gpurd;dkhfTs;s %yf;$Wfspd; ruhrupr; rf;jp
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,jd; fUj;J> mtw;wpy; ngUksT jputNkw;gug;gpypUe;J jg;Gtjw;Fg;
NghJkhd rf;jpia nfhz;Ls;sd vd;gjhFk;. ,g;Nghf;fhdJ epuk;gyhtpaKf;fj;jpy;
mjpfupg;igj; jUfpwJ.
MtpaKf;fk; / kPa
ntg;gepiy / ºC
cU 12.5.6 ntg;gepiyAld; ePupd; epuk;gyhtpaKf;f khWif
cjhuzkhf 25°C apy; ePHkhjpupapd; vt;nthU msthapDk; %banjhFjpapy; xU

epuk;gyhtpaKf;fk; 23.8 mmHg (3.168 kPa) cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ,jpypUe;J jug;gLtJ
ahnjdpy; ePH KOikahf Mtpahtjpy;iy.
jpwe;j nfhs;fyj;jpy; xU jputk; ,Uf;Fkhdhy; Mtpatj;ijf;Fs; jg;gpr; nrd;w
%yf;$Wfspy; ngUksT jputNkw;gug;ig NkhJtjpy;iy vd;gJld; jput mtj;ijf;Fk;
jpUk;Gtjpy;iy. gjpyhf> nfhs;fyj;jpypUe;J tpyfp thA mtj;ijf;Fs; mit
gutpr;nry;fpd;wd. mj;Jld; rkepiy xUNghJk; cUthf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. ,t;
epge;jidfspd; fPo; Kw;whf kiwAk;tiu jput %yf;$Wfs; njhlHe;Jk; Mtpahfpd;wd.
,J epfOk;NghJ fjpahdJ jputj;jpd; MtpaKf;fj;jpYk; ntg;gepiyapYk; jq;fpAs;sJ.
Mtpg;gwg;Gila jputq;fs; rhHgstpy; caH MtpaKf;fKk; tpiuthf Mtpg;gwg;gilAk;
Nghf;FKilad. Mtpg;gwg;gw;w jputq;fs; Fiwe;j MtpaKf;fKk; Mtpg;gwg;Gk;
nkJthdJkhFk;. nghJthd topfhl;Ljy;fshf> ehk; fUjf;$baJ ePiutpl
MtpaKf;fk; $ba gjhHj;jq;fs; (3.168 kPa) rhHgstpy; Mtpgwg;Gilad> mNj rkak;
ePupYk; MtpaKf;fk; Fiwe;jd> rhHgstpy; Mtpg;gwg;gw;wd. NkYk; <nujapy; <jH
mrw;NwhYld; mj;Jld; ngw;Nwhy; (gasoline) Mfpad Mtpgwg;Gilad Mdhy; NkHf;$up>
vjyPd;fpisf;Nfhy; Nghd;wd Mtpgwg;gw;wd. xU Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiyapy; xU ghHj;jj;jpd;
rkepiy MtpaKf;fkhdJ xU gjhHj;jj;jpy; %yf;$w;W jpzpT> cUFepiy kw;Wk;
nfhjpepiy Nghd;wtw;wpy; njhlHGila ,ay;ghFk;. ,J jputj;jpd; msT> mJ vt;tsT
kpfr;rpwpjsthapDk; mjd; MtpAld; rkepiyapYs;sJ vd;gjpy; jq;fpapUg;gjpy;iy.
vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; rkepiyahtpaKf;fk; kpf cWjpahf ntg;gepiyapYk; mj;Jld;
gpurd;dj;jpYs;s %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfspYk; jq;fpAs;sJ vd;gjid 2.5.7 cUtpYs;s
gygjhHjq;fSf;Ff; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. Ijurd; gpizg;GfSila vjyPd;fpisf;Nfhy;
Nghd;wd Ijurd; gpizg;G Mf;fKbahj xf;Nud; Nghd;wtw;wpYk; kpff; Fiwe;jsT
rkepiy MtpaKf;fKilad. ntg;gepiy mjpfupg;Gld; MtpaKf;fj;jpy; mjpfupg;G
NeHNfhlw;wjhapDk; Fwpg;gpl;l ntg;gepiy tPr;rpy; ,yl;rpa thAnthd;wpw;F
vjpHghHf;fg;gLtjid tpl> mKf;fj;jpy; $ba nrq;Fj;jhd mjpfupg;G mikAk;. ,J
gpujhdkhf> jput mtj;ijapypUe;J Mtpahtjw;Fj; Njitahd ,af;frf;jpapYk;
$ba rf;jpAila gpd;dKila %yf;$Wfspd; MtpaKf;fj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJ. mj;Jld;
,k;%yf;$w;W gpd;dkhdJ ntg;gepiyAld; mjpNtfkhf mjpfupf;fpd;wJ.
184
rhjhuz nfhjpepiy
MtpaKf;fk; / kPa
ntg;gepiy / ºC
cU 2.5.7 ntg;gepiy rhHghfg; gy;NtW jputq;fspd; MtpaKf;fq;fs;. ,q;F Fwpg;gplj;jf;fJ

ahnjdpy; P = 100 kPa f;Fupa NfhL (Gs;spf;NfhlhdJ) MtpaKf;ftiugpid
FWf;fpLk; Gs;sp xU jputj;jpd; rhjhuz nfhjpepiyahFk;.
2.5.4 nfhjpepiy
xU jpwe;j nfhs;fyj;jpy;> jputnkhd;wpd; ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ mjd;
MtpaKf;fKk; ntspaKf;fj;jpw;F my;yJ tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpy; rkkhFk; tiu
mjpfupf;Fk;. jputk; KOtJk; Mtpapd; Fopo;fs; cUthtJld; jputk; nfhjpf;fTk;
Muk;gpf;Fk;. jpl;lkhf 100 kPa (1atm) mKf;fj;jpy; mj;jputk; nfhjpf;fpd;w ntg;gepiyahdJ
mjd; rhjhuz nfhjpepiy vdg;gLk;. fly;kl;lj;jpy; ePUf;F mjd; rhjhuz nfhjpepiy
100 °C ahFk;. cU 2.5.7 ,y; (1atm) njhlHghd Nfhl;bid MtpaKf;f tiuGfs;
FWf;fpLfpd;w Gs;spfs; kw;iwa jputq;fspd; rhjhuz nfhjpepiyfs; MFk;.
,Ue;jNghJk;> toikahf ehk;> xU jputj;jpy; nfhjpepiy vd;gJ> jpUj;jkhf
mKf;fj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJ vd vLj;Jiuf;fpd;Nwhk;. 100 kPa ,J (1 atm), ghHf;f mKf;fk;
mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> ePuhdJ 100 °C apYk; $ba ntg;gepiyapy; nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. Vnddpy;
Nkw;gug;G kPJ Mtp%yf;$Wfs; xLq;Ftjw;fhd mKf;ftpirfs; mjpfupf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
MfNt> Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J %yf;$Wfs; jg;Gtjw;F caHe;j ,af;fr; rf;jpia nfhz;bUj;jy;
fl;lhakhdjhFk;. vjpHkhwhf 100 kPa ,J (1 atm) ,y; Fiwe;j mKf;fj;jpy; ePuhdJ
100 °C ,Yk; Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. fly;kl;lj;jpy; mKf;fk; njhlHghd
ntspg;gilahd khw;wq;fs; rpwpajhifahy; ePupd; nfhjpepiyapYk; rpwpa khw;wq;fshfNt
mikfpd;wd. kw;nwhU Gwj;jpy; kpf caukhd ,lq;fspy;> ePupd; nfhjpepiyahdJ
mKf;fj;jpy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;fsT jq;fpAs;sJ. cjhuzkhf vtnu];l; kiyr;rupTfspy;
ePupd; nfhjpepiy 70 °C tiu mikAk;. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; mKf;f (gpu\H) mLg;Gfspy;;
(pressure cookers) ,Wf;fkhf %bapUg;gjhy; cs;sKf;fkhdJ 100 kPa ,Yk; (Rkhu;
200 kPa /2 atm tiu) mjpfupg;gjdhy; ePupd; nfhjpepiy RkhH 120°C tiu tpiuthf
caHj;jg;gLtjhy;> ,t;ntg;gepiyapy; tpiuthf czTfisr; rikf;fKbAk;.
mKf;fk; mjpfupf;ifapy;> xU jputj;jpd; nfhjpepiy mjpfupf;fpd;wJ vd;gJld;
,jd; kWjiyAk; cz;ik. %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; Fiwtjdhy; Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s
gjhHj;jq;fspd; nfhjpepiyfs; FiwthFk;. typikahd %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs;
miktjd; njhlHghf Mtpg;gwg;gw;w gjhHj;jq;fs; caH nfhjpepiy cilad.
185
mKf;f mLg;G
MtpaKf;fk; / kPa
vtnu];l; kiy
cr;rpapy;
ntg;gepiy / ºC
cU 2.5.8 mKf;fj;Jld; ePupd; nfhjpepiy khw;wk; 100 kPa mKf;fj;jpy; rhjhuzkhf 100 °C ePH
nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. kiyAr;rpfspy; ePupd; nfhjpj;jy; 79°C w;F mzpj;jhf epfo;fpd;wJ.
mj;Jld; mKf;f mLg;Gfspy; 121 °C f;F mzpj;jjhff; nfhjpepiy mikfpd;wJ.
cjhuzk; : 2.42
vjNdhy;> vjyPd;fpisf;Nfhy;> <Hnjapy; <jH kw;Wk; ePupd; nfhjpepiyfis 100
kPa mKf;fj;jpYk; miwntg;gepiyapYk; xg;gpLf.
tpil
Kjypy; ,r;NrHitfspy; fl;likg;Gfis ehk; mwpe;jpUg;Nghk;.
kw;Wk;
vjNdhy; vjyPd; fpisNfh]; <u;vjapy; <ju; ePu;
<nujapy; <jh; ,J gUkdpy; ngupaJ MapDk; rpwpjsT ,UKidTilaJ.

mj;Jld; ,jd; %yf;$Wfs; jputj;jpypUe;J tpiuthf jg;gpr; nry;fpd;wd.
NkYk; ,J caHe;j MtpaKf;fKilaJ.
vjNdhy; Fiwe;j gUkd; fhuzkhf> vjNdhyhdJ <Hnujapy; <jupYk; ghHf;f
eype;j fiyTtpirfisAilaJ. ,J Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fis Mf;ff; $ba
jfTilaJ> MfNt nkhj;jj;jpy; typikahd %yf;$w;W ,iltpirAilaJ
vd;gJ jug;gl;l vt;ntg;gepiyapYk; rpwpjsT %yf;$WfNs MtpahFk; vd;gJ
,jd; fUj;jhFk;. MfNt <Hnujapy; <jupYk; ghHf;f vjNdhyhdJ Fiwe;j
MtpaKf;fk; cilaJ.
ePH> Kw;$wpa ,uz;L gjhHj;jq;fisAk; tplr; rpwpaJ vd;gJld; eype;j
fiyTtpirfisAk; ntspf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. Mdhy; tpupe;Jgl;l Ijurd;
gpizg;Gfs; mjw;F typikahd %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfis toq;Ffpd;wJ.
jputj;jpypUe;J Fiwe;jsT %yf;$WfNs jg;gpr;nry;fpd;wd> mj;Jld; <Hnujapy;
<jH my;yJ vjNdhy; ,uz;ilAk; tplTk; Fiwe;j MtpaKf;fKilaJ.
vjyPd;fpisf;Nfhy; ePiug;Nghd;W ,uz;L OH $l;lKilaJ> ,jdhy;
,J tpupe;Jgl;l Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fis ntspf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. ,J ePupYk;
kpfg;ngupaJ> vd;gjhy; $basT yz;ld;tpirfisf; nfhz;likfpwJ. ,jd;
fhuzkhf Mtpg;gwg;GtPjk; kpfTk; Fiwe;jJ mj;Jld; ,jd; tpisthf ,jd;
MtpaKf;fKk; kpff; Fiwe;jjhFk;.
MfNt MtpaKf;f khWifapd; ,wq;Ftupir
<Hnujapy; <jH > vjNdhy;> ePH > vjyPd;fpisf;Nfhy;
186
cjhuzk; : 2.43
20 °C apy; nkjNdhy;> vjNdhy;> Gwg;gNdhy; kw;Wk; gpa+l;lNdhy; MtpaKf;fq;fs;
KiwNa 12.0 kPa, 6.0 kPa, 2.7 kPa , 0.60 kPa MFk;. ,t;NtWghl;il tpsf;Ff.
tpil
,itahTk; mw;wNfhy;fs; mj;Jld; Ijurd; gpizg;Gfis fhl;LtdthFk;.
nkjNdhy; Kjy; gpAl;lNdhy;tiu %yf;$w;WgUkd;fs; mjpfupg;gjdhy;
fiyTtpirTfSk; mjpfupf;fpd;wd. ,jd; fhuzkhf MtpaKf;fj;jpy;
,wf;fj;ij mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
Pmethanol > Pethanol > Ppropanol > Pbutanol
2.5.5 Mtpahjypd; ntg;gTs;Siw

Mtpahjy; XH mfntg;gepfo;thFk;. ,jid tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sf;$ba xU vspa Ranraw;ghL
ePuhdJ NjhypypUe;J MtpahFk;NghJ mJ NjhypypUe;J ntg;gj;ij mfw;Wtjhy;
FspHtjid czuyhk;. Mtpahjy; nraw;ghl;Lld; ,ize;j ntg;gkhWifahdJ
Mtpahjypy; ntg;gTs;Siw MFk;. ΔHvap
cjhuzkhf> epak ntg;gepiyapy; ePupd; Mtpahjiy ntspg;gLj;JtJ>
H2O(l) → H2O(g)ΔHvap = 44.01 kJ mol-1
ntg;g ,urhadg; gFjpapy; tpgupf;fg;gl;lthW> xU mfntg;gr;nraw;ghl;bd; vjpHkiwg;
Gwntg;gkhFk;.MfNt mj;Jld;> thA xLq;Fk;NghJ ntg;gj;ij ,of;fpd;wJ.
H2O(g) → H2O(l) ΔHcon = - 44.01 kJ mol-1
cjhuzkhf> gupNrhjid uPjpahf ,jid Nehf;Ftjw;F cUfpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ
ntg;gkhf;fiy epWj;jp KOikahf ntg;gfhtyplg;gl;l nfhs;fyj;jpy; itf;Fk;NghJ
jpz;kk; kw;Wk; jput mtj;ij xU rkepiyapy; mikAk;. gdpf;fl;b kw;Wk; ePH
nfhz;l fyit xU ntg;gf;FLitapy; itf;fg;gLk;NghJ jpz;k gdpf;fl;bAk; jput
ePUk; njhlHe;Jk; rpykzpNeuj;jpw;F ,Ue;jij ehk; mtjhdpf;f KbAk;. ,e;epiyapy;
jpz;kKk; jputKk; xU rkepiyia miltJld; gdpf;fl;bapy; cUfy;> ePupd; ciwjy;
Nghd;w gu];gu nraw;ghLfs; rktPjj;jpy; epfo;tJld; jpz;kj;jpdJk; jputj;jpdJk;
msTfs; njhlHe;jk; khwhJ mikAk;. jug;gl;l gjhHj;jj;jpd; jpz;k kw;Wk; jput
mtj;ijfs; rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; ntg;gepiyahdJ jpz;kj;jpd; cUFepiy my;yJ
jputj;jpd; ciwepiy vd miog;gH. ,r; rkepiyia ,t;thW ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
cUfy;
jpz;kk; ⇋ jputk;
ciwjy;
xU %y; gjhHj;jj;ijj; jpz;k mtj;ijapypUe;J jput mtj;ijf;F khw;Wtjw;Fj;
Njitahd ntg;gj;jpd; msthdJ mg;gjhHj;jj;jpd; cUfypd; ntg;gTs;Siw ΔHfus
vdg;gLk;.0 °C apy; gdpf;fl;bapd; cUfypd; ntg;gTs;Siw (cUFjy;) 6.0 kJmol-1
MFk;. ,J mfntg;g nraw;ghlhFk;.
H2O(s)→ H2O(l) ΔHfus= 6.0 kJ mol-1
,jw;nfjpuhd nraw;ghL> ciwjy;> xU Gwntg;gr; nraw;ghL> 0°C apy; ,jd;
ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wkhdJ −6.0 kJ mol-1 MFk;.
H2O(l)→ H2O(s) ΔHfus= - 6.0 kJ mol-1
187
xU gspq;Fj; jpz;kj;jpy; cUfypd; ntg;gTs;Siw kw;Wk; cUFepiy vd;gd

mg;gspq;fpYs;s kPs; myFfl;F ,ilapy; mikfpw ftHr;rp tpirfspd; typikapy;
jq;fpAs;sJ. typik Fiwe;j ftHr;rp tpirfs; cila %yf; $Wfs; cUthf;Fk;
gspq;Ffs; Fiwe;j cUFepiyAk; mNj rkak; typikahd ,iltpir cila
Jzpf;iffisf; nfhz;l gspq;Ffs; caHntg;g epiyapYk; cUFk;.
2.5.6 gjq;fkhjYk; gbjYk;

rpy jpz;kq;fs; jputepiyiaf; fle;J Neubahf thA epiyf;Fs; jhz;Lk; nra;Kiw
gjq;fkhjyhFk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F> miwntg;gepiyapYk; epak mKf;fj;jpYk; xU
cyHgdpf;fl;b (jpz;k CO2) Jz;lhdJ jPaiz fUtpfspy; gad;gLk;NghJ vj;jputj;ijAk;
cUthf;fhJ gjq;fkhfpwJ. ePupd; cUFepiyapYk; Fiwthd ntg;gepiyfspy;
ciwgdpAk; gdpf;fl;bAk; gjq;fkhfpd;wd. jpz;k mabd; ntg;gkhf;fg;gLk;NghJ
gjq;fkhFk; ,jd;NghJ gpufhrkhd Cjh Mtpahf mikAk;. thAepiyg; gjhu;j;jnkhd;W
Neubahfj; jpz;k epiyf;F khWk; nraw;ghL gbthjy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J
gjq;fkhjypd; kPs;nraw;ghlhFk;. ciwgdp cUthjy; gbthjYf;F xU cjhuzkhFk;.
Mtpahjiyg; Nghd;Nw gjq;fkhjYf;Fk;> %yf;$w;W ,il ftHr;rpfis kPWtjw;F
xU rf;jp cs;sPL NjitahdjhFk;. xU %y; gjhHj;jkhdJ jpz;k epiyapypUe;J
thaepiyf;F khw;Wtjw;Fj; Njitg;gLk; rf;jpahdJ gjq;fkhjy; ntg;gTs;Siw ΔHsub
vdg;gLk;. cjhuzkhff; fhgdPnuhl;irl;bd; gjq;fkhjy; gpd;tUkhW jug;gLk;.
CO2(s) → CO2(g) ΔHsub = 26.1kJ mol-1
,NjNghd;W> kPs;nraw;ghlhd gbtkhjypd; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wkhdJ gUkdpy;
rkkhdJ> Mdhy; gjq;fkhjypd; vjpH FwpaPlhFk;.
CO2(g) → CO2(s) ΔHsub = -26.1kJ mol-1
jug;gl;l mtj;ij khw;wj;ij miltjw;F %yf;$w;W ,ilf;ftHr;rpfs; ve;jstpw;F kPwg;gl
Ntz;Lk; vdf; fUJf. xU jpz;kj;ijj; jputkhf khw;Wtjw;F ,f; ftHr;rpfs; gFjpahf
kPwg;gly; kl;Lk; NjitahfpwJ. thAepiyf;F khw;Wtjw;F mit KOikahf kPwg;gly;
Njitg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf> xU gjhHj;jpw;Fupa cUfypy; ntg;gTs;SiwahdJ
Mtpahjypy; ntg;gTs;SiwapYk; ghHf;ff; FiwthdjhFk; vdyhk;. ,Nj Nghd;w
xU jHf;fNk jug;gl;l gjhHj;jj;jpd; vy;yh mtj;ij khw;wq;fspJk; ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wq;fspw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l mz;zsthf njhlHGfisg; ngWtjw;Fg; gad;gLj;j
KbAk;. KOikahd jpUj;jkhd tpgupg;ghf ,y;yhjpUe;jNghJk;> vRtpd; tpjpiag;
gpuNahfpf;fg;gLtjw;F trjpahd xU khjpupAUthff; fhl;lyhk;. gjq;fkhjy;> cUfiyj;
njhlHe;J Mtpgwg;G vd;w xOq;fpy; mikAk; njhlHrpahd ,Ugbr; nra;Kiwahf
nfhs;syhk;.
jpz;kk; → jputk; ΔHfus mj;Jld; jputk; → thA ΔHvap
MfNt vRtpd; tpjpia gpuNahfpg;gjw;F ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOj KbAk;.
jpz;kk; → thA ΔHsub= ΔHfus + ΔHvap
,t;tifapy; ghHf;Fk;NghJ> xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; gjq;fkhjy; ntg;gTs;SiwahdJ
mz;zsthf cUfy; kw;Wk; Mtpahjy; ntg;gTs;Siwfspd; $l;Lj;njhifahf cU
2.5.9 ,y; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
188
Mtp
Mtpahjy;
gjq;fkhjy;
jputk;
cUfy;
jpz;kk;
cU 2.37 jug;gl;l xU gjhHj;jj;jpw;F> cUfypd; ntg;gTs;Siw kw;Wk; Mtpahjypd; ntg;g

Ts;Siwfspd; $l;Lj;njhif mz;zsthfg; gjq;fkhjypd; ntg;gTs;Siwf;Fr;
rkkhf nfhs;sg;gLk;.
NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l mtj;ij khw;wr; nray;Kiwfs;> ntg;gkhf;fy; my;yJ Fspuy;

tisapfs; fl;likf;fg;gLtjidg; gupNrhjid thapyhf mtjhdpf;fg;glf; $badthFk;.
xU gjhHj;jk;> cjhuzkhfg; gdpf;fl;b (H2O(s)) MdJ ntg;gkhf;fg;gly; my;yJ
Fspuhf;fg;glypy; mjd; xU mtj;ij khw;wk; njhlHghd xU ntg;gepiy miltJld;
NkYk; ntg;gkhf;fypd; tpisthf MtpahFk;. ,r;nray;Kiwapy; ntg;gepiy
tisapahdJ cU 2.5.10 ,y; rpj;jpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
jputk; nfhjpf;f
Muk;gpj;jpy;
vy;yh jputKk;
ntg;gepiy / ºC
Mtpahf;fg;gLk;
jpz;kk; cUf H2O(l)
Muk;gpj;jy;
vy;yh jpz;kKk;
cUfptpLk;
Neuk;
cU 2.38 ePUf;Fupa> xU njspthd ntg;gepiy tisapahdJ> ntg;gepiykhw;wj;Jld;

rpj;jpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jd; tpisthf> mjpfupf;fpd;w ntg;g msthdJ gjhHj;
jj;jpdhy; cwpQ;rg;gLfpwJ. tiugpd; fpilg;gFjp (khwhntg;gepiyf;Fupa gFjp)
fhl;lg;gLfpd;wik ,q;F ePuhdJ mtj;ij khw;wj;jpw;F cl;gLtjidf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g) rkepiyf;Fupa gFjpahdJ H2O(s) ⇌ H2O(l) cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ ePz;l
fpilg;gFjpahFk;. ,J ΔHfus < ΔHvap ,ypUe;J miktjhFk;.
cjhuzk; : 2.45
180 g gdpf;fl;bapid −15 °C apypUe;J 0 °C apYs;s ePUf;F khw;wj; Njitahd
ntg;gk; vt;tsthFk;?
tpil
Kjypy;> 180 g (10 %y;fs;) 0 °C cs;s gdpf;fl;bahFk;NghJ Njitg;gLk;
ntg;gkhdJ q1 = ms(Δt)> ,id gad;gLj;jp fzpf;fg;gl;ljhFk;. ,q;F s
MdJ gdpf;fl;bapd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssthFk;. 2.09 J g-1 °C-1
∴q1 = ms(Δt)= 180 g × 2.09 J g-1 °C-1 × 15 °C = 5643 J = 5.6 kJ
mjd;gpd; gdpf;fl;bapypUe;J jput ePuhfj; J}z;lg;gLk; mtj;ij khw;wj;jpw;F
Njitahd ntg;gkhdJ q2 = n × ΔHfus My; jug;gLfpwJ.
∴q2 = 10 mol × 6.0 kJ mol-1 = 60 kJ
/ Njitahd nkhj;j ntg;gk; = q1 + q2 = 65.6 kJ
189
2.5.7 mtj;ij tiuGfs;

xU mtj;ij tiughdJ> jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapYk; mKf;fj;jpYk; fhzg;gLfpd;w
mtj;ijfisj; jpUj;jkhf rpj;jupj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. mj;Jld; mit> NfhLfshy;
mtw;wpw;F ,ilapyhd vy;iyfs; vd miof;fg;gLtjhy; gpupj;Jitf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiy mKf;fj;jpy;> ,U mtj;ijfl;F ,ilapyhd NfhlhdJ mt;tpU
mtj;ijfspd; rkepiyf;FupajhFk;. vspikahf tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F Kjypy; J}a
gjhHj;jq;fspd; mtj;ij tiuGfis ehk; fUj;jpy; nfhs;syhk; my;yJ xU $Wila
njhFjpapd; mtj;ij tiuGfs; vd ehk; tiuaWj;Jf;nfhs;syhk;. cjhuzkhf>
gpd;tUk; cU 2.5.11 MdJ xU $Wila njhFjpapd; mtj;ij tiuglj;ij gUkl;lhff;
fhl;LfpwJ.
,t;tiugpy;> ehk; %d;W NfhLfisg; ghHf;f KbAk;> %d;W gug;Gfs; 'jpz;kk;">
'jputk;" mj;Jld; 'Mtp" Mfpad Fwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mj;Jld; "C" kw;Wk; "T" vd
,U tpNrl Gs;spfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. %d;W ntt;NtW ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;f
epge;jidfspy; tPr;Rfspy; J}a gjhHj;jq;fs; jpz;kk;> jputk; kw;Wk; Mtp mtj;ijfis
ehk; milahsg;gLj;j Kbtjid ,it fhl;Lfpd;wd.
thA jputkhf;fg;gl
Kbahj epiyf;F
NkYs;s ntggepiy cUfy;
mtjp mKf;fk; khWk; mKf;fk; jputk;
mKf;fk;
mKf;fk;
jputk; mtjpg; cUFjy;

jpz;kk; Mtpahjy;
Gs;sp
xLq;fy;
Mtp
gjq;fkhjy;
Kk;ik
Gs;sp mtjp ntg;gepiy Mtp
gbjy;
ntg;gepiy ntg;gepiy
cU 2.5.11 xU $Wila njhFjpapy; tiuG (a) ,y; tiuG TB ahdJ jug;gl;l jpz;knkhd;wpy;
$Wf;$Wfspw;Fk; mNj NrHitapd; jput epiyapYs;s %yf; $Wfspw;Fk; ,ilNa
cs;s rkepiyapidg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLtjhf ntspf;fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. fUj;jpy;
nfhs;sg;gLk; jpz;knkhd;wpd; cUFepiyapy; ,e;epiy mikfpwJ. MfNt tiuG
TB ahdJ ntt;NtW mKf;fy;fl;L cUFepiyiag; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;JfpwJ.
NfhL TC ahdJ Mtpatj;ijapYk; mjd; jput mtj;ijf;Fk; ,ilapy; %yf;
$Wfspy; rkepiyiag; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jtjhf mikAk; mjhtJ> fUjg;gLk;
NrHitapd; nfhjpepiyapy; ,r; rkepiy fhzg;gLfpwJ. NfhL TC ahdJ
mKf;fj;Jld; nfhjpepiyapd; NrHitapy; Kd;ikg;Gs;sp T apYk; Fiwe;j epiyapy;
cs;s ntspaKf;fj;jpy; kl;Lk; rhj;jpakhfpd;w xU rkepiyapy;> gjq;fkhjy;
ntg;gepiyf;Fk; mKf;fj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlHigf; fhl;LtJ gjq;fkhjy;
tiughFk;. (b) FwpaPLfs; ΔS , ΔH vd;gd rkepiyfs; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w
gpuNjrq;fl;FupaitahFk;.
Gs;sp T Kk;ikg;Gs;sp
12.5.11 vDk; cUtpy; fhl;lg;gLk; mtj;ij tiugpy;> jpz;kk; - Mtpr;rkepiy> (tiuG
AT> jpz;kk; - jputr; rkepiy (tiuG TB) kw;Wk; jputk; - Mtpr; rkepiy (tiuG)
vd;gtw;iwg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; %d;W tiuGfSk; re;jpf;Fk; Gs;spahFk;.
vy;yh %d;W tiuGfSk; vq;Nf re;jpf;fpd;wdNth mq;F vy;yh %d;W mtj;ijfSk;
xd;wpize;J xU rkepiyapid> jdpj;Jtkhd ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;fj;jpy;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; Gs;spahtJ Kk;ikg;Gs;spnad miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;fq;fshy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;L Xu; xOq;fpy; milag;gLfpd;wJ
,g;Gs;spapy;> jpz;kk; cUFjy; kw;Wk; gjq;fkhjy; mj;Jld; nfhjpf;Fk; jputkhdJ
mjd; MtpAld; njhLifapy; ,Uj;jy; Mfpad cs;slq;fyhd xU rkepiy ,q;F
mikag;ngWk;.
190
Gs;sp C mtjpg;Gs;sp
cU 2.5.11 ,y; ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;l mtj;ij tiugpy; C vdg; ngauplg;gl;l xU cr;rpapidj;
jput - Mtp rkepiy tiuG TC nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,J mtjpg;Gs;sp vd mwpag;gLfpd;wJ.
,jd; njhlHghd ntg;gepiy> kw;Wk; mKf;fk; vd;gd mtjpntg;gepiy TC kw;Wk;
mtjpaKf;fk; vd mwpag;gLk;.
mtjpntg;gepiyapYk; Fiwe;j xU ntg;gepiyapy;> xU thAtpd; mKf;fj;jpy; mjpfupg;G
Vw;gLifapy; njhFjpahdJ jput - Mtpr; rkepiy tiuigf; FWf;fpLk; epiyikapy;
Mtp xLq;fp xU jputkhfpd;wJ. vt;thW ,Ug;gpDk; mtjp ntg;gepiyf;F NkYs;s
ntg;gepiyfspy; vt;nthU NfhLk; FWf;fpLtjpy;iy. Vnddpy; mtjp ntg;gepiyf;F
Nky; xUthAthdJ xLf;fg;gly;/jputkhf;fg;gly; %yk; jputfiury; mKf;fj;ij
mjpfupg;gpDk; rhj;jpakhf ,jidf; fhl;LfpwJ. caHthf mKf;fg;gl;l xU thAit
kl;Lk; ehk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;.
cjhuzkhf> caHthd ntspaKf;fj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp thA %yf;$Wfs; xd;whf
mKf;fg;gLkhdhy;> xLf;fy; epfo;tjid mDkjpf;fhj> NghJkhd caHntg;gepiy
vdpy; jputk; mNjNghd;W thA epiyfs; ,uz;Lk; xj;j ,ay;Gfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
Mdhy; ,e;epiyapy; xU jputj;jpw;Fupa mlHj;jpahdJ kpif mtjpf;Fupa ghapepiyapy;
NrHitapd; elj;ijahf thATf;Fupa elj;ijahfTk; mikAk;.
,t; mtjp ntg;gepiyahdJ gjhHj;jj;jpypUe;J ntspg;gilahf khWtJld;
%yf;$w;W ,ilg;gl;l ftHr;rpfspd; typikapYk; jq;fpAs;sJ. typikahd %yf;$w;W
,iltpirfs; ,Ug;gpd; caH mtjpntg;gepiyahFk;. xU gjhHj;jj;jpd; elj;ijia
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;Ff; fPo;jug;gl;l cU 12.5.2 cjtpAld; mtj;ij khw;wq;fSf;$lhf
tpsf;fg;gl KbAk;.
Gs;sp P jpz;k mtj;ij

cU 2.5.12 (a) ,y; Gs;sp I ,y; ntg;gepiy (T1) mKf;fk; (P1) ePuhdJ xU jpz;kkhff;
fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiy nkJthf (T2) ,w;F mjpfupf;fg;gl;lJ vd
vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy;> khwh mKf;fk; (P1) ,y; itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;NghJ mjhtJ
ntg;gepiyahdJ PQ topNa efUk;. tiuG TB jpz;kk; kw;Wk; jputj;jpw;F ,ilapyhd
rkepiyf;Fupa Gs;sp X ,y; FWf;fpLk;. (Nfhl;by; ve;j ,lj;jpYk; jpz;kj;jpw;Fk;
jputj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy; xU rkepiyaikAk; mj;Jld; gpd;G ntg;gepiy (T2) ,y; xU
J}a jputj;jpw;F khWk; my;yJ NtWtpjkhff; $wpdhy; mJ cUFfpwJ.
,jid ehk; epiyahd caH mKf;fk; (P1) ,y; jpUk;gTk; Nehf;fpd; cUfypd;
ntg;gepiy caHthFk;. (T1) cU 12.5.12 (a) ntspf;fhl;lg;gLk; Gs;sp T I Nehf;Ff.
,jpypUe;J jpz;kk; kw;Wk; jputk; mtj;ijfspidg; gpupj;Jf;fhl;Lk; tiuG TB %yk;
xU jpz;kj;jpy; cUFepiyapy; mKf;fj;jpd; tpisit vspikahff; fhl;Ltjd;
%yKk; ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s KbAk;. cUFepiy elj;ij khw;wq;fis NkYk;
tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;Fg; gpd;tUkhW nraw;glyhk;. ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtk; gw;wpa
cq;fs; mwptpd; %yk;> mKf;fj;jpy; Vw;gLk; mjpfupg;ghdJ mjd; %y; rkepiyapNy
xU khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; vd mwpayhk;.
jpz;kk; ⇌ jputk; rkepiyia ehk; fUjpdhy;> jpz;kk; kw;Wk; jput rkepiy mKf;fj;jpy;
Vw;gLk; mjpfupg;ghdJ cz;ikahd cUFepiyahdJ njhFjpapidg; gpd;Gwkhfr;
nrYj;jp kPz;Lk; jpz;kj;ij Mf;Fk; NtWtpjkhff; $wpdhy; ,t;ntg;gepiyapy; ,J
cUFtjpy;iy MfNt ,jid ,t;TaH mKf;fj;jpy; (P2) cUfNtz;ba ntg;gepiyapy;
mjpfupg;G Ntz;Lk;. mjdhy; mKf;fj;jpd; mjpfupg;GfSld; ngUk;ghyhd jpz;kq;fspy;
nfhjpepiy mjpfupg;Gfs; mikAk;
191
Gs;sp Q
mNj mKf;fk; (P1) ,y; ehk; njhlHe;Jk; ntg;gg;gLj;Jtjpdhy; PR Nfhl;bd; topNa
jputkhdJ NfhL TC ,idg; Gs;sp Y ,y; re;jpf;Fk; ,g;Gs;spapy; jputj;jpy; Mtpf;Fk;
,ilNa rkepiyailtJld; ntg;gepiy T3 apy; (Gs;sp R) xU J}a Mtpepiyf;F
kPz;Lk; jpUk;Gk; my;yJ NtWtpjkhff; $wpd; ,J MtpahFk;. mjhtJ cU 12.5.12
(b) apy; fhl;bathW ,t;tpU mtj;ijapy; vy;iyf; Nfhl;bw;F (TC tisap) FWf;fhf>
nfhjpj;jy; %yk; jputkhdJ Mtpahf khw;wkilAk;. MfNt> khwh mKf;fj;jpy;
ntg;gepiy khWfpwNghJ> mtw;iw tiuglj;jpd; %yk; mt;tKf;fj;jpYs;s nfhjpepiy
ntg;gepiyia ,yFthf thrpf;f KbAk;. ,f;Nfhl;bd; topNa vt;tplj;jpYk;> jput
kw;Wk; Mtpf;F ,ilNa xU rkepiy mikAk; vd ehk; mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
NkYk;> ntg;gepiy T2 I khwhJ itj;j tz;zk; njhFjpapy; mKf;fk; Fiwf;fg;gl;lhy;>
(Gs;sp Q ,ypUe;J fPo;Nehf;fpa mk;Gf;Fwp)> P2` tisap TC ,id ehk; re;jpf;fyhk;.
mj;Jld; mKf;fk; P2 ,d; NkYk; fiuf;fg;gl;lhy; Mtp kPz;Lk; jputkhFk;. xU jputj;jpy;
nfhjpepiyg;Gs;spapy; mKf;fj;jpd; tpisit tisap TC ahdJ ntspg;gLj;JfpwJ.
mKf;fj;jpy; mjpfupg;G Vw;glf; nfhjpepiyapy; mjpfupg;G Vw;gLtJld; ,jd; kWjiyAk;
cz;ikahFk;.
Gs;sp S jpz;kj;jpypUe;J Mtpf;fhd efHT

cU 2.5.12 (c) ,y; S vdg; ngauplg;gl;l> mtj;ij khw;w tiugpd; Gs;spia fUj;jpw;
nfhs;f. jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapYk; (T4) mKf;fj;jpYk; (P4) jpz;k mtj;ij fhl;lg;
gl;Ls;sJ. tisap TC ahdJ> jpz;kk; kw;Wk; Mtpfl;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLfpw jpz;k -
Mtpr; rkepiyapidg; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. ntg;gepiyapy; mjpfupg;Gld; my;yJ
mKf;fj;jpy; xd;Wld; my;yJ ,uz;Lld; tisap AT apy; FWf;fplg;gLk; Gs;spfs; P
kw;Wk; Q ,id vk;khy; fye;Jiuahlg;gLfpwJ.
khwh mKf;fj;jpy; (rhj;jpakhd msT Fiwe;j) jpz;k mtj;ij xd;wpy; ntg;gepiy
mjpfupg;Gld; Vw;gLk; tpisit tiuglj;jpYs;s mk;Gf;Fwp fhl;Lfpd;wJ. jputk; cUthf
Kbahj msTf;F mKf;fkhdJ kpff; Fiwthf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhy; njspthdjhFk;.
NtWtpjkhff; $wpdhy; ,J T vdg; ngauplg;gl;l Gs;spf;F fPohfNt eilngWk;.
tisap AT I NfhL re;jpf;Fk;NghJ jpz;kk; kw;Wk; gjq;fkhf Muk;gpf;fpwJ. Gs;sp
T f;Ff; fPNoAs;s ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; mKf;fq;fspy;> NjHe;njLf;fg;gl;l ntg;gepiy
kw;Wk; mKf;fq;fspy;> jpz;kk; kl;Lk; my;yJ Mtpkl;Lk; fhl;lg;gLfpd;wikia ehk;
ghHf;fyhk;. Gs;sp T apid xU juk; flf;Fk;NghJ> khwhntg;gepiyapy; mKf;fj;ij
mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ MtpahdJ jputkhf khw;wg;gly; epfo;thdJ tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s
$bajhFk;.
mKf;fk;
mKf;fk;
mKf;fk;
jpz;kk; jputk; jpz;kk; jputk; jpz;kk; jputk;
Mtp Mtp Mtp
ntg;gepiy ntg;gepiy ntg;gepiy
cU 2.5.12 mtj;ij khw;wq;fspd; fPohd gjhHj;jq;fspd; elj;ijfs;

(tpsf;fq;fspw;fhd ciufis ghHf;Ff.)
192
rhjhuz cUFepiy kw;Wk; nfhjpepiyg; Gs;spfs;

rhjhuz cUFepiy kw;Wk; nfhjpepiyg; Gs;spfs; vd;gJ mKf;fk; 100 kPa ,y; cs;s
ntg;gepiyfs; MFk;. mj;Jld; 100 kPa f;F FWf;fhf tiuag;gl;l NfhL vd;gjid
mtj;ij tiugpypUe;J fz;Lnfhs;sKbAk;.
ePupd; tpgukhd mtj;ij tiuglk;

ePupd; Kk;ikg; Gs;spahdJ jho; mKf;fk; 611 Pa kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy 0.01 °C apy;
epfo;tjidf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. cUFepiy kw;Wk; nfhjpepiyfs; KiwNa
0.00 °C apYk; 100 °C apYk; MFk;. ,q;F mKf;fk; 100 kPa MFk;. mtjpntg;gepiy 374°C
kw;Wk; mtjpmKf;fk; 201 kPa ck; MFk;. Nkw;$wg;gl;l jfty;fspy; KbTfSf;fika
ePupd; mtj;ij tiughdJ cU 5.55 ,y; rpj;jpupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Fwpg;G: ePiug; nghWj;j tiuapy; 'caHe;j mKf;fq;fspy; jho;e;j cUFepiyg;Gs;sp
ngwg;gLk;"
cUFepiyf;F> ehk; gpd;tUk; rkepiyiaf; nfhs;syhk;.
gdpf;fl;b ⇌ ePH
gdpf;fl;bahdJ ePupYk; mlHj;jp Fiwe;jJ. MfNt gdpffl;bahdJ cUFk;NghJ
cUthFk; ePupd; fdtsT rpwpjhfpd;wJ. mKf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ ,yPr;rw;wNyaupd;
jj;Jtg;gb> mKf;fj;ij kPz;Lk; Fiwf;FKfkhfr; rkepiy efUk;. jput ePH
cUthf;fg;gLk; MfNt ,t;TaH mKf;fj;jpy; jputePH kPz;Lk; ciwjy; miltJld;
ntg;gepiy Fiwf;fg;gLk;> mj;Jld;> caH mKf;fq;fspy; jho; cUFepiyia
(ciwepiy) Mf;Fk;. NkYk; NfhL / tiugpd; rha;thdJ> jpz;k jputq;fSf;F
,ilapyhd ePupd; rkepiyapy; kiwahdjhFk;.
jputk;
jpz;kk;
mKf;fk;
Mtp
ntg;gepiy
cU 2.5.13 ePupd; mtj;ij tiuT

ntt;NtW mtj;ijfs; fUj;jpy; nfhs;sg;gLk;NghJ> mjd; mlHj;jpapy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f
NtWghlhdJ Rw;Wg;Gw epge;jidfspYk; mtjpepge;jidfspy; fhzg;gLk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F
100 kPa (1 atm) mKf;fj;jpy; 0° C:
jput ePupd; mlHj;jp = 1 g cm-3 (= 55.6 mol dm-3 ePupd; nrwpthFk;)
thAepiy ePupd; mlHj;jp = 2.7 × 10-4 mol dm-3
218 atm ,y; 374° C apYk;
thAepiy ePupd; mlHj;jp = jput ePupd; mlHj;jp = 4.1 mol dm-3
CO2 ,y; mtj;ij tiuG :
193
jputk;
jpz;kk;
mKf;fk;
Mtp
ntg;gepiy
cU 2.5.14 CO2 ,d; mtj;ij tiuG

ePupd; mtj;ij tiuGld; xg;gpLk;NghJ> CO2 ,y; mtj;ij tiuglk; gw;wpa xU rpwg;ghd
tplak;> mjd; Kkikg;Gs;spahdJ tspkzly mKf;fj;jpw;F Nky; miktJ kl;LkhFk;.
vdNt 5.11atm f;F Fiwe;j mKf;fj;jpy; vt;nthU jput epiy fhgdPnuhl;irl;ilAk;
ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ vd;gjhFk;. mjhtJ CO2 MdJ rhjhuzkhf cUFepiy
kw;Wk; nfhjpepiyfisf; fhl;Ltjpy;iy. ,jd; fUj;jhdJ fhgdPnuhl;irl;lhdJ
78 °C ntg;gepiyapy; gjq;fkhFk; vd;gJ kl;LNkahFk;. ,jd; fhuzkhf jpz;k
fhgdPnuhl;irl;lhdJ 'cyH gdpf;fl;b" vd mwpag;gLfpwJ. ePH xUNghJk; jput
fhgdPnuhl;irl;ilr; rhjhuz epge;jidapy; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ. jpz;kk; my;yJ
Mtpahf kl;LNk ngwyhk;.
2.6 Jtpj jput njhFjpnahd;wpd; jput Mtpr; rkepiy

,g;gFjpapy; Kjypy; xU nfhs;ifastpyhd vz;zf;fUtpd; cjtpAld; Mtpgwg;Gs;s
,U jputq;fspd; fyitnahd;wpd; ,ay;Gfs; fye;jhuhag;gLk;. ,f;fye;Jiuahlypy;
Kw;gFjpapy; vy;yh tpfpjq;fspYk; Kw;whff; fye;J xU jdpj;jputj;ijf; nfhLf;fpw
,U jput tiffs; mikfpd;wd. ,j;jputq;fspy; elj;ijia tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;fhf
,yl;rpaf;fyit vd;w vzzf;fU mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLtJld; ,t; ,yl;rpaf; fiury;fspd;
mtj;ij tiuGfs; Clhf mtw;wpd; ,ay;GfSk; Nehf;fg;gLk;. gpd;dH ,yl;rpa kw;Wk;
,yl;rpakw;w fyitfspw;F ,ilapyhd xg;gPLk; mikAk;.
2.6.1 ,yl;rpaf; fiury;fspd; ,ay;Gfs;

kpf neUf;fkhd xj;j jputq;fis itf;Fk;NghJ Kw;whff; fyf;Fk; jfTs;s jputf;
fyit Mf;fg;gLk;> mit ,yl;rpaj; jd;ikiag; ngUksT neUq;fp mikAnkd ehk;
vLj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. vl;Nrd; kw;Wk; vg;Nud;> ngd;rPd; kw;Wk; njhYaPd;> ePH kw;Wk;
nkjNdhy; Nghd;wd ,jw;F cjhuzq;fshFk;.
%yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs;
MtpaKf;fj;jpy; fye;JiuahbaJ Nghd;W xU J}a jputj;jpy; rf;jp $ba %yf;$Wfspy;
rpy jput Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J jg;gpr;nrd;W Mtpahf;fg;gLtJld; mg;gjhHj;jk; rpwpa
%yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; cilanjdpd; jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; $ba %yf;$Wfs;
jg;gTk; $badthFk;. gpwpnjhU jputj;jpw;F ,J cz;ikahFk; vd;gJld; cU 12.6.1
,y; ,J fhl;lg;gLfpwJ.
jputj;jpd;
Nkw;gug;G
jputk; A jputk; B jputk; AB
cU 2.6. A, B Ak; mit 1:1 tpfpjj;jpy; Mf;fg;gl;l jput fyit AB Ak;
194
,t;tpU jputq;fSk; Kw;whff; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ Kw;whff; fyj;jy; eilngWk;

vdf;nfhz;L ,jd; tpisTf; fyitahdJ xU ,yl;rpa (rpy tpfpjKiwf;F mika)
fyit vdf; $wg;gLtJld; cU 2.6.1 (C) ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;lJNghy; jputq;fspd;
,UNtW %yf;$WfSk; jg;gpr; nry;tjpy; khw;wKk; mw;wd.
2.6. (C) 1:1 vDk; tpfpjj;jpy; ,U jputq;fSk; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ> jg;gpr; nry;fpd;w
xt;nthU %yf; $Wfspd; tpfpjq;fSk; xj;jd my;yJ NtWtpjkhff; $wpd; xt;nthU
$WdJk; jg;gpr; nry;fpd;w %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifAk; xj;jd vdTk; ePH ghHf;f
KbAk;.
A kw;Wk; B %yf; $Wfs; Kd;gpUe;jik Nghd;W jg;Gtw;fhd mNj Nghf;fpid ,d;dKk;
nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. (mit jdpahff; fhzg;gLk; epiyapy; Nghd;W) ,U A %yf;$Wfspd;
,ilg;gl;l ftHr;rpfisg;Nghd;W mNjasT xU A %yf;$wpw;Fk; xU B %yf;$wpw;Fk;
,ilapy; mikAk; vd ehk; tpsq;fpf; nfhs;s KbAk;. (tpirfSf;F ,ilapy;
VjhtJ NtWghL mikAkhdhy; jg;Gfpw Nghf;Fk; khWgLk;) ,t;tpay;GfSld; A
kw;Wk; B %yf;$WfSf;fpilNaAs;s %yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; Nghd;W jpUj;jkhf A
- A kw;Wk; B - B %yf;$WfSf;F ,ilNaAs;s %yf;$w;W ,ilapyhdJ vd ehk;
tpsq;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
fyitahf;fypd; ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk;

xU jputf; fyit Mf;fg;gLk;NghJ> fhzg;gLk; %yf;$W ftHr;rpfs; cilf;fg;gLk;.
mj;Jld; Gjpa ftHr;rpfs; cUthf;fg;gLtJk; epfOk; ,iltpirfis cilf;fr;
rf;jpNjitg;gLk; mNj rkak; Gjpa ftHr;rpfspd; cUthf;fj;jpy; mJ ntspg;gLk;.
,f; ftHr;rp ahTk; rkkhapd; fyitahf;fypd;NghJ ntg;gk; ntspg;glNyh md;wp
cwpQ;rg;glNyh mtrpakw;wJ. ,jpypUe;J ,U jputq;fspd; ,yl;rpaf; fyitahf;fk;
g+r;rpa ntg;gTs;Siwf;FupaJ vd fUjyhk;.
jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapy;> jputk; A kw;Wk; jputk; B apidf; fyg;gjd;%yk; Kw;wpYk;
fyf;Fk; jfTila Jtpjf;fyit xd;wpd; Mf;fj;jpd;NghJ> fA-A, fB-B , fA-B Mfpa xd;Wf;F
kw;wJld; ,ilapy; mikAk; ,iltpirfs; rkkhfTk; (fA-A= fB-B = fA-B) ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wk; ,y;yhky; ,Ug;gpd; mj;jifa fiury; ,yl;rpaf; fiury; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
,t;tifapy; vl;NrDk; vg;NuDk; nfhz;l fyit ,yl;rpa mtj;ijf;F neUf;fkhf
mikAk;. Vnddpy; mit xj;jgUkd; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; mtw;wpd; kj;jpapy;
rktypikAila te;jHthy;]; tpirfs; mikAk;.
,uNthw;wpd; tpjp
jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; ntw;wplkhfTs;s %ba nfhs;fyndhd;wpy; jputq;fs; A> B
apidf; fyg;gjdhy; Mf;fg;gLk; xU Jtpjf; fiuriyf; fUJf. NghJkhd rf;jpAila
A kw;Wk; B apy; %yf;$Wfs; jputNkw;gug;Gf;F NkYs;s ntspapy; jg;Gtjd; %yk; xU
mKf;fj;ijf; fl;bnaOg;g KbAnkd;gjid ehk; mwpNthk;. njhFjpapy; xU ,af;f
rkepiyahdJ A kw;Wk; B apy; Mtpahjy; tPjKk; xLq;fy;tPjKk; rkkhftUk;NghJ
milag;ngWk;. khwhntg;g epiyapy; ,q;F ,irthFk; nkhj;j MtpaKf;fk; kw;Wk;
Mtpatj;ijapy; mikg;G Mfpatw;wpd; %yk; ,t;tpaf;fr; rkepiyahdJ Nrhjpf;fg;glf;
$bajhFk;. jhw;wdpd; tpjpapypUe;J nkhj;j mKf;fkhdJ $Wfspd; gFjpaKffq;fspd;
$l;Lj;njhifahFk;. A, B Ald; njhlHghd Mtpg;gwg;G (nfhjpepiyfs;) kw;Wk;
fiurypYs;s A, B apd; nrwpTfspy; Mtpatj;ijapd; mikg;Gj; jq;fpAs;sjhFk;.
$whdJ> caH Mtpg;gwg;Gk; (jho;nfhjpepiy) kw;Wk; fiurypy; $ba nrwpTk;
cilajhf mikjy; caH gFjpaKf;fj;ij Mf;Fk; Nghf;fpidf; fhl;Lk;. mjhtJ
Mtpatj;ijapYs;s xU $wpd; nrwpthdJ mjd; gFjpaKf;fj;jpy; tpfpjrkkhfTk;
([A(g)]αpA) fyitapYs;s $W xd;wpy; nrwpthdJ mjd; %y;gpd;dj;jpw;F tpfpjrkkhfTk;
([A(l)] αхA) mikAk;.
195
A , B ia $Wfshf cila xU ,yl;rpaf; fiurypd; NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;lthwhd Mtp

- jput rkepiyiaf; fUJf. Mtpahjy; tPjKk; xLf;ftPjKk; rkkhf miktjhy> ehk;
rv r'v
A(l) ⇋ A(g) ……..(1) B(l) ⇋ B(g) ……..(1)
rc r'c
rv kw;Wk; rc vd;gd KiwNa $W A apy; Mtpahjy; xLq;fy; tPjq;fhsFk;. r'vkw;Wk;

r'c vd;gd KiwNa $W B apd; Mtpahjy; kw;Wk; xLq;fy; tPjq;fhsFk;. (1) ,d;
fUJtjd; %yk; ehk; gpd;tUkhW vOjKbak;.
rv = k [A(l)] = k1 хA
хA MdJ fiurypYs;s A apd; %y; gpd;dkhFk;.
,NjNghd;W
r'v = k' [A(g) ] = k2 pA
,q;F pA ahdJ Mtpatj;ijapy; A apd; gFjpaKf;fkhFk;.
rkepiyapy;
rv = r'v
k 2 p A = k 1 хA
k1 хA or ∴ pA = k хA
∴pA =
k2
хA = 1, MFk;NghJ p0A = pA= A apd; epuk;gyhtp mKf;fk;

∴k = pA0
∴pA = pA0 хA
,NjNghd;W pB= p0B хB
MtpaKf;fk; / mikg;G tiuGfs;

jputk; A, B apd; ,yl;rpaf; fyitnahd;wpy;> khwh ntg;gepiyapy; A Ak; B Ak;
fyitapy; mKf;fj;jpd; jkJ gq;fspg;Gfis toq;Fk;. $W A kl;Lk; jdp ntg;gj;ijf;
fUJk;NghJ pA= pA0 хA vd ehk; nfhs;Nthk;> ,q;F pA0 xU khwpyp ,jd; tpisthf
pA ahdJ хA jq;fpAs;s tiuG xU NeHNfhLnkd cU 2.4 (a) ,t; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
хA = 0 Mapd; pA= 0 MFk;> pA MdJ хA ,d; mjpfupg;Gf;F NeHtpfpjrkdhdJ. хA MdJ
,Uklq;fhf;fg;gl;lhy;> pA ,Uklq;fhf;fg;gLk;. MfNt> NeHNfhldJ tiugpd; (0>0)
Gs;spapD}lhfr; nry;Yk;. mNj elj;ijf; $W B ,dhYk; gpd;gw;wg;gLk;. pA0 > pB0
vd ehk; vLj;Jf;nfhs;Nthkhapd;> mjhtJ A ahdJ B apYk; ghHf;f Mtpg;gwg;Gf;
$bajhFk;> cU 12.6> ,y; 2c ,y; MtpaKf;fkhdJ mjd; mikg;Gld; хB khWiff;
fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. fyitapd; xt;nthU mikg;Gf;Fkhd nkhj;j MtpaKf;fkhdJ
fUjg;gLk; Gs;spapYs;s A kw;Wk; B apd; MtpaKf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifahFk;. cU
12.6 (c) apy; khwhntg;gepiyapy; jputq;fs; A kw;Wk; B apy; ,yl;rpaf; fyitapd;
nkhj;j tiughdJ fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. NfhL pT (pAB) MdJ A kw;Wk; B apid $Wfshff;
nfhz;l njhFjpapd; nkhj;j MtpaKf;fkhWifiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
196
mKf;fk; mKf;fk; mKf;fk; mKf;fk; mKf;fk; mKf;fk;
%y;gpd;dk; %y;gpd;dk; %y;gpd;dk;
cU 2.6.2 khwh ntg;gepiyapy;> ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;F mikfpd;w xU ,yl;rpaj; njhFjp A, B apy;

MtpaKf;f - mikg;Gf;F cupa tiuGfshFk;. (a) $W A apd; MtpaKf;fkhWif
$W (b) apd; MtpaKf;f khWifAk; cs;slf;fg;gLfpwJ. (c) fyitapd; nkhj;j
MtpaKf;f khWifiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
ntg;gepiy (nfhjpepiyg;Gs;sp) - mikg;G tiuGfs;

gpd;G fye;Jiuahlg;gLtJNghy> khwh mKf;fj;jpy;> jputNkw;gug;gpypUe;J jg;gpr;nry;yy;
,yFthdJ vd;gjd; fUj;jhdJ> xg;gPl;lstpy; %yf;$w;wpd; tpirfs; eype;jd vd;gJld;
nfhjpg;gjw;Fk; Mtpahtjw;Fk; rpwpjsT rf;jpNa NjitgLfpwJ vd;gjhFk;.
MfNt xU Fwpj;jntg;gepiyia caH MtpaKf;fj;Jld; $ba jputq;fs; jho;
nfhjpepiyAilad. my;yJ MtpaKf;fj;jpw;Fk; nfhjpepiyg;Gs;spf;Fk; (ntg;gepiy)
cs;s njhlHigg; gpd;tUkhW ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs; KbAk;. jkJ MtpaKf;fq;fs;
ntspapYs;s tspaKf;fj;jpw;Fk; rkkhftUk;NghJ jputq;fs; nfhjpf;fpd;wd. xU
jputkhdJ> jug;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; caH MtpaKf;fj;ijf; nfhz;likAkhdhy;>
ntg;gepiyapy; xU rpwpa mjpfupg;ghdJ ntspaKf;f kl;lj;jpid ,yFthf milag;
NghJkhdjhFk;. kw;nwhUtifapy;> MtpaKf;fk; Fiwthdhy;> $ba ntg;gk;/rf;jpahdJ
ntspaKf;fj;ij milaj; Njitg;gLk;.
MfNt> jug;gl;l xU ntg;gepiyapy; caH MtpaKf;fKila jputq;fs; jho;e;j
nfhjpepiyAilad. xNu ntg;gepiyapy; ,U jputq;fspdhy; xU ,yl;rpaf;
fiuryhf;fg;gLk;NghJ> vJnthd;W caHe;j MtpaKf;fKilaNjh mJ jho;nfhjp
epiyAilajhFk;.
xU ntg;gepiy (nfhjpepiyg;Gs;sp) - mikg;G tiugpid mikj;jy;

Kjypy;> MtpaKf;fk; - mikg;G tiugpid khwh ntspaKf;fj;jpy; ntg;gepiy
(nfhjpepiyg;Gs;sp) - mikg;G tiuGf;F khw;WNthk;. ,r;nraw;ghl;lhdJ vspikahdJ.
MtpaKf;fk; - mikg;GtiuGf;F vjpHkhwhdJ> Mjyhy; vd ,yFthdJ rpyH
vz;zyhk;. ,Ue;jNghJk; fPOs;s rpy tplaq;fisf; fUJk;tiu ,J rupahd thjk;
vdf; fUjyhk;.
khwh mKf;fj;jpy; pA0 > pB0 cld; mikfpd;w NkNy fUjg;gl;l ,yl;rpaf; fiury; Tb(A)<
T(b(B) mikAk; Tb vd;gJ nfhjpepiyahFk;. (A ahdJ Fiwe;j nfhjpepiyAilaJ).
xU ,yl;rpaf; fiurypy; khwh ntg;gepiyapy; jug;gl;l xU $wpd; gFjpaKf;fkhdJ
mjd; epuk;gyhtpaKf;fj;jpdJk; jput mtj;ijapYs;s mjd; %w;gpd;dj;jpdJk;
ngUf;fj;jpw;Fr; rkkhFk;. ,j;njhlHghdJ ,uNthw;wpd; tpjp vd miof;fg;gLk;.
,J pA< p0A kw;Wk; pB< p0B vd;gJ njspthdjhFk;.
pB0 < pB0
197
MfNt A apd; MtpaKf;fj;jpy; Vw;gLk; ,wf;fkhdJ

= pA0 - p = p0A- pA0 хA = p0A (1 –хA)
= pA0 хB
/ p0A- pA p0B- pB
= xB kw;Wk; = xA
p0A p0B
Mtpatj;ijapYs;s xU jug;gl;l $wpdJ MtpaKf;fr; rhHgpwf;fkhdJ fiurypYs;s

kw;iwa $wpd; %y; gpd;dj;jpw;F rkkhFk;.
,uNthw;wpd; tpjpAld; jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjpia ,izg;gjdhy; Mtpatj;ijapd;
mikg;igj; jPHkhdpf;f KbAk;. p ahdJ nkhj;j mKf;fkhfTk; yA kw;Wk; yB vd;gd
KiwNa Mfpatw;wpYs;s A kw;Wk; B apd; %y; gpd;dq;fshfTk; mike;jhy; jhw;wdpd;
tpjpg;gb
PA = PY = (PA + PB) YA pA0 хA = (pA0 хA + pB0 хB) yA
pA0 хA pB0 хB
∴YA kw;Wk; YB
(pA0 хA + pB0 хB) (pA0 хB + pB0хB)
,uNthw;wpd; tpjp ,yl;rpaf; fyitfs; kl;Lk; gpuNahfpf;fg;gLk; my;yJ ,yl;rpaf;

fyitfs; kl;Lk; ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;F mikAk;.
A kw;Lk; B apy; fyitfSf;F> ,UGs;spfis ,izf;fpw xU NeHNfhlhf mtw;wpd;
nfhjpepiyfs; mikAk; vd rpyNtis ePq;fs; vjpHghHjJ ,Uf;fyhk;. vt;thwhapDk;
,J xU tisapahFk;. gFjp 12.5.3 gFjpapy; jputj;jpw;F MtpaKf;fkhdJ ntg;gepiyapy;
tpiuthf mjpfupg;gJ gw;wpf; fye;Jiuahlg;gl;ltw;iw kPs fUJtJld; mjid 12.5.6
cUtpy; ghHf;Ff.
nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy
%y;gpd;dk; %y;gpd;dk;
cU 2.6.3 khwh mKf;fj;jpy; xU ,yl;rpaf;fyit AB f;Fupa nfhjpepiy (ntg;gepiy)

- mikg;G tiuGfshFk;. (a) $Wfs; A kw;Wk; B ,d; nfhjpepiyfs; (b)
fyitapd; nfhjpepiy khw;wk;.
cU 2.6.3 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lJNghy> Kjypy; nfhjpepiyfis cupa mr;Rfspy; ehk; Fwpj;Jf;

nfhs;s KbAk;. mj;Jld; fyitapy; MtpaKf;fkhWif vd;w vz;zf;fUthdJ cU
2.6.3 (b) ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lJ Nghy ,UGs;spfis ,izg;gjd; %yk; fyitapy; jputf;
$Wfspd; mikg;Gld; fhl;lg;glyhk;.
Mtpapd; mikg;Gld; MtpaKf;fkhwy; vt;thW mikAnkd;gjid ehk; ,g;NghJ
mwpaNtz;bAs;sJ. khwh mKf;fj;jpy; xU jputf;fyit nfhjpf;Fk;NghJ Fiwe;j
Mtpg;gwg;Gilajidf; $ba Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s gjhHj;jk; $basT jg;Gtjd; %yk; Mtpia
Mf;Fk;. ,jd; fUj;J ahnjdpy; jw;NghJs;s njhFjpapy; Mtpapy; A ($ba Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s
198
$W) ahdJ jputj;jpYk; ghHf;f caHtpfpjj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;. ,g;Gs;sp cs;s Mtpapd;

mikg;ghdJ Kjypy; xLf;fg;gLk; Mtp%yk; kjpg;gplyhk; / jPHkhdpf;fg;glyhk;. mj;Jld;
mjidg; gFg;ghayhk;. cU 2.6.4 (a) ,y; cs;s tiuglj;jpy; Fwpf;fg;gl;Ls;s Gs;sp
P ia fUJf. Gs;sp P apy; cs;s jputk; ntg;gepiy Tp apy; nfhjpf;fpwJ. mj;Jld;
Tp Ald; njhlHGila Mtpapd; mikg;ghdJ P kw;Wk; Tp Clhf xU fpilf;Nfhl;bid
tiuGgLj;Jjd; %yk; ngwg;glyhk;. kw;Wk; Mtpapy; mg;Gs;spahdJ Q vd Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
jputj;jpd; ntt;NtW mikg;Gf;fSld; jputf;fyit njhlHghd gapw;rpapid kPsTk;
Nkw;nfhs;tJld;> cU 2.6 (b) apd; fhl;lg;gl;ls;sthW Mtpapd; MtpaKf;f khWif
,uz;lhtJ tisapahf tiuGgLj;jyhk;. ,U NfhLfSf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gFjpahdJ
jputk; kw;Wk; Mtpf;F ,ilapyhd rkepiyia cs;slf;fptpUg;gjid ehk; fhzKbAk;.
nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy
Mtp Mtp
jputk; ⇌ Mtp jputk; ⇌ Mtp
jputk; jputk;
Tp apy; jput Tp apy; nfhjpf;Fk;

(c) mikg;G jputj;jpd; kPjhd
Mtpahfypd;
mikg;G
cU 2.46 (a) khwh mKf;fj;jpy; xU ,yl;rpa fyit AB f;Fupa nfhjpepiy (ntg;gepiy)

mikg;G tiuGfshFk;. (a) mikg;G C1 cila xU njupe;njLf;fg;gl;l fyit
mikg;Gld; nfhjpepiy khWif fhl;lg;gLfpwJ. ,J Tp apy; nfhjpf;fpwJ. NfhL
TpP apd; GwePl;lyhdJ Gs;sp P apYs;s Mtpapd; mikg;igj; jUfpwJ. (b)
nfhjpepiyapYs;s Mtpapd; khWifAld; mjw;Fs; mlq;Fk; jputk; - Mtp
rkepiyahdJ ,q;F ntspf;fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. (c) Gs;sp Q cld; njhlHGila
jputj;jpd; mikg;ghdJ C2 ,y; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
cU 2.46 (b) ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;lJNghd;W> xU jputf;fyitahdJ mJ nfhjpf;fpd;w

ntg;gepiyia ehk; $w KbtJld; nfhjpf;fpw jputj;jpd; kPJs;s Mtpapd; mikg;igak;
mwpayhk;. cjhuzkhf> cU 2.46 (c) apy; ntg;gepiy T1 ,y; nfhjpf;fpd;w jputj;jpd; kPJs;s
Mtpnfhz;Ls;s mikg;G C1 ck; MFk;. ,NjNghd;W> kPz;Lk; Nkw;nfhs;tjd; %yk;
jput mikg;G tisapy; Vida mikg;GfSf;Fupa nfhjpepiyfis jPHkhdpf;fKbAk;
mj;Jld; ,jpypUe;J mj;jput mikg;Gld; cs;s Mtp mikg;GfisAk; kjpg;gpl KbAk;.
,e;elj;ijahdJ fyitnahd;wpYs;s jputq;fis fha;r;rp tbj;jy;/gFjpgl fha;r;rp
tbj;jjhy; gpupj;jwpa cjtpahFk;. ,jidg; gw;wpa tpguq;fis gpwpNjhu; gFjpapy;
fye;Jiuahlyhk;. ,jd; gpuNahfj;ij fye;Jiuahl Kd;G ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J
tpyfy;fisf; fhl;Lfpd;w rpy njhFjpfspd; ,ay;Gfis ghHf;fyhk;.
jputq;fspd; ,yl;rpa kw;w fyitfs;

,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;fika xOfhj jput fyitahdJ ,yl;rpakw;w jputf; fyit vd
miof;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf A kw;Wk; B $Wfshf cs;s fyitnahd;iw
Mf;Fnkdpy;
,j;njhFjpapd; %yf;$w;W ,t;tpirfs; rkkw;wnjdpd; ,yl;rpaf; fyitnahd;wpd;
mtjhdpg;Gf;fspypUe;J ,j;njhFjp Kuz;gLk;. MfNt xU ,yl;rpkw;w fyitnahd;wpd;
$Wfs; A kw;Wk; B, mj;Jld; fA-A ≠ fB-B ≠ fA-B MFk;. mj;Jld; fyitf;F xU ntg;gTs;Siw
khw;wk; cz;L. MfNt fyitapd; %yf;$Wfs; jg;gpr;nry;Yk; Nghf;fhdJ J}a
jputq;fis Nghd;wjhFk;.
199
,yl;rpakw;w fyitfspd; MtpaKf;fk; - mKf;f tiuGfs; ehk; mwpe;j tifapy;

xU ,yl;rpa fiury;fs; ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;F miktJld; mikg;ghdJ (jputepiy)
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; MtpaKf;fj;jpy; jq;fpAs;sJld; ,jd; tpisthf cU 12.6.2
(a) ,y; fhl;bathW NeHNfhlhf mikAk;> ,q;F pA0 > pB0 A ahdJ Mtpg;gwg;Gf;
$banthd;whFk;.
MtpaKf;fk; MtpaKf;fk; MtpaKf;fk; MtpaKf;fk; MtpaKf;fk; MtpaKf;fk;
cU 2.47 khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU ,yl;rpaf;fyit A, B f;Fupa MtpaKf;f - mikg;G

tiuGfs; (a) ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;F NeHtpyfy; mj;Jld; (b) ,uNthw;wpd; vjpHtpyfy;
cilaJ. (c) $basT NeH kw;Wk; vjpHtpyfy; cila fyitf;FupaJ.
,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapd; NeH tpyfy;fs;

khwh ntg;gepiyapy; fA-B < fA-A mj;Jld; fB-B > cila ,U $Wfs; A kw;Wk; B
Mf;fg;gLk; rpyfyitfs; J}a jputq;fspy; ,Ug;gjidtpl A, B f;F ,ilapyhd
%yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; FiwthFk;. MfNt> ,yl;rpaf; fyitia tpl ,t;tifapy;
%yf;$Wfs; jg;Gk; Nghf;fhdJ caHthFk;. MfNt pA> pA0 хA kw;Wk;
,t;tpisthf pAB > pA0 хA mj;Jld; pB> pB0 хB)
,t;tpisthf pAB > pA0 хA + pB0 хB)
,jpypUe;J fUjf;$ba fyitapd; nkhj;j MtpaKf;fkhdJ ,yl;rpaf; fyitia tpl

caHthdjhFk;. pAB > PAB (,yl;rpa)
,t;tifahd fyitfs; my;yJ fiury;fs; ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;F NeHtpyfy;fis
ntspg;gLj;Jtd vdg;gLk;. ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J NeHtpyfy;fisf; fhl;Lfpd;w
fyitfspd; MtpaKf;fkhdJ vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; ,yl;rpaf; fyitapid tpl vg;NghJk;
caHthFk;. MfNt cU 2.47 (a) ,y; fhl;lg;gLtjidNghy;> ,yl;rpaf; Nfhl;bid
tpl Nkd;Kfkhf tise;j MtpaKf;f - mKf;f tisap MFk;. ,f;fyitfspd;
MtpaKf;fkhdJ ,yl;rpaf; fiurypYk; caHthFk;> ,jdhy; J}ajputq;fspy;
mit miktjidtpl ,yFthf %yf;$Wfs; ,q;F cs;slf;fg;gl;L kpf ,yFthf
ntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ vdf; fUjg;gLfpwJ. %yf;$Wfs; A kw;Wk; B f;F ,ilapyhd
%yf;$w;W ,iltpirfs; J}a jputq;fis tplf; FiwthdJ ,jdhy; jputq;fis
fyf;Fk;NghJ A-A kw;Wk; B-B f;F ,ilapyhd cz;ikahd ,iltpirfs;
cilf;fg;gLtjw;F cwpQ;rg;gLtjidtplf; Fiwe;j ntg;gNk ntspg;gLk;. MfNt>
,j;jputq;fs; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ ntg;gkhdJ cwpQ;rg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ
ntg;gTs;Siw khw;wk; mfntg;gj;jpw;FupaJ. ,t;tisapapd; topNa J}a A apy; Mtp
mKf;fk; pA0 > pB0 MFk;tiu vy;yh ,lq;fspYk; MtpaKf;fk; caHthf ,Ug;gjid ehk;
ghHf;f KbAk;. ,JNghd;w rpwpjsT tpyfy; mikAk; tiffspy; ,yl;rpaf; fyitfis
Nghd;W mikAk; elj;ijfs; xj;jdthf> fha;r;rptbj;jy;fisg; nghWj;jtiu fUjg;gLk;>
Mdhy; rpy jputq;fspy; fyitfs; ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpf;Ff; $basT NeHtpyfy;fisf;
fhl;Lk;NghJ ,t;tifahd fyitfspy; cU 2.47 (c) fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ Nghd;W
rpijj;JtpLk;. cjhuzkhf ,t;tifahd xU fyitNa vjNdhy; kw;Wk; ePUf;FupaJ>
,J caHe;j rpijtilAk; tisapapid cUthf;FtJld; 95.6 % jpzpTg;gb
vjNdhiyf; fyf;Fk;NghJ kpf caHe;j MtpaKf;fj;ijAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
200
,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;jhd vjpHtpyfy;fs;

khwh ntg;gepiyapy; fA-B> fA-A kw;Wk; fB-B Mf cs;s $Wfs; A kw;Wk; B apdhy;
cUthf;fg;gLk; rpy fyitfs; ,yl;rpa tifapid tpl %yf;$Wfs; jg;Gk; Nghf;F
Fiwe;jsT fhzg;gLgitahFk;. ehk; cUthf;ff; $ba xU ,yl;rpaf; fiury; tiuig
tpl %yf;$Wfs; fyitapypUe;J cile;J tpyFk;. jfT Fiwe;jstpy; ,yFthFk;.
mjhtJ %yf;$Wfs; fyitapypUe;J cile;J tpyfy; J}a jputj;jpypUe;J ehk;
nra;tjid tplf; Fiwe;jsT ,yFthFk;. %yhjhukhd jputq;fis tpl typikahd
GJtpirfs; fyitapy; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
MfNt pA< pA0 хA mj;Jld; pB> pB0 хB ,jd; tpisthy; pAB < ( pA0 хA + pB0 хB)
,jdhy; fUjg;gLtJ xU ,yl;rpaf; fyitapid tpl nkhj;j MtpaKf;fk;

FiwthdjhFk;. pAB < pAB(,yl;rpa)
,t;tiff; fyitfs; my;yJ fiury;fs; ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J vjpHtpyfy;fis
ntspg;gLj;Jtd vdg;gLk;.
,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J vjpH tpyfy; fhl;Lfpd;w fyitfspy;> fyitapd; MtpaKf;fk;
vg;NghJk; ,yl;rpaf; fyitapidtplf; Fiwe;jJ vd vjpHghHf;fg;gLk;. MfNt
MtpaKf;fk; - mikg;G tisapfspy; ,yl;rpaf; Nfhl;bypUe;J fPo;Nehf;fpa tise;j
tiughf cU 12.6.5 (b) ,y; fhl;lg;gLfpwJ A apd; J}aMtpaKf;fk; pA0 > pB0 MFk; tiu
vy;yh ,lq;fspYk; ,t;tisap topNa caHe;j MtpaKf;fKk; mj;Jld; xU ,optpidAk;
ehk; fhzKbAk;. ,t;tiff; fyitfis cUthf;ff; $ba jputq;fisf; fyf;Fk;NghJ
ntg;gk; ntspg;gLk;. Vndd;why; %yhjhuj;ijtpl typik Fiwe;jd cilf;fg;gl;l
Gjpa typikahd gpizg;Gfs; Mf;fg;gLtjhy; ntg;gk; ntspg;gLk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F ePUk;
iej;jpupf;fkpyKk; fyf;fg;gLk;NghJ $basT ntg;gk; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;. Vnddpy; NO3-
kw;Wk; H3O+ mad; ,dq;fs; cUthfpd;wd. (cU 12.6.5 (b)) ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J
NeHtpyfYf;Fupa xU fyitahdJ XH caH MtpaKf;fk; cilaJ. ,jd; fhuzkhf
,J xU jho;nfhjpepiyAilaJ ,jd; %yf;$Wfs; ,yFthfj; jg;gpr; nry;fpd;wd
mj;Jld; %yf;$w;Wtpirfis Kw;whf kPWtjw;F fyitiag; ngUksT ntg;gkhf;f
Ntz;bajpy;iy. MfNt cU 12.6.6 (a) ,y; fhl;bathW A my;yJ B my;yJ
,uz;bdJk; nfhjpepiyfis tplj; jho;e;j ngWkjpia tplf; Fiwe;j nfhjpepiyAila
xU fyitiaf; nfhjpepiy mikg;Gtiugpy; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. cjhuzj;jpw;F> vjNdhy;
kw;Wk; ePH fyitapy;> jpzpTg;gb 95.6 % vjNdhiyf; nfhz;l ,opTf;nfhjpepiyf;
fyitiaf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,f;fyitapd; nfhjpepiy 78.2°C ,j;Jld; xg;gpLifapy;
xU vjNdhypd; nfhjpepiy 78.5°C kw;Wk; ePUf;F 100°C MFk;.
nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy
vjpu;tpyfy;
Mtp
Mtp
,yl;rpa fyit
jputk; ,yl;rpa fyit
Neu;tpyfy; jputk;
%y;gpd;dk; %y;gpd;dk;
cU 2.48 khwh ntg;gepiyia ,yl;rpakw;w fyit A , B apd; nfhjpepiy mikg;G tiuGfs;

(a) ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J NeHtpyfy; mj;Jld; (b) ,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J
vjpu;tpyfy;.
,uNthw;wpd; tpjpapypUe;J kiw tpyfy;fisf; fhl;Lk;fyit tiffspy;> J}a

jputq;fisAk; tpl> Mtpia Mf;Ftjw;F %yf;$Wfs; cile;J nry;tjhdJ
fbdkhdjhFk;. MfNt NkNyAs;s fyitfspd; nfhjpepiyfs; J}ajputq;fs;
201
,uz;bidAk; tplf; $ba nfhjpepiyapidf; nfhz;likAk;. Vnddpy; fyitapYs;s

typikahd ftHr;rpfis cilg;gjw;F Nkyjpf ntg;gk; Njitg;gLfpwJ. MfNt
mikg;Gld; nfhjpepiyapd; khWifapy; J}a A kw;Wk; B apd; nfhjpepiyfis tpl
xg;gLk;NghJ caHthd xU Gs;spa+lhfr; nry;tjid cU 2.48 (b) ,y; fhl;lg;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzj;jpw;F iej;jpupf;fkpy kw;Wk; ePupd; fyitahdJ xU caHTf; nfhjpg;Gs;sp
120.5°C d; cilaJ> ,q;F ,f;fyit 68% iej;jpupf; mkpyj;ijj; jpzpTg;gb
nfhz;lJ. ,jidj; J}a iej;jpupf; mkpyj;jpy; nfhjpepiy (86°C) kw;Wk; ePUf;F
(100°C) cld; xg;gplyhk;. Kd;G tpgupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghy> Gjpa mad; ,ilf;ftHr;rpfspd;
gpurd;dj;jhy; nfhjpepiyg;Gs;spapy; ngUNtWghl;bidf; fhl;Ltjid fhzyhk;.
gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbg;G

cU 2.44 (c) ,idf;fUJf> jputj;jpd; mikg;G C1 cld; njhlHghd Mtp Nrfupf;fg;gl;lnjd
vLj;Jf;nfhs;f. mj;Jld; ,jid xLf;Ftjd; %yk; xU Gjpa jputf;fyit C2
ngwg;gLk; vdTk; ,jid kPz;Lk; nfhjpf;fitg;gjhfTk; fUJf. ,j;jputj;jpd; Gjpa
nfhjpepiy T2 mj;Jld; cU 2.49 ,y; fhl;bathW ,jd;kPJs;s Mtpapy; mikg;G
C3 ck; MFk;. mikg;G C3 cila MtpahdJ J}ajputj;jpw;F neUq;fpaiktjid
ehk; fhzyhk;. vdNt> ,r;nraw;ghL Mtpapid xLq;Fjy; ngwg;gLk; tpisthd
jputj;ijf; nfhjpf;ftply; vd;gjid kPs kPs nra;tjd; %yk; ,Wjpapy; J}a A apidg;
ngwKbAk;. ,r;nraw;ghl;bd; mbg;gilahd njhopy;El;gk; gFjpglf; fha;r;rptbj;jy;
vd miof;fg;gLtJld; jputf;fyitfspy; J}a $Wfis gpupj;njLg;gjw;F ,J kpfg;
gaDilajhFk;.
nfhjpepiy nfhjpepiy
Mtp
jputk;
%y;gpd;dk;
cU 2.49 gFjpglf;fha;r;rptbj;jy; vz;zf;fU
cU 2.49 ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;l xLq;Fjy; mj;Jld; kPs; nfhjpf;f itj;jy; nraw;ghl;il

ehk; njhlHNthkhdhy; jputk; C3 ,d; kPs;nfhjpj;jyhdJ Mtpg;gwg;Gf; $Ljyhf
mikfpw $W A apd; msT mjpfsTila Mtpiaj; jUtJld; khwhf J}a
B apidf; $Ljyhff; nfhz;likAk; jputj;ijAk; ,q;F ngwKbAk;. MfNt mLj;jLj;j
nfhjpj;jy; - xLq;fy; - kPs;nfhjpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs; %yk; Mtpg;gwg;G $ba $wpid
jputf;fyitapypUe;J NtWg;gLj;jpg; ngwKbAnkd;gij ehk; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;s KbAk;.
vt;thwhapDk;> ,r;nraw;ghl;bid kPs Nkw;nfhs;tJ cz;ikapy; Neuj;ijf; $Ljyhf
EfHtjhfTk; mjhtJ Neuk; Njitg;gLtjhfTk; miktJld; caH nfhjpepiyailaf;
$wpid vt;thW ngwyhk; vd;gjpy; njsptw;wnjhd;whf khwTk; cs;sJ. ,j;jilapid
jhz;b Mtpahjy; kw;Wk; kPs;nfhjpj;jy; jd;dpr;irahf eilngWtjw;Fg; gFjpglf;
fha;r;rptbg;G epuy;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
202
ntg;gkhdp
gFjpglf;fha;r;rp
tbj;jy;
fz;zhb
kzpfs;
ePu;
tbjputk;
jput (Mtpg;gwg;G
fyit $baJ
ntg;gk; cau;thFk;)
cU 2.50 gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbf;Fk; epuiy cila gFjpglf;fha;r;rp tbj;jYf;fhd KO
cgfuz mikg;Gf;fhd xU tiuglk;
,g;gFjpglr;fha;r;rp tbg;ghdJ> MtpxLq;Ftjw;F trjpahf> $HKidfs; ,ize;j
epuypd; RtHfs; my;yJ fz;zhb kzpfshy; epug;gg;gl;ljhf mike;Js;sJ. ,f;fz;zhb
kzpfs; my;yJ $HKidr; RtHfs; cl;Gwj;jpy; gug;ig mjpfupj;J> epuypd; cl;gFjpapy;
,ad;wsT $ba njhlHigf; nfhLg;gjd; %yk; jputk; fPo;Nehf;fp tUtjw;Fk; #lhd
MtpNkYaHe;J ngWtjw;Fk; toptFg;gjdhy; tpidj;jpwd; $ba nfhjpj;jy; - xLq;fw;
rf;fuq;fs; mikfpd;wd. gFjpgltbg;G epuypd; ntspr;nry;yw; gFjpapy; xU
ntg;gkhf;fpf; Fkpo; kpfr;rupahf itf;fg;gl;bUg;gJld; jputkhdJ ePH - FspHr;rpahf;fp
xLf;fpAlDk; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. mikg;G C1 cila xU fyitapy; nfhjpg;igf;
fUJf.
Mtpiag; gFg;gha;jy;
ehk; mwpe;jJ Nghd;W nfhjpf;Fk; jputj;jpd;kPJs;s MtpahdJ Fiwe;j nfhjpepiyAila>
Mtpg;gwg;Gf; $ba $wpidf; $Ljyhf cilaJk; (cU 12.6.7) mikg;G C2 ck;
cilaJkhFk;. nfhjpf;Fk; jputj;jpd; kPJ cUthf;fg;gLk; MtpahdJ jdpj;J
epuypd; topNa Nky;Nehf;fpr; nry;y Muk;gpg;gJld;> mJ xLq;fg;NghJkhd Fiwe;j
ntg;gepiyAila xU cauj;ijAk; Kbtpy; milAk;. ,J fz;zhb kzpfs;kPJ
my;yJ $HKidfs; kPJ my;yJ cs;Ns xU jputj;ijAk; mspf;Fk;. ,j;jputj;jpd;
mikg;Gj; njhlHe;J C2 MFk;. xUjuk; MtpxLf;fg;gLk;NghJ> mJ epuypd; topNa jdpj;J
jputhf tPo;r;rpAwj; njhlq;FtJld; NknyLj;Jr; nry;fpw Gjpa #lhd MtpAlDk;
njhlHGWk; jw;NghJ tPo;fpd;w jputkhdJ NknyOk; #lhd MtpAld; fyg;gLd; mJ
kPs;nfhjpj;jYf;F ,J fhuzkhfpwJ.
Mtpapd; mikg;Gj; jw;NghJ C3 vdf; nfhs;f. NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;lJNghd;W> kPz;Lk;
Gjpa MtpahdJ NkNyNehf;fp> epuypy; xLq;Ftjw;Fg; NghJkhd ntg;gepiyiag;
ngWk;tiu efUk;. jd;dpr;irahf kPsTk; ,r;nraw;ghL KOikahf eilngWk;. Mtp
jputkhf xLq;Fd;w xt;nthU NeuKk;> ,j;jputkhdJ epuypy; fPo;Nehf;fp tPo;tjw;F
Muk;gpg;gjid ehk;ghHf;f KbtJld; cUthf;fg;gLk; Mtpg;gwg;G $ba $W A apidf;
$bajhff; nfhz;l #lhd Mtpapdhy; kPz;Lk; ,j;jputk; nfhjpf;Fk; vd;gjidAk;
Nehf;fyhk;. ,Ujputq;fspd; nfhjpepiyfs; kpfTk; neUq;fpad vdpd; vkf;F ePz;l
gFjpgly; epuy; Njitg;gLk;.
jputj;jpidg; gFj;jha;jy;
Mtpapd; nfhjpepiy Fiwe;j $W A nrwpe;J nry;tJ Nghd;W FLitapy; vQ;rpa jputj;jpy;
kw;iwa $W B ahdJ $Ljyhfg; ngwg;gLk;. nfhjpj;jy; kw;Wk; xLq;fw; nrw;ghLfs; kPs
kPs eilngWtjd; %yk; xLq;fYk; xLf;fg;gl;l jputkhdJ njhlHr;rpahf epuypd;topNa
xLq;FtJk;> NknyOk; Mtpapdhy; kPs; nfhjpj;jYk; xt;nthU kPs;nfhjpj;jy; %yKk;
Mtpg;gwg;Gf; $ba $wpdhy; mJ nrwptiltJk; mikAk;
203
MfNt> epuypd; Nkw;gFjpapdhy; $W A ahdJ ntspg;gLk; xLf;fpa+lhfr; nry;fpd;w

Neuq;fspy; FLitapYs;s jputkhdJ B apdhy; nrwptilAk;. ntg;gepiyia ftdkhf
fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;> $W A (nfhjpepiy Fiwe;jJ) Nrfupf;fg;gLfpd;w FLitapYk;
B ahdJ Muk;gf; FLitapYk; nfhz;ljhf xU Jtpjf; fiury; Ntwhf;fg;gLk;.
2.6.2 fyf;Fk; jftw;w jput - jputj; njhFjpfs;

jug;gl;l xU ntg;g mKf;f epiyapy; fyf;Fk; jftw;w jputq;fs; vdg;gLtd jkf;Fs;
fye;J xU jdp mtj;ijiaf; nfhz;l fyitiaf; nfhLg;gjpy;iy. vz;nza; kw;Wk;
ePH vd;gd ,jw;F xU cjhuzk;> jtpu vz;nza; MdJ ePupd;kPJ kpjf;Fk;. MfNt>
Kw;wpYk; fyf;Fk; jftw;w ,Ujputq;fis xd;Wld; xd;W fyf;Fk;NghJ mit ,U
gilfshf gpupe;J mlHj;jp $baJ fPNoAk; mjd; kPJ mlHj;jp Fiwe;jJk; kpjf;Fk; vdTk;
ehk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s KbAk;. ,j;jifa tiffspy;> jputq;fs; xU %banfhs;fyj;jpy;
epiyahd epge;jidapy; mikAk;NghJ> mj;jput %yf;$Wfs; ,ilNa vJtpjkhd
,ilj;jhf;fq;fSk; ,y;iy vd;gJld; vspikahd $wpd; njhFjpapd; MtpaKf;fkhdJ
NkNy kpjg;gjd; MtpaKf;fkhf mikAk; Vndd;why; mbapy; cs;s jputkhdJ
Nkw;nry;tjw;F xU topAk; ,y;iynadTk; ehk; Nahrpf;fyhk;.
MfNt> fyitahdJ fyf;fg;gLfpd;wJ my;yJ epiyj;j epiyahdJ
Fog;gg;gLfpd;wNghJ> ,U jputq;fSk; Jspfshf cilf;fg;gLk;. MfNt NkNyAs;s
jputg;gilahdJ fPNo miktjw;F khw;whf Mtpg;gwg;G miltjpy;iy. ,Ue;jNghJk;
mJ rkepiyia miltJk; nkJthf;fg;gLk;. MfNt> vt;nthU Neuj;jpYk; Nkw;gug;gpy;
,U jputq;fspdJk; Jspfs; fhzg;gLtjhy; fyitapy; KOikahd MtpaKf;fj;jpw;F
,Ujputq;fSk; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;tdthFk;. ,t;tifapy; jputq;fs; ,uz;bdJk;
%yf;$Wfs; thAepiyAs;s mtw;wpd; %yf; $WfSld; KiwNa rkepiyapy;
mikAk; vd vLj;Jf;nfhs;sy; tpUk;gj;jf;fJ vd;gJld; mit ,uz;Lk; njhFjpapy;
nkhj;j MtpaKf;fj;jpw;F gq;fspg;G nra;fpd;wnjdTk; nfhs;syhk;. $Wfs; A kw;Wk; B
vdf; fUJk;NghJ $Wfs; ,uz;bdJk; njhFjpapd; kPjhd nkhj;j MtpaKf;fj;jpw;Fg;
gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; vd;f. MfNt $Wfspd; gFjpaKf;fq;fspy; $l;LnjhifahdJ
njhFjpapd; nfhs;s mKf;fj;jpw;FkhFk;.
vd;gJld; njhFjpapy; $Wfs; A , B Ak; Mff; nfhs;sg;gLk;.
MtpaKf;fk; / kPa
ntg;gepiy
cU 2.51 Kw;wpYk; fyf;Fk; jftw;w jput - jput njhFjpapy; MtpaKf;f khwy;

,U jputq;fSk; fyf;fhJtpbd; 2.51 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lNghJ ntg;gepiyAld; mit
,uz;bdJk; MtpaKf;fq;fspy; khw;wkhdJ xd;Wld; xd;W jq;fhJ Rakhdjhf mikAk;.
ehk; mtw;wpd; gFjpaKf;fg; ngWkhdq;fisf; $l;bg; ngwg;gLk; 100 kPa ,y;> ntl;Lk;NghJ
ngwg;gLk; Gs;spahdJ> J}a kw;Wk; J}a A, B Mfpatw;Wld; xg;gpLk;NghJ Fiwe;j
nfhjpepiyiaf; fhl;LfpwJ. MfNt ,j;jifa fyf;Fk; jftw;jputq;fspd; fyitfl;Fupa
tiffspy; Kf;fpakhff; ftdpf;fNtz;baJ ahnjdpd; fyitapy; nfhjpepiyahdJ
J}a $Wfs; ,uz;bdJk; nfhjpepiyfis tplf; Fiwthdnjd;gjhFk;.
204
,j;jj;JtkhdJ ntg;gj;jpw;F czHjpwDila NrHitfspd; J}a;ikahf;fypw;F kpfTk;

gaDilaJ> Fwpg;ghfj; jkJ nfhjpepiy ntg;gepiyfspy; gpupif miltjw;fhFk;.
jho;ntg;gepiyapy; nfhjpf;fpw fyitfspd; caH nfhjpepiyAila NrHitfspd;
$Wfisf; nfhjpePuhtp fha;r;rptbg;gjd; %yk; gpupj;njLg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jy;
,yFthdjhFk;. cjhuzkhf gPidy; mikd; jdJ rhjhuz nfhjpepiy (184 oC)
apy; tpiuthf xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;. vt;thwhapDk; gPidy; mikd; - ePHf; fyitahdJ
100 oC apYk; Fiwe;j ntg;gepiyapy; nfhjpf;fpd;wJ. cU 12.7 ,d; %yk; gpd;tUkhW
fyitapidg; gpupf;fyhk; vd tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;> 98 oC J}a jputq;fspy; epuk;gyhtp
aKf;fq;fSk; gpd;tUkhW :
gPidy; mikfs; 7.07 kPa
ePH 94.30 kPa
fyitapd; nkhj;j MtpaKf;fkhdJ ,t;tpuz;bdJk; $l;Lj;njhif 101.37 kPa
MFk;. ,J rhjhuz ntspaKf;fj;jpYk; rpwpJ caHthFk;. MfNt ,j;njhFjpahdJ
98 °C rpwpJ Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; nfhjpf;Fk;> ,J J}a ePupd; nfhjpepiyapYk;
(100°C)FiwthdJ mj;Jld; J}a gPidy; mikdpd; nfhjpepiy (184 oC) apYk; kpff;
FiwthdjhFk;.
MfNt fyitapypUe;J ,r;NrHitiaf; nfhjpePuhtpf; fha;r;rptbj;jypdhy; jdpahf;fy;
kpfr; Rygkhf Nkw;nfhs;sf; $bajhFk;. mj;Jld; cU 12.7.2 ,y; ,j;njhopy;El;gj;jpw;fhd
mikg;gpd; tiuglq;fs; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,r;nray;Kiwapy; nfhjpePuhtpahdJ
njhlHr;rpahfr; #lhf;fg;gl;l fyita+lhfr; nrYj;jg;gLtJld; ntspg;gLk; MtpahdJ ePH
- FspHr;rpahf;fy; xLf;fp %yk; xLf;fg;gLk;> Mjyhy; J}a$wpd; xLf;fg;gl;l MtpahdJ
xU nfhs;fyj;jpy; Nrfupf;fg;gLk;. nfhjpePuhtp fha;r;rptbg;G El;gk; xU gjhHj;jk;
Ntwhf;fg;gly; / J}a;ikahf;fYf;Fg; gaDilaJ vd;wNghJk; mg;gjhu;j;jkhdJ ePUld;
fyf;Fk; jftw;wJ my;yJ ePupy; fiuahjJ> caH %yf;$w;Wj; jpzpTilaJ> RkhH
100°C apy; caH Mtp mKf;fKilaJ mj;Jld; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; epge;jidfspd; fPo;
mjDld; cs;s khRf;fs; Mtpg;gwg;gdthfTk; mika Ntz;Lk;.
2.7. gq;fPl;L / guk;gw; Fzfk;
fyf;Fk; jftw;w ,U fiughd;fs; A kw;Wk; B apid xU Kfitapy; itf;fg;gLk;NghJ
mit fyf;fkhl;lhjd mj;Jld; cldbahf ,U gilfshfg; gpupj;JtpLnkd ehk;
mwpNthk;. xU khwh ntg;gepiyapy;> mt;tpUfiug;ghd;fspy; xNu %yf;$w;W mikg;Gld;
fiuaj;jf;fJk; mtw;Wld; jhf;fKw;wJkhd xU fiuak; х Nru;f;fg;gLk; gpd; njhFjp ed;F
FYf;fg;gl;L xt;nthd;wpYk; mjd; fiujpwDf;F Vw;g х MdJ mt;tpU fiug;ghdpYk;
fiuf;fg;gl;lJ. NkYk; ,jidf; fiuakhdJ mt;tpU fiug;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa
gq;fplg;gl;lJ my;yJ guk;gg;gl;lJ vd miof;fyhk;. njhFjpia milatpl;lNghJk;
fiug;ghd;fs; gilfshf Ntwhf;fg;gLtJld; fiuak; х ,d; %yf;$w;Wfs; ,U
fiug;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l vy;iya+lhfg; gpd;dile;J mj;Jld; Kd;nry;Yk;
,Wjpahf xt;nthU gilapYk; х ,d; nrwpTfs; khwhJ mikAk; xU ,af;fr;
rkepiyia milAk;.
fiwak; X
fiug;ghd; A
fiug;ghd; B
cU 2.52 fiug;ghd;fs; A, B vd;gtw;wpd; fiwak; X apd; guk;gYf;fhd tiuglk;
205
mNj ntg;gepiyapy;> NkYk; fiuak; X NrHf;fg;gLkhdhy;> khwhntg;gepiyapy;

jhdhfNt mf;fiuakhdJ mt;tpU gilfSf;FkpilNa fiuaj;jpd; nrwpit mNj
tpfpjj;jpYk; itj;Jf;nfhs;Sk;.
MfNt khwhntg;gepiyapy; ,j;njhFjpapd; rkepiy khwpyp gpd;tUkhW vOjg;gl
KbAk;.
X ,d; nrwpT A apy;
= khwpyp
X ,d; nrwpT A apy;
khwh ntg;gepiyapy; xU X MdJ jhdhfNt fyf;Fk; jftw; fiug;ghd;fs; A , B

apilNa gug;Gk;NghJ mj;Jld; ,U fiug;ghd;fspYk; xNu %yf;$w;W epge;jidapYk;
,Uf;Fk;NghJ>
[XA]
= KD
[ XB]
,k;khwpyp KD ahdJ guk;gw;Fzfk; my;yJ gq;fPl;Lf; Fzfk; my;yJ guk;gy; tpfpjk;

vd miof;fg;gLk;.
khwhntg;gepiyapy;> xU fiuakhdJ fyf;Fk; jftw;w ,U fiug;ghd;fSld;
FYf;fg;gLk;NghJ> rkepiyapy; ,U jputq;fSk; mf; fiuaj;jpy; epuk;gyilAk;.
fiujpwd; MdJ nrwpthy; gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gl KbAkhjyhy; gq;fPl;L tpjpia ehk;
[XA] S(X)A
= = KD
[ X B] S(X)B
S(X)A kw;Wk; S(X)B vd;gd ,U fiug;ghd;fspy; fiuaj;jpd; fiujpwd; MFk;. MfNt

guk;gw;Fzfk; KD Ak; xU fiug;ghdpy; mf;fiuaj;jpd; fiujpwDk; mwpag;gl;ljhf
,Ug;gpd; ,uz;lhtJ fiug;ghdpy; fiuaj;jpy; fiujpwidf; fzpf;fKbAk;.
cjhuzk; 2.46
xU jpz;kk; X MdJ ngd;rPd; kw;Wk; ePUld; 25 oC apy; NrHf;fg;gl;lJ.
ed;F FYf;fp milatpl;lgpd;G> 20.00 cm3 ngd;rPd; gilahdJ 0.20 g X
nfhz;bUg;gJld; 100.00 cm3 ePHg;gilahdJ 0.40 g X IAk; nfhz;bUe;jJ.
,t;tpU fiug;ghd;fspy; X MdJ mjd; rhjhuz %yf;$w;W epiwAld; cs;sJ.
vdpd; KD I fzpf;Ff.
tpil
0.20 g
ngd;rPdpy; X ,d; nrwpT Cb = 20.00 cm3 = 1.0 ×10 g cm
-2 -3
0.40 g
ePupy; X ,d; nrwpT Cw = = 4.0 ×10-3 g cm-3
100.00 cm3
Cb 1.0 ×10-2 g cm-3
∴ KD= = = 2.5
Cw 4.0 ×10-3 g cm-3
Fwpg;G : nrwptpid vg;NghJk; mol dm-3 ,y; mwpa Ntz;bajpy;iy KD ahdJ

xU gupkhzkw;w fiuakhFk;. myFfs; ePf;fg;gl;LtpLk;. ,U nrwpT myFfSk;
xNu khjpupahf mikjy; Kf;fpakhdJ vd;gjid Qhgfg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;f.
206
cjhuzk; 2.47
25 ºC apy; rkepiyapy;> ePHf;fiury; nfhz;Ls;s mabd;
-3
0.05 g dm ck; mjDld; rkepiyapy; cs;s fhgd;ehw;FNshiul;L (CCl4)
4.00 g dm-3 ck; nfhz;likfpwJ. 25 ºC ePupy; mabdpd; fiujpwd; 0.40 g dm-3
vdpd; fhgd;ehw;FNshiul;by; mabdpd; fiujpwidf; fhz;f.
tpil
CCCl 4.00 g dm-3
KD = 4
= = 80
CH O 0.05g dm-3
2
∴ fiujpwd; CCCl =
fiujpwd; CCl4
= 80
4
∴ fiujpwd; H2 O 0.40 g dm-3
∴ fiujpwd; CCCl = 32.00 g dm-3
4
khwhntg;gepiyapy; KD ahdJ xU khwpyp vd tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sy;.

ehk; fUj;jpw;nfhz;likAk; xU njhFjpahdJ fiuak; X ,d; guk;gypy; xU ,af;f
rkepiyf;F cupaJ vd;f. fiug;ghd; A apypUe;J B f;F X ,d; %yf;$Wfs; nry;Yk;
tPjk; r1 A apYs;s mjd; nrwpTf;F (C1) tpfpj rkkhFk;. B apypUe;J A f;F X ,d;
%yf;$Wfs; nry;Yk; tPjk; r2 B apYs;s mjd; nrwpTf;F (C2) tpfpj rkkhFk;. khwh
ntg;gepiyapy;> xU fiug;ghdpypUe;J kw;iwa fiug;ghdpw;Ff; fiuak; FbngaUk;
tPjk; rkkhFk;.
fiug;ghd; A
fiug;ghd; B
cU 2.53 khwh ntg;gepiyapy; KD ia khwhky; itj;jpUg;gjw;Ff; fiwak; X ,d; guk;gy;

mjpfupj;jy;
MfNt ehk; gpd;tUkhW nfhs;syhk;. r1αC1 , r2αC2

r1 = k1C1 , r2 = k2C2
k1 , k2 jhf;fkhwpypfs;
rkepiyapy; r1 = r2 MfNt> k1C1 = k2C2
C1 k
= 2 = KD
C2 k1
207
toikahf> guk;gy; tpjpf;Fg; gpd;tUk; epge;jidfs; mtrpakhdjhFk;.

1. khwh ntg;gepiy : gupNrhjid KOtjpYk; ntg;gepiy khwhjpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
2. xNu %yf;$w;Wepiy : ,U fiug;ghd;fspYk; fiuaj;jpy; %yf;$w;W xj;jikjy;
Ntz;Lk;.
3. rkepiyr; nrwpTfs; : rkepiyahdJ mike;jgpd; fiuaj;jpy; nrwpTfs; msf;fg;gLk;
my;yJ kjpg;gplg;gLk;.
4. Ijhd fiury;fs; : ,U fiug;ghd;fspYk; fiuaj;jpy; nrwpTfs; Fiwe;jjhf
,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
5. fyf;Fk; jftw;w jputq;fs;
208
f.ngh.j.(c/j),urhadk;: myF 13 I¡Qóê£òù èôƒèœ
3. kpd; ,urhadtpay;
cs;slf;fk;
3.1 flj;Jjpwd; 3.4 kpd; gFg;G
3.1.1 fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;Jjpwid 3.4.1 ePiu kpd;gFj;jy;
ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; 3.4.2 nrk;G kpd;tha;fisg; gad;gLj;jp
3.2 rkepiyapy; kpd;tha;fs; CuSO4 ePu; fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;
3.2.1 cNyhfk; - cNyhf mad; 3.4.3 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fisf; nfhz;L
kpd;tha; CuSO4 fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy
3.2.2 cNyhfk; - ePupy; fiuahj 3.4.4 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp
cg;Gf;fspd; kpd;tha; NaCl ePu;f;fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;
3.2.3 thA kpd;tha;fs; 3.4.5 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp
NaCl jputk; (cUfp NaCl)
3.2.4 jho;j;Njw;w kpd;tha;fs;
kpd;gFj;jy;
3.3 kpd; ,urhad fyq;fs;
3.4.6 kpd;gFg;gpd; mstwpKiw gFg;G
3.3.1 kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fiuis
mikj;jy; 3.4.7 fy;thdpf;fyj;jpidAk; kpd;gFg;Gf;
fyj;jpidAk; xg;gpLjy;
3.3.2 kpd;tha; mOj;jj;ij ghjpf;Fk;
fhuzpfs;
3.3.3 ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;dpu
rhadf; fyq;fs;
209
mwpKfk;
RahjPd ,urhadj;jhf;fq;fs; %yk; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;w rf;jpahdJ kpd;rf;jpahf

khw;wg;gLtJ my;yJ Xu; RahjPdkhf epfohj jhf;fj;ij epfor; nra;a kpd; rf;jpiag;
gad;gLj;JtJld; njhlu;Ggl;ljhd kpd; kw;Wk; ,urhad rf;jpfspd; gupkhw;wq;fs; gw;wpa
fw;wy; kpd; ,urhadtpay; MFk;. Fwpj;j njhFjpfspy; epfOfpd;w jhf;fq;fs; ,yj;jpud;
gupkhw;wq;fs; gpujhdkhf xl;rpNaw;wk;-jho;j;jy; vd;w ,izj; jhf;fq;fshf epfO
fpd;wd. Fwpj;j Xu; ,urhad ,dj;jpypUe;J xd;W my;yJ gy ,yj;jpud;fs; ,of;fg;
gLtJ xl;rpNaw;wk; vdTk;> xU ,urhad ,dj;jpdhy; xd;W my;yJ gy ,yj;jpu-
d;fs; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLtJ jho;j;jy; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
Xl;rpNaw;wKk; jho;j;jYk; ,izj;jhf;fq;fshf epfOfpd;wd. ,it xl;rpNaw;wj;

jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;fs; my;yJ jho;j;Njw;Wk; jhf;fq;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. ,yj;jpud;fs;
xl;rpNaw;wg;gl;l gjhu;j;jq;fspypUe;J (jho;j;Jk; fUtp my;yJ jho;j;jp) jho;j;jg;gl;l-
gjhu;j;jq;fspw;Fr; (xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtp my;yJ xl;rpNaw;wp) nry;fpd;wd. fy;thdpapd;
fyj;jpy; cs;sijg; Nghd;W jhf;fnkhd;wpdhy; ,yj;jpud;fs; gha;r;ryhdJ RahjPd-
khf (jhdhfNt) cUthf;fg;gl;L kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;wg;glyhk;. My;yj kpd;gFg;Gf;
fyj;jpy; cs;sijg; Nghd;W ntspNaAs;s kpd;Kjy; xd;wpdhy; RahjPdkhf epfohj
jhf;f nkhd;W njhlu;r;rpahf epfor; nra;ag;gl;L ,yj;jpud; gha;r;ry; epfo KbAk;.
fy;thdpapd; fyk;> kpd;gFg;Gf; fyq;fs; kw;Wk; kpd;gFg;gpd; gpuNahfq;fs; Nghd;w

kpd;dpurhadr; nraw;ghLfspy; jho;j;jNyw;wj; jhf;fj;jpd; mbg;gil tplaq;fisf;
fhzyhk;.
3.1 flj;Jjpwd; (Conductivity)
vkJ md;whl tho;f;ifapy; fhfpjk;> kuk;> fz;zhb> gpshj;jpf;F> ,wg;gu;> cNy-

hfq;fs;> fyg;Gg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; Nghd;w NtWgl;l tifahd nghUl;fis ehk; re;-
jpf;fpd;Nwhk;. ,g;nghUl;fs; NtWgl;l ,ay;Gfisf; nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; NtWgl;l
NjitfSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. jk;%L kpd;idg; ghatplf;$ba ,ay;G
mj;jifa ,ay;GfSs; xd;whfTs;sJ. kpd;gFg;G fiury;fspD}lhf kpd; flj;jg;
gLfpd;w tplaj;ijf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;tjw;F Kd;ghf> ehk; rpy nrhw;gjq;fis
tiuaWj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. kpd;jilahdJ “ R ” vDk; FwpaPl;bdhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
,J “ Ω ” vDk; myfpy; mstpg;gLk;. ,J kg m2 vd;w SI myfpw;Fr; rkdhdJ. jil
ahdJ ctP];ldpd; ghyj;jpd; (Wheatstone Bridge) cjtpAld; mstplg;gl
KbAk;. ve;jnthU nghUspd; jilAk; mg;nghUspd; ePsk; “ l ” w;F Neu; tpfpjrkdh-
fTk; mjd; FWf;F ntl;L Kfg;gug;G “ A ” w;F Neu;khW tpfpjrkdhfTk; cs;sJ.
mjhtJ>
R α kw;Wk;, R α 1/A
MfNt R α ℓ /A
R = ρ ℓ/A
210
Nkw;gb tpfpj khwpyp “ ρ” (rho) MdJ jilj;jpwd; (resistivity - jw;wil) vd miof;fg;gLk;.
,jd; SI myF Ω m MFk;. nghJthf Ω cm ck; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. me;jtifapy;> ngsjPf
uPjpapy; xU kPw;wu; ePsKk; xU rJu kPw;wu; FWf;FKfg;gug;Gk; nfhz;l gjhu;j;jnkhd;wpd;
jilahdJ mjd; jilj;jpwd; vdg;gLk;. Ω m = 100 Ω m
jilapd; Neu;khW tpfpjk; (epfu; khw;W) flj;JtY (Conductance) “ G ” vdg;gLfpd;wJ.

jilAld; ,jid ehk; njhlu;GgLj;jpdhy;>
1
flj;JtY (G) =
R
flj;J tYtpd; SI myF irkd;]; (siemens) MFk;. ,J “S” ,dhy; Fwpg;

gplg;gLk;. ,J ohm-1 (Ω-1)w;Fr; rkdhFk;. mj;Jld; “mho” vdTk; mwpag;gLfpd;wJ.
1 A A
flj;JtY (G) = = = k
R ρℓ ℓ
1
ρ = κ
jilj;jpwdpd; Neu;khWtpfpjrkd; (epfu; khw;W) Xu; khwpyp. ,J flj;Jjpwd;
(conductivity) vdg;gLk;.
,J “ κ ” (kappa) ,dhy; Fwpaplg;gLk;. flj;Jjpwdpd; SI myF Sm-1 ,dhy; jug;gLk;.

,J nghJthf Scm-1 ,dhy; mstplg;gLfpd;wJ. xU kPw;wu; ePsKk; xU rJu
kPw;wu; FWf;F Kfg;gug;Gk; nfhz;l nghUnshd;wpd; flj;JjpwddhdJ 1 Sm-1 Mf
,Uf;Fk;. 1S cm-1 = 100S m-1
,t;tiutpyf;fzj;ij cU 3.1 ,dhy; gpd;tUkhW tpsq;fg;gLj;j KbAk;.
Xl;lk;
cU 3.1 jil kw;Wk; jilj;jpwd;
Fwpj;j xU gjhu;j;jj;jpw;F (cNyhfk; my;yJ njupe;j nrwpTila mad; fiury;)

jilj;jpwDk; flj;JjpwDk; khwpypfshf cs;sd. MapDk;> ,it ntg;gepiyAld;
khWk;jd;ik nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; jilj;jpwd;> flj;Jjpwd; mstplg;gLk;NghJ ntg;g
epiy Fwpg;gplg;glNtz;baJ Kf;fpakhdjhf cs;sJ. nghJthf fiury;fspy;
10 C ntg;gepiy khw;wj;jpd;NghJ flj;Jjpwdpy; 2% khw;wk; mtjhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
211
cNyhfq;fs; Nghd;w gjhu;j;jq;fspD}lhf ,yj;jpud;fs; gha;tjdhy;> mit jk;%L
kpd;idf; flj;jf; $baitahfTs;sd. mj;jifa nghUl;fs; kpd;flj;jpfs; vdg;
gLfpd;wd. mj;Jld; cUfpa mad; Nru;itfs; my;yhj mad; fiury;fs; Clhf
mad;fs; gha;tjd; %yk; kpd; flj;jg;gl KbAk;. ,it mad; flj;jpfs; vdg;gL
fpd;wd. MfNt> xU kpd;Gykhdj njhopw;gLk;NghJ gjhu;j;jq;fspD}lhf kpd;
flj;jg;gLtjw;F mq;F miraj;jf;f ,yj;jpud;fs; (my;yJ Jisfs;) my;yJ
jpz;k> jput epiyfspy; miraj; jf;f mad;fs; ,Ug;gJ mtrpak; MFk;.
fiury;fis td;kpd;gFnghUl;fs;> nkd;kpd;gFnghUl;fs;> kpd;gfhg; nghUl;fs;

(fhtypfs;) vd tifg;gLj;j KbAk;.jpz;k mad;Nru;itfs;> td; mkpyq;fs;> td;
fhuq;fs; Nghd;w ePu;f;fiurypy; Kw;whf madhf;fkilaf;$ba gjhu;j;jq;fs; td;
kpd;gFnghUl;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. ,f;fiury;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w td; kpd;gF
nghUspd; nrwptpw;Nfw;g mad;fspd; nrwpitf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. NaCl, KNO3, HCl
Nghd;wtw;wpd; ePu;f;fiury;fs; td; kpd;gF nghUl;fSf;F cjhuzq;fshFk;. ePu;f;
fiurypy; gFjpahf madhf;fkilAk; kpd;gF nghUl;fs; nkd; kpd;gFnghUl;fs;
vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. Guz;];nul;bd; nkd; mkpyq;fs; nkd;%yq;fs; CH3COOH,
NH3, H2O Nghd;wit nkd;kpd;gFnghUl;fSf;F cjhuzq;fshFk;.
ePu;f;fiurypy; mad;fisj;juhj gjhu;j;jq;fs; NtNwhu; tifapylq;Fk;. ,it kpd;

gfhg; nghUl;fs; my;yJ fhtypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. ,it kpd;idf; flj;Jt-
jpy;iy. ngd;rPd; (C6H6) kz;nza; Nghd;w Kidtw;w Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; kpd;gfhg;
nghUl;fSf;F cjhuzq;fshFk;.
cU 3.2 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lthwhd ePsk; (ℓ ) ck;> FWf;FKfg;gug;G (A) A Kila

Xu; fw;gid tbtpyike;j fiurypy; itf;fg;gl;l ,U vjpnujpu; Vw;wq;fisf;
nfhz;l cNyhf kpd;tha;fisg; gad;gLj;jp> Xu; kpd;gF fiurypd; jiliaAk; flj;J
jpwidAk; mstplKbAk;.
kpd;tha;fs;
kpd;gF fiury;
Xl;lk;
cU 3.2 kpd;gF nghUl; fiurnyhd;wpd; Clhd flj;Jjpwd;; kw;Wk; jilj;jpwd;
212
3.1.1 fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;J jpwidg;ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;.
fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;Jjpwidg; gy fhuzpfs; ghjpf;fpd;wd. mitahtd> fiu

aj;jpd; ,ay;G> fiuaj;jpd; nrwpT> fiurypd; ntg;gepiy Vw;wq;fhtpfspd; mirAe;
jfT Nkw;gb fhuzpfspy; jq;fpapUg;gjdhYk; Vw;wq;fhtpfspd; mirAe; jftpy;
flj;Jjpwd; jq;fpapUg;gjdhYk; Nkw;gb fhuzpfs; ahTNk flj;Jk; jpwidg;ghjpf;
fpd;wd. mirAe;jfTila Vw;wq;fhtpfs; my;yJ mad;fspd; ,Ug;igj; jPu;khdpg;
gjpy; fiuaj;jpd; ,ay;G Kf;fpa gq;if tfpf;fpd;wJ.
Kw;whff; gpupifailtjd; %yk; mad;fis Mf;Ftjdhy; KCl , NaCl

Nghd;w typikahd kpd;gFnghUl;fspd; ePu;f;fiury;fs; kpd;idf; flj;jf; $bajhf
Ts;sd. ,Ug;gpDk; jpz;k epiyapy; ,t;td;kpd;gFnghUl;fspy; mad;fs; mirAk; jfT
mw;wjd;ik fhzg;gLtjdhy; mit kpd;idf; flj;Jtjpy;iy. ,j;jifa jpz;k kpd;gF
nghUl;fs; cUfpa epiyf;F nfhz;Ltug;gLk;NghJ NaCl (l) mad;fs; mirAe;jfT
s;sjhf Mf;fg;gLtjdhy; kpd;idf; flj;Jfpd;wd. kw;nwhU tifapy; $wpdhy;> nkd;d
kpyq;fs;> nkd;fhuq;fs; ePu;f;fiury;fspy; ePUld; jhf;fKw;W gFjpahf madhf;
fkile;J> mad;fis Mf;Ftjdhy; kpd;idf;flj;jf; $bajhfTs;sd.
cjhuzk; : 3.1
gpd;tUk; gjhu;j;jq;fSs; vJ ePupy; fiue;jTld; kpd;idf;flj;Jk;?
a) NkirAg;G b) FSf;NfhR c) tpdhfpup
tpil:
a) NkirAg;gpd; ,urhadr; #j;jpuk; NaCl. ,J ePupy; Kw;whff; fiue;J

Na +, Cl- Nghd;w mad;fis Mf;Ffpd;w xu; kpd;gFnghUs; MFk;;. ePupy;
fiue;J mad;fis Mf;Fk; jd;ik ,Ug;gjdhy; NkirAg;ghdJ kpd;idf;
flj;jf; $ba ,ay;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
b) FSf;NfhR C6H12O6 vd;w ,urhadr; #j;jpuj;ijAila Xu; Nrjdr; Nru;it.,J

ePupy; fiuAk;NghJ mad;fs; vijAk; Mf;Ftjpy;iy. me;j tifapy; FSf;
NfhRf; fiury; kpd;idf;flj;Jtjpy;iy.
c) tpdhfpup mjpfstpy; mrw;wpf;fkpyj;ijf; (CH3COOH) nfhz;Ls;sJ. mrw;

wpf;fkpykhdJ nkd;dkpykhf ,Ug;gjdhy; gFjpahfg;gpupifaile;J ePu;
fiurypy; H3O+, CH3COO- Nghd;w mad;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. me;j tifapy;
tpdhfpupf;fiury; kpd;idf; flj;jf; $bajhfTs;sJ.
213
fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;Jjpwidg; ghjpf;Fk; kw;nwhU Kf;fpa fhuzpahf ,Ug;gJ
nrwpT MFk;. Ijhf;fg;gl;l ePu;f;fiurypd; nrwpthdJ FiwtilAk;NghJ flj;-
Jk; jpwDk; Fiwtilfpd;wJ. Ijhf;fj;jpdhy; mad;fspd; msTk; mad;fspw;fpil
apyhd ,ilf;ftu;r;rpAk; Fiwtjdhy; ,J Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 3.1 298 K apy; ntt;NtW ePu; khwpypfs; kw;Wk; fiury;fs; Mfpatw;wpd;
flj;Jjpwd;fs;
khjpup flj;Jjpwd; / μS cm-1
fha;r;rp tbj;j ePu; 1–2
0.01 mol dm-3 KCl fiury; 1,480

fpzw;W ePu; 100 – 200
Foha; ePu; 50 – 150
fly; ePu; 40,000
MS : ikf;fpNuh rPkd;]; (Micro Siemens)
ml;ltiz 3: 1298 K ,y; NtWgl;l ePu;khjpupfs; kw;Wk; fiury;fspd; flj;Jjpwd;
mstplg;gl;l flj;Jjpwd; ngWkhdq;fspy; fiurypd; ntg;gepiyAk; fUj;jpw;nfhs;sj;

jf;f mstpyhd nry;thf;ifr; nrYj;Jfpd;wJ. ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ
mad;fspd; fjp mjpfupg;gjd; fhuzkhf Fwpj;j nrwpTila fiurypd; flj;J jpwDk;
mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ,e;jg; ghjpg;ghdJ fPo;f;fhl;lg;gLk; ml;ltiz 3.2 %yk; njspthf
tpsq;fg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
ml;ltiz 3.2 ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyfspy; KCl (aq) fiury;fspd; flj;Jjpwd;
nrwpT / mol dm-3 flj;Jjpwd;/ μS cm-1
0 oC 13 oC 25 oC
1.00 KCl fiury; 6.5 × 104 9.8 × 104 1.1 × 105
0.10 KCl fiury; 7.2 × 103 1.1 × 104 1.3 × 104
0.01 KCl fiury; 7.8 × 102 1.2 × 103 1.4 × 103
ml;ltiz 3.2 NtWgl;l ntg;gepiyfspy; kw;Wk; nrwpTfspy; KCl =(aq) ,d;

flj;Jjpwd;
214
Fwpj;j xU ntg;g epiyapy; xU kpd;Gyj;jpy; mad; xd;wpdhy; fhtg;gLk; kpd;Ndhl;l
khdJ mad;fspd; nrwptpYk; mtw;wpd; fjpapYk; jq;fpapUf;Fk;. Xu; madpd; fjpah-
dJ mjd; Vw;wk;> msT kw;Wk; gpuNahfpf;fg;gLk; kpd;Gyj;jpd; mOj;jg;gbj;jpwd;
vd;gtw;wpy; jq;fpapUf;Fk;. ml;ltiz 3.3 ,w;F ,zq;f> H+, OH- mad;fs; xg;gPl;lstpy;
rpwpa gUkd; nfhz;litahf ,Ug;gjdhy; kpf cau; fjpfis nfhz;litahf ,Uf;
fpd;wd. me;j tifapy; ePu;f;fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;Jk; tYtpw;F ,t;tad;fs; ghupa
gq;fspg;igr; nra;fpd;wd.
ml;ltiz 3.3 298 K apy; / V cm-1 mOj;jg;gbj;jpwdpd; fPo; xU ePu;f;fiurypy;

mad;fspd; fjpfs;
mad; fjp/ mm min-1 mad; fjp/ mm min-1

H+ 2.05 NO3- 0.40
OH- 1.12 Cl- 0.42
Na+ 0.29 SO42- 0.88
+ 2+
K 0.42 Ca 0.67
ml;ltiz 3.3 298 K apy; / V cm-1 mOj;jg;gbj;jpwdpy;> ePu;f;fiurypy; mad;fspd; fjpfs;
ePu; khjpupapYs;s madpd; msT gw;wp MuhAk;NghJ> fiurypd; flj;Jjpwd;

Kf;fpa gq;if tfpf;fpd;wJ. eilKiwapy; fiury;fspd; flj;Jjpwid mstpl
flj;Jjpwd;khdpfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mj;jifa mstPLfs; ctu;j;jd;ikia
kjpg;gplTk;> fiujpwd; ngUf;fy;fis fzpf;fTk; kw;Wk; gy gpuNahfq;fSf;Fk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
215
3.2 rkdpiyapy; kpd;tha;fs;
3.2.1 cNyhf - cNyhf mad; kpd;tha;
kpd;tha;r; rkdpiyapd; tpguq;fs; gw;wp fye;JiuahLtjw;F Kd;ghf> xU kpd;thia

cUthf;Ftjd; mbg;gil vz;zf;fUf;fshf ,Uf;ff;$ba fiury;fspy; cNyh-
fq;fspd; jhf;Fk; jd;ikfs; gw;wp mwpe;jpUj;jy; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;. cNyh-
fq;fspd; jhf;fq;fspd;NghJ mit ,yj;jpud;fis tpLtpj;J Neu; mad;fis Mf;F
fpd;wd vd;gij ehk; mwpNthk;.
cjhuzkhf> Mg2+(aq), Zn2+(aq), Cu2+ (aq) Nghd;w mad;fs;> KiwNa mt;TNyhfq;fs;

mtw;wpd; mad;fisf; nfhz;l fiury;fspy; jhf;fKWtjdhy; cUthf;fgLfpd;wd.
mj;Jld; gpd;tUk; jhf;fj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;lthwhf Neu; kiw Vw;wq;fisAk; Mf;F
fpd;wd.
Mg (s) Mg2+(aq)+ 2e
,j;jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW epfOfpd;wJ. Kfitnahd;wpYs;s Mg2+ (aq) mad;fisf;

nfhz;l fiurypDs; jpz;k Mg Jz;nlhd;iw mkpo;j;jpaTld; Mg mZf;fs; ,yj;-
jpud;fis ,oe;J Mg2+ mad;fshf fiurypw;Fs; nry;tjw;fhd ehl;lk; cUth-
Fk;. cU3.3 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;lthW Mg ,y; ,yj;jpud;fs; tpLtpf;fg;gl;l epiyapy;
fhzg;gLk;.
cU 3.3 Mg2+ (aq) mad;fisf; nfhz;l ePu;f;fiurypy; Mg - cNyhfj;jpd; elj;ij
216
Mg2+ mad;fisf; nfhz;l fiurypDs; Mg Jz;nlhd;iw mkpo;j;jpaTld;> Mg
,y; ,yj;jpud;fs; tpiuthf cUthf;fg;gLk;> ,t;tpyj;jpud;fs; fiurypy; fhzg;gLk;
Neu; Vw;wq;nfhz;l Mg2+ mad;fspd; Xu; glyj;jhy; #og;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,g;gilahdJ
cNyhfj;Jz;by; fhzg;gLk; vjpu; Vw;wq;fshy; ftug;gLtjdhy; cNyhfj;Jz;bw;F
kpf neUf;fkhf mike;jpUf;Fk;.
rpy mad;fs; ed;whff; ftug;gl;L jkJ ,yj;jpud;fis kPsg;ngw;W cNyhfj;

Jz;by; kPz;Lk; xl;bf;nfhs;fpd;wd. Nkw;gug;gpypUe;;J tpLtpf;fg;gLfpd;w mad;fspd; tPj
khdJ Nkw;gug;gpy; kPs ,izfpd;w tPjj;jpw;F ruprkdhf mikAk; nghOJ Xu;
,af;fr; rkdpiy va;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mj;jUzj;jpy; Fwpj;j Xu; khwhg; ngWkhdk;
nfhz;l kiw Vw;wq;fs; Mg Jz;bYk;> khwhg; ngWkhdk; nfhz;l Mg2+ mad;fs;
mj;Jz;ilr; #oTk; fhzg;gLk;. ,e;j ,af;fr;rkdpiyahdJ cU 3.4 ,y; fhl;lg;
gl;Ls;sJ. Mg Jz;by; fhzg;gLk; kiw Vw;wq;fs; fiurypy; fhzg;gLfpd;w Neu;
Vw;wq;fshy; #og;gl;L rkg;gLj;jg;gl;L fhzg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd epiy milag;gL
ifapy; ehk; mj;njhFjpia Xu; kpd;thahf tiuaWf;f KbAk;.
“Xu; cNyhfkhdJ mjd; mad;fSld; ,af;fr; rkdpiyapYs;s Xu; njhFjpahdJ

xU kpd;thahf tiuaWf;fg;glKbAk;.”
cU 3.4 ePu; fiurypy; ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; cs;s Mg cNyhfj;jpd; elj;ij
,U topfs; %ykhfr; rkdpiyahdJ Vw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid Nkw;gb tpgupg;Gf;

fspypUe;J mtjhdpf;f KbfpwJ. jpz;k Mg MdJ Mg2+ (aq) mad;fshf khw;wg;
gLtJ xU topahFk;. fiurypYs;s Mg2+ (aq) mad;fs; Mg cNyhfkhf khw;wg;gLtJ
kw;nwhU topahfTs;sJ.
,d;ndhU tpjkhff; $wpdhy;> xl;Lnkhj;j njhFjpAk; xU xl;rpNaw;w - jho;j;jy;

njhFjpahf ,Ug;gJ ntspf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ. xU topapy; Mg MdJ xl;rpNaw;wg;
gLfpd;wJ. ,d;ndhU topapy; Mg2+ (aq) MdJ jho;j;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
,jw;fpzq;f ePu; my;yJ fiurypw;Fk;> cNyhfj;jpw;Fkpilapyhd ,ilKfj;jpy;

Vw;wg; gpupg;G epfOfpd;wJ vd;w vz;zg;ghl;il ehk; ngw KbAk;.
217
Vw;wg;gpupg;gpd; ehl;lkhdJ cNyhfj;jpd; jhf;Fj;jpwdpy; jq;fpapUf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf
Cu Nfhiyg; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJs;s Vw;wg;gpupg;ghdJ Mg ,dij tplf; Fiwth-
Fk;. ,J kpd; ,urhadtpaypy; %yfq;fspd; jhf;Fjpwd;fSld; njhlu;GgLj;jp tpgupf;
fg;gLfpd;wJ. (,jd; tpupthd tpsf;fk; NtNwhu; gFjpapy; jug;gLk;)
cU. 3.5 ePu;f;fiurypy; ,af;fr; rkepiyapy; cs;s Mg kw;Wk; Cu cNyhfq;fspd;

elj;ijfs;> Cu MdJ Mg I fhl;bYk; Fiwthd jhf;fk; nfhz;lJ Cu ,y; ,Ue;J
Cu2+ Fiwe;j Ntfj;jpy; cUthFk;.
nghJthf ntspNaw;wg;gLfpd;w ve;jnthU madpYk; ngUk;ghyhdit jkJ ,yj;-

jpud;fisg; ngw;W kPz;Lk; cNyhfj;Jld; Nru;e;J nfhs;fpd;wd.
cU 3.5 ,y; cs;stw;Wld; xg;gpLifapy; fiurypy; rpwpjsT cNyhf mad;fs;>

cNyhfj;jpy; Fiwe;j mstpyhd Vw;wk; ,Uj;jy; Nghd;w epiyikfspYk; rkdp
iyg; Gs;sp vl;lg;glf;$bajhfTs;sJ.
njhFjpfshdit ,af;fr; rkdpiyapy; cs;sNghJ fPo;f;fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthwhf ,U

jhf;fq;fs; vOjg;gl KbAk;. mj;Jld; ,UnjhFjpfspdJk; rkdpiyg; Gs;spfis
xg;gpLtJk; rhj;jpakhdjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Mg2+(aq) + 2e ⇌ Mg(s) ………… (1)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e ⇌ Cu(s) ………….. (2)
cU. 3.5 ,w;F ,zq;f> rkdpiy 1 ,d; epiy> rkdpiy 2 ,d; epiyia tpl
mjpfstpy ,lg;gf;fk; Nehf;fpajhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,U rkdpiyfSk; vOjg;gl;l Kiw
gw;wpf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
kuG tpjpfspd;gb> jhf;fnkhd;W jho;j;jy; tifahf ,Uf;FkhW vy;yhr; rkdpiy

fspYk; rkd;ghl;bd; ,lJ ifg;Gwj;jpy; ,yj;jpud;fs; vOjg;gLfpd;wd.
Nkw;gb ,U re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; rkdpiyj; jhdq;fs; NtWgl;L ,Uf;ifapy;> rkdpiy-

ia miltjw;fhd VJepiy rpy vz;fisg; GFj;JtjD}lhf ntspg;gLj;jg;glyhk;.
,J kpd;tha; mOj;jk; vd;w gjj;Jld; Neubahfj; njhlu;Ggl;ljhfTs;sJ.
218
rkdpiyapd; NtWgl;l epiyfis rpy ,yf;fq;fSld; njhlu;GgLj;Jtjw;fhd Xu;
vspa Kaw;rpahf ,J mikfpwJ. nfhs;ifastpy; ,J ,yFthf Nkw;nfhs;sg;
glf;$ba xd;whfTs;sJ. Mg ,d; tplaj;jpy; cNyhfj;jpd; kiwj; jd;ikf;Fk;
fiurypy; mjidr; #oTs;s Neu;j;jd;ikf;Fkpilapy; ghupa mstpyhd ntWghL
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Cu I nghWj;jtiuapy; ,t;NtWghLfs; kpff;Fiwthf cs;sd
vd;gijAk; ,q;F Fwpj;j kpd;thapd; ,ilKfj;jpYs;s Vw;wg;gpupg;gpd; fhuzkhf
mOj;jk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ vd;gijAk; tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sKbfpwJ.
mOj;jNtWghlhdJ Nthy;w;wsthf gjpT nra;ag;glyhk; ngupa mstpyhd

kiwj;jd;ik> Neu;j;jd;ik vd;gtw;wpw;fpilapyhd NtWghlhdJ ngupa mstpyhd
“mOj;jk;” Mf ,Uf;Fk;. Jujp];ltrkhf Nkw;gb Nthy;w;wsthdJ NkNy Fwpg;gpl;l
njhFjpAld; xU fUtpia ,izj;J mstpg;glf;$ba rhj;jpakw;wjhfTs;sJ.
cNyhfj;Jz;nlhd;Wld; xU Nthy;w;khdpia ,yFthf njhLf;ff;$bajhf ,Ue;-

jnghjpYk;> xU fiurYf;F mt;thwhd njhLg;ig Vw;gLj;JtJ Xu; gpur;rpidahd
tplakhfTs;sJ. fiurYf;F VjhtNjhu; njhLg;ig Vw;gLj;jpdhy; mjidr; #o
xj;j tifahd rkdpiy cUthf;fg;gLk;.
me;j tifapy;> gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w cNyhfj;Jz;bdJk; njhLg;gpdJk; ,ize;j

tpisTfshy; rpwe;j mstPlhdJ ngwg;glf;$bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; fUj;jhdJ
fiurypw;Fk; cNyhfj;jpw;Fkpilapyhd jdp mOj;jj;ij mstpLtJ Njitaw;wjh-
fTs;sJ.
khw;Nww;W kpd;tha; (Reference Electrode) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;w xU epakj;

njhFjpAld; mOj;jj;ij xg;gpLjy; NghJkhdJ. ,q;F gad;gLj;jg;gLk; njhFjpah-
dJ epak Ijurd; kpd;tha; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J cU. 3.6 ,y; fhl;lg;
gl;Ls;sJ.
myF - 12 ,y; (rkdpiy vd;w myfpy;) ehk; mwpe;J nfhz;l tplak;> “ve;j
nthU rkdpiyapdJk; epiyahdJ epge;jidfis khw;Wtjdhy; khw;wg;glKbAk;”
vd;gjhFk;.
epak Ijurd; kpd;thapy; gpd;tUk; epge;jidfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 101325 Pa

my;yJ 100 kPa, 1 atm mKf;fKila Ijurd; thA> 298K my;yJ 250C ntg;g
epiy> 1.0 mol dm-3 nrwpTila H+ If; nfhz;l fiury;.
219
fk;gp
cU. 3.6 epak Ijurd; kpd;tha;
,k;kpd;thapy; Ijurd; thAthdJ JisAila gpshw;wpdj;jpd; NkNyhfk; ghAk;

NghJ Ijurd; %yf;$WfSf;Fk; Ijurd; mad;;fSf;Fkpilapy; Xu; rkdpiy Vw;gL
fpd;wJ. ,r;rkepiy gpshw;wpdj;jpdhy; Cf;Ftpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
jug;gl;l xU kpd;thapd; mOj;jj;ij vt;thW ehk; mstplyhk; vd ehk; mwpNthk;.
2H+(aq) + 2e ⇌ H2 (g)
,e;j mstPl;by;> cjhuzkhf epak Ijurd; kpd;thaj;; njhFjpald; ,izf;fg;

gLfpd;wJ. Kd;djhf> Mg2+ mad;fisf; nfhz;l fiurypy; Mg Jz;nlhd;iw
itj;J> gpshw;wpdk; fk;gpapdhy; Nthy;w;Wkhdp njhLf;fg;gLtijf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;f.
,q;F cU. 3.7 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthwhf cg;Gg;ghynkhd;W ,ilg;GFj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
,izf;Fk;
fk;gp
cg;Gg; ghyk;
fk;gp
cU. 3.7 epak Ijurd; kpd;thiag; gad;gLj;jp kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fis msj;jy;
,q;F cg;Gg;ghykhdJ> Xu; jput re;jpia Mf;fp kpd;Rw;iwg; G+u;j;jpahf;Ftjw;fhf

,ilg;GFj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J KNO3 Nghd;w kpd;gFnghUl;fspdhy; epug;gg;gl;l Xu;
fz;zhbf;Fohahf cs;sJ. mjd; Kidfs; ,UKfitfspYKs;s gjhu;j;jq;fs;
xd;Wlndhd;W fye;Jtplhky; jLg;gjw;fhf gUj;jpg; gQ;rpdhy; my;yJ Vfhu; n[y;yp-
dhy; milf;fg;gl;ljhf cs;sJ.
220
xt;nthU gf;fj;jpYKs;s jdpj;jdp kpd;tha;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; Xu; miuf;fyk;
vd tiuaWf;fg;gLk;. ,U KfitfspDs;Sk;. fhzg;gLfpd;w gjhu;j;jq;fSlDk;
jhf;fKwhj Xu; kpd;gFnghUshdJ cg;Gg; ghyj;ij Mf;f gad;dLj;Jtjw;F njupT
nra;ag;glNtz;bAs;sJ.
,U kpd;tha;fSk; njhLf;fg;gl;lTld; ,U kpd;tha;fspYk; Mf;fg;gLfpd;w ,U rk-

dpiyfSk; gpd;tUkhW mikfpd;wd.
Mg2+(aq) + 2e ⇌ Mg(s)
2H+(aq) + 2e ⇌ H2(g)
Mg MdJ Ijurid tpl jdJ mad;fis Mf;Fk; tY cau;thff; nfhz;lJ.

me;j tifapy; Mg/Mg 2+ rkdpiy epiyahdJ H2 /H+ ,d; rkdpiy epiyia tpl
mjpf msT ,lJ Gwkhf mikAk;. mjhtJ Mg Jz;by; ,yj;jpud; cUthFk;
msthdJ gpshw;wpdk; Jz;by; cUthtij tpl kpf mjpfk;. ,e;j tifapy; ,U
kpd;tha;fspd; Vw;wq;fSf;fpilapy; ngupa mstpyhd NtWghnlhd;W fhzg;gLk;.
,t;thwhf> Nthy;w;khdpahy; mstplg;glf;$ba mOj;j NtWghnlhd;W cUth
fpd;wJ.
NkNy Mg/Mg 2+ f;F Fwpg;gplg;gl;l ngWkhdkhdJ cz;ikapy; Mg/Mg2+ njhFjp

apd; epak kpd;tha; mOj;jkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
epak epge;jidfspd; fPo; xU cNyhf-cNyhf mad; kpd;thahdJ Ijurd; kpd;

thAld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sNghJ mstplg;gLfpd;w kpd;tha; mOj;jkhdJ mt;
cNyhf-cNyhf mad; Nrhbapd; epak kpd;tha; mOj;jk; vdf; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
mjhtJ xt;nthU EӨ ngWkhdKk; rkdpiyapd; epiyahdJ Ijurd; rkdpiyapd;
,lJ my;yJ tyJ Gwj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ vd;gjidf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. rkdpiy
epiyfspy; cs;s NtWghlhdJ cNyhf kpd;thapy; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;w ,yj;jp
ud;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;Fk; Ijurd; kpd;thapd; gpshw;wpdk; jfl;by; cUthf;fg;gLk;
,yj;jpud;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;fk; cs;s ntWghl;bdhy; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,q;F
kuG tpjpfSf;fika gpshw;wpdk; Nkw;gug;gpy; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;w ,yj;jpud;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifahdJ Gwf;fzpf;fj;jf;f mstpy; ,Ug;gjhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. miw
ntg;gepiyapy; epak Ijurd; kpd;thapd; epak kpd;tha; mOj;jkhdJ 0.00V vd
vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. cUthf;fg;gLfpd;w mOj;j NtWghlhdJ “mOj;jk;”
Mf Nthy;w;khdpahy; mstPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
Mg MdJ mjpfstpyhd vjpu;j;jd;ikia nfhz;bUg;gjdhy; mjd; mOj;jkhdJ

2.37V MfTk; mstplg;gl;Ls;sjdhy; Mg MdJ vjpu; kpd;thahfTk; Ijurd; Neu;
kpd;thahfTk; ,Ug;gjid ehk; mwpNthk;. me;j tifapy; ,d; epak kpd;tha;
mOj;jkhdJ> EӨ= -2.37V MFk;.
221
,jidnahj;j mstPLfs; Cu2+(aq)/ Cu(s) kpd;thapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; Ntisapy;>
Cu MdJ Ijurid tplf; FiwthfNt jdJ ,yj;jpud;fis cUthf;f Kw;gL
fpd;wJ.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e ⇌ Cu(s)
2H+(aq) + 2e ⇌ H2(g)
me;j tifapy;> Ijurd; kpd;thapd; rkdpiy epiyahdJ NkYk; ,lJ Gwkhf

mikAk;. Mjdhy; Cu kpd;thapy; Ijurd; kpd;thapd; gpshw;wpdk; jfl;by; cUth-
tij tplf; Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd ,yj;jpud;fNs cUthf;fg;gLk;. me;j
tifapy; ,U kpd;tha;fspYk; fhzg;gLk; kpd; Vw;wq;fSf;fpilapyhd NtWghlhdJ
kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. mJ +0.34V Mf mstPL nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
(VjhtJ kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghapd;> mstplg;gLk; Nthy;w;wsT FiwAk;)
222
kpd;tha;f; FwpaPLfs;
Ijurd; kpd;thahdJ fPo;tUk; Kiwapy; FwpaPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
epiyf;Fj;Jf;NfhL fiurYf;Fk;
thA H2 ,ilapyhd vy;iyiaf;
fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
epiyf;Fj;Jf;NfhL P+ kw;Wk; H2
thAtpw;fpilapyhd ,ilKfj;ijf;
fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
Nkw;gb tpgupg;Gf;fspypUe;J ehk; mwpe;J nfhs;sf; $baJ ahnjdpy;> epak epge;-

jidfspd; fPo; Ijurd; kpd;thAld; cNyhf-cNyhf mad; kpd;thahdJ ,izf;fg;
gLk;NghJ mstplg;gLk; mOj;j NtWghlhdJ> cNyhf - cNyhf mad; kpd;thapd;
epak mOj;jkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
kpd;tha; mOj;j mstPLfs; Ijurd; gq;F nfhs;Sk; rkdpiyf;Nfw;g cNyhf-

cNyhf mad; rkdpiyapd; epiy mikAkplj;ijj; jPu;khdpf;f cjTfpd;wJ.
rpy epak kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fs; fPo;tUk; ml;ltizapy; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
cNyhf - cNyhf mad; Nru;f;if EӨ / V

Mg2+(aq)/ Mg(s) -2.37
Zn2+(aq)/ Zn(s) -0.76
Cu2+(aq)/ Cu(s) +0.34
Ag+(aq)/ Ag(s) +0.80
,t; mOj;jq;fis EӨ ngWkhdq;fSld; xg;gpLifapy;> rkdpiy epiyfspy;> ,lJ

Gwk; mjpfkhf efu;it nfhz;ltw;wpd; EӨ ngWkhdk; kpf cau;thdjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Vnddpy; mit tpiuthf jhkhfNt ,yj;jpud;fis tpLtpj;J> mtw;iw cNyhf
Nkw;gug;gpy; tpl;LtpLfpd;wd. jhkhfNt ,yj;jpud;fis tpLtpf;fhjtw;wpd; rkdpiy
epiyfs; NkYk; tyg;gf;fkhf efu;e;jpUg;gijf; fhzyhk;. mtw;wpd; EӨ ngWkh
dq;fs; mjpf Neu;g;ngWkhdk; nfhz;litahf fhzg;gLk;.
Nkw;gb cNyhf-cNyhf kpd;tha;fSld; Nkyjpfkhf NtWtifahd kpd;tha;fSk;

cs;sd.
223
3.2.2 cNyhf - ePupy; fiuahj cg;Gf;fspd; kpd;tha;
xU kpd;thia tiuaWg;gjw;F xU %yfj;jpd; xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;> jho;j;jg;gLk;

,dq;fs; gpurd;dkhapUj;jy; mtrpakhfTs;sJ. mjw;Nfw;w tifapy; cNyhfj;jpd;
xj;j %yfj;ij cg;gpy; nfhz;Ls;s cg;Gld; cNyhfkhdJ njhlu;gpy; cs;sNghJ
mj;jifa kpd;thahdJ cNyhf-fiujftw;w cg;Gf;fspd; kpd;tha; vd miof;fg;
gLfpd;wJ. fNyhky; kpd;tha;> nts;sp- nts;sp FNshiul;L kpd;tha;fs; ,j;jifa
kpd;tha;fSf;F cjhuzq;fshf cs;sd.
,uz;lhtJ miuf;fyj;jpw;F ,izg;gjw;F

epuk;gpa KCl fiury;
Ntwhf;fp
Pt kpd;tha;
fNyhky; gir (Hg2 Cl2)
,urj; jputk; (Hg)
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e → 2Hg(l) + 2Cl-(aq)

cU. 3.8 fNyhky; kpd;thia tpsf;fkhff; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
,q;F xU gpshw;wpdk; fk;gpahdJ Gwr;Rw;wpy; kpd; ,izg;ig Vw;gLj;jg; gad;gL-

j;jg;gLfpd;wJ. nghw;whrpak; FNshiul;L fiurypd; epuk;gpa fiuryhdJ kpd;flj;-
jYf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. Ag-AgCl kpd;thahdJ kw;nwhU cNyhf – ePupy;
fiuahj cg;Gf;fspd; kpd;thapw;F cjhuzkhfTs;sJ. ,k; kpd;thapd; Kf;fpa
gFjpfshtd>
kpd;gFnghUshd KCl cld; njhlu;gpy; fhzg;gLk; AgCl ,dhy; glykplg;gl;l

xU nts;spf; fk;gpiaf; nfhz;bUg;gjhFk;.
Ag-AgCl kpd;thapd; Kf;fpa gFjpahf ,Ug;gJ ntspf;fiurYld; kpd;thia

,izf;fpd;w KidahFk;. (,k;KidahdJ ceramic, vycor, quartz, fz;zhb ehu;fs;
vd;gtw;why; Mf;fg;gl;lJ.)
224
nts;spf; fk;gp
nts;spf; fk;gpapd; Nky; nts;spf;

FNshiul;L cg;G
KCl fiury; (toikahf epuk;gpa)
,izg;G
AgCl(s) + e → Ag(s) + Cl-(aq)

cU 3.9 MdJ (nts;sp - nts;spf; FNshiul;L) (Ag-AgCl) kpd;thia tpsq;fg;gLj;
Jfpd;wJ.
nghJthf fNyhky; kpd;thapdJk;> Ag-AgCl kpd;thapdJk; kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fs;

gupNrhjid Ntisfspy; njhlu;e;Jk; khwhky; ,Ug;gjdhy; ,it khw;Nww;W
kpd;tha;fshf mwpag;gl;Ls;sd.
225
3.2.3 thA kpd;tha;fs;
Ijurd; kpd;tha;
epak Ijurd; kpd;tha;> thA kpd;tha;fSf;F xU cjhuzkhFk;. ,q;F gad;gLj;-

jg;gLfpd;w epak epge;jidfshtd> 1.0 mol dm-3 nrwpTila H+, 1 atm mKf;fKila
Ijurd; thA> 298K my;yJ 250CapYs;s njhFjpapd; ntg;gepiy. Kd;du; tpgupf;fg;
gl;lijg; Nghy ,jd; kpd;tha; mOj;jkhdJ 0.00V Mf tiuaWf;fg;glLs;sJ.
2H+(aq) + 2e ⇌ H2(g)
FNshupd; kp;d;tha;
FNshupd; Xu; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpahf ed;F mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. kpd; ,urhadj;

njhluhdJ gjhu;j;jq;fis mtw;wpd; xl;rpNaw;Wk;> jho;j;Jk; ,ay;GfSf;F Vw;g
tupirg;gLj;Jtjhf mikfpd;wJ. FNshupd; Nghd;w rpy thAf;fspd; kpd;tha;j;
jhf;fq;fs; gw;wpa rpy ghu;itfisAk; ,J Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
NkNy Nkw;nfhz;lijg; Nghd;W ehk; rkdpiyapd; epiyia Ijurd; rhu;ghf ms

tplKbAk;.
Cl2 (g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cl-(aq)
toikNghd;W rkdpiynahd;wpy; rkd;ghl;bd; ,lJifg;Gwj;jpy; ,yj;jpud;fs; vOjg;

gLtJ ftdpf;fj;jf;fJ. mjdhy;j;jhd; FNshupd; thAthdJ jhf;fj;jpy; jho;j;jg;
gLtijf; fhl;Ltjw;fhf tyJ gf;fj;jpy; vOjg;gLtij tpl ,lJ gf;fj;jpy; vOjg;
gLfpd;wJ.
FNshupidg; nghWj;j tiuapy;> Ijuridg; Nghd;W> xU miuf;fykhdJ>

1.0 mol dm-3 nrwpTila FNshiul;L mad;fisf; nfhz;l fiury;fspy;
mkpo;j;jg;gl;l gpshw;wpdk; kpd;tha; kPJ FNshupd; thAit nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; cUthf;
fg;glyhk;.
FNshiul;L mad;fs; ,yj;jpud;fis ,og;gijAk; me;j tifapy; fykhdJ Neu;

mOj;j NtWghl;ilf; nfhz;bUg;gjidAk; mtjhdpf;f KbAk;.
226
3.2.4 jho;j;Njw;w kpd;tha;fs; - Redox Electrodes
,t;tif kpd;tha;fs; nghJthf jho;j;jNyw;wj; jhf;fq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Fwpj;j

xU jho;j;Njw;W kpd;thahdJ tiuaWf;fg;gLk;NghJ xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk; jho;j;jg;gLk;
,dq;fs; ,uz;Lk; fiurypy; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. Gwr;Rw;wpy; ,izg;ig Vw;gLj;j
gpshw;wpdk; fk;gp gad;gLj;jg;gl KbAk;. mj;jifa xU jho;j;Njw;w kpd;thahdJ
cU 3.10 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Fe 2+/Fe 3+ jho;j;Njw;W kpd;tha;j; njhFjp
Fe2+ mad;fs; ,yFthf Fe3+ mad;fshf xl;rpNaw;wg;gl KbAk;. mj;Jld;> Fe3+

mad;fs; ,yFthf Fe2+ mad;fshf jho;j;jg;glTk; KbAk;. rkdpiyahdJ
gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
Fe3+ (aq) + e ⇌ Fe2+ (aq)
,jd; jho;j;Njw;w mOj;jj;ij mstpl 1.0 mol dm-3 nrwpTila Fe2+ ,Fe3+ mad;fs;
nfhz;l fiurYs;s KfitapDs; xU gpshw;wpdk; kpd;tha; itf;fg;gl;L mJ
Ijurd; kpd;thAld; ,izf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
rlj;Jt cNyhf kpd;tha; / Nfhy;
(eg. Pt or Pd)
Fe3+(ag), Fe2+(ag) vd;gtw;iwf;

nfhz;l fiury;
cU 3.10 Fe2+/Fe3+ jho;j;Njw;W kpd;tha;j; njhFjp
● epakf; FwpaPLfSf;fika kpd;tha;fs; vOjg;gLk; NghJ> mtj;ijfspd;

vy;iyfs; xU epiyf;Fj;Jf; Nfhl;lhy; NtWgLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ' "
cjhuzk; : thA kpd;tha;fs; : Pt(s)|O2(g)|OH-(aq)
● xt;nthU ,urhad ,dq;fis mLj;J mtw;wpd; ngsjpf epiyfs; Fwpf;fg;gl

Ntz;Lk;. NjitNaw;gLk; ,lq;fspy; mtw;wpd; ngsjpf epiyfs; vOjg;gly;
Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk; : jho;j;Njw;W kpd;tha; Pt(s)|Fe2+(aq,1 mol dm-3), Fe3+(aq,1 mol dm-3)
227
fPo;tUk; ml;ltizahdJ NtWgl;l kpd;tha; tiffisf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
kpd;tha; tif epakf; FwpaPL jho;Njhw;wr;Nrhb jho;j;jy; miu

mad; jhf;fk;
cNyhf -
cNyhf mad;fs; M(s)|Mn+(aq) M(s)/Mn+(aq) Mn+(aq) + ne → M(s)
Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq) Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + 2e → Zn(s)
M(s)|MXn(s)|X-(aq) M(s)/MXn(s) MXn(s) + ne- →

M(s) + nX- (aq)
cNyhf fiuahj cg;G
Ag(s)|AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq) Ag(s)/Ag+(aq) AgCl(s) + e →
Ag(s) + Ch-(aq)
Pt(s)|Hg(l)|Hg2Cl2(s)|Cl-(aq) Hg(l)/Hg2Cl2(s) Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e →
2Hg(l) + 2Cl-(aq)
thA Pt(s)|X2(g)|X+(aq) X2(g)/X+(aq) X+(aq) + e → ½X2(g)
Pt(s) |X2(g) |X−(aq) X−(aq)/X2(g) ½X2(g) + e → X−(aq)
Pt(s)|H2(g)|H+(aq) H2(g)/H+(aq) H+(aq) + e → ½H2(g)
Pt(s)|O2(g)|OH−(aq) OH−(aq)/O2(g)| 2O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e

→ 4OH-(aq)
jho;j;Njhw;w Pt(s)|M+(aq),M2+(aq) M+(aq)/M2+(aq) M2+(aq) + e → M+(aq)
Pt(s)|Sn2+(aq),Sn4+(aq) Sn2+(aq)/Sn4+(aq) Sn4+(aq) + 2e → Sn2+(aq)
Fwpg;G :
kpd;tha;j;jhf;fkhdJ vOjg;gLk;NghJ kpd;Ndhl;lk; flj;jg;gLtijf; fhl;Ltjw;F

Xu; jdpj;j mk;Gf;Fwp gad;gLj;jgLfpd;wJ. kpd;thahdJ jdpahf fhzg;gLk;NghJ
rkdpiyf;fhd mk;Gf;Fwp vOjg;gLk;. mj;Jld; kpd;tha;j;jhf;fq;fs; vOjg;gLk;Ngh
njy;yhk; ,urhadg;gjhu;j;jq;fspd; ngsjpf epiyfs; Fwpg;gplg;gLjy; fl;lha
khdJ. Nkw;gb cjhuzq;fspy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthwhf> miuf;fyq;fspd; kpd;tha;
mOj;jq;fs; jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fshf jug;gl;Ls;sij ftdpf;f Ntz;bAs;sJ.
(jho;j;jy; jhf;fj;jpw;fhd mOj;jk;)
me;j tifapy; NtWgl;l jho;j;Njw;w rkdpiyfis mtw;wpd; epak kpd;tha;

mOj;jq;fSf;Nfw;g xOq;FgLj;Jtjdhy; Xu; kpd; ,urhadj; njhliu ehk;
Mf;f KbAk;.
ml;ltiz 3.5 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW kpfTk; vjpuhd EӨ ngWkhdk; nfhz;lit

kpd; ,urhadj; njhlupd; cr;rpapYk; kpfTk; Neuhd EӨ ngWkhdk; nfhz;lit
mbapYk; fhzg;gLk;.
228
ml;ltiz 3.5 : 298K ,y; Nju;e;njLf;fg;gl;l epakj; jho;j;jy; kpd;dOj;jq;fs;
jho;j;jy; miu madhf;fk; epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk;(E0 / V)

+
Li (aq) + e → Li(s) -3.05
K+(aq) + e → K(s) -2.93
Ca2+(aq) + 2e → Ca(s) -2.87
Na+(aq) + e → Na(s) -2.71
Mg2+(aq) + 2e → Mg(s) -2.36
Al3+(aq) + 3e → Al(s) -1.66
Mn2+(aq) + 2e → Mn(s) -1.18
2H2O (l) + 2e →H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) -0.83
Zn2+(aq) + 2e → Zn(s) -0.76
Fe2+(aq) + 2e → Fe(s) -0.44
Ni2+(aq) + 2e → Ni(s) -0.23
Sn2+(aq) + 2e → Sn(s) -0.14
Pb2+(aq) + 2e → Pb(s) -0.13
H+(aq) + e → 1/2H2(g) 0.0
Sn4+(aq) + 2e → Sn2+(aq) +0.15
AgCl(s) + e → Ag(s) + Cl−(aq) +0.22
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e → 2Hg(l) + 2Cl−(aq) +0.27
Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) +0.34
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e → 4OH−(aq) +0.40
I2(s) + 2e → 2I− (aq) +0.54
Fe3+(aq) + e → Fe2+(aq) +0.77
Ag+(aq) + e → Ag(s) +0.80
Br2(l) + 2e →2Br−(aq) +1.09
O2(g) + 4H+(aq)+ 4e → 2H2O(l) +1.23
Cl2(g) + 2e → 2Cl−(aq) +1.36
Au3+(aq) + 3e → Au(s) +1.40
S2O82−(aq) + 2e → 2SO42−(aq) +2.05
F2(g) + 2e → 2F−(aq) +2.87
jho;j;Jk; fUtpfs; kw;Wk; xl;rpNaw;Wk; fUtpfs;
229
3.3 kpd;dpurhad fyq;fs;
3.3.1 - kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fis milj;jy;
XH miuf;fykhdJ Ijurd; kpd;thAld; ,izf;fg;gl;l re;jHg;gq;fspy; epfo;e;j

tplaq;fs; njhlHghd fw;wy;fspy; <Lgl;Nlhk;. ,g;NghJ glk; 13.10 ,y; XH ehf
miuf;fyKk; nrk;G miuf;fyKk; fiury;fs; cg;G ghyj;jpD}lhfTk; kpd;tha;fs;
Nthy;w;WkhdpAlDk; ,izf;fg;gLk; NghJ vd;d epfOk; vd;gij ghHg;Nghk;.
cg;Gg;ghyk;
cU 3.1.1: Zn ck; Cu ck; nfhz;l ,U miuf;fyq;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;L XH kpd;dpurhad

fyk; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
,t; tifahd fyk; kpd;dpurhad fyk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ. mjhtJ Xl;lk;

kpd;dpurhadkhdJ kpd;gF fiurYld; njhLifapy; cs;s ,U kpd;tha;fis nfhz;l-
jhf fhzg;gLk;. XH kpd;dpurhad fyj;jpy; nghJthd XH kpd;gF fiury; my;yJ XH
cg;G ghyj;jpdhy; ,izf;fg;gl;l tpj;jpahrkhd kpd;fiury;fspYk; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;tha;fs;
nfhz;ljhf mikAk;. ,U tpj;jpahrkhd kpd;fiury;fspYs; kpd;tha;fis nfhz;l
njhFjpfspy; Njhd;Wk; mOj;jk; 'jputr; re;jp mOj;jk;" vdg;gLk;. vdpDk;> ,t; mOj;jkh-
dJ ,U kpd;gFfiury;fSk; XH cg;G ghyj;jpdhy; ,izf;fg;gLk;NghJ Fiwf;fg;glf;
$bajhf ,Uf;Fk;.
XH cg;Gg;ghykhdJ ''U'' tbtkhd FohapDs; Vfhupdhy; n[ypNghy; Mf;fpa kpd;gF

fiury;fshd KCl my;yJ KNO3 I nfhz;l Clfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; ,U jput Kbtpl
q;fSk; kpd;tha; njhFjpfspDs; mkpo;e;jpUf;ff; $bajhf itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,t; jput
re;jpahdJ CLGftpLk; nkd;rg;G my;yJ nea;aupnkd;rt;T Jisnfhz;l gpupnkd;wfL Mf
gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ mjD}lhf mad; gupkhw;wk; epfo mDkjpf;Fk;.
NkNy fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s ,U miuf;fyq;fspdJk; rkepiyfs; gpd;tWkhW.
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e ⇌ Zn (s) EӨ = -0.76 V

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e ⇌ Cu (s) EӨ = +0.34 V
230
Ijurid ghHf;fpYk; ehfkhdJ kpf tpiuthf ,yj;jpuid ,og;gjhy; mjd; E°
ngWkhdk; vjpHf;Fwpia fhl;Lfpd;wJ. Ijurid ghHf;fpYk; nrk;ghdJ kpff;f
Fiwthf ,yj;jpuid ,og;gjhy; mjd; E° ngWkhdk; NeHf;Fwpia fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
,J ,U rkepiyfisAk; Neubahf xg;gPL nra;a cjTfpwJ. cjhuzkhf> eh-

fkhdJ nrk;ig fhl;bYk; kpf tpiuthf ,uj;jpud;fis ,of;fpwJ vdTk; ehfj;-
jpd; rkdpiy jhdkhdJ nrk;gpdJ rkdpiyapYk; ghHf;f $ba msT ,lJgf;fk;
rhHe;jpUf;Fk; vd;gijAk; ntspg;gLj;Jk; ,jpypUe;J Nthy;w;WkhdpahdJ ehfk; vjpH-
kpd;tha; vdTk; nrk;G NeuhdJ vdTk; fhl;Lk;. ,J fhl;Lk; mOj;jkhdJ ,uz;b-
w;Fk; ,ilNaahd tpj;jpahrkhFk;.
Rw;wpy; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij epWj;Jtjw;fhf tof;fkhf caHjilj;jpwd; nfhz;l

Nthy;w;Wkhdp gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf> Nthy;w;WkhdpahdJ mfw;wg;gl;L
,uz;L miuf;fyq;fSk; njhLifapy; itf;fg;gl;lhy; ,yj;jpud;fs; ehfj;jpy;
,Ue;J mjpf mstpy; ntspNaWk;NghJ nrk;gpy; ,Ue;J rpwpjsT ntspNaWk;.
,t; ,yj;jpud;fspd; mirT XH kpd;Ndhl;lkhFk;. ,t; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpdhy; njhFjp
apd; rkdpiyahdJ Fog;gkilAk;. ,t; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpdhy; njhFjpapy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wq;fis tpsf;fp nfhs;tjw;F yP rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;jpid gpuNahfpf;f KbAk;.
,q;F ,uz;L vjpnujpuhd tpisTfis fhzKbAk;.
xU gf;fj;jpy;> ehfrkdpiy njhFjpapy; ,Ue;J ,yj;jpud;fs; ntspNaWfpwJ

Mjyhy; yP rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;jpd;gb rkdpiy jhdkhdJ> ,oe;j ,uj;jpud;fis
<Lnra;af;$bajhf efUfpd;wJ. kw;iwa gf;fj;jpy; nrk;G rkdpiy njhFjpapd; kPJ
,uj;jpud;fs; NrUfpd;wJ. vdNt yP rw;wNyaupd; jj;Jtj;jpd;gb> rkdpiy jhdkh-
dJ Nkyjpf ,uj;jpud;fis mfw;wf; $bajhf efUfpd;wJ. tpiuthf eilngw;w
khw;wq;fs; fPNo mikg;gpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjid glk; 13.11 fhl;LfpwJ.
rkepiyapd; epiy ,e;jj;
jpirapy; efUk;
Zn ,ypUe;J Cu Nehf;fp
Njwpa ,yj;jpud; gha;r;ry;
rkepiyapd; epiy ,e;jj;

jpirapy; efUk;
231
,yj;jpud;fs; vq;Nf $Ljyhf cs;sNjh

mq;fpUe;J vq;F Fiwthf cs;sNjh mq;F
Nehf;fp ,yj;jpud; gha;r;ry; fhzg;gLk;.(Zn ,y;
,Ue;J Cu fs; gf;fkhf
cg;Gg; ghyk;
cU 3.1.2 ehfk;> nrk;G nfhz;l ,U miuf;fyq;fis gad;gLj;jp Nthy;w;Wkhdp

,izf;fg;glhJ. XH fytdpf;fyk; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Nkw;gb njhFjpapy;> Zn gf;fkhf ,Ue;J ,j gf;fj;jpw;F ,yj;jpud; Xl;lkh-

dJ njhlHe;J nry;Yk;NghJ rkdpiyjhdkhdJ khw;wkilfpd;wJ. MfNt ,U
rkdpiyfSk; fl;lhakhf xU gf;fj;jpw;F epfOk; jhf;fkhf khWfpwJ. ehfkhdJ
njhlHe;J madhfpwJ. nrk;G (II) mad;fs; ,uj;jpud;fis Vw;Wf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,t; ,U
jhf;fq;fSk; gpd;tUkhW vOjg;glyhk;.
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s)
ehfkhdJ ehf mad;fshf fiurypDs; nry;Yk;NghJ toq;Fk; ,yj;jpud;fshy;

nrk;G (II) mad;fs; nrk;ghf khWtJk; epfu ,urhad jhf;fkhf eilngWk;. Nkw;gb
,U miuf;fyjhf;fq;fisAk; ,izg;gjd; %yk; epfu jhf;fj;ij fl;bnaOg;gyhk;.
RahjPdkhd ,urhad jhf;fk; eilngWtjd; %yk; fyj;jpy; kpd;Ndhl;l;k; cUth-

f;fg;gLtij fhzyhk;. ,jd; %yk; kpd;urhad fykhdJ ,Utifahf gpupf;fg;glK-
bAk;. RahjPd jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; fykhdJ kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij cw;gj;jp nra;Akhapd;
mjid 'fy;thdpf;fyk;" my;yJ 'Nthy;w;whfyk;" vdg;gLk;. RahjPd jhf;fk; eil-
ngwhjhapd; ntspNa ,Ue;J kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; fyj;jhf;fkhdJ
elhj;jg;gbd; mf;fyk; kpd;gFfyk; vd miof;fg;gLk;.
XH fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy; fyj;njhopw;ghl;bw;F nghWg;ghf mikgit xl;rpNaw;wy;>

jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;fshFk;. fyk; njhopw;gLk; NghJ xU kpd;thapypUe;J xl;rpNaw;wj;-
jpd; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk; ,yj;jpud;fs; mLj;Js;s kpd;tha;f;F nrd;W mq;Fs;s
njhFjpapy; ,urhad $Wfis jho;j;jypw;F cl;gLj;Jk;. xl;rpNaw;wk; eilngWk;
kpd;tha; mNdhl;L vd;Dk; jho;j;jy; eilngWk; kpd;tha; 'fNjhl;L" vdTk; mi-
of;fg; gLk;. xl;rpNaw;wy;> jho;j;jy; miuj; jhf;fq;fspy; NrHf;if %yk; KOjhd
fyj;jhf;fj;ij ngwyhk;. XH fytdpf;fykhdJ Zn, Cu kpd;tha;fis nfhz;lNghJ
mJ 'lhdpay;fyk;" vd ngauplg;gLk;.
232
,q;F ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fspd; $l;lypd; %yk; KOjhd jhf;fk; ngwg;gLk;.
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fk;) : Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) (tyJ if gf;fkhd kpd;tha; RHE)
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wy; miuj;jhf;fk;) : Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e (,lJ if gf;fkhd

kpd;tha; LHE)
fyj;jhf;fk;;: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
XH fytdpf;fyj;jpw;F NkNy tptupf;fg;gl;lJ Nghy; vjpuhd kpd; mOj;jkhdJ

gpuNahfpf;fg;gl;L nkJthf mjpfupf;fg;gLk;NghJ vjpuhd kpd;dOj;jkhJ 1.1V ,id
milAk;NghJ jhf;fk; epWj;jg;gLtJld; fyj;jpd; Clhf kpd;Ndhl;lKk; epfohJ.
ntspNa ,Ue;J toq;fg;gLk; mOj;jkhdJ NkYk; mjpfupf;fg;gLk;NghJ vjpH-
jpirapy; jhf;fk; epfo Muk;gpf;Fk;. ntspNa ,Ue;J ngWk; kpd; rf;jp %yk; RahjPd
ky;yhj ,urhad jhf;fj;ij fhl;Lk; kpd;gFg;Gfykhf ,J njhopw;gLk;. lhdpay;
fyj;jpy; 1.1V kpd;mOj;jkhdJ vt;thW cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. vd;gjpy; ftdk; nrYj;
JtJ Kf;fpakhJ. ,jid gpd;tUkhW tpsf;fp nfhs;syhk;.
lhdpay; fyj;jpy; ,UgFjpfspYk; xl;rpNaw;wy;> jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fq;fs; eil

ngWfpwJ. nrk;G kpd;thapd; jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fKk;> ehfkpd;thapd; xl;rpNaw;wy;
miuj;jhf;fKk; epfo;fpwJ. fyj;jpd; ,t; ,U gFjpfSk; miuf;fyq;fs; my;yJ
jho;j;Njw;w ,izapfs; (redox couples) vd miof;fg;gLk;. nrk;G kpd;thahdJ
jho;j;jy; miuf;fyk; vdTk; ehf kpd;thahdJ xl;rpNaw;wy; miuf;fyk; vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.
fy;thdpfyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wy;- mNdhl;by; epfOk; Mjyhy; mNdhl;lhdJ vjpH
Vw;wj;ij nfhz;bUf;Fk;. kWgf;fj;jpy; jho;j;jy; epfOtjd; %yk; fNjhl;lhdJ

NeNuw;wj;ij nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wk; eilngWk; miuf;fyj;jpy; (mNdhl;L) fiurYf;F

rhHghf vjpH mOj;jk; ,Uf;Fk; kw;iwa jho;j;jy; eilngWk; (fNjhl;L) miuf;fyj;
jpy; fiurYf;F
rhHghf NeH mOj;jk; ,Uf;Fk;. ,jdhy; ,U kpd;tha;fs; ,ilNaAk; mOj;j

tpj;jpahrk; fhzg;gLk;. MspahdJ njhLg;gpy; cs;sNghJ tpiutpy; ,yj;jpud; gha;r;r
yhdJ vjpH kpd;thapy; ,Ue;J NeHkpd;thapw;F eilngWk;. ,yj;jpud; gha;r;ry;
epfOk; jpirf;F vjpHjpirapy; kpd;Ndhl;lk; eilngWk;. fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy; ,Ukpd;
tha;fs; ,ilNaahd mOj;jtpj;jpahrkhdJ fy mOj;jk; vd miof;fg;gl;L mJ
Nthy;w;wpy; mstplg;gLk;.
fNjhl;bdJk;> mNdhl;bdJk; kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd tpj;jpahrkh-

dJ fy mOj;jk; MFk;. ,J fyj;jpy; ,Ue;J kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ ngwg;glhj NghJ
fyj;jpd; kpd;dpaf;ftpir (electromotive force (emf) MFk;. ,J fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy;
mNdhl;il ,lJ gf;fj;jpYk; fNjhl;il tyJ gf;fj;jpYk; itf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk;
khw;wkhf nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
233
cNyhfKk; kpd;gFfiurYk; XH epiyj;jNfhl;bdhYk; cg;Gghyj;jpdhy; ,U
kpd;gF fiury;fSk; ,izf;fg;gLtij ,U epiyj;j NfhLfspdhYk; fy;tdpf;fyk;
nghJthf Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
fyf;FwpaPl;bid vOJk;NghJ gpd;tUtd Kf;fpakhdit.
● fyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wy; miuj;jhf;fk; eilngWk; kpd;tha; vg;NghJk; ,lJgf;fj;-

jpYk; jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fk; eilngWk; kpd;tha; tyJ gf;fj;jpYk; vOjg;gLk;.
● mtj;ij vy;iyfs; epiyj;j rl;lj;jpdhy; “ | ” gpupepjpj;Jtg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
● jputr; re;jp mOj;jk; fhzg;gbd; ,uz;L kpd;tha;fs; ,ilNa “ ⁞ ” MdJ

gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
● cg;Gg; ghyk; fhzg;gbd; (jputr; re;jp mOj;jk; fhzg;glhtpbd;) ,uz;L kpd;

tha;fSk; ,ul;il epiyf;Fj;J rl;lj;jhy; “ || ” Ntwhf;fg;gLk;.
● vy;yh $WfspdJk; ngsjPfepiy fl;lhakhf Fwpf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. mj;Jld;

nrwpT> mKf;fk;> ntg;gepiy Nghd;w epge;jidfSk; njupe;jpUg;gpd; Fwpj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;.
fyf;FwpaPl;bw;F mikthf lhdpay; fyj;jpdJ FwpaPlhdJ gpd;tUkhW vOjg;gLk;.
Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq, 1.0 mol dm-3))||Cu2+(aq, 1.0 mol dm-3)|Cu(s)
NtW cjhuzq;fs;
fyk; Mg(s)| Mg2+(aq) kw;Wk; epak Ijurd; kpd;tha; vd;gtw;iwf; nfhz;Ls;sNghJ
Mg(s)| Mg2+(aq), 1.0 mol dm-3) || H+(aq, 1.0 mol dm-3) | H2(g) |Pt(s)
fyk; epak Ijurd; kpd;tha; kw;Wk; Cl-(aq) |Cl2(g) kpd;tha;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sNghJ
Pt(s)|H2(g) |H+(aq) || Cl-(aq) |Cl2(g) |Pt(s)
,uz;L kpd;tha;fspYk; nghJthd kpd;gF nghUshf HCl gad;gLj;jg;gbd;

fyk; epak Ijurd; kpd;tha; kw;Wk; AgCl(s) |Ag(s) | Cl-(aq) vd;gtw;iwf; nfhz;Ls;s
NghJ Pt(s)|H2(g) |H+(aq), Cl-(aq) |AgCl(s) |Ag(s)
,e;j khw;wj;jpd; fPo; fyj;jpdJ kpd;dpaf;f tpir NeuhfTk; mJ tyJ gf;fj;-

jpYs;s miuf;fyj;jpdJ mOjj;jpypUe;j ,lJgf;fj;jpy; cs;s miuf;fyj;jpdJ
mOj;jj;jpid fopg;gjhy; ngwg;gLk;.
EP»® = EÁ»x – EChx
AÀ»x
EP»® = EA÷Úõmk – EP÷uõmk
234
NkNyAs;s fyj;ij fUJk;NghJ
EP»® = ECu2+(aq)/Cu(s) – EZn2+(aq)/Zn(s)
EP»® = 0.34 V – (-0.76 V)
EP»® = +1.10 V
NkYk; njspthf tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s gpd;tUk; cjhuzk; cjTk;.
gpd;tUk; fyj;jhf;fj;ij fUJf.
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
miuf;fyj;jhf;fq;fs;
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : Ag + (aq) + e- → Ag(s) (2Ag+(aq) + 2e → 2Ag(s)
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wy;) : Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
,U miuj;jhfl;f;q;fspdJk; $l;Lj;njhif nkhj;j fyj;jhf;fj;ij jUfpwJ vdTk;

nts;sp kpd;tha; fNjhl;lhfTk; nrk;G kpd;tha; mNdhl;lhfTk; njhopw;gLfpwJ.
fykhdJ>
Cu(s)|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag(s)
,jpypUe;J
EP»®= EÁ»x – EChx = EAg+ /Ag – ECu2+/Cu
miuf;fyq;fspdJ jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis gpujpapLtjd; %yk; fyj;jpdJ

kpd;dpaf;f tpiria kjpg;gplyhk;.
EP»® = +0.80 V – (0.34 V) = +0.46 V
,uz;bdJk; E° ngWkhdq;fs; Neuhdjhapd; EAg+ /Ag = +0.80 V kw;Wk; ECu2+/Cu = +0.34 V

nrg;G kw;Wk; nts;sp vd;gd mad;fis cUthf;Fjy; kw;Wk; ,yj;jpud;fis ,oj;-
jy; vd;gd Ijurdpd; ,t;tpag;Gld; xg;gpLifapy; ,yFthdJ my;y.
vdpDk; ,uz;bYk; Fiwe;j Neuhd E° ngWkhdj;ij nfhz;l nrk;G tpiuthf

,yj;jpud;fis ,of;Fk;. fyj;jpy; nrk;ghdJ ,yj;jpud;fis $ba mstpy; fl;b-
naOg;Gk; mJ vjpH tpirahf ,Uf;Fk;. nrk;Gk;> nts;spAk; rpwpa fk;gpapdhy;
,izf;fg;gl;lhy; ,yj;jpud; gha;r;ryhdJ nrk;gpy; ,Ue;J nts;spapw;F nry;Yk;
,J ,t;thW tpgupf;fg;gLk;.
fhl;lg;gLk; jpirapy; rkepiyjhdkhdJ efUk;.
235
Põmh¨£k® vø\°À
\©{ø»uõÚ©õÚx |P¸®.
ÂøÍÄ C»zvμß
£õá\õ»õÚx Cu
C¼¸¢x Ag
CØSö\À¾®.
Põmh¨£k® vø\°À
\©{ø»uÚ©õÚx |P¸®
Mjyhy; fyj;jhf;fkhddJ NkNy cs;sthW eilngWfpw;J vd;gJ cWjpahfpwJ.
cjhuzk; 3.3 fPo;tUk; tupg;glq;fs; lhdpay; (Daniel) fyq;fspd; NtWgl;l mikg;Gf;

fspy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. epakf; FwpaPl;by; fyj;ij vOJf.
b)
a)
ehfk;
ZnSO4 fiury;
Ez;Jisg;
ghj;jpuk;
nrg;G
CUSO4
fiury;
kpd;tha; miwfs;
Âøh
a) ,e;j mikg;gpy; ,U tpj;jpahrkhd kpd;gFfiurypw;Fk; ,ilapy; jputre;jp

mOj;jk; fhzg;gLk;. Mjyhy; fy FwpaPlhdJ Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq)⁞Cu2+(aq)|Cu(s) BS®.
b) ,e;j mikg;gpy; cg;Gg;ghyk; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; Njhd;Wk; jputrf;fjp mOj;j

khdJ Fiwf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Mjyhy; fyf;FwpaPL Zn(s)|Zn2+(aq)||Cu2+(aq)|Cu(s). BS®.
236
3.3.2 kpd;tha; mOj;jj;jijg; ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
kpd;tha; mOj;jk; jq;fpAs;s gy fhuzpfis ,q;F gl;bay; gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
● ntg;gepiy
● kpd;gFfiurypd; nrwpT
● kpd;gFfiurypd; jd;ik
● thAtpd; mKf;fk;
● kpd;thapd; jd;ik
kpd;dpurhadjhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F kpd;thapdJ Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ cNyhf

mad;fs; nghUj;jkhd rhu;GepiyapYk; rf;jpAlDk; NkhJjy; Ntz;Lk;. Mjyhy;
ntg;gepiyAk; kpd;gFnghUspdJ nrwpTk; kpd;tha; mOjj;ij jPHkhdpg;gjpy;
Kf;fpakhdJ kpd;gFnghUspd; jd;ikahdJ fyk; njhopw;gLk;NghJ Vw;wj;ijf; fl-
j;Jtjpy; Kf;fpakhdJ ,J gFjp 3.1.1 ,d; fPo; Muhag;gl;Ls;sJ. thA kpd; tha;fs;
gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ thAtpd; mKf;fkhdJ Fwpg;gplg;gLjy; Kf;fpakhdjhfTk; ,J
XuyF fdtstpYs;s Kyf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifia tiuaWf;f cjTfpd;wJ.
nts;sp nts;spf;FNshiul;L kpd; thapd; kpd;tha; mOj;jk; MdJ SHE (epak

Ijurd; kpd;tha;) njhlHghf 0.220 V MFk;. vdpDk; kpd; gFnghUs; KCl ,d;
nrwpthdJ 0.10 mol dm-3 vdpd; kpd;tha; mOj;jkhdJ 0.288 V MfTk; KCl d; nrwpT
1.00 mol dm-3 KCl NghJ mJ 0.235 V. ,w;F khWfpd;wJ.
3.3.3. ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;dpurhad fyq;fs;

,urhad rf;jpia kpd;rf;jpahf khw;Wtjw;F kpd;dpurhad fyq;fs; gad;gLj;J
fpwJ. Mjyhy; ehshe;j tho;f;ifapy; ntt;NtW Njitfspw;fhf gad;glj;jg;gLk;
kpd; rhjdq;fspy; kpd;dpurhad fyq;fs; fykhf ‘batteries’ mtw;iw ,af;Ftjpy;
gq;Fgw;WfpwJ ,t; tifahf fyq;fspy; XH flj;jpapdhy; ,U kpd;tha;fisAk;
ntspapy; ,izf;fg;gl;lhy; ,urhadj; jhf;fk; eilngWk;.
ntspay; ,Ue;J kpd;rf;jpia toq;Ftjd; %yk; fyj;jhf;fj;ij gpd;Kfkhf

epfor; nra;a Kbahj kpd;dpurhad fyq;fs; Kjd;ikf; fyq;fs; (primary cells) vd
miof;fg;gLk;. (mJ kpd; GJg;gpf;f Kbahjit) Kjd;ik fyq;fspw;F cjhuz-
khf ,yf;fpshQ;rp fyj;jpidAk; cU 3.11.(a) lhdpay; fyj;jpidAk; cU 3.11(b)
Fwpg;gplyhk;.
237
fhtyp
Zinc
kpd;tha;
ZnSO4 fiury;
fhgd; kpd;tha;
Ez;Jisg; ghj;jpuk;
MnO2, fhgd; NH4Cl, nrg;G

H 2O
CuSO4 fiury;
b)
a)
cU 3.11 (a) rhjhuz ,yf;fpshQ;rpf; fyk;
(b) lhdpay; fyk;
mkpyk;
,Ltjw;fhd
tha;
nfhs;fyd;
<atPnuhl;irl;L
<ak;
Ijhd ry;g+upf;fkpyk;
Ntwhf;fp
a) b) c)
cU 3.12 (a) <ar; Nrkpg;Gf;fyj;jpd; gUk;gbahd tiuglk;

(b) <ar; Nrkpg;Gf; fyk;
(c) tu;j;jf <ar;Nrkpg;Gf; fyk; (fhu; - kpd;fy mLf;F)
ehshe;j tho;fifapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,d;ndhUtif fyk; <aNrkpg;G fykhFk;.

(lead accumlator) ,J nghJthf Nkhl;lhH thfdfyk; “car battery” vd miof;fg;gl;lJ.
,f; fyq;fspy; fyj;jhf;fq;fis kPs;nra;tjd; %yk; kPz;Lk; kpd;Ndw;wyhk;. ,f;
fyq;fs Jizf;fyq;fs; “secondary cells” vd; miof;fg;gLk;. glk; 3.12 XH <aNrkpg;G
fyj;ij fhl;LfpwJ.
238
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P»® (•ußø©¯õÚ P»®) (•ußø©¯õÚ P»®) (xønP»®)
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(+) •øÚÄ uõUP®

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239
(--) •øÚÄ uõUP®
(A÷Úõmk uõUP®)
f.ngh.j.(c/j),urhadk;: myF 13
P»zuõUP®
ml;ltiz 3.13 ntt;NtW tifahd kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fspd; njhFg;G
ml;ltiz 3.13 NtWgl;l tifahd kpd;dpurhadf; fyq;fspd; RUf;fj; njhFg;G

cU 3.13
I¡Qóê£òù èôƒèœ
3.4 kpd; gFg;G
RahjPdkhf epfOk; ,urhadj;jhf;fj;jpd; %ykhf ,urhad rf;jpahdJ kpd;
rf;jpahf khw;wg;gLjy; fy;tdpf;fyj;jpy; eilngWfpwJ.vdpDk; ehshe;j
tho;f;ifapy; RahjPd kw;w jho;j;Njw;w jhf;fq;fis eilngw nra;tjd; %ykhf
gaDs;s tpisg;nghUl;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf kpd; Kyhkply;
tpiyAaHe;j nts;sp Nghd;w cNyhfkhdJ tpiy Fiwe;j cNyhfk; xd;wpd; kPJ
gbtila nra;ag;gLtjd; %yk; cNyhf ghJfhg;G gil xd;wpid cUthf;f
KbAk;. ,t;thwhd re;jHg;gq;fspy; ntspNa ,Ue;J toq;fg;gLk; kpd; rf;jpapd; %tk;
njhlHghd RahjPdkw;w ,urhad jhf;fkhdJ Kd;Ndhf;fp efUkhW nra;ag;gL
fpd;wJ. Mifahy; ntspNa ,Ue;J kpd;rf;jpia RahjPdkw;w ,urhad jhf;fj;jpw;F
toq;Ftjd; %yk; jhf;fj;ij elhj;Jjy; kpd; gFg;G vdg;gLk;. cUfpa gjhHj;jk;
my;yJ nghUj;jkhd fiug;ghdpy; fiuf;fg;gl;l gjhHj;jk; Clhf NeH kpd;Ndhl;lk;
xd;iw nrYj;Jtjd; %yk; kpd; gFg;ig elhj;jyhk;. kpd; tha;fspy; eilngWk;
,urhad jhf;fq;fspd; %yk; cupa tpisTfis ngwyhk;.
kpd; gFg;ig Nkw;nfhs;Sk; NghJ ntspapypUe;J kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij toq;Fk;.

kpd; Kjypd; (battery) NeH Kbtplj;jpw;F ,izf;fg;gl;l kpd;tha; NeH
kpd;tha; (mNdhl;L) vjpH Kbtplj;jpw;F,izf;fg;gl;l kpd; tha; vjpH kpd; tha;
(fNjhl;L) kpd; gFg;G epfOk; NghJ fiurypy; cs;s NeH mad;fs; fNjhl;il
Nehf;fp ftug;gl;L jho;j;jy; milAk;. fiurypy; cs;s vjpH mad;fs; mNdhl;by;
xl;rpNaw;wj;jpw;F cl;gLk;.
3.4.1 ePiu kpd;gFj;jy;

ePuhdJ kpf cWjpahd ,urhad gjhHj;jk; Mifahy; ePiu kpd; gFf;Fk; NghJ
RahjPdkw;w ,urhad jhf;fk; xd;wpd; %ykhf tspkz;ly epge;jidfspd; fPo; (1
atm, 25 °C, ΔGѳ is 474.4 kJ mol-1). Ijurd; thATk; xl;rprd; thATk; cUthFk;. ePuhdJ
kpd; gFg;ig elhj;Jtjw;F ntspapypUe;J kpd; rj;jpia fl;lhakhf toq;Ftjd;
%yk; jho;j;Njw;w jhf;fj;ij elj;jyhk;. ePupdJ kpd;gFg;ghdJ gpd;tUk; mikg;gpd;
%yk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;glyhk;. cU 3.14 cs;sthW mikg;ig cUthf;fyhk;.
H2(g) O2(g)
nfhjpFoha;
Pt fk;gp
Pt tlk;
H2SO4 fiury;
cU 3.14 ePupd; kpd;gFg;gpw;fhd gupNrhjid xOq;fikg;G
240
J}aePupYs;s gpujhd mad; $Wfs; H+(aq) ,it xt;ntd;Wk; OH-(aq)
nrwptpy; cs;sd. Mifahy; 1×10-7 mol dm-3 mad;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia J}aePupYk;
ghHf;f mjpfupf;f nra;tjw;fhf Ijhd H2SO4 (0.10 mol dm-3) ePupw;F NrHf;fg;gl;L
Nghjpa vz;zpf;ifahd mad;$Wfs; Kd;dpiyapy; kpd; flj;jy; Rygkhf
eilngWk;.
kpd;gFg;gpd; NghJ epfOk; jhf;fkhdJ
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : 4H+(aq) + 4e- → 2H2(g)
nkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
kpd;gFg;gpdJ nkhj;j jhf;fj;jpid Muha;tjd; %yk; V2FO4 ,d; nrwpthdJ kpd;g-

Fg;gpy; vJtpj nry;thf;ifAk; nrYj;jhJ vd tpsq;fpf;nfhs;syhk;.
cjhuzk; 3.3
ml;ltid 3.5 ,y; cs;s epak kpd;tha; mOj;j ngWkhdq;fis gad;gLj;jp

ePiu kpd; gFg;gjw;F Njitg;gLk; Mff;Fiwe;j mOj;jj;ijf; fzpj;jy;
tpil
ePiu kpd;gFg;G nra;tjw;fhd epak kpd;tha; mOj;jk; gpd;tUkhW
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- (Eѳ = 1.23 V)

fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : 4H+(aq) + 4e- →2H2(g) (Eѳ = 0.00 V)
nkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2H2O(l) → 2H
ѳ
2
(g) + O2(g)
EӨfyk; = EӨ fNjhl;L - EӨ mNdhl;L = 0 V – (1.23 V) = -1.23 V
,q;F EӨ fyk; vjpuhdjhf ,Ug;gjhy; ΔGѳ Neuhdjh-

Fk; (ΔGѳ = -nFEѳ ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; ,y;iy) MfNt jhf;fk;
RahjPd kw;wJ. MfNt ,j; jhf;fj;ij elhj;Jtjw;F ntspapypUe;J Mff;
Fiwe;jJ 1.23 V ,y; kpd;rf;jp toq;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;.
241
3.4.2 nrk;G kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp CuSO4 ePH fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;
tHj;jf uPjpapy; J}a nrk;ig ngWtjw;F CuSO4 ePH fiuriy nrk;G kpd;tha;fs;
nfhz;L kpd;gFj;jy; KiwahdJ gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ. nghJthf fhgidg; gad;gL-
j;jp jhjpypUe;J nrk;ghdJ gpupj;njLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. vdpDk; ,k; Kiwapdhy;
cw;gj;jpahf;fg;gLk; nrk;ghdJ gy khRf;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. Mjyhy; J}a
nrk;ghdJ > NeH kpd;thapy; (mNdhl;L) J}a;ikaw;w nrg;G NfhiyAk; vjpH
kpd;thapy; (fNjhl;L) J}a nrg;G NfhiyAk; gad;gLj;jp kpd;gFg;G nra;tjd; %yk;
ngwg;gLk;. ,j;njhFjpahdJ kpd;Kjypw;F (cjhuzk; 9V kpd;fyk;) ,izf;fg;gLk; NghJ
J}a;ikaw;w nrg;G Nfhy; (mNdhl;L) fiue;J Cu2+ mad;fis fiurypDs; tpLtpf;Fk;
NghJ fiurypYs;s Cu2+ mad;fs; J}a nrk;G Nfhypd; kPJ (fNjhl;L) gbthtjhy;
fNjhl;bdJ gUkd; mjpfupf;Fk;.
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
J}a; i kaw; w J}a Cu Nfhy; (fNjhl;L)

nrg;Gf;Nfhy;
(mNdhl;L)
CuSO4 (aq)
fiury;
cU 3.15 : CuSO4(aq) ,d; kpd;gFg;gpw;fhd gupNrhjid xOq;fikg;G
242
3.4.3 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fs; nfhz;L CuSO4 fiuriy kpd;gFj;jy;
rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fs; Pt my;yJ fhupak; (graphite) j;ijg; gad;gLj;jp CuSO4 ePHf;

fiuriy kpd;gFg;G nra;Ak; NghJ NkNyAs;sthW my;yhky; tpj;jpahrkhd
elj;ijia mtjhdpf;fyhk;. ,jd; NghJ mNdhl;by; xl;rprd; thA ntspNaWt
ijAk; fNjhl;by; (Cu) gbtijAk; fhzyhk;. glk; 3.15 ,y; cs;sJ Nghd;w
xj;j gupNrhjid mikg;gpid gad;gLj;jyhk; vdpDk; xNunahU khw;wkhf rlj;Jt
kpd;thAfs; gad;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
fnjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
nkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2Cu2+(aq)+ 2H2O(l) → 2Cu(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq)
,e;j gupNrhjidapy; fnjhl;bw;F (vjpH kpd;tha;) mUfpy; fhzg;gLk; mad;f-

spy; ml;ltiz 3.5 apYs;s epak jho;j;jy; mOj;j ngWkhdq;fspw;F mikthf
Cu2+ mad;fs; Cu cNyhfkhf jho;j;jy; (+0.34 V) miljyhdJ H+ mad;fs; H2
Mf (0.00 V) jho;j;jy; miltjpYk; ghHf;f xg;gPl;lstpy; ,yFthdJ. ,NjNghy;
mNdhl;bw;F (NeH kpd;tha;) mUNf fhzg;gLk; SO42- >OH- mad;fspy; ePuhdJ
xl;rpNaw;wk; miljy; (+1.23V) MdJ SO42- mad;fs; xl;rpNaw;wk; (+2.05 V) mil
tjpYk; ghHf;f kpf ,yFthdjhFk;. MfNt mNdhl;by; xl;rprd; thA ePupdJ
xl;rpNaw;wj;jpd; %yk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;.
3.4.4 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fs; gad;gLj;jp NaCl ePH fiuriy kpd; gFj;jy;
NaCl ePH fiuriy kpd; gFg;G nra;jy; gw;wp fUJk; NghJ xl;Naw;wy;> jho;j;jy;
jhf;fq;fs; epfOk; kpd; tha;fs; njhlHghf Kjypy; Muha;jy; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.
gpd;dH jhf;fq;fspd; epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis xg;gPL nra;tjd; %yk; ,Wjp
tpisT Njhd;Wtij vjpHT $w KbAk;. gpd;tUtd fNjhl;bw;F mUfhikapy;
eilngWk; xg;gPL nra;a Ntz;ba jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;fshFk;.
2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g) Eѳ = 0.00 V (1)
2H2O(l) + 2e →H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) Eѳ = -0.83 V (2)
Na+(aq) + e → Na(s) Eѳ = -2.71 V (3)
kpd;tha; mOj;jq;fis fUJk;NghJ jhf;fk; (1) MdJ kpfTk; epfo;jfT $ba jho;-
j;jy; MFk;. vdpDk; ,j; jhf;fj;jpw;F epakepge;jidfs; Njitg;gLtJld; ePupYs;s
H+(aq) nrwpthdJ kpfTk; rpwpajhfTk; (10-7 mol dm-3) cs;sJ. Mjyhy; rhjhuz
Ma;T$l epge;jidfspd; fPo; ,j; jhf;fk; rhj;jpakhdjy;y. Na+(aq) madpd;
jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; kpf cau;T vjpu;ngWkhdkhjyhy; jhf;fk; (3) MdJ epfo
KbahJ. MfNt jhf;fk; (2) MdJ $ba msT rhj;jpakhd jho;j;jy; jhf;fkhFk;.
ePuhdJ jho;j;jy; miltjd; %yk; H2(g) ck; OH-(aq) ck; mad;fSk; Njhd;Wk;.
243
,NjNghd;W mNdhl;by; eilngWk; kpfTk; rhj;jpakhd xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;fy;fis
mwptjw;F vy;yh xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;fq;;fisAk; vOJjy; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.
2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e (4)
2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e (5)
kpfTk; rhj;jpakhd jhf;fj;jpid Kjd;ikg;gLj;jp vjpu;T $Wtjw;F Nkw;gb jhf;fq;

fspw;Fupa jho;j;jypw;fhd epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis vOJjy; Ntz;Lk;.
Cl2(g) + 2e → 2Cl-(aq) Eѳ = +1.36 V (4’)
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e → 2H2O(l) Eѳ = +1.23 V (5’)
Nkw;gb juTfspw;F mikthf jho;j;jy; jhf;fk; (4’) MdJ (5’) ,Yk; ghu;f;f
kpfTk; trjpahdjhFk;. mjhtJ (5) ,dJ xl;rpNaw;wyhdJ (4) ,Yk; ,yFth-
dJ. Mifahy; epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fspw;F mikthf kpfTk; trjpahd xl;rp-
Naw;wy; jhf;fk; (5) MFk;. vdpDk; ,e;j gupNrhjidahdJ epfo;j;g;gLk; NghJ
ntspNaWk; thA Cl2 MFk;. O2 my;y. Vnddpy; Xu; jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;F toq;fg;gl
Ntz;ba mOj;jkhdJ rpyNtisfspy; epak kpdtha; mOj;jj;jpYk; ghu;f;f
cau;thf ,Uj;jyhFk;;. ,t; Nkyjpf mOj;jkhdJ “kpif mOj;jk;” vd Fwpg;
gplg;gLk;. (kpif mOj;jk; njhlu;ghd fye;Jiuahly; f.ngh.j. (c.j) ,urhadtpay;
ghlj; jpl;lj;jpw;F Nkyjpfkhfr; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,d;DNkhu; tpjkhf> Xu; jhf;fj;ij
tpUk;gpathW eilngw nra;tjw;F toq;fg;glNtz;ba kpff; Fiwe;j mOj;jg;ngWkh-
dj;ij ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F epak jho;j;jy; mOj;j ngWkhdj;ij gad;gLj;j KbAk;.
vdpDk; kpif mOj;jk; fhuzkhf cz;ikahd mOj;jk; cau;thf ,Uf;f KbAk;.
,q;F Cl2 thA ntspNaWjy; mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ. Vnddpy; jhf;fk; (5) (O2(g)ntsp-

NaWjy;) ,jw;fhd kpif mOj;jkhdJ jhf;fk; (4) ,w;fhdJk; ghu;f;f kpf cau;thf
,Uj;jyhFk;. jhf;fk; (5) ,Yk; ghu;f;f jhf;fk; (4) ,w;F Fiwe;j mOj;jk; toq;fg;
gLjy; Ntz;Lk;.
,Wjpahf ePu;f;fiuriy rlj;jJt kpdtha;fs; nfhz;L kpd;gFf;Fk; NghJ

fNjhl;bYk; mNdhl;bYk; eilngWk; jhf;fy;fs; gpdtUkhW>
mNdhl;L (Xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : 2H2O(l) + 2e →H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
nkhj;jjhf;fk; : 2Cl-(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
244
3.4.5 rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fs; gad;gLj;jp NaCl(l) ((cUfpa
cUfpa NaCl)
kpd;gFj;jy;.
miwntg;gepiyapy; NaCl jpz;kkhfNt fhzg;gLk;. ,J miraf;$ba mad;$W-

fis nfhz;bUf;fhikapdhy; kpd;id flj;jkhl;lhJ. vdpDk; ntg;gepiyahdJ
NaCl(s) ,d; cUFepiyapYk; ghu;f;f cau;thf mjpfupf;fg;gLk; NghJ
(801 °C) NaCl(l) ,d; cUfpa jputk; miraf;$ba Na , Cl mad;fis+ -
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. cUfpa NaCl MdJ kpd;gFg;G nra;ag;gLk;NghJ Na+ mad;

cNyhfk; Na Mf jho;j;jg;gLk;. Cl- MdJ Cl2 Mf xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;.
mNdhl;L ( xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2Cl-(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e
fNjhl;L ( jho;j;jy;) : Na+(l) + e →Na(l)
nkhj;jjhf;fk; : 2Cl-(l) + 2Na+(l) → Cl2(g) + 2Na(l)
ml;ltiz 3.5 ,Ys;s epak jho;j;jy; mOj;j ngWkhdq;fspw;F mikthf

nkhj;j jhf;fk; eilngWtjw;fhf fl;lhak; toq;fg;gl Ntz;ba kpff; Fiwe;j
mOj;jk; 4.07V MFk;. vdpDk; eilKiwapy; jhf;fj;jpid elhj;Jtjw;F jhf;fj;-
Jld; njhlu;ghd kpif mOj;jk; fhuzkhf $basthd mOj;jk; Njitg;gLfpwJ.
njhopy; Kiwapy; cNyhf Nrhbaj;ij gpupj;njLg;gjw;F cUfpa NaCl fiury;

kpd;gFf;fg;gLk; KiwNa gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. njhopy;Kiwapy; cNyhf Nrhbaj;ij
ngw “lTd;fyk;” (Downs cell) gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; mikg;ghdJ cU 13.16
,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
cjhuzk; 3.4
rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fs; nfhz;L Na2SO4 ePu;f;fiuryhdJ kpd;gFf;fg;gLk; NghJ fN-

jhl;bYk; mNdhl;bYk; ntspNaWk; thAf;fis vjpu;T $wy;.
tpil
gb 1 : mNdhl;bw;F mUfhikapy; eilngw rhj;jpakhd xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;-

fy;fis ,zk; fhZjy; (cjtp: md;dad;fs; mNdhl;by; xl;rpNaw;w
kiltjw;F ehl;lKilajhf ,Uf;Fk;). ml;ltiz 3.5 ,Ys;s epak
jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis cgNahfpj;J vOJjy;.
2SO42−(aq) → S2O82−(aq) + 2e (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; = +2.05 V) …..(1)
2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; = +1.23 V) …..(2)
kpif mOj;jkhdJ ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sg;glhj NghJ> Fiwe;j epak kpd;tha;

mOj;jk; (jhf;fk; (2)) cilaJ fUjg;gLk;. jpirapy; ,yFthf xl;rpNaw;w
kilAk;. O2 thAthdJ mNdhl;by; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;.
245
gb 2 : fNjhl;bd; mUfhikapy; eilngWtjw;F rhj;jpakhd jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;

fis ,zk; fhZjy;. (cjtp: fw;wad;fs; fNjhl;by; jho;j;jy; mil
tjw;F ehl;lKilajhf ,Uf;Fk;). ml;ltiz 3.5 ,Ys;s epak jho;j;-
jy; mOj;j ngWkhdq;fis gad;gLj;jp vOJjy;.
2H2O(l) + 2e →H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk;= -0.83 V) ……(3)
Na+(aq) + e → Na(s) (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; = -2.71 V) …..(4)
cau;e;j vjpu;ngWkhdj;ij epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jkhf nfhz;l $Wfs; xl;rpNa-

w;wk; mile;j epiyapNyNa ,Ug;gjw;F ehl;lKilait. NkNy fhl;bathW ePiu
jho;j;Jtjw;Fupa ngWkhdj;jpYk; ghu;f;f Na+ maid jho;j;tjw;Fupa ngWkh-
dk; xg;gPl;lstpy; cau;e;j vjpu; ngWkhdkhFk;. Mjyhy; Na+ MdJ khw;wkpd;wp
fhzg;gl ePuhdJ fNjhl;by; jho;j;jy; miltjd; %yk; H2 thAit ntsptpLk;.
OH- mad;fs; H+ mad;fs; ,w;Fgjpyhf ,U re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; ePuhdJ xl;rp-

Naw;wy;> jho;j;jy; vDk; ,U miuj;jhf;fq;fspYk; gq;F nfhs;fpwJ. Vnddpy;
(Na2SO4) MdJ eLepiyahd cg;G mz;zsthf fiurypd; pH =7 MFk;. MfNt
OH-, H+ mad;fspd; nrwpthdJ cau;thf ,y;yhjNghJ ePuhdJ xl;rpNaw;wj;-
jpYk; jho;j;jypYk; <LgLfpwJ.
gb 3 : fNjhl;bYk;> mNdhl;bYk; eilngWk; jhf;fq;fis xd;whf ,izj;J

nkhj;j jhf;fj;ij vOjyhk;.
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e
fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : 2 H2O(l) + 2e → H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) x 2
nkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 2H2 (g)
3.4.6 kpd; gFg;gpd; mstwpKiwg; gFg;G.

kpd;gFg;gpdJ mstwpKiw njhlu;ghf Kjd;Kjypy; tpgupj;j tpQ;Qhdp
ikf;fy; guNl Mthu;. guNlapdhy; Kd;itf;fg;gl;l tpjpfspd; jz;L ePq;fs; Kd;du;
fye;Jiuahbajpy; ,Ue;J jUtpf;fg;gl;ld vd;gij mwpe;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
kpd;gFg;G njhlu;ghd guNlapd; tpjpfs; :-
KjyhtJ tpjp :- kpd;gFg;gpd; NghJ VjhtJ kpdthapy; eilngWk; ,urhad

jhf;fj;jpd; msthdJ kpd;gF fiurypD}lhf (fiury; my;yJ
cUfpaepiy) nrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;fzpaj;jpw;F Neu;tpfpj rkkhdJ
,uz;lhtJ tpjp :- ntt;NtW kpd;gFnghUs; fiury;fspD}lhf xNuasT

kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ nrYj;jg;gLifapy; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. gjhu;j;jj;-
jpd; msthdJ> mtw;wpdJ ,urhad rktYtpw;F Neu;tpfpj
rkdhFk;.
246
cNyhfj;jpd; mZjpzpT
,urhad rktYjpzpT =
mt; cNyhffw;wapiz jho;j;j
Njitg;gLk; ,yj;jpuzpd; vz;zpf;if
nrYj;jg;gLk; kpd;fzpaj;jpd; msT Q MdJ
Q = It
I - mk;gpaupYk; t - nrf;fdpYk; cs;sNghJ Q MdJ $Nyhkpy; ngwg;gLk;.
1C=1A×1s
xl;rpNaw;wy; my;yJ jho;j;jypw;fhf Njitg;gLk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; msthdJ

jq;fpapUg;gJ kpd;tha; jhf;fj;jpd; gPrkhd Fzfj;jpyhFk;. cjhuzkhf ,j;jhf;fj;-
jpy; Ag+(aq) + e → Ag(s) xU %y; mad;fis jho;j;tjw;F %y; ,yj;jpud;fs; Njit-
g;gl;lJ. xU ,yj;jpudpd; Vw;wkhdJ 1.6021× 10–19C Nyhkpw;F rkdhdJ vd;gij
ehq;fs; mwpNthk;;.
MfNt 1mol ,yj;jpudpd; Vw;wk; = NA × 1.6021 × 10–19 C
= 6.02 × 1023 mol–1 × 1.6021 × 10–19 C
= 96485 C mol–1
,t; kpd;fzpakhdJ guNl (khwpyp) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,J F ,dhy; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
mz;zsthd fzpj;jy;fspd; NghJ 1F ≃ 96500 C mol–1. vd ehq;fs; gad;gLj;-

JNthk;.
kpdtha;; jhq;fspw;fhf> Mg2+(aq) + 2e → Mg(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3e → Al(s)
,jd;%yk; xU %y; Mg2+ ,w;Fk; Al3+ ,w;Fk; KiwNa 2mol ,yj;jpud;fSk; (2F) 3
%y; ,yj;jpud;fSk; (3F) Njitg;gLk;.
kpd;dpurhad fzpj;jy;fspy; guNl khwpypapd; gpuNahfk;
kpdgFg;Gg; gupNrhjidfis Nkw;nfhs;Sk; NghJ mNdhl;bYk; fNjhl;bYk;

ngwg;gLk; tpisTfspd; msit mstwpKiwapy; mwpe;jpUj;jy; Kf;fpakhdJ.
fyj;jpD}lhf Fwpj;j msthd Neuj;jpy; nrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; msTld;
njhlu;Ggl;bUf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> gpd;tUk; jho;j;jy; jhf;fj;jpid fUJk;NghJ>
247
Na+(l) + e → Na(s)
2H2O(l) + 2e →H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)
1mol Na (s) cNyhfj;ij cUthf;Ftjw;F> 1 mol ,yj;jpud;fs; Na+ jho;j;Jtjw;F

fl;lhak; gad;gLj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
xU %y; ,yj;jpud;fspd; Vw;wk; $Nyhkpy; > guNlapd; khwpypahy; nfhLf;fg;

gLk;. mJ 96485 C mol-1. Mjyhy; fyj;jpD}lhf nrYj;jg;gl;l Vw;wkhdJ
$Nyhkpy; mwpag;gl;bUg;gpd; jhf;fq;fspd; Efug;gl;l jhf;fpfs;> cUthd tpisT
fspy; mstpid fzpj;jy; KbAk;. nghJthf> xU kpd;gF fyj;jpD}lhf Fwpj;j
Neuj;jpy; nrYj;jg;gl;l kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ mwpag;gl;lhy; gpd;tUk; njhlu;gpid
gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; Fwpj;j Neuj;jpy; nrYj;jg;gl;l Vw;wj;jpid fzpf;f KbAk;.
kpd;Ndhl;lk; (A) × Neuk; (S) → Vw;wk; ($Nyhk;fs; C) → ,yj;jpud;fspd; %y;fs;

→ tpistpdJ my;yJ jhf;fpapdJ msT (%y;fs;).
248
cjhuzk; 3.5
XH Ijhd H2SO4 ePHf; fiurypdJ rlj;Jt kpd;tha;fis gad;gLj;jp 25 °C

ntg;gepiyapYk; 1 atm mOj;jj;jpYk; 1.5 A kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ 5 kzpj;jpahyq;fspw;
nrYj;jg;gl;L kpd;gFf;fg;gl;lhy; fNjhl;bYk;> mNdhl;bYk; ntspNaWk; thAf;fspd;
fdtsTfis fzpj;jy;.
tpil
gb 1 - mNdhl;bw;F mUfhikapy; eilngw; rhj;jpakhd xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;fq;fis

,dk;fhDjy;. (cjtp - md;dad;fs; mNdhl;by; xl;rpNaw;wk; miltjw;F
ehl;lKilait.) ml;ltiz 3.5 ,Yk; epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis
cgNahfpj;J vOJjy;.
2SO42 −(aq) → S2O82−(aq) + 2e (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; = +2.05 V) …..(1)
2H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- (epak jho;j;jy; mOj;jk; = +1.23 V) …..(2)
cjhuzk; 3.4 ,y; tpgupf;fg;gl;bUg;gJ Nghy; Cfpj;jy; mNdhl;by; jhf;fk;

epfOk;. MfNt mNdhl;by; O2 thA ntsptplg;gLk;.
gb 2 - fNjhl;bw;F mUfhikapy; eilngw rhj;jpakhd jho;j;jy; jhf;fq;fis

,dk; fhZjy;. (cjtp - fw;wad;fs; fNjhl;by; jho;j;jy; mila tpUg;gk;
nfhz;lit ml;ltiz 3.5 ,y; cs;sthW epakj; jho;j;jy; mOj;jq;fis
cgNahfpj;J vOJjy;.)
2H2O(l) + 2e →H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) (Standard reduction potential = -0.83 V) …..(3)
2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g) (Standard reduction potential = 0.00 V) .….(4)
,J Ijhd H2SO4 ePHfiury; Mjyhy; Nghjpa msT H+ mad; nrwpT cz;L

vdNt fNjhl;by; jhf;fk; (4) epfo Kd;Dupik cz;L. Mjyhy; fNjhl;by; H2 thA
ntspNaWk;.
gb 3 - fNjhl;bYk; mNdhl;bYk; eilngw;w jhf;fq;fis ,izj;J nkhj;j

jhf;fj;ij vOJjy;.
mNdhl;L (xl;rpNaw;wk;) : 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e

fNjhl;L (jho;j;jy;) : 4H+ (aq) + 4e → 2H2 (g)
nkhj;j jhf;fk; : 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) +2H2 (g)
249
gb 4 - fhyg; gFjpfSf;fhd kpd; gFg;gpd;NghJ nrYj;jg;gl;l Vw;wj;jpd; msit

Jzpjy;.
Vw;wk; = kpd;Ndhl;lk; (A) × Neuk; (s) = 1.5A × (5 ×60 ×60) s = 27000 C
,yj;jpud; %yq;fspd; msT = 27000 C × (1/96485 C mol-1)
= 0.28mol ,yj;jpud;fs;
gb 5 - mNdhl;by; ntspNaWk; O2 thAtpd; fdtsit fhzy;.
xl;rpNaw;wy; miuj; jhf;fj;jpw;F mikthf
4 mol ,uj;jpud;fs; → 1 mole of O2(g)
cUthfpa O2 thA %y;fs; = 0.28 mol ,yj;jpud;fs; × (1 %y O2 (g))

4 ,yj;jpud;fs;
= 0.07 mol O2 (g)
cUthfpa O2(g) tpd; fdtsit fhz ,yl;rpa thA rkd;ghl;bid gpuNahfpf;f.

V = nRT/P
O2 tpd; fdtsT = (0.07 mol × 8.314 J K-1 mol-1×298 K ) / 1×105 Pa
= 173.4 × 10-5 m-3 =1.734 dm3
gb 6 - fNjhl;by; ntspNaWk; H2 thAtpd; fdtsit Jzpjy;.

jho;j;jy; miuj;jhf;fj;jpw;F mikthf
2 mol ,yj;jpud;fs; → 1 mol of H2(g)
cUthfpa H2 %yq;fs; = 0.28 mol ,yj;jpud;fs; × (1 mole oH2 (g))
(2 mol ,yj;jpud;fs;)
= 0.14 mol H2 (g)
cUfpa H2 (g) ,d; fdtsit Jzptjw;F ,yl;rpathA rkd;ghl;il

gpuNahfpf;f V = nRT/P
H2 (g) ,d; fdtsT = (0.14 mol × 8.314 J K-1 mol-1×298 K ) / 1×105 Pa
= 346.8 × 10-5 m3 = 3.47 dm3
3.4.7 fy;thdpf;fyj;jpidAk; kpd;gFg;G fyj;jpidAk; xg;gpLjy;
RahjPdkhd jd;ikahd fyj;jhf;fk; ,Utifahd fyq;fspw;Fk; ,ilNa fhzg;gLk;

gpujhd NtWghlhFk;. fy;thdpf;fyj;jpd; RahjPdkhd fyj;jhf;fk; eilngWk;
,urhad rf;fjpahdJ kpd; rf;jpahf khw;wg;gLk; fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy; kpd;Ndhl;lkhdJ
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;. fy;thdpf;fyj;jpy; mNdhl;lhdJ xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;fj;jpd;NghJ
250
,yj;jpud;fs; tplg;gLtjhy; vjpH Vw;wg;gl;bUf;Fk;. fNjhl;lhdJ jho;j;jy; miuj;
jhf;fj;jpd; NghJ ,yj;jpud;fs; vLf;fg;gLtjhy; NeH Vw;gl;bUf;Fk;.
kpd;gFfyj;jpy; my;yJ kpd;gFg;gpd;NghJ ,jw;F vjpuhf epfOk;. nkhj;jf; fyj;jhf;

fkhdJ RahjPdkhf eilngwhJ Mifahy; jhf;fj;ij el;j;Jtjw;fhf ntspNa-
apUe;J ,yj;jpud;fis mDg;Gjy; fl;lhakhdjhFk;. MfNt kpd;gFg;gpy; kpd;fy-
j;ijg; gad;gLj;jp kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij toq;Ftjd; %yk; ,urhad jhf;fj;ij eil
Kiw nra;ayhk;. ,q;F mNdhl;lhdJ kpd;fyj;jpd; NeH Kbtplj;Jld; ,izf;fg;
gl;ly; Ntz;Lk;. mNdhl;by; eilngWk; xl;rpNaw;wy; jhf;fk; %yk; cUthf;f-
g;gLk; ,yj;jpud;fs; kpd;fyj;jpd; NeHKbtplj;ij Nehf;fpf; ftug;gLk; Mifahy;
mNdhl;lhdJ NeNuw;wk; nfhz;lJ. fNjhl;lhdJ kpd;fyj;jpd; kiw Kbtplj;Jld;
,izf;fg;gLk;. mNdhl;bw;F vjpuhdjhf fNjhl;by; epfOk; fNjhl;L kpd;fyj;jpd;
kiwKbtplj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. kpd;gFg;G fyj;jpy; fNjhl;lhdJ vjpH
Vw;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Reference :
► Atkins, P. and Paula, J. (2000) Atkins’ Physical Chemistry. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
► Chang, R. (2010) Chemistry 10th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
► Larry R. Faulkner and Allen J. Bard (2001) “Electrochemical Methods : Fundamentals

and Applications”, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
251
f.ngh.j.(c/j) ,urhadk;: myF 14 ifj;njhopy; ,urhadKk; #oy; khrhf;fKk;
14. ifj;njhopy; ,urhadKk;

#oy; khrhf;fKk;
cs;slf;fk;
1.1 ifj;njhopypurhadk; 1.11 gy;gFjpaq;fs; (Polymers) / gy;ghj;Jfs;
1.1.1 ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs; 1.11.1 ,wg;gUk; gpshj;jpf;Fk;
1.1.2 ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fisj; 1.11.2 ,aw;if ,wg;gu;
jhgpj;jy; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ;
1.11.3 ,aw;if ,wg;giu tw;fidRg;gLj;jy;
nrYj;j Ntz;ba Njitg;ghLfs;
1.11.4 gy;gFjpaq;fs; rhu;e;j $l;lw;
1.1.3 ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhf
gjhu;j;jq;fs; (Additives)
%yg;nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
1.12 jhtu %yq; f s; rhu; e ; j ,urhad
cw;gj;jpfs;
1.2 kfdPrpak; (Mg) gpupj;njLg;G - lt;(Dow) Kiw 1.12.1 tpdhfpup (Vinegar) cw;gj;jp
1.12.2 vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp
1.3 vupNrhlh (NaOH) cw;gj;jp
1.12.3 eWkz nea;fs; /rhuvz;nza;fs;
1.4 rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jp (Essential oils)
1.12.4 capu; Bry; (Bio diesel)
1.5 Na 2 CO 3 c w ; g j ; j p ( n r h y ; N t K i w /
mNkhdpah Nrhlh Kiw) 1.13 ifj;njhopy;fshy; ntspNaw;wg;gLgit
fhuzkhf epfOk; tspkhriljypd;
1.6 mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp (Vgu; - nrad;Kiw) ,urhadtpay;
1.13.1 mkpy kio
1.7 iej;jpupf;fkpy cw;gj;jp (xRthy;l; nrad; 1.13.2 g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;jy;
Kiw)
1.13.3 XNrhd; gil Nja;tiljy;
1.8 ry;g+upf;fkpyk; cw;gj;jp nra;jy; (njhLif 1.13.4 xspapurhadg; Gfhu;
Kiw)
1.14 ifj;njhopy;fspypUe;J ntspNaw;wg;gLgit
1.9 c&j;ijy; (Rutile) %yk; ijj;Njdpak; fhuzkhf epfOk; eP u ; khriljypd;
<nuhl;irl;L (Titanium dioxide) cw;gj;jp ,urhadtpay;
nra;jy; 1.14.1 ePu;tl;lKk; ePu; khriljYk;
1.14.2 ePupd; jug;gupkhdq;fs;
1.10 ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;G (Nate quality Parameters)
1.14.3 fopT ePupd; jug;gukhdq;fs;
1
1.1 ifj;njhopypurhadk;
1.1.1 ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs;
etPd ehfupfj;jpd; KjyhtJ ifj;njhopw; Gul;rp (1750 - 1850) kw;Wk; ,uz;lhtJ ifj;
njhopw; Gul;rp (1870 - 1914 my;yJ 1850 - 1940) vd ,dq;fhzg;gl;L;s;s fhyg;gFjp
fspy; cw;gj;jpg; ghq;F (mode of production) kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp tY (force of production)
Mfpad njhlu;gpy; ghupa khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. kdpjupd; mbg;gilahd Njitfis
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L gy;tifg;gLj;jg;gl;l re;ij vz;zf;fUf;fSld; cw;gj;jpfSk;
NritfSk; ,yhgkPl;bathW cyf mstpy; cw;gj;jpfs; nra;tJ Jupjkile;jJ.
mjw;fhfg; gy;NtW tifahd njhopy;El;gr; rhjdq;fSk; cw;gj;jp KiwfSk;
cUthapd. ,f;ifj;njhopy; kakhf;fj;Jld; ,ize;j Efu;T thjg; gz;ghL fhuzkhf
#oy; kw;Wk; r%fg; gpur;rpidfs; njhlu;ghf KO cyfKk; ftdQ; nrYj;jj; njhlq;fp
As;sJ. ifj;njhopy; kakhf;fj;Jld; #ow; gpur;rpidfSk; r%fg; gpur;rpidfSk;
cUthFk; Nghf;Fj; Njhd;wpaJ. vdNt #ow; gpur;rpidfs; kw;Wk; mdu;j;jq;fshy;
Njhd;Wk; Mgj;ijf; Fiwj;jy;> tpidj;jpwidr; rpwg;G epiyg;gLj;jy;> tpisjpwid
Nkk;gLj;jy; Nghd;wit Fwpj;Jf; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ mjpfupj;jJ. mjd; tpisthff;
ifj;njhopy; cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapy; ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy; rpwg;ghd ,lj;ijg;
ngw;wJld; $lNt ,urhad ve;jputpay; vDk; re;ijj; Jiwnahd;W jhgpjkhfpaJ.
jw;NghJ mJ gpugy;ak; tha;e;j xU fw;ifj; Jiwahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
cyfpy; cs;s gpujhdkhd rpy ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fshf ,Uk;G> mNkhdpah>

ry;g+upf;fkpyk;> iej;jpupf;fkpyk;> vupNrhlh cw;gj;jpf; ifj;njhopy;fisAk; kw;Wk;
ngw;Nwhypaf; ifj;njhopiyAk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. Fwpg;ghf> ngw;Nwhypaf; ifj;njhopy;
%yk; ngWk; Nrjdr; Nru;itfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhd
rpy cjhuzq;fshf kUe;J tiffs;> xU gFjpaq;fs;> gy;gFjpaq;fs;> krnfz;
nza; kw;Wk; Nrjd epwg;nghUs; cw;gj;jpf; ifj;njhopy;fisf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. md;whl
tho;f;ifapy; gad;gLj;Jk; gpshj;jpf;F> ,wg;gu;g;nghUs;fs;> thrida+l;bfs;> rtu;f;
fhuk;> mOf;ffw;wpfs;> xl;LnghUs;fs;> fhfpjk;> fz;zhb> fwpcg;G> rPdp Nghd;w
rfy cw;gj;jpfSk; ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhd NtW cjhuzq;fshFk;. fly;
ePiug; gad;gLj;jp fwp cg;G cw;gj;jp nra;jyhtJ vkJ ehl;by; cs;s Xu; ,urhadf;
ifj;njhopyhFk;.
cyfpy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gpujhdkhd ,urhadg; nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;jpr;

nra;ag;gLk; rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jp> ,aw;ifahd ,wg;gu;g;ghiyf; nfhz;L gad;gL-
j;jpr; nra;ag;gLk; gy;NtW nghUs;fs; kw;Wk; gz;l cw;gj;jp> rPke;J cw;gj;jp>
g+r;R tiffs; kw;Wk; fz;zhb cw;gj;jp Nghd;wit vkJ ehl;by; ,lk;ngWk; rpy
,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fshFk;.
cyf mstpy; guk;gpj; jhgpjkhfpAs;s ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs; gy;NtWgl;litah-

Fk;. Nrjd ,urhadg; nghUs;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs;>
mNrjd ,urhadg; nghUs;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs; vd;wth-
whfTk; mj;NjhL> tptrha ,urhad> xslj> krFg; nghUs;fs;> epwg;nghUs;fs;>
2
cNyhfq;fs;> Vida nghUs;fs; vd;whthwhfTk; mtw;iw tifg;gLj;jyhk;. Gjpa
mwpitAk; njhopDl;gj;ijAk; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l rpy ifj;njhopy;fs; khj;jpuNk
cjhuzq;fSf;fhf ,q;F fye;Jiuahlg;gLfpwJ. ,Jtiuapyhd cyf mstp
yhd #oy;> Rfhjhu kw;Wk; r%fg; gpur;rpidfs; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ; nrYj;jp ,e;
ehl;Lf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhf mt;twpit Kfhik nra;tjw; fhd Xu;
mZFKiwahfNt ifj;njhopypurhadk; njhlu;ghf ,q;F ftdk; nrYj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
1.1.2 ,urhadf; ifj; n jhopy; f isj; jhgpj; j y; njhlu; g hff; ftdQ;

nrYj;j Ntz;ba Njitg;ghLfs;.
,urhadf; ifj;njhopyf ; isj; jhgpjj; y; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ; nrYj;j Ntz;ba Njitg;
ghLfs; gythFk;. mtw;Ws; rpy tUkhW:
• %yjdk;
• %yg;nghUs;fs;
• ciog;G
• njhopEl;gk;
• cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd; ghJfhg;Gj;jd;ik
• njhlu;e;Jk; elj;jp tUtjw;fhd ghJfhg;Gj;jd;ik
• fopTg;nghUs;fSk; fopTg;nghUs; Kfhikj;Jt Kiwapay;fSk;
• ifj;njhopy;fs; rhu;e;j #oy; khrhf;fpfs; cUthjiyj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhff;
ifahsj; jf;f cj;jpfs;
• ifj;njhopiyj; jhgpf;Fk; gpuNjrk;
• gad;gLj;Jk; tYrf;jpapd; jd;ikAk; (capu;rR ; tl;L vupnghUs;> Qhapw;Wr;rf;jp>
mZf;fUr;rf;jp> capu;j;jpzpT) nryTk;
• Nghf;Ftuj;J trjpfSk; re;ijAk;
• epfof; $ ba tpgj; J f; f spd; jd; i kAk; tpgj; J f; f isj; jtpu; g ; g jw; f hff;
ifahsj;jf;f cj;jpfSk;
• mur rl;ljpl;lq;fSk; nfhs;iffSk;
cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd; ghJfhg;ghd jd;ikAk;> tpgj;Jf;fs; epfOtijj; jtpu;g;g-
Jk; ,urhadtpaw; ifj;njhopy;fs; njhlu;ghf kpf Kf;fpakhditahFk;. mjw;fhf
,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fs; rhu;ghff; fle;j fhyq;fspy; epfo;e;j NguopTfs; Fwpj;-
Jf; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;. N[u;kdpapy; ~xg;ghT| (oppau) ntbg;gpdhy;
(1921 nrg;uk;gu; 21) 500 - 600 Ngu; tiu capupoe;jdu;. tskhf;fpfs; cw;gj;jpf;fhff;
fyf;fg;gl;l Vwj;jho 4500 njhd; mNkhdpak; iej;jpNuw;W> mNkhdpak; ry;Ngw;Wf;
fyit fhuzkhf ,e;j tpgj;J epfo;e;jJ. NkYk; Af;Nud; ,d; Nru;Ndhgpy; mZf;
fUr;rf;jp cw;gj;jp epiya ntbg;Gf; (1986 Vg;uy; 26) fhuzkhf Vwj;jho 4000 Ngu;
capupoe;jdu;. ,e;jpahtpy; epfo;e;j Nghghy; NguopT (1984 bnrk;gu; 27) fhuzkhf xU
thu fhyj;jpw;Fs;; Vwj;jho 8000 Ngu; capupoe;jdu;. cf;fpukhd xU er;Rr; Nru;itah
fpa nkjapy; INrhraidl;Lf; frpNt ,e;j tpgj;Jf;fhd %y fhuzkhfpaJ. vdNt
,urhadf; ifj;njhopnyhd;wpd; cz;ikahd Njit kw;Wk; mJ njhlu;ghf ,lk;ngWk;
murpay;> r%f> nghUshjhu kw;Wk; #oy; khw;wq;fis ed;F tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tJ
kpf Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. NkYk; cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwiag; ghJfhg;ghd tifapy;
elj;jpr; nry;tjw;fhfj; jpll; kplYk;> cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwia tpidj;jpwdhfTk; tpis
jpwdhfTk; Ngzp tUjy; njhlu;ghd tpsf;fKk; kpf Kf;fpakhditahFk;.
3
1.1.3 ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhf %yg;nghUisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhfg; Gwj;NjapUe;J toq;fg;gLk; kw;Wk; cw;gj;jpr; nrad;

Kiwapy; gq;Fnfhs;Sk; nghUs;fNs %yg;nghUs;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. rpy ,urhadf;
ifj;njhopy;fspd;NghJ %yg;nghUs;fs; ,urhad khw;wq;fSf;F cs;shFk;. ,jw;
fhd cjhuzq;fshf NaHCO3, H2SO4 Nghd;w Nru;itfspd; cw;gj;jpiaf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
rpy ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fspy; %yg;nghUs;fspy; mlq;fpapUe;j ,urhadf; $Wfs;>
cw;gj;jpg; nghUspy; nghjpe;j xU mikg;Gf; $whff; fhzg;gLtJz;L. ,tw;wpy;
,urhad khw;wq;fs; epfOtjpy;iy. khwhf ngsjpf khw;wq;fNs epfOk;. epwg;g+r;R
cw;gj;jpia ,jw;fhd Xu; cjhuzkhff; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhfg; gy;NtW %yg;nghUs;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jw;fh

fg; gy %y Kjy;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf> mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Nji-
tahd xU %yg;nghUshf iejurd; thA gad;gLfpwJ. me;j iejuridg; ngWk;
%y Kjy;Njhw;Wtha;> tspkz;ly tsp MFk;. tspkz;ly tspiaj; jputkhf;
fpa gpd;du; gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk; iejurd; (N2) thAit Ntwhf;fp mJ
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. vdpDk; iej;jpupf; mkpy cw;gj;jpf;fhf
mNkhdpahit xl;rpNaw;wp NO2 thAitg; ngWtjw;fhf> xl;rprd; toq;Ftjw;fhfj;
J}a xl;rprd; thATf;Fg; gjpyhf tspkz;ly tspNa Neubahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; (Vgu; nrad;Kiw) Njitahd xU %yg;nghUshd
iejurd; (N2) thAitg; ngWk; %y Kjy; tspkz;ly tspahf ,Ue;jNghjpYk;
iej;jpupf; mkpy cw;gj;jpf;fhd xU %yg; nghUshf tspkz;ly tspapy; ,Ue;J
O2 I Ntwhf;fpg; gpd; gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. ,e;j cjhuzj;jpd; gb %yg;nghUs;
Nru;itfis ve;j tbtj;jpy; gad;gLj;JtJ vd;gijj; jPu;khdpg;gjw;fhf xl;Lnkhj;j
cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwiaj; jpl;lkpLk; tpjk;> nryT> ve;j msT J}a;ikahf ,Uj;jy;
Ntz;Lk; vd;gd Nghd;w tplaq;fs; gaDilaitahFk;.
%yg;nghUshf> ,aw;if tsnkhd;wpidg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ gpd;tUk; tplaq;fs;

Fwpj;Jf; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ gaDilajhFk;.
• %yg; n ghUs; f s; > eP z ; l fhyj; J f; F g; gad; g Lj; j f; $ bathwhfg; ghupa
Nehf;fq;fs; fhzg;gLjy;.
• Nghf;Ftuj;J trjp
• J}a;ik
Fwpg;ghfg; ngUk;ghyhd Kjd;ikahd Nrjdr; Nru;itfis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhf>

%yKjyhff; fhzg;gLtJ gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; MFk;. NkYk; IjNuhf;fhgd;fis
cilg;gjd; %yk; ngwg;gLk; Ijurd; thAthdJ> mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd
xU %yg;nghUshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. ,Uk;G cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
~fw;fup| (coke) kPsg;gpwg;gpf;f Kbahj xU %yg;nghUshFk;.
4
rpy ifj;njhopy; cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; %yg;nghUs;fs; njhlu;ghd

RUf;fkhd tpguk; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
tsp
(a) ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;G> iej;jpupf; mkpy cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; ry;g+upf; mkpy cw;gj;jpf;fhf
xU njhopw;gL $whf xl;rprd; (O2) mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mjw;fhf ,t;Tw;gj;jpfsp-
d;NghJ tspkz;ly tsp xU %yg;nghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
(b) iejurd; (N2) ngWtjw;fhf Xu; ,aw;if %yKjyhf Njhw;Wtha; tspkz;ly
tsp gad;gLfpd;wJ. tspkz;ly tspiaj; jputkhf;fpa gpd;du; gFjpglf; fha;r;rp
tbj;jy; %yk; ngWk; iejurd; thA (N2) mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd
xU %yg; nghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ. tspkz;ly tspapypUe;J iejurd; (N2)
thAit Ntwhf;Fk; nrad;Kiwapd;NghJ tspkz;ly tsp mr;nrad;Kiwf;fhd
xU %yg; nghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhd tspkz;ly tspiag; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ> iejurd;
(N2) thAit toq;Fk; xU %yKjyhf my;yJ xl;rprd; (O2) thAit toq;Fk; xU
%y Kjyhf mjid ,dq;fz;L nfhs;syhk;.

tsp jput  2 thA
tsp N
H2 thA



NH3
ePu;
NO2 thA  HNO3
ePu;
Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;L> iej;jpupf; mkpyk;> ry;g+upf; mkpyk; kw;Wk; fy;rpaik-

jnuhl;irl;L cw;gj;jpf;fhf ePu; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,f;ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhd ePu; Kjy-
hff; fly; ePu; gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. fly; ePupy; mlq;fpAs;s gy;NtW cg;Gf;fs;
fhuzkhf cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapy; jlq;fy; Vw;glYk;> fpilf;Fk; cw;gj;jpg; nghUspy;
mt;Tg;Gf;fs; mlq;fp apUj;jYNk mjw;fhd fhuzq;fshFk;. vdNt %yg;nghUs;fs;
nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;ba juk; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ kpf Kf;fpakhd xU
tplakhFk;.
Nrhbaq;FNshiul;L - NaCl
fly;ePiu %yg;nghUshfg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; my;yJ gbTfspy; fhzg;gLk;

ghiw cg;gpypUe;J - Rock Salt) Nrhbaq;FNshiul;L (NaCl) ngwg;gLk;. Nrhbaq;FNsh
5
iul;il (NaCl) %yg;nghUshff; nfhz;L vupNrhlh (Caustic soda) cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.

NkYk; Nrhbak; (Na) cNyhfg; gpupj;njLg;Gf;fhd xU %yg;nghUshfr; NaCl gad;gL
fpwJ. NaCl cw;gj;jpf;fhd xU %yg;nghUshff; fly;ePiug; gad;gLj;j KbAkhapDk;>
vupNrhlh cw;gj;jpf;fhd xU %yg;nghUshff; fly;ePiug; gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
fdpaq;fs;
~fdpaq;fs;| kPsg;gpwg;gpff
; Kbahj xU tifahd ,aw;if tskhFk;. ,Uk;G> nrk;G> epff ; y;>
mYkpdpak;> ijj;Njdpak; Nghd;w cNyhfq;fisg; gpupj;njLg;gjw;fhd %yg;nghUs;
fshf mt;TNyhfq;fs; mlq;fpAs;s fdpaq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. NkYk; nghRNgw;Wg;
gris cw; g j; j pf; f hf> nghRNgw; W mlq; f pAs; s fdpaq; f s; gad; g Lj; j g; g Lk; .
~fdpaq;fs;| kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj tif ,aw;if tskhifahy; fdpaq;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;jpa gpd;du;> kPz;Lk;
mtw;iw kPs;Row;rp nra;Ak; xU nrad;Kiw fhzg;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; ePz;l
fhyj;Jf;Fg; gad;juf;$ba cw;gj;jpfisr; nra;tjw;fhfNt mk;%yg;nghUs;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.
epyf;fup
epyf;fup kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj xU tskhFk;. ,J gpujhdkhf Xu; vupnghUsh-

fg; gad;gLfpwJ. ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;gpd;NghJ xU vupnghUshfTk; Neubahd xU
jho;j;jpahfTk; gpujhd xU jho;j;jpahfpa fhgNdhnuhl;irl;L (CO) gpwg;gpg;gjw; fhd
%yg; nghUshfTk; ,J gad;gLfpd;wJ.
gz;gLj;jhj vz;nza; (Crude Oil)
gz;gLj;jhj vz;nza; kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj xU tskhFk;. ngw;Nwhy;> Bry;

Nghd;w vupnghUs;fisg; ngWtjw;fhd gpujhd %yKjyhf / Njhw;Wthahf gz;gL-
j;jhj vz;nza; gad;gLfpd;wJ. gy;gFjpaq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd xU gFjpaq;fs;>
kUe;Jfs; kw;Wk; Kjyhd Nrjdr; Nru;itfis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhd %yg;
nghUs;fisg; ngWk; %y Kjyhfg; / Njhw;Wthahf gz;gLj;jhj vz;nza; gad;gL
fpd;wJ. ,J kPsg;gpwg;gpf;f Kbahj xU tskhjyhy; mJ Nja;TWtjd; tpisthf
mJ rhu;ej; cw;gj;jpfisj; njhlu;eJ
; k; elj;jpr; nry;tjpy; neUf;fb epiyik cUth-
Fk;. gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;apy; ,Ue;J ngWk; vupnghUs; jfdkilAk;NghJ gpwg;gpf;fg;
gLk; fhgdPnuhl;irl;L (CO2) g+Nfhsk; ntg;gkiltjw;fhd xU fhuzkhf mikjy;
kw;WnkhU neUf;fb epiyikahFk;.
jhtuq;fs;
gy;NtW vz;nza; (nea;) tiffs;> ghy; (,wg;gu; ghy;)> nurpd; tiffs; kw;Wk; kUe;J
tif cw;gj;jpfSf;Fj; jhtuq;fs; kpf Kf;fpakhd xU tskhFk;. jhtug; nghUs;fs;
capuj; j
; pzpTfs; (Bio Mass) vdg;gLtNjhL> mJ ifj;njhopyf
; Sf;fhd vupnghUshfTk;
6
gy;NtW Nrjdg; nghUs;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhf %yg;nghUshfTk; gad;gLfpwJ.

jhtuk; kPsg;gpwg;gpf;ff;$ba xU tskhifahy;> #oypd; ,aw;if tl;lq;fs; ghjpg;Gf;F
cs;shfhjthW Kfhik nra;aj;jf;f xU %yKjy; MFk;. tY rf;jp cw;gj;jpf;fh-
fg; ngw;Nwhypa vz;nza; tiffisg; gad;gLj;jpa ifj;njhopy;fs; jw;NghJ khw;W
tYr; rf;jp %yKjyhf capu;j;jpzpitg; gad;gLj;jj; njhlq;fpAs;sd. vkJ ehl;Lf;
ifj;njhopy;fspd; ftdKk; mJ njhlu;ghf <u;f;fg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ.
1.2 kfdPrpak; (Mg) gpupj;njLg;G - lt; (Dow) Kiw
~lt;| (Dow) Kiwapy; kfdPrpak; gpupjn

; jLg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd %yg;nghUs;fs;:
kfdPrpak; mlq;fpAs;s %yg;nghUs;fs; GtpNahl;by; jhtukhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.

vdpDk; fly; ePupypUe;J kfdPrpak; (Mg) gpupj;njLg;gNj ngupJk; ,yhgfukhdJ.
fly;ePupy; Na+ ,w;F mLj;jjhf Mg2+ fw;wad;fNs mjpf mstpy; mlq;fpAs;sd.

fly;ePupy; epiwg;gb Vwj;jho 0.13% kfdPrpak; mlq;fpAs;sJ. fly;ePupypUe;J cg;G
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ,Wjpg; gbKiwapd; NghJ ntspNaw;Wk; fiury; gpw;wd; (bittern)
vdg;gLk;. gpw;wd; fiurypy; fzprkhd msT kfdPrpak; mad;fs; mlq;fpAs;sikahy;>
kfdPrpak; gpupj;njLg;Gf;fhf gpw;wd; fiuriyg; gad;gLj;JtJ kpfg; nghUj;jkhdJ.
fly;ePu; my;yJ fly;ePiu kPsg; gpurhuzj;jpd; (reverse osmosis) gpd;du; fpilf;Fk;. fopj;
njhJf;Fk; gpw;wd; (bittern) ,jw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdJ. ,r;nrad;Kiwapd; Kjd;ikahd
,uz;L gbKiwfisAk; RUf;fkhfg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
gbKiw : 1
,g;gbKiwapd; Kjd;ikahd Nehf;fk; fy;rpak; xl;irl;L (CaO) cw;gj;jp nra;jyhFk;.

Rz;zf;fy;iy ntg;gg;gpupifailar; nra;J CaO ngwg;gLk;. ,jw;fhf nlhyikw;iw
Ak; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
∆
CaCO3 MgCO3(s) ∆ CaO(s) + MgO(s) + CO2(g)
,j;jhf;fk; xU kPSe;jhf;fkhjyhy;> CO2 ,id ntspNaw;wf;$bathwhf ntg;gg;

gpupifr; nrad;Kiwiaj; jpl;;lkpLtjd; %yk; ntg;gg;gpupifr; nrad;Kiwapd;
tpidjpwid mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. fpilf;Fk; CaO ,y; khrhf CaCO3 mlq;fpap-
Ug;gJ xU gpujp$ykhFk;.
gbKiw : 2
,g;gbKiwapd; Kjd;ikahd Nehf;fk; Mg2+ mlq;fpAs;s fiurypypUe;J Mg(OH)2

cw;gj;jp nra;jyhFk;. Kjyhk; gbKiwapy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l xl;irl;Lf;fs;>
(CaO, CaO MgO) gpw;wd; fiurYld; jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gLk;. mjd;NghJ ePUld;
7
CaO jhf;f KWtjhy; Ca(OH)2 Njhd;Wk;. me;j Ca(OH)2 ePupy; ,Nyrhff; fiue;J
Ca , OH- mad;fisj; jUk;. Mg(OH)2 ,dJ fiujpwd; ngUf;fk; Ca(OH)2 ,dJ
2+
fiujpwd; ngUf;fj;ij tplr; rpwpajhifahy;> Ca(OH)2 ,Ue;J fpilf;Fk; OH- %yk;

fiurypy; cs;s Mg2+ mad;fs; Mg(OH)2 Mf tPo;gbar; nra;ag;gLk;. $lNt NkYk;
NkYk; Ca(OH)2 fiue;J OH- mad;fis tpLtpf;Fk;. Ca(OH)2 tPog ; bT vQ;rpapuhjthW
2+
fiuAk;. fiurypy; ,Ue;j msT Mg ,id tPog ; bar; nra;tjw;Fj; Njitahd msT
CaO Nru;f;fg;gLk;. Mg(OH)2 cld; $ba Ca(OH)2 tPo;gbTk; fhzg;gLtJ ,jd; xU
gpujp$ykhFk;.
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (s) .............. (1)
Ca(OH)2(s) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH+ (aq) ........... (2)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH+ (aq) Mg(OH)2 (s) ......... (3)
gbKiw : 3
Njhd;Wk; Mg(OH)2 ,id tbj;J Ntwhf;fp> nrwpe;j HCl cld; jhf;fKwr; nra;J
MgCl2 cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.
Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2 HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
ntg;gNkw;wg;gl;l / Rl;l nlhyikw;W MgO CaO gad;gLj;jg;gLkhapd; CaO MdJ

Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW ePuf ; iurypy; cs;s Mg2+ mad;fSld; jhf;fk; GupAk;. vdpDk; MgO
; f
ePupy; fiutjpy;iy ahjyhy; Njhd;Wk; Mg(OH)2 tPo;gbTld; MgO ck; fye;jpUf;Fk;.
gbKiw : 4
,f;fiury; fLikahf ntg;gNkw;wg;gl;L ePu; Mtpahf;fg;gLk;. Mtpepiy ePupd; msT

,ad;w msT Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk; tifapy; cyu;j;jg;gLk;. ctu;epiy cg;gpy; 16%
(w/w) msT ePu; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;.
MgCl2 6H2O(s) MgCl2 4H2O(s) + 2H2O(l)
MgCl2 4H2O(s) MgCl2 2H2O(s) + 2H2O(l)
fpilf;Fk; jpz;kj;ij cUf;Ff; nfhs;fynkhd;wpDs; cUf;fp kpd;gFg;Gr; nra;ag;gLk;.

cg;ig cUf;Ftjw;fhf ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ mjpy; mlq;fpAs;s ePu; Kw;WKOjhf
Mtpahfp ntspNaWk;. nfhs;fydpDs; ntg;gepiy 700 - 800 0C ntg;gepiy tPr;rpy;
fhzg;gLk;. MgCl2 ,dJ cUFepiy 714 0C ck; kfdPrpaj;jpd; cUFepiy 650 0C
ck; MFkhjyhy; mt;TUFepiyfSf;F Nkw;gl;l ntg;gepiyapy; cUfpa cg;igg;
Ngzp tUjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j cUf;fpa cg;ig kpd;gFg;Gr; nra;Ak;NghJ tpis
nghUshd Mg cNyhfk; jput epiyapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wikahy; fyj;jpypUe;J ntspNa
vLg;gJ ,yFthdJ. Mg ,dJ cUFepiyapd;NghJ jput Mg ,dJ mlu;j;jp 1.584
g cm-3 ck;> cUfpa MgCl2 ,dJ (cUFepiyapy;) mlu;j;jp Vwj;jho 1.68 g cm-3 ck;
Mjyhy; Njhd;Wk; Mg cNyhfkhdJ cUfpa MgCl2 kPJ kpjf;Fk;.
8
mNdhl;Lf;F (fhuPak;) mUNf jhf;fk;:

2Cl-(l) Cl2(g) + 2e
Njhd;Wk; Cl2 thA> HCl cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. me;j HCl kPz;Lk; Mg(OH)2
cld; jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gl;L MgCl2 cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
fNjhl;Lf;F (cUf;F) mUNf jhf;fk;:

Mg2+(l) + 2e Mg(l)
Njhd;Wk; jput Mg fyj;jpypUe;J Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. ,jd;NghJ 99.8% msT Mg

tpisitg; ngwyhk;. kfdPrpaj;jpd; cUFepiy Vwj;jho 650 0C Mjyhy; 700 0C
Nghd;w ntg;gepiyapy; mJ jputkhff; fhzg;gLk;.
Mfha tpkhdq;fs;> thfdq;fs; Nghd;wit cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhd cWjpkpff

; ,Nyrhd
cNyhfq;fs; mtrpakhFk;. mt;thwhd ,ay;Gfisg; ngWtjw;Fj; Njitahd fyg;
GNyhfq;fis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhf Mg cNyhfk; kpf Kf;fpakhd xd;whFk;.
fhuPa (fpuigw;W) mNdhl;L

Cl2 thA jput Mg rpWNfhsq;fs;
fNjhl;bd; Jisfspd; Clhfr;

nry;Yk; rpW Nfhsq;fs;
cUfpa MgCl2 cUf;Ff; nfhs;fyk; (fNjhl;L)
ntg;gkhf;fpf;F vupnghUs; mlq;fpa

thAit toq;Fk; Foha;fs;
cU: 1.1 fyj;jpd; ntl;L Kfj;Njhw;wk;
,e;j cw;gj;jpapd;NghJk; tspkz;lyj;jpy; Nkyjpf CO2 Nru;jy; xU gpujp$ykhFk;.
Rz;zf;fy; my;yJ nlhyikw;iu ntg;gNkw;WjyhYk; kpd;gFg;Gf; fyj;jpy; cau;
ntg;g epiyiag; ngWtjw;fhf ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUs;fis vupg;gjhYk; tspkz;lyj;
Jld; CO2 NrUk;.
1.3 vupNrhlh (NaOH) cw;gj;jp
J}a nrwpe;j NaCl fiury; gpiud; (brine) vdg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd NaCl fiur
nyhd;iw (brine) kpd;gFg;Gr; nra;tjhy; NaOH cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;. gf;ftpisTfshf
fNjhl;Lf;F mUNf H2 thATk; mNdhl;Lf;F mUNf Cl2 thATk; ntspNaWk;.
NaCl(s) + ePu;  NaCl(aq)

kpd;gFg;G
2 H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq)  2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
9
jpzpTg;gb 50% vupNrhlh mlq;fpAs;s ePu;f; fiurnyhd;wpd; 2025 nkl;upf; njhd;id

cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ mjDld; $lNt Vwj;jho xU njhd; FNshuPd; thATk;>
Vwj;jho 30 kg IjurDk; cw;gj;jpahFk;. jpzpT uPjpapy; ,t;thwhd kpfj;njspthd
NtWghL fhzg;gl;lNghjpYk;> %y; msTfisf; fUJk;nghOJ Cl2 %y; msthdJ
H2 %y; msTf;F mz;zsthfr; rkkhdJ. Nfhl;ghl;L uPjpapy; Cl2 > H2 %y; msTfs;
rkkhapDk; $l> thAthfr; Nrfupj;Jg; ngwf;$ba Cl2 > H2 %y; msTfs; rkkhdit
my;y. ePu; ka jhf;f Clfj;jpy; Cl2 thA rpwpjsT fiuAkhjyhy; thA epiyapy;
Nrfupj;Jf; nfhs;sf;$ba Cl2 %y; msthdJ H2 %y; msit tplr; rw;Wf; Fiwth-
djhff; fhzg;gl ,lKz;L.
kpd;gFg;G %yk; vupNrhlh cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fyq;fs; ~fhuf;

FNshuf; fyq;fs;| vdg;gLk;. mit %d;W tifg;gLk;.
(a) ,urf; fy Kiw
(b) gpupnkd;wfl;Lf; fy Kiw
(c) nkd;rt;Tf; fy Kiw
Muk;g fhyj;jpy; ,urf; fy Kiwia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl NaOH cw;gj;jp

nra;ag;gl;lJ. vdpDk; #oypy; ,urk; tpLtpf;fg;gLk; rhj;jpag;ghL fhzg;gLfpd;wikAk;
NaOH ,y; kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; ,urk; mlq;fpapUg;gJk; gpujhdkhd gpujp$yq;fsh-
Fk;. gpupnkd;wfl;Lf; fyKk; nkd;rt;Tf; fyKk; ngUksTf;F xd;iwnahd;W xj;jd.
gpujhdkhd NtWghL nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpy; gpupnkd;wfl;Lf;Fg; gjpyhf> mNdhl;ilAk;
fNjhl;ilAk; Ntwhf;Ftjw;fhf Na+ mad;fs; CLnry;yf;$ba nkd;rt;T gad;gLj;
jg;gl;bUj;jyhFk;. nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;Jld; xg;gpLk;NghJ gpupnkd;wfl;Lf; fyj;jpy;
mNdhl;L miwapd; jput kl;lk; fNjhl;L miwapd; jput kl;lj;ij tpl cau;th-
djhFk;. vdNt fd;dhu; gpupnkd;wfl;Lf;F Clhf> ePu;epiyapay; mKf;fnkhd;W
mNdhl;L miwf; fiurypy; ,Ue;J fNjhl;L miwf; fiury; kPJ njhopw;gLk;.
mNdhl;L miwapypUe;J fNjhl;L miwf;F Na+ mad;fs; ngaur; nra;tjpy; me;ePu;
epiyapay; mKf;fk; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk;. fNjhl;Lf; fiurypy; ,Ue;J mNdhl;Lf;
fiury; tiu OH− mad;fs; ngau;tijj; jtpu;g;gjw;Fk; me;ePu;epiyapay; mKf;fj;jpd;
nry;thf;F fhuzkhFk;. vdpDk; nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpy; Neu; mad;fs; khj;jpuk; nry;yf;
$ba nkd;rt;tpd; mNdhl;Lk; fNjhl;Lk; Ntwhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nkd;rt;Tf; fyq;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jtjd; mD$yq;fshf cw;gj;jpahFk; NaOH ,dJ J}a;ik cau;thdjhf
,Uj;jy;> Fiwe;j msT kpd;rhuNk tpuakhjy;> #oy; rhu;e;j ghjpg;Gf;fs; ,opthjy;
Nghd;wtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
,e; j kpd; g Fg; G r; nrad; K iwapd; N ghJ kpd; g Fg; G f; f hfg; gad; g Lj; J k; kpd;
mOj;jk; kw;Wk; kpd;tha; Nkw;gug;gpd; myFg; gug;gsT %yk; myF Neuj;jpy; ntsp
tplg;gLk; Vw;wk; xU Kf;fpa fhuzpahFk;. gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy; me;jf; fyq;fs;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
10
ml;ltiz: 1.1 vupNrhlh cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fyq;fspy; mlq;fpAs;s
fhuzpfs;.
,urf;fyk; gpupnkd;wfl;Lf; fyk; nkd;rt;Tf; fyk;
fy mOj;jk; / V - 4.4 - 3.45 - 2.95
Xl;l mlu;j;jp / A cm-2 1 0.2 0.4
NaOH mikg;G (w/w%) 50 12 35
nkd;rt;Tf; fyKiw
nkd;rt;Tf; fy Kiwapy; gad;gLk; gpiud; (brine) fiury; kpfr; Rj;jkhdjhf

,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. gpiud; fiurypy; Mg2+> Ca2+> SO42- mad;fs; mlq;fpapUj;j
yhdJ cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwf;Fj; jilahf mikAk;. fiury; %yj;jd;ik ngWk;
NghJ ,e;jf; fw;wad;fs; tPo;gbtjhy;> fyj;jpd; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fj; jlq;fy; Vw;gLk;.
,e;j mad;fs; NaOH fiurypy; mlq;fpapUg;gjhy; vupNrhlhtpd; J}a;ik Fiwtil-
jy; xU gpujp$ykhFk;. vdNt> cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gpiud;
(brine) fiurypy; ,e;j khR mad;fspd; nrwpT kpf ,opthjy; Ntz;Lk;. fly;ePiuf;
nfhz;L jahupf;fg;gLk; gpiud; fiurypy; ,Ue;J ,e;j khR mad;fis ePfF ; jtjw;fhf
,urhad uPjpapy; gupfupg;Gr; nra;tJ kpf Kf;fpakhd xU gbKiwahFk;. NghJkhd
msTf;F BaCl2 Nru;g;gjhy; SO42- mad;fis BaSO4 Mf tPo;gbar; nra;J ePf;fyhk;.
NghJkhd msTf;F NaOH kw;Wk; Na2CO3 Nru;g;gjhy; Mg2+> Ca2+mad;fis Mg(OH)2
MfTk; CaCO3 MfTk; tPo;gbar; nra;J ePf;fyhk;.
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Mg(OH)2(s)

2+ 2-
Ca (aq) + CO3 (aq) 
CaCO3(s)

2+ 2-
Ba (aq) + SO4 (aq)  BaSO4(s)

FNshuPd; Ijurd;
nrwpe;j cg;Gf;fiury; ePu; cl;nrYj;Jjy;

(gpiud; fiury;)
cl;nrYj;Jjy;
gad;gLj;jpa cg;Gf;fiury; Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;Lf; fiury;
ntspNa ntspNa
ijj;Njdpak; kpd;tha; epf;fy; kpd;tha;
Nju;T nkd;rt;T
cU: 1.2 nkd;rt;Tf; fyk;
mNdhl;L miwapy; cs;s fiurypy; Muk;gj;jpy; gpujhdkhf Na+> Cl- mad;fs;

fhzg;gLtNjhL> kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; ePu; $l;lg;gpupifailtjhy; fpilf;Fk; H+ kw;Wk;
OH- mad;fSk; cs;sd. mNdhl;Lf;F mUNf OH- mad;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J O2
I ntsptpLtjw;fhf toq;f Ntz;ba epak kpd;mOj;jk; 0.4 V ck; Cl-mad;fis
xl;rpNaw;wp Cl2 Mf tpLtpg;gjw;fhf toq;fNtz;ba epak kpd; mOj;jy; 13.6 V ck;
11
MFk;. vdNt Cl2 tpLtpf;fg;gLtjw;F Nkyjpfkhf O2 ck; tpLtpf;fg;gLk; rhj;jpag;ghL

cs;sJ. O2 tpLtpff
; g;gLtijf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf ntt;NtW cj;jpfs; ifahsg;gl;Ls;sd.
-
4OH (aq)  O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e
-
2Cl (aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e
vupNrhlh cw; g j; j pf; f hfg; gad; g Lj; J k; gpiud; (brine) fiurypd; NaCl nrwpT
rhu;gstpy; cau;thdJ. rhu;gstpy; kpff; Fiwthd OH- nrwpTk; kpf cau;thd
Cl- mad; nrwpTk; cs;s re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ehd;F OH- mad;fs; kpd;thapd; kPJ
Nru;e;J Xu; xl;rprd; (O2) %yf;$iwAk; ,uz;L ePu; %yf;$WfisAk; Njhw;Wtpg;gjw;
fhd epfo;jfT rhu;gstpy; FiwthdjhFk;. mNdhl;L miwf; fiurypy; rhu;gstpy;
cau; Cl- nrwpT fhzg;gLtjhy; Cl- mad;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J Cl2 thAitj;
Njhw;Wtpg;gjw;fhd epfo;jfT rhu;gstpy; cau;thdjhFk;.
kpd;gFg;gpd;NghJ Cl- mad;fspd; nrwpT ngupJk; FiwtilAk;NghJ OH- mad;fs;

xl;rpNaw;wkile;J O2 ,id tpLtpf;Fk; epfo;jfT cz;lhtjhy;> gpiud; fiury;
KOikahf kpdg ; Fg;Gf;F cs;shtjpyi
; y. vdNt mNdhl;L miwapDs; njhlu;rr ; pahf
nrwpe;j cg;Gf; fiury; gk;gg;gLtNjhL> njhlu;r;rpahf mNdhl;L miwf; fiury;
(gad;gLj;jpa fiury;) ntspNaw;wg;gLk;. njhFjpapy; Cl- mad;fspd; nrwpT Fiwth-
djhapDk; Na+ mad; nrwpT Fiwtilakhl;lhJ. njhFjpapy; (xl;Lnkhj;j fyj;ij
Ak; fUJifapy;) kpd; eLepiyj;jd;ik fhzg;gLtJ Xu; Kjd;ikahd ,ay;gh-
Fk;. vdNt Cl- mad;fs; Cl2 Mf mNdhl;L miwf; fiurypypUe;J ePq;Fk;NghJ
NtW kiw mad; tifnahd;W mNdhl;L miwf; fiurYf;F tUjy; Ntz;Lk;
my;yJ Na+ mad;fs; fNjhl;L miwf; fiurYf;Fg; ngau;jy; Ntz;Lk;. fNjhl;L
miwapNyNa jho;jj ; y; epfOk;. Muk;gj;jpy; fNjhl;L miwapy; ,Ue;j Clfj;jpy; NaCl
,y;iyahjyhy; mjpy; cs;s gpujhd $W ePu; MFk;. ePu; %yf;$Wfspd; $l;lg;gpupif
apd; ngWNgwhfpa H+ mad;fs; njhlu;e;Jk; jho;j;jg;gLtjhy; ePu; %yf;$Wfs; kPSk;
tifapy; $l;lw; gpupifaile;J Ngzp te;j rkepiy FiyAk;. ePu; %yf;$Wfspd;
$l;lw;gpupifahy; fpilj;j H+ mad;fs; H2 Mf ntspNaWk;NghJ ePu; %yf;$Wfs;
; pahff; $l;lw;gpupifailtjd; tpisthff; fNjhl;L miwapy; OH- mad;fspd;
njhlu;rr
nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;. njhlu;r;rpahd kpd;gFg;ig epfo;j;Jk;NghJ Neuj;Jf;F mikaf;
fNjhl;L miwapDs; OH- nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;.
ePu;%yf;$wpd; $l;lw;gpupifapdJ rkdpiyr; re;ju;g;gj;ijr; rkd;ghL (1) %yk;

fhl;lyhk;.
H2O (l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ............... (1)
H+ mad; H2 Mfj; jho;j;jg;gLtjhy; rkdpiy Fiye;Js;s re;ju;g;gj;ijr; rkd;ghL

(2) ,dhy; fhl;lyhk;.
H2O (l)  H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ................. (2)
12
mNdhl;L miwapy; Cl- mad;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J Cl2 Njhd;Wk; tPjj;Jf;Fr; rkkhd

tPjj;jpy; fNjhl;L miwapy; H+ mad;fs; H2 Mfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;. ,jd; tpisthf
xl;Lnkhj;jkhff; fUJifapy; mNdhl;Lf; fiurypy; Cl- mad;fs; FiwtilAk;
tPjj;Jf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdthW fNjhl;L miwapy; cs;s ePu; njhlu;e;Jk; $l;lw;gpupif
aile;J OH- gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;. ,jd; tpisthf KOj; njhFjpAk; kpd;rhu;ghf eLepiy
ahFk;.
nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpy; kpd;gFg;G epfo;e;J mNdhl;L miwapy; Cl- mad;fspd; nrwpT

FiwtilAkhapd; Na+ mad; nrwpT Fiwtiltjpy;iy. mt;thNw fNjhl;L miw
apDs; ePu; %yf;$Wfspd; $l;lw; gpupifapdhy; fpilf;Fk; H+ mad;fs; jho;j;jg;gLt-
jhy;> OH- mad; nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;. vdNt nkd;rt;TfSf;F Clhf kpd;dOj;j
tpj;jpahrnkhd;W cUthFk;. fNjhl;L miwapDs; ,Ue;j OH- mad;fs; mNdhl;L
miwf;Fg; ngaUkhapd; mq;F cs;s Cl2 cld; OH-mad;fs; jhf;fk; GupAk;. vdpDk;
nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpd; nkd;rt;tpd; Clhf OH-mad;fs; nry;Yk; tha;g;G ,y;iyahj
yhy; nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpd; fNjhl;L miwf; fiury; rhu;ghf ,j;jhf;fk; epfOtjpy;iy.
nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpd; mNdhl;L miwAk; fNjhl;L miwAk; Neu; mad;fs; (Na+) CL

nry;yf;$ba xU nkd;rt;tpdhy; Ntwhf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,k;nkd;rt;tpy; kpfr; rpwpa
Jisfs; fhzg;gLtNjhL> mj;Jisfspd; vy;iyfspy; kiw mad;fs; ,ize;jpU-
f;Fk;. vdNt mj;Jisfisr; #oTs;s ntspapd; kiw kpd;Gyj;jpdhy; Jisfis
Nehf;fp Neu; mad;fs; ftug;gLk;. kiw mad;fs; js;sg;gLk;. cau; J}a;ikAs;s
NaCl fiury; (gpiud;) kpd;gFg;Gf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLk;. fNjhl;L miwapDs; xU
Fohapd; topNa njhlu;r;rpahf ePu; Nru;f;fg;gLtNjhL kw;WnkhU Fohapdhy; NaOH
mlq;fpAs;s fiury; ntspg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
mNdhl; L ijj; N jdpaj; j pdhYk; fNjhl; L epf; f y; ,dhYk; Mf; f g; g l; L s; s J.

nkd;rt;Tf; fyj;jpdhy; NaOH cw;gj;jpiaj; njhlu;r;rpahd xU nrad;Kiwahfr;
nra;a Kbfpd;wik xU rpwg;gk;rkhFk;. njhlu;r;rpahf 26% nrwpTs;s gpiud; (brine)
fiury; mNdhl;L miwapDs; gk;gg;gLtNjhL> glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW mNdhl;L
miwapypUe;J ntsp naLf;fg;gLk; fiurypd; gpiud; (brine) nrwpT Vwj;jho 24%
tiu Fiwtile;jpUf;Fk;. ,q;F fNjhl;L miwapd; Cl- mad;fs; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J
Cl2 Mf ntspNaWk; Ntis KjNy fNjhl;L miwapypUe;J H+ mad;fs; xl;rp
Naw;wkile;J H2 Mf ntspNaWk;. vdNt fNjhl;L miwapDs; OH- mad; nrwpT
mjpfupf;Fk;. tPjj;Jf;F xg;ghdthW> mNdhl;L miwapy; ,Ue;j Na+ mad;fs;
fNjhl;L miwf;Fg; ngaUk;. vdNt fNjhl;L miwapDs; NaOH nrwpT cUthFk;.
Na+ mad; ngau;T fhuzkhf> me;je;j miwapDs; kpd;eLepiyj;jd;ik cUthFk;.
kpd;gFg;G epfOtJld; $lNt ,r;nrad;Kiw njhlu;e;Jk; epfOk;.
mNdhl;L miwapy; cs;s Cl- mad;fs; nkd;rt;Tf;F Clhf fNjhl;L miwapDs;

nry;tjpy;iyahjyhy; Njhd;Wk; NaOH cld; xU khR vd;w tifapy; NaCl fyg;g-
jpy;iy.
13
mNdhl;Lj; jhf;fk;: (Neu;Kid)

2Cl-(aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e
fNjhl;Lj; jhf;fk;: (kiw Kid)

-
2H2O(l) + 2e  2OH (aq) + H2(g)
xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fk;:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)
nkd;rt;Tf; fyKiwapy; NaOH cw;gj;jp nra;tjd; gha;r;rw; Nfhl;Lg;glk;
NaCl fiury;
ePu;

gpiud; fiury; jput Cl2

Fspu;j;jy;

gpiud; fiury; Rj;jpfupj;jy; mKf;fg;gLjy;

(Ca2+, Mg2+, SO4-2
mad;fis ePf;fy;)
cyu;j;Jjy;

J}a;ikahf;fg;gl;l gpiud; fiury; (ePuhtp ePf;Fjy;)
 

mNdhl;L miw kpd;gFg;G Cl2 thA (mNdhl;L miwapypUe;J)
gpiud; (24%(w/w) gpiud; fiury;)
+
kPs;Row;rpg;gLj;jy; Na mad; nkd;rt;Tf;F
Clhfr;
mNdhl;L miw nry;yy; ePu;
24% (w/w)gpiud; (24%(w/w) gpiud; fiury;) Na

+
(aq) mad;fs;
fiury; ePf;fy; (fNjhl;Lf; fiury;)
kpd;gFg;G
 H2 thA
fNjhl;L miw + OH-(aq) mad;fs;
(fNjhl;L (fNjhl;Lf; fiury;)
miwapypUe;J)
rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jpf;fhf > eP
 u;kakhd NaOH
Gilit cw;gj;jpf;fhf 32% (w/w)
Mtpahf;fy;

99%(w/w) NaOH
14
NaOH kw;Wk; gf;f tpisTfspd; gad;fs;
NaOH ,d; gad;fs;:

1. rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jpf;fhf
2. fhfpjk;> nraw;ifg;gl;L kw;Wk; rhaf; ifj;njhopYf;F (paint)
3. Ma;$lq;fspy; xU td;%ykhfg; gad;gly;.
4. fopTePiug; gupfupf;Fk; nrad;Kiwapy; ghu cNyhfq;fis tPo;gbar; nra;tjw;fhf
FNshuPdpd; gad;fs;:
1. Gilit> mupkuk; kw;Wk; fhfpjf; $o; cw;gj;jpw;F (ntspw;Wk; fUtpahf)
2. FbePupy; gw;wPupahit mopg;gjw;F
3. HCl cw;gj;jpf;F
4. FNshuPNdw;wpa ,wg;gu;> g+r;rpnfhy;ypfs;> rha tiffs; kw;Wk; kUe;J
tiffs; cw;gj;jpf;F
5. PVC Nghd;w gy;gFjpag; nghUs;fis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Fj; Njitahd
itidy; FNshiul;L cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;F
Ijurdpd; gad;fs;:
1. HCl cw;gj;jpf;F
2. NH3 cw;gj;jpf;F
3. jhtu vz;nza; IjuNdw;wy; %yk; kh[upd; cw;gj;jp
4. vupnghUshf
1.4 rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jp
rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ> vupNrhlhTld; %fpspriul;L ePu;g;gFg;Gj; jhf;fk; (rtu;f;

fhukhf;fy;) epfo;e;J fpsprNuhy; kw;Wk; ePz;l rq;fpyp fhnghl;rpypf;fkpyj;jpd;
Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fs; Njhd;WtNj ,urhad uPjpapy; epfOtjhFk;. ,t;Tg;Gf;fs; rtu;f;
fhuk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. rtu;f;fhu %yf;$wpy; fhgd; kw;Wk; Ijurd; mZf;fs; mlq;fpa
ePun
; tWg;Gs;s thiyAk; ePue; hl;lj; jiyiaAk; nfhz;l xU gpuNjrk; cz;L. ePue ; hl;lj;
jiyapy; Na+ mad;fs;> K+ mad;fs; kw;Wk; -COO- mad; $l;lk; cz;L. rtu;f;fhu
cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ %yg;nghUs;fSs; xd;whf jhtu vz;nza; my;yJ tpyq;F
vz;nza; gad;gLk;. kw;iwa %yg;nghUs; NaOH my;yJ KOH MFk;.
ePu;ntWg;Gs;s thy; ePu;ehl;lj;jiy
cU: 1.3 rtu;f;fhu %yf;$nwhd;wpd; ePu;ntWg;Gs;s thYk; ePu;ehl;lj; jiyAk;
15
rtu;ff ; hu cw;gj;jpapy; ,uz;L tifahd nrad;Kiwfs; cs;sd. mitahtd: ntg;gr;

nrad;Kiw (Hot Process), Fspu;r; nrad;Kiw (Cold Process) MfpadthFk;. Fspu;r;
nrad;Kiwapd; NghJ rtu;f;fhuKk; fpsprNuhYk; Ntwhf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. rtu;f;fhuj;-
jpy; fpsprNuhy; gbAk;. rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jpapd; ntg;gr; nrad;Kiw gpujhd ehd;F (4)
gbKiwfs; njhlu;ghf kl;LNk ,q;F ftdQ; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
(1) rtu;f;fhukhf;fy; (Safonication)
(2) gf;ftpisthfpa fpspruPid ePf;Fjy;
(3) rtu;f;fhuj;ijr; Rj;jpfupj;jy;
(4) rtu;f;fhuj;ij KbTg;nghUshfg; ngwy;
rtu;f;fhu %yf;$nwhd;wpy; cs;s fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if 12> 14> 16 kw;Wk; 18

vd;wthwhf NtWgLk;. Njq;fhnaz;iza;apy; %fpspriul;L rhu;e;j vRj;ju; gpizg;Gf;
fshy; Nyhupf; mkpyk;> kpup];bf; mkpyk;> jpaupf;fkpyk;> xnyapf;fkpyk; Mfpad
gpize;Js;sd. mt;thwhf %fpspriul;L tbtj;jpy; cs;s ePz;l rq;fpyp fhnghl;
rpypf; mkpy (nfhOg;gkpyk;) msT rjtPjkhff; fhl;lg;gLk;. ,tw;Wf;F Nkyjpfkhff;
nfhOg;gkpyq;fs; rpWrpW msTfspy; vRj;ju; gpizg;Gfis mikf;fhJ RahjPd
nfhOg;gkpyq;fshff; (free fatty acid) fhzg;gLk;. Njq;fhnaz;iza;apy; Vwj;jho 44
- 52% msT Nyhupf; mkpyk; mlq;fpAs;sJ. mjpy; 12 fhgd; mZf;fs; cs;sd.
mtw;Ws; 11 mZf;fs; ePu;ntWg;Gs;s thypy; mike;Js;sJ. 14 fhgd; mZf;fs;
mlq;fpAs;s kp];upf; mkpyk; 14% msT mlq;fpAs;sJ. Njq;fhnaz;iza;apy;
mlq;fpAs;s ghkpw;wpf; mkpyj;jpd; 16 fhgd; mZf;fs; cs;sd. 18 fhgd; mZf;fs;
cs;s jpaupf; mkpyk; 3% mlq;fpAs;sJ. 18 fhgd; mZf;fSk; Xu; ,ul;ilg;
gpizg;Gk; xnyapf; mkpyj;jpy; cs;sJ. Njq;fhnaz;iza;apy; 5 - 8% xnyapf;
mkpyk; mlq;fpAs;sJ. Njq;fhnaz;nza;iag; gad;gLj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;j rtu;ff ; huk;
vd;gJ ,t;thwhd xU mkpyf; fyg;gpd; Nrhbak; cg;Gf;fspd; fyitahFk;.
vz;nza;apy; mlq;fpAs;s epwg;nghUs;fisAk; khRf;fisAk; ePfF ; tjw;fhf> Vtg;gl;l

Gy;yu; Vu;j; (Activated fuller earth) vdg;gLfpd;w tpNrlkhd xU tiff; fspapd; kPJ
mDg;gg;gLk;. mjd; ntg;gepiy Vwj;jho 90 0C Mfg; Ngzg;gLk;. gpd;du; vz;nza;
apy; mlq;fpapUf;ff;$ba fspj; Jzpf;iffis ePff ; pa gpd;du; mJ rtu;ff
; hu cw;gj;jpf;
fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. rtu;f;fhu cw;gj;jpiaj; njhlu;r;rpahd nrad;KiwahfNth
(Continuous Process) njhFjpr; nrad;KiwahfNth (Batch Process) elj;jyhk;.
njhFjpr; nrad;Kiw ghuk;gupakhd KiwahFk;. gFjp Kiwapd;NghJ rfy %yg;

nghUs; msTfSk; Vf fhyj;jpy; jhf;f miwapDs; ,lg;gl;Lj; jhf;fk; Gupa ,lkspf;
fg;gLk;. gpd;du; tpisTfs; Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;sg;gLk;. njhlu;r;rpahd nrad;Kiwapd;
NghJ jhf;f miwf;Fj; njhlu;r;rpahfj; jhf;fpfs; toq;fg;gLtNjhL> tpisTfSk;
njhlu;r;rpahf ntspNaw;wg;gLk;.
16
(1) rtu;f;fhukhf;fy; (Safonication)
,jw;fhf> Rj;jpfupf;fg;gl;l jhtu vz;nza; ePu;ka NaOH fiurYld; Nru;j;J ntg;g

Nkw;wg;gLk;. jhf;f miwapDs;> Rj;jpfupj;j jhtu vz;nza;Ak; (cjhuzk;: Njq;fh
naz;nza;) ePu;ka NaOH (vupNrhlhf;) fiurYk; my;yJ KOH fiurYk; gk;gg;gLk;.
vupNrhlh ePupy; fiujy; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. vdNt vupNrhlhit ePupy; fiuf;Fk;
nrad;Kiw xU jdpr; nrad;Kiwahf elj;jg;gLk;.
vz;nza;Ak; ePu;ka NaOH ck; xd;Wlndhd;W fyf;fhj ,uz;L tyaq;fshFk;.

vdpDk; ,e;j ,uz;L gilfspdJk; ,ilKfg;gpy; epfOk; rtu;f;fhukhf;fy; jhf;fj;-
jpd; %yk; fpsprupDk; rtu;f;fhuKk; Njhd;Wk;. ,j;jhf;fKk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkh-
Fk;. NaOH eLepiyahf;fg;gLjy; ,jw;fhd gpujhd fhuzkhFk;. jhf;ff; fyitapd;
ntg;g epiyia 70 0C Mfg; NgZtNjhL> ,t;t+lfk; ed;F fyf;fg;gLk;. vz;nza;
rpWJspfshf khWtjhy; Nkw;gug;Gg; gug;gsT mjpfupf;Fk;. ,jd; tpisthf xl;L
nkhj;jj; jhf;ff; fyitf; fdtsT rhu;ghf jhf;fk; rPuhf epfOk;.
rtu;f;fhukhf;fy; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
rtu;f;fhuk; fpuprNuhy; (fpspruPd;)

R = C17H35 / C15H31 / C11H23 / C13H27
(2) fpspruPid ePf;fy;
rtu;ff ; hukhf;fypd; gpdd ; u; fpilf;Fk; ePuk; a tyaj;jpy; fhuj;jd;ik Fiwtile;Js;sJ.

ePu;ka tyaj;jpy; fpsprupd; fiue;Js;sJ. XusT rtu;f;fhuKk; fiue;Js;sJ. ePu;
tyaj;jpy; fiue;Js;s rtu;ff ; hu %yf;$Wfs; madhf;fkile;Js;sNjhL gpd;tUkhW
rkdpiy Ngzg;gLk;. ePu;ka tyaj;jpy; rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; fiujpwidf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf
NaCl gpiud; (brine) fiury; Nru;ff ; g;gLk;. mq;F Na+ mad; nrwpT cau;thdjhifahy;
ePupy; fiue;Js;s madhf;fkile;j rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; ,Ue;j ePu;ka kiw mad;fSld;
Na+ mad;fs; Nru;tjhy; Njhd;Wk; rtu;f;fhu %yf;$Wfs; ePu;ka tyaj;jpypUe;J
NtwhFk;. cg;Gf; fiurypy; fpsprupd; fiuAk;. NaCl Nru;g;gjhy; ePu;ka tyaj;jpd;
mlu;jj ; p mjpfupf;Fk;. J}a;ikaw;w rtu;ff ; huKk; ePu; tyaKk; Ntwhfpa gpd;du; fpsprupd;
mlq;fpAs;s ePu; tyak; gk;gg;gl;L Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. ,f;fiury; “Spent lye” vdg;gLk;.
17
ePu; + RCOO-Na+(s) RCOO-(aq) + Na+(aq)

Na+ mad; nrwpit mjpufupf;Fk;NghJ

J}a;ikaw;w rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; fzprkhd msT <uypg;G (ePu;) mlq;fpapUg;gjhYk;
ntg;gepiy 70 0C Mf ,Ug;gjhYk;> gk;gp ntspNaw;WtJ ,yFthdJ. ,jid ~<ur;
rtu;f;fhuk;| vdyhk;. jhf;f miwapypUe;J ntspNaw;Wk; ePu;ka cg;Gf; fiurypy;
fpspruPDk; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;. vdNt gf;f tpisthf fpspruPid Ntwhf;Ftjw;fhf
mt;Tg;Gf; fiury; ey;ynjhU %ykhFk;. mf;fiurypy; ,Ue;J fpsprNuhiy ePf;fpg;
ngw;w fiurYld; Njitahd msT NaCl GJf; fiuriy kPsr; Nru;j;J kPs;Row;rpg;
gLj;Jtjw;Fj; NjitahdthW jahupj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLk;. J}a;ikaw;w rtu;f;fhuj;jpy;
mlq;fpAs;s fpspruPid ePfF ; tjw;F ,e;j cg;Gf; fiury; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,e;j cg;Gf;
fiurypy; fpsprupd; fiuAkhapDk; rtu;ff ; huk; fiutjpy;iy. ,q;F cg;Gf; fiurYld;
rtu;f;fhuj;ij ed;F fyf;FtJ kpf Kf;fpakhdJ. vdNt J}a;ikaw;w rtu;f;fhuj;jpy;
cs;s fpsprupid ePf;fp> XusTf;Fr; Rj;jpfupj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. nuhd; rtu;f;fhuj;jpy;
cs;s fpsprupd; mlq;fpAs;s cg;Gf; fiurYk; fOtpa rtu;ff ; huKk; Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. <u
nuhd; rtu;ff; huj;ij cg;Gf; fiurypy; fOTtjhy; mjpy; mlq;fpapUe;j fpsprupd; cg;G
tyaj;Jld; NrUk;. ,r;nrad;Kiw %yk; fOtpa rtu;f;fhuKk; XusT fpspruPidf;
nfhz;l cg;Gf; fiurYk; tpisthff; fpilf;Fk;. ,e;j cg;Gf; fiury; “half spent
lye” vdg;gLk;. ,e;j cg;Gf; fiuryhdJ rtu;f;fhukhf;fypd; gpd;du; fpspruPid ePf;Ft-
jw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jd; fhuzkhf cg;Gf; fiury; kPs;Row;rpf;Fs;shFk;.
(3) rtu;f;fhuk; Rj;jpfupj;jy;
fpspruPd; ePf;fp XusTf;Fr; Rj;jpfupj;j rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; ePUk;> NaCl cg;Gk; cs;sd.

cg;Gf;fslq;fpa <ur; rtu;f;fhuk; ika ePf;fj;Jf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLk;. mjd; tpisthf
ePu;ka cg;Gf;fs; rtu;f;fhuj;jpypUe;J NtwhFk;. rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; mlq;fpapUe;j NaCl
,dJ fl;likg;G 0.5% (w/w) tiu FiwilAk;.
rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; NaOH mlq;fpapUj;jyhdJ Efu;NthUf;Fj; jPq;fhdJ. vupNrhlh

mjpfstpy; cs;slq;fpa rtu;ff
; huk; fhuzkhfj; Njhypy; VwpT Vw;gLk;. fz;fs; Nghd;w
nkd;ikahd ,ioaq; fSf;Fk; ghjpg;G Vw;gl ,lKz;L. vdNt kpfr; nrhw;g mstp
NyDk; mlq;fpAs;s NaOH ,id eLepiyahf;Ftjw;fhfr; rpj;jpupf;fkpyk;> nghRNgh-
upf;fkpyk; my;yJ Njq;fhnaz;nza; rhu;e;j RahjPdf; nfhOg;gkpyq;fs; (Fatty acid)
Nru;f;fg;gLk;.
(4) rtu;f;fhuj;ij KbTg;nghUshfg; ngwy;
cg;Gf;fis ePff ; pa gpdd

; u;> mr;rtu;ff
; huj;jpy; cs;s ePiu ntspNaw;WtJ mtrpakhFk;.
ePulf;fj;ij 12% tiuapy; (w/w%) Fiwg;gjw;fhf> 120 0C tiu ntg;gNkw;wpa rtu;f;
fhuk; Fiwe;j mKf;f tyankhd;wpy; rpWJspfshfg; guk;gpr; nry;YkhW rptpwg;gLk;
(spray). ,jd;NghJ ePu; MtpahjYf;fhf ntg;gj;ijg; ngWfpd;wikahy; rtu;f;fhur; rpW
18
Jspfspd; ntg;gepiy FiwtilAk;. Fiwe;j mKf;fKs;s ghj;jpuj;jpy; rtu;f;fhuk;

gbAk;. ePuhtp ntspNaw;wg;gLk;. cyu;e;j rtu;f;fhuk; Ntwhf;fpg; ngwg;gLk;. cyu;e;j
rtu;ff
; huj; Jld; epug;gpg; nghUs;fs;> epw%l;bfs;> kz%l;bfs; Nghd;wtw;iwr; Nru;eJ
; j;
Njitahd tbtj;jpy; rtu;f;fhu KbTg;nghUs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.
rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; TFM ngWkhdk;
rtu;f;fhuj;jpy; cs;s nkhj;jf; nfhOg;Gg; nghUs;fspd; msNt (Total Fatty Matter)

,jd; %yk; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ rtu;f;fhuf; fl;bapy; cs;s RCOONa(rtu;f;fhu)
rjtPjk; MFk;. ryitr; rtu;ff ; huf;fl;bnahd;wpd; TFM ngWkhdk; 54 - 56% tiuahdJ.
kPjpg; gFjp epug;gpg;nghUs;fs;> ryit Nkk;gLj;jpfs;> epw%l;bfs; Nghd;wtw;whyhdJ.
td;duP py; rtu;ff

; huk; fiuahikAk; Eiuf;fhikAk; rtu;ff; huj;jpd; xU gpujp$ykhFk;.
rtu;f;fhu %yf;$Wfs; ePupd; td;ikf;Ff; fhuzkhfpa fw;wad;fSld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J
tPo;gbjNy ,jw;fhd fhuzkhFk;.
2RCOO--Na+ + M2+  (RCOO)2M + 2Na+

M = Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ Nghd;w mad;fs;
Jg;Guthf;fpfs; td;dPupy; tPo;gbtjpy;iy. nraw;ifj; Jg;Guthf;fpfspy; cs;s gpujh-

dkhd $W Nrhbak; mw;ifapy; ngd;rPd; ry;Ngw;W MFk;.
rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; mOf;ffw;Fk; nraw;ghL

mOf;F vd;gJ vz;nza;g; glynkhd;iwr; #oj; jpuz;l J}Rj; Jzpf;iffs; kw;Wk;
Nrjdr; Nru;itfspd; fyitahFk;. ePupd; gug;gpOit cau;thdjhifahy;> ePiu
khj;jpuk; ,Ltjhy; mOf;F ePq;Ftjpy;iy. rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; %yk; ePupd; Nkw;gug;gpOit
Fiwf;fg;gLtNjhL fOty; nraYk; Nkk;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Mjhug;gilapypUe;J Ntwhfp ePu;tyaj;ij milj;J>

vz;nza; rhu;e;j mOf;Ffisf; nfhz;l njhq;fy;
vz;nza; rhu;ej
;
mOf;Ff; fiw 
Mjhug;gil
cU: 1.4 rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; fOty; nray;
rtu; f ; f hu %yf; $ Wfs; > vz; n za; r ; rpWJspfSld; Nkw; f hl; b athwhf xU
njhq;fiyj; Njhw;Wtpg;gjhy; mOf;F ePq;Fk;.
19
1.5 Na2CO3 cw;gj;jp (nrhy;Nt Kiw / mNkhdpah Nrhlh Kiw)
Nrhbaq; fhgNdw;W> gy;NtW ,urhadf; ifj;njhopy;fSf;Fj; Njitahd xU %yg;

nghUshFk;. vdNt Na2CO3 cw;gj;jpahdJ cyfpd; Kjd;ikahd ,urhadg; nghUs;
ifj;njhopy;fSs; xd;whff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. jw;NghJ cyfpy; Mz;nlhd;Wf;F Vwj;-
jho 20 kpy;ypad; njhd; Na2CO3 cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Na2CO3 cw;gj;jp njhlu;ghd gpujhd ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fs; tUkhW:

NH3 + H2O NH4OH
NH4OH + CO2  NH4H CO3
NaCl + NH4HCO3  NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
2NaHCO3 ∆  Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Na2CO3 cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd NH3 Vgu; Kiwapy; ngwg;gLk;. Rz;zf;fy;iy

ntg;gg;gpupiff;F cl;gLj;jp CO2 cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; kw;iwa gpujhd %yg;nghUs;
Ca2+, Mg2+ kw;Wk; SO42- ePf;fg;gl;l J}a nrwpe;j NaCl MFk;. ,J gpiud; vdg;gLk;.
CaCO3 ∆ CaO + CO2
,r;nrad;Kiwapd; mbg;gilahd gbKiwfisg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
gbKiw : 1 mNkhdpahthf;fk; (Ammonification)
Kjypy; gpiud; fiury; NfhGu mikg;gpd; Nkw;gFjp Clhf mDg;gg;gLtNjhL NH3thA
NfhGu mikg;gpd; fPo;gFjpapd; Clhf mDg;gg;gLk;. vjpu;j;jpirfspy; jhf;fpfis
mDg;G tjhy; mit tpidj;jpwdhf xd;Wlndhd;W fyf;fr; nra;tjhd KuNdhl;l
/ vjpNuhl;l Kiw vdg;gLfpd;wJ. gpiud; mNkhdpag; ngUf;FjyhdJ xU Gw
ntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. vdNt gpiud; fiurypd; ntg;gepiy caUkhapd; NH3 fiuAk;.
tpidj;jpwd; FiwtilAk;. ntg;gg; gupkhw;wr; nrad;Kiw %yk; NfhGu mikg;gpd;
ntg;gj;ij ePf;Ftjd; %yk; jho;thd ntg;gepiyiag; NgZtJ Kf;fpakhdJ.
gpiud; fiury;
Ez;Lis nfhz;l fspj; jfL
NH3 (g)
NH3 ,dhy; epuk;gYw;w gpiud; fiury;
cU: 1.5 mNkhdpahthf;fk; NfhGu mikg;G
20
gbKiw : 2 fhgNdw;wy; (Carbonation)
mNkhdpahtpdhy; epuk;gyile;j gpiud; fiury; ,uz;lhk; NfhGuj;jpd; Nkw;gFjpapd;

Clhf mDg;gg;gLtNjhL> fPo;g;gFjpapd; Clhf CO2 thA mDg;gg;gLk;. ,q;F jhf;fp
fs;> KuNdhl;l Kiwapd; fPo; tpidj;jpwdhf xd;Wlndhd;W fyf;Fk;. mNkhdpahtp
dhy; epuk;gyhf;fg;gl;l gpiud; fiury; xU %y ClfkhFk;. CO2 Xu; mkpy thA
MFk;. mJ ePupy; fiutJ xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. NkYk; NH4OH cld; ePuk ; a CO2
jhf;fk; Gupe;J NH4HCO3 Ij; jUtJk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. vdNt ,uz;lhtjhd
xU NfhGu mikg;igf; Fspu;r;rpahf itj;jpUg;gJ kpf Kf;fpakhdJ.
CO2 thA ePupy; fiutJ xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhjyhy; ,uz;L NfhGu mikg;Gf;fspYk;

ntg;gepiy jho;thf itj;jpUf;fg;gLk;.
NH3 ,dhy; epuk;gyile;j
gpiud; fiury;
fopT thAf;fs;
Ez;Lis nfhz;l fspj; jfL
CO2 (g)
NH4HCO3 + NaCl mlq;fpAs;s fiury;
cU: 1.6 fhgNdw;wy; NfhGu mikg;G
NH3 thA kpifahf ePupy; fiuAkhapDk; CO2 thAtpd; ePupy; fiuAk; jpwd; rhu;gs
tpy; FiwthFk;. CO2 ePupy; fiutjhy; Njhd;Wk; HCO3- mad; nrwpT kpff; Fiwthd
jhFk;. fhgNdw;wj;Jf;F Kd;du; mNkhdpahthf;fk;; fhuzkhf %y NH3 (g) fiurypd;
CO2 thA ed;F mfj;JwpQ;rg;gLtNjhL> cau; HCO3- mad; nrwpT Vw;gLk;.
gbKiw : 3 NaHCO3 d; Ntwhf;fy;

mNkhdpahthf;fk; mile;j gpiud; (brine) fiury; fhgNdw;wg;gLtjhy; mf;fiurypy;
NH4HCO3 nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;. ,e;jg; gpiud; fiurypy; rhu;gstpy; cau;thd Na+ mad;
nrwpitf; nfhz;ljhifahy;> Na+ mad; kw;Wk; HCO3- mad; nrwpthdJ NaHCO3
epuk;gy; vy;iyiaj; jhz;Lk;NghJ NaHCO3 gspq;Ffshf khwpf; fiurypypUe;J ePqF ; k;.
,e;j xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
Na+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)  NaHCO3(s)
Njhd;Wk; NaHCO3 jpz;kk; fiurypypUe;J Ntwhf;fpg; ngwg;gLk;.
,jw;fika NaHCO3 cw;gj;jpahFk; J}a jhf;fk; gpd;tUkhW epfOk;. mjw;fika>
NaHCO3 cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd %yg;nghUs;fshf NH3, CO2, NaCl, H2O Mfpatw;
iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)  NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
21
gbKiw : 4 NaHCO3 ,id ntg;gNkw;wp Na2CO3 ngwy;
Ntwhf;fpg; ngw;w NaHCO3 ,id kpifahf ntg;gNkw;Wtjd; %yk; Na2CO3 ngwg;gLk;.

Njhd;Wk; CO2 thA kPz;Lk; fhgNdw;wy; mikg;gpw;F mDg;gg;gLk;.
2NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
,e;j cw;gj;jpapd; gf;f tpisthff; fpilf;Fk; NH4Cl MdJ gpd;tUkhW NH3 kPsg;
gpwg;gpg;gjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jw;fhf NH4Cl fiury; Rz;zf;fy; gpupifail-
tjhy; fpilf;Fk; CaO cld; jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gLk;.
CaO(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq)  2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Njhd;Wk; NH3> mNkhdpah NfhGu mikg;gpDs; mDg;gg;gLk;. ,jw;fika KOr;

nrad;Kiwf;FKupa Nfhl;ghl;L uPjpahd xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW
vOjpf; fhl;lyhk;. vt;thwhapDk; jpz;k CaCO3 IAk; ePu;ka NaCl ,idAk; Nru;g;gjhy;
Na2CO3 cw;gj;jp nra;a KbahJ.
CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(s)
,r;nrad;Kiwapd;NghJ Njhd;Wk; ,Wjpg; gf;ftpisT CaCl2 MFk;. mjidAk; NtW

ifj;njhopy;fSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
gpd;tUk; tplaq;fs; fhuzkhf nrhy;Nt Kiw (Solvay Method) nghUshjhu uPjpapy;

mD$ykhdjhFk;.
(1) NaCl, CaCO3 Mfpatw;iwf; Fiwe;j nrytpy; ,yFtpy; ngw Kbfpd;wik.
(2) NH3 tpuakhtjpy;iy@ vdNt mjidr; Row;rpg;gLj;jy; %yk; njhlu;e;Jk;
kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;j Kbfpd;wik.
(3) CO2 ,d; xU gFjpiaAk; kPsg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
KHCO3 ,dJ ePupy; fiuAe;jpwd; NaHCO3 ,dJ ePupy; fiuAe;jpwid tpl cau;thd
jhifahy; NfhGu mikg;gpDs; tPo;gbtjpy;iy. vdNt KHCO3 jahupg;gjw;fhf Nkw;gb
Kiwiag; gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
Na2CO3 ,d; gad;fs;

(1) ePupd; td;ikia ePf;Fjy;.
(2) rtu;f;fhuk; kw;Wk; Jg;Guthf;fpfs; cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ mOf;ffw;Wk; nraiy
tpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhfr; Nru;f;fg;gLjy;.
(3) ryitr; Nrhlhthfg; gad;gLj;jy;.
(4) fhfpjf; ifj;njhopypy; kuf;$Old; Nru;j;jy;.
(5) fz;zhb cw;gj;jpf;F
22
1.6 mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp (Vgu; - ngh\; Kiw)
nraw; i fg; gris tskhf; f papy; mNkhdpah cw; g j; j p kpf Kf; f pakhd
xd;whFk;. jw;Nghija cyf rdj;njhif Vwj;jho 7.3 gpy;ypad; Mf ,Ug;gNjhL 2050
mstpy; mJ 9.0 gpy;ypad; tiu mjpfupf;f ,lKz;L vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mjpfupj;Jr; nry;Yk; rdj;njhiff;Nfw;g czT cw;gj;jpAk; mjpfupg;gJ mtrpakhFk;.
vdNt> gris cw;gj;jpahdJ kpf Kf;fpakhd Xu; ,urhad cw;gj;jpj;Jiwahff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ.
xl;Lnkhj;j mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpapd; Vwj;jho 83% nraw;ifg; gris cw;gj;jpf;fh-

fNt gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf> xl;Lnkhj;j mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpapd; Vwj;jho
80% a+upah cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhfNt gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp njhlu;ghd ,urhadj; jhf;fk; tUkhW:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + ntg;gk;
1 : 3 2
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd %yg;nghUs;fs;
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd Kjd;ikahd %yg;nghUs;fs; N2 ck; H2 ck;

MFk;. tspiaj; jputkhf;fpa gpd;du; gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk; N2 thA
Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. vdNt N2 thATf;fhd cw;gj;jpr; nryT (fpuak;) cs;sJ.
IjNuhf;fhgd;fis (eg;jh) cilg;gjhy; my;yJ ,aw;if thAtpd; (Natural gas) gpujhd

$whfpa nkNjd; thAitg; gad;gLj;Jtjhy; Ijurd; (H2) thA ngwg;gLfpwJ. capu;r;
Rtl;L vupnghUs; vd;w tifapy; tY rf;jp cw;gj;jpf;F ,aw;if thA gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wJ. ,e;j ,aw;if thA mjpf mstpy; GtpapDs; gbthff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
,aw;if thA %yk; H2 cw;gj;jp nra;jy; SMR (Steam - Methane - Reforming) vdg;gL
fpwJ. ,aw;if thAtpy; nrhw;g mstpy; H2S mlq;fpAs;sikahy; mJ epf;fy; Cf;fpr;
nraw; ghl;Lf;Fj; jlq;fyhf mikAk;. vdNt ,aw;if thAtpy; cs;s H2S I ePf;fpg;
gpd;du; Cf;fpj; jhf;fk; %yk; H2 gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;.
H2S ,id ePf;FtJ njhlu;ghd jhf;fk; tUkhW:

H2S(g) + ZnO(s)  ZnS(s) + H2O(g)
SMR nrad;Kiwapd; Kjyhk; gbKiw 700 0C - 800 0C ntg;gepiyapy; nkNjd;> ePuhtp

Mfpatw;iwj; jhf;fKwr; nra;J CO ck; H2 ck; jahupj;jyhFk;. ,J xU mf
ntg;gj; jhf;fkhFk;.
+200 kJ mol-1
CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g) ———— (1)
,uz;lhk; gbKiwapdN ; ghJ thAf;fshy; njhlu;eJ

; k; ePuhtpAld; jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gLk;.
mg;NghJ CO thAthdJ CO2 thAthf khWk;. ,J xU Gwntg;gj; jhf;fkhFk;.
-41 kJ mol-1
CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g) ————— (2)
23
,Jjtpu gpd;tUk; jhf;fk; epfoTk; (rpwpJ) ,lKz;L.

CH4(g) + 2H2O(g)  4H2(g) + CO2(g) ————— (3)
ePuhtp kpifahf ,Uf;fr; nra;tjd; %yk; xl;L nkhj;jj; jhf;fj;ij tyJ Gwkhf
epfor; nra;J Ijurd; (H2 ) cw;gj;jpia mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.
SMR ,dJ ntg;gtpaf;fj; jd;ik njhlu;ghf gz;G uPjpapy; XusNtDk; tpsf;fk; ngWt-
jw;fhf> ∆G = ∆H - T∆S njhlu;igg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. Nkw;gb ntg;gtpaf;fj; njhlu;gpd;gb>
Gwntg;gj; jhf;fkhfpa ,uz;lhk; jhf;fkhdJ> rhu;gstpy; jho;thd ntg;gepiyapYk;
$lj; jhdhfNt epfOk;. thA mtj;ijapd; %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; NtWghL
Vw;gLtjpy;iyahjyhy; mKf;fj;jpd; kPJ nry;thf;NfJk; fpilahJ. mt;thNw> ∆G
apd;ghy; T∆S ,d; nry;thf;Fk; ,y;iy vdyhk;.
mfntg;gj; jhf;fq;fshfpa Kjyhk; %d;whk; jhf;fq;fs; rhu;gstpy; cau; ntg;g

epiyfspNyNa epfOk;. Kd;Ndhf;fpa jpirapy; thA mtj;ijapd; %yf;$Wfspd;
vz;zpf;if mjpfupg;gjhy; ve;jpug;gp mjpfupf;Fk;. vdNt ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ
T∆S ,dJ ngUf;fj;jpd; Neu;g;ngWkhdk; mjpfupf;Fk;. vdNt ∆G = ∆H - T∆S ,d;gb>
,e;j (1)Mk; (3)Mk; jhf;fq;fSf;fhf> cau; ntg;gepiyapy; ∆G ,dJ kiwj;jd;ik
mjpfupg;G epfOk;. cau; ntg;gepiyapy; (1800 0C - 1000 0C) KjyhtJ jhf;fk; epfo
,lkspf;fg;gLk;. mq;F %d;whtJ jhf;fk; epfo tha;g;Gf; fpilahJ. tpisthfpa
thAtpd; fyitapy; cs;s CO thAtpd; nrwpitf; Fiwj;J H2 tpisr;riy mjp-
fupg;gjw;fhf> ,uz;lhk; jhf;fj;Jf;Fr; rhu;ghfj; jho; ntg;gepiyapy; (200 0C - 400 0C)
epfo ,lkspf;fg;gLk;. CO2 kw;Wk; H2 cw;gj;jpia ntg;gNkwpa thAf;fyitAld; ePuhtp
Nru;j;jy; %yk; mf;fyit apd; ntg;gepiyia (200 0C - 4000C tiu) Fiwf;fyhk;.
,uz;lhk; jhf;fk; Gwntg;gj; jhf;fkhjyhy; kPz;Lk; Kjyhk; jhf;fj;Jf;Fg; nghUj;-
jkhd cau; ntg;gepiyiag; ngWtjw;fhf ,uz;lhk; jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;
ntg;gk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
mnkupf;f If;fpaf; FbaurpdJ ,aw;if thA cw;gj;jpapd; Vwj;jho 60% mNkhdpah

cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; gad;gLfpwJ. eg;jh (C6H14) ,id cilg;gjd; %yKk; H2 thAitg;
ngwyhk;. mjd; %yKk; tspkz;lyj;jpy; CO2 tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. mq;F epfOk; jhf;fq;fs;
tUkhW:
C6H14(g) + 6H2O(g)  6CO(g) + 13H2(g)
CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g)
iejurDk; IjurDk; jhf;fk; Gupe;J NH3 Ij; jUk; jhf;fk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhtN-

jhL mJ xU kPSe;jhf;fKkhFk;. vdpDk; nghJ ntg;g> mKf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo;
mj;jhf;fk; epfOtjpy;iy vdyhk;. mjw;fhd fhuzk; Vtw;rf;jp rhu;gstpy; cau;th-
djhf ,Uj;jyhFk;.
H2 > N2 vd;gtw;wpypUe;J NH3 cw;gj;jp nra;jy;

ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kiw Vgu; - Ngh\; Kiw vdg;gL
fpd;wJ. mjd;NghJ ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; rpwe;j epge;jidfshf 450 0C - 5000C
24
ntg;gepiy tPr;R kw;Wk; 250 - 400 atm Nghd;w mKf;f tPr;rpd; fPo; Cf;fpahf ,Uk;Gk;
J}z;bahf K2O kw;Wk; Al2O3 IAk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
250 - 300 atm

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + ntg;gk;
°
450 - 500 C
neUf;fpa jhf;fp thAf;fyit Cf;fp Nkw;gug;gpd; kPjhfr; nrd;W NH3 Mf khWk;.

,j;jhf;fk; kPSe;jhf;fkhjyhy; Cf;fp Nkw;gug;igj; jhz;Lk; thAf; fyitapy; NH3
,w;F Nkyjpfkhf N2 kw;Wk; H2 thAf;fSk; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;. ,f;fyitapypUe;J NH3
thA Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. Vwj;jho -33.34 0C tiu Fspu;j;Jjhy; NH3 thA jput epiyia
milAk;. iejurdpd; nfhjpepiy -195.8 0C ck; Ijurdpd; nfhjpepiy -252.9 0C ck;
Mjyhy; fyitiaf; Fspu;j;Jtjd; %yk; ,yFthf NH3 ,id khj;jpuk; jput-
khf khw;wp N2 > H2 thAf; fyitiaj; jhf;ff; fyitapypUe;J Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;s
yhk;. cau; mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; NH3> H2> N2 Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;l thAf; fyitia
kw;WNkhu; miwapy; mKf;fj;ijj; jpBnudf; Fiwg;gjd; %yk; Fspur; nra;ayhk;.
mg;NghJ mNkhdpah thA jput epiyia milAk;. vdNt thA epiyapy; vQ;rp
As;s N2 > H2 thAf;fs; kPz;Lk; jhf;f miwapDs; gk;gg;gLk;. NH3 Njhd;Wtjw;Fr;
nrythfpa msTf;Fk; N2 kw;Wk; H2 thAf;fspd; msTf;Fk; nghUj;jkhd msT N2
ck; H2 ck; khj;jpuk; jhf;f miwapDs; Gjpjhfr; Nru;f;fg;gLk;.
gpd;tUk; tpsf;fg;glj;jpd; %yk; ,r;nrad;Kiwia vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.
kPs;Row;rpg;gLj;jYf;fhf tsp
pump to circulate
cl;nrYj; Jk; gk;gases
gp

jhf;f miwapYs;s tsp
cl;nrYj;Jk; gk;gp
N2, H2
cl;nrYj;jy;
ntg;gg; gupkhw;w myF

ntg;gg; gupkhw;w
NH3 kw;Wk; jhf;fKwhj myF
,Uk;G Cf;fp
N2, H2 thAf;fyitiag;
(450 - 500 0C)
gk;Gjy;.
Fspu;j;Jk; myF
ntg;gr; RUs;
jput mNkhdpah
NH3 outlet to neUf;fpa thAf;fyit
storage tank (200 atm )
cU: 1.7 mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw
jput mNkhdpahit ntspNaw;wpa gpd;du;> vQ;rpAs;s jhf;fKwhj N2 > H2 (-33.34
0
C ntg;gepiyapYs;s) kw;Wk; Gjpjhfr; Nru;f;Fk; N2 > H2 mlq;fpa fyit 450 0C -
500 0C tiu ntg;gNkw;wg;gLk;. ,e;j cw;gj;jp nrad;Kiwf;Fj; Njitahd ntg;gr;rf;-
jpia vupnghUs; jfdj;jpd; %yKk; toq;fyhk;. mjd; tpisthf tspkz;lyj;jpy;
CO2 NrUk;. mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpapd; NghJ H2 ngWk; gbKiwapd;NghJk; Vgu; Kiw
apy; cau; ntg;gepiyiag; ngWtjw;fhf vupnghUs; jfdQ; nra;ag;gLtjhYk; CO2
25
gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j xl;Lnkhj;jr; nrad;Kiw fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;jpy; gr;ir

tPl;L thAf;fSs; xd;whfpa CO2 tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. cyfshtpa uPjpapy; xl;Lnkhj;j
cw;gj;jpapd;gb> xU njhd; mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;
CO2 ,dJ msT Vwj;jho 2.9 njhd; MFk;. tspkz;lyj;jpy; CO2 Nru;f;Fk; Vida
njhopw;ghLfSld; xg;gpLifapy; mNkhdpah cw;gj;jp fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;Jld;
NrUk; CO2 ,dJ msT Vwj;jho 1.4% MFk;.
mNkhdpah cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ N2> H2 thAf;fs;> mtw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd gPrkhd tpfpjj;

jpw;F (1:3) mikthfNt fyf;fg;gLk;. iejurd; thAitAk; Ijurd; thAitAk; gpwg;
gpg;gjw;fhf fpuak; (nryT) Vw;gLfpd;wikahy;> %yg;nghUs; tPz;tpuaj;ijj; jtpu;g;g-
jw;fhf gPrkhd tpfpjj;ij tpQ;rpf; fyf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. NkYk; xU thA $Ljyhfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLkhapd;> mt;thAthdJ Cf;fpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLtjhy;
mt;t+f;fp Nkw;gug;G Kw;WKOjhf kiwf;fg;gl ,lKz;L. Cf;fp Nkw;gug;ghdJ xU
thAtpdhy; khj;jpuk; kiwf;fg;gLkhapd; jhf;fk; epfOtjw;fhd tha;gG
; f; FiwtilAk;.
Cf;fp Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ ,uz;L thAf;fSk; Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. Cf;fpfs;
gad;gLj;Jtjd; tpisthfr; rkdpiyia vl;Ltjw;fhd Neu msT FiwtilAk;.
,t;nty;yhf; fhuzpfSf;Fk; mikar; rpwg;ghd epge;jidahf miktJ N2 kw;Wk;
H2 thAf;fyitapd; tpfpjk; 1 : 3 Mf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
,j;jhf;fk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhjyhy; ∆H MdJ kiwg;ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWk;.

jhf;fk; epfOk;NghJ %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if Fiwtilfpd;wikahy; ve;jpug;gp
FiwAk;. vdJ ∆S kiwg;ngWkhdk; nfhz;ljhFk;. vdNt T∆S (-) MFkhjyhy;
-T∆S MdJ Neu;g;ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWk;. vdNt ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ ∆G
,dJ kiwj; jd;ikahdJ Neu;j;jd;ik tiu khw;wkilAk;. NkYk; cau; ntg;g
epiyahdJ Kd;Kfj; jhf;fj;jpw;Fg; ghjfkhdJ vd;gJ ,yr;rwypNaapd; Nfhl;ghl;bd;
%yKk; tpsf;fyhk;.
ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ jhf;fj;jpd; jhNd epfOk; jd;ik (Raepiyj; jd;ik)

FiwtilAk;. ntg;g ,af;f uPjpapy; jhNd jhf;fk; epfOk; jd;ik Fiwtiltjhy;
tpisr;ry; FiwtilAk;. tpisit mjpfupg;gjw;fhf ntg;gepiyiaf; Fiwj;jy;
Ntz;Lk;. ntg;gepiyiaf; Fiwf;Fk;NghJ jhf;ftPjk; Fiwtiltjhy; xl;Lnkhj;jr;
nrad;Kiwapd; tpidj;jpwd; FiwtilAk;. rpwg;ghd tpidj;jpwidg; NgzNtz;L
khifahy; 450 0C - 500 0C tiuapyhd ntg;gepiy Ngzg;gLk;. ,e;epge;jidfspd; fPo;f;
fpilf;Fk; NH3 d; cw;gj;jp tpisT rhu;gstpy; FiwthdJ. vdpDk; jhf;fKwhj
N2 IAk; H2 IAk; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; Cf;fp tl;lq;fspy; gq;F nfhs;sr; nra;aj;jf;fthW
cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw jpl;lkplg;gl;Ls;sJ. xU jdpg; gbKiw vd;w tifapy; fpilf;
Fk; NH3 cw;gj;jp FiwthapDk; $l> xl;Lnkhj;jr; nrad;Kiwiag; nghWj;jkl;by;
cau; tpisr;ry; ngwf;$bajhf ,Ug;gjw;fhd fhuzk;> Cf;fp tl;lq;fs; gytw;wpd;
fPo; jhf;fj;ij epfo;j;Jtjw;Nfw;w Kiwapy; jpl;lkplg;gl;bUj;jy; MFk;. ,nyr;rw;wp
ypNaapdJ Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb cau; mKf;fk; Kd;Ndhf;fpa jhf;fj;Jf;Fr; rhjfkhdJ.
26
vdpDk; cau; mKf;fj;ijr; rfpf;ff;$ba cgfuzq;fspd; guhkupg;Gr; nryT cau;thd-

jhFk;. vdNt jw;fhyj;jpy; 250 - 300 atm mKf;fNk gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. jhf;fpfspd;
nrwpit caupa kl;lj;jpy; Ngzp tUjy;> Njhd;Wk; tpisnghUis ntspNaw;wp
athW mjd; nrwpit jho;thd kl;lj;jpy; Ngzp tUjy; Mfpad %yk; $Ljyhd
msT tpisitg; ngw Kbfpd;wJ. mjid ,nyr;rw;wypNaapdJ Nfhl;ghl;bd; %yk;
tpsf;fyhk;. jhf;f miwapDs; ,ilapilNa N2 ck; H2 ck; mDg;gg;gLtNjhL
NH3 mlq;fpa thAf; fyit ,ilapilNa Fspu;j;jg;gl;L jputkhf;fg;gLtjd; %yk;
NH3 ntspNaw;wg;gLtjhy; ,j;Njitg;ghL g+u;j;jpailfpd;wJ.
1.7 iej;jpupf; mkpy cw;gj;jp (xRthy;l; Kiw)
,jw;fhf NH3 thA> tspkz;ly tsp> ePu; Mfpad %yg;nghUs;fshfg; gad;gLj;-

jg;gLk;. mNkhdpahTf;Fk; xl;rprd; thATf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; ngWk;
NO2thAit ePUld; jhf;fKwr; nra;J HNO3 ngwg;gLk;. mj;jhf;fq;fisg; gpd;tUkhW
fhl;lyhk;.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2(g)  4NO(g) + 6H2O(l) (-907 kJ mol-1)
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g) (-114 kJ mol-1)
3NO2(g) + H2O(l)  2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)  4HNO3(aq)
,r;nrad;Kiwiag; gpd;tUk; tpsf;fg;glj;jpd; %yk; vspikahdthW fhl;lyhk;.

K j y h t J m i w a p y ; C f ; f p f s p d ; K d ; d p i y a p y ; NH 3 x l ; r p N a w ; w g ; g L k ; .
,uz;lhtJ miwapy; NO thA xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;. %d;whtJ miwapy; NO2 thA ePUld;
jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gLk;.
ePu;

fopT thAf;f;s;
gbfk; (Quartz)
iej;jpupf;fkpyk;
xl;rpNaw;w mfj;JwpQ;ry;
miw miw
cU: 1.8 HNO3 cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw
; pa tspkz;ly tspiag; gad;gLj;jp NH3 xl;rpNaw;wg;gLk;.

J}R> ePuhtp Mfpatw;iw ePff
nghJthf tspkz;ly tspapy; fdtsTg;gb 78% N2 ck;> 21% O2 ck; mlq;fpAs;sd.
jhf;fj;Jf;Fj; Njitahd msT xl;rprd; mlq;fpAs;s tspkz;ly tspf; fdtsnthd;W
27
jhf;f miwapDs; gk;gg;gLk;. xU fdtsT myF mNkhdpahTf;fhf 9 - 12 fdtsT

myF vDk; tspkz;ly tspapd; msT Ngzg;gLk;. ntg;gepiy 810 0C - 850 0C tPr;rpy;
Ngzg;gLk;. ,e;epge;jidfspd; fPo; NO thA 97% tiuapy; ngwyhk;. mNkhdpar;
nrwpT mjpfupf;Fkhapd; ntbg;G epfo ,lKz;L. vdNt mNkhdpah tspkz;ly thAf;
fdtsTfspd; tpfpjj;ij cupathW NgZtJ Kf;fpakhdJ. ,t;thAf; fyit Pt/
Rh Cf;fpf;F Clhf mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; nry;Yk;NghJ NO Mf khWk;. fpilf;Fk; NO
thA 150 0C tiu Fspu;j;jg;gLk;. ntg;gepiy 150 0C I mile;jJk; NO thAth-
dJ njhlu;e;Jk; NO2 Mf xl;rpNaw;wkiljyhdJ xl;rpNaw;w miwapDs; epfOk;.
mfj;JwpQ;ry; miwapDs; ePUld; NO2 thA jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ,q;Fk;
kPs;gha;r;rw; Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb> ePUk; NO2 thATk; jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. xl;rprd;
thAitf; nfhz;l NO2 thAf;fyit 5 - 10 atm mKf;fk; epyTkhW mfj;J wpQ;ry;
miwapDs; gk;gg;gLk;. mfj;JwpQ;ry; NfhGuq;fSk; ,urhad uPjpapy; rlj;Jtkhd
nghUs;fshy; kiwf;fg;gl;Ls;sikahy; ePUld; NO2 jhf;fk; GupAk; rhj;jpag;ghL mjp-
fupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Wjpapy; Vwj;jho 96% tpisr;ry; fpilf;Fk;.
iej;jpupf; mkpyj;jpd; gad;fs;
(1) gris cw;gj;jpf;Fk; ntbnghUs; cw;gj;jpf;Fk;

(2) ifj;njhopy;fSf;Fj; Njitahd iej;jpNuw;W cw;gj;jpf;F
KNO3 - ntbkUe;J cw;gj;jpf;F
AgNO3 - xspg;glf; ifj;njhopYf;F (Photography)
(3) mur ePu; cw;gj;jpf;F (Aqua - regia)
(4) cNyhfg; gw;whR gpbj;jypd; NghJ Nkw;gug;igr; Rj;jpfupg;gjw;F
1.8 ry;g+upf;fkpyk; cw;gj;jp nra;jy; (njhLif Kiw)
ry;g+upf;fkpy (H2SO4) cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd %yg;nghUs;fs;:
fe;jfk; my;yJ fe;jfk; mlq;fpAs;s cNyhfj;jhJ> ePu; MfpadNt ry;g+upf;f

kpy cw;gj;jpf;fhd %yg;nghUs;fshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Pbs, Cus, Zns mlq;fpAs;s
cNyhfj; jhJf;fs; %yk; Pb, Cu, Zn Nghd;w cNyhfq;fisg; gpupjn ; jLf;Fk; nrad;Kiw
apd;NghJ gf;f tpisthff; fpilf;Fk; SO2 thATk; H2SO4 cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhfg;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ngw;Nwhypar; Rj;jpfupgg
; pdN
; ghJ gf;ftpisthff; fpilf;Fk; fe;jfj;ij
(ry;gu;) my;yJ GtpapypUe;J ngwg;gLk; fe;jfj;ij ,jw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
ry;g+upf;fkpy cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ fe;jfk; my;yJ cNyhf ry;igl;Lfs; jfdKwr;

nra;ag;gl;L SO2 jahupf;fg;gLk;. tspkz;ly O2 cld; SO2 jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gl;L
SO3 jahupg;gJ ,uz;lhtJ gbKiwahFk;. nrwpe;j H2SO4 cld; SO3 Ij; jhf;fKwr;
nra;J ngwg;gLk; igNwh ry;g+upf; mkpyk; (oleum H2S2O7 ) ,id ePu;g;gFg;Gr; nra;tjd;
%yk; H2SO4 ngwg;gLk;.
28
°
1atm, 450 C
S(s) + O2(g) V2 O5(g) 
SO2(g)
2SO2 + O2(g) 2SO3 + ntg;gk;
SO3 +H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7(aq)
H2S2O7(aq) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(aq)
fe;jf %yfj;ijj; jfdKwr; nra;J SO2 cw;gj;jp nra;jy; jdpahdnjhU nrad;Kiw

ahFk;. ghlrhiy Ma;T$lj;jpy; kpf ,yFthff; fe;jfj; Jz;nlhd;wpid gd;rd;
RluLg;gpy; vupj;J SO2 Ig; ngwyhk;. vdpDk; ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; SO2 cw;gj;jp nra;jy;
me;j msTf;F vspikahdjy;y. Kjypy; fe;jfj;ij ntg;gNkw;wp 140 0C apy; jput
khf;fg;gLk;. jputepiyf; fe;jfj;jpy; gy;NtW jpz;kepiy khRf;fs; cs;sdthapd;
mtw;iw ePf;Ftjw;fhf tbf;fg;gLk;. jputf; fe;jfj;jpy; mkpyg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; cs;sd
thapd; mtw;iw ePf;Ftjw;fhf CaO Nru;;f;fg;gLk;. jputepiyf; fe;jfj;ijf; nfhz;L
nry;Yk; cNyhff; Foha;j; njhFjp> mkpyg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; fhuzkhf mupg;Gf;F
cs;shFkhjyhy; mtw;iw ePf;FtJ mtrpakhFk;.
nrwpe;j H2SO4
jputf;
fe;jfk;
Giff;Fk;
cyu; tsp fe;jftkpyk;
(Olium) (H2S2O7 )
fe;jf ciy (Furnace) Cf;fp Nkw;gug;G
nfhz;l jhf;f miw ePu; ry;g+upf;fkpyk;
(H2SO4 )
cU: 1.9 njhLif Kiw ry;g+upf;fkpyj; jahupg;G njhFjpapd; mikg;G
ntg;gNkw;wy; CaO
jpz;kf; fe;jfk;  jputf; fe;jfk;  jpz;k khRf;fslq;fpa
(140 0C) jputf; eLepiyahf;fk; fe;jfk;
tbj;jy;

jfd miwapDs; gk;Gjy;
vupAk; jputf; fe;jfk;) SO2(g) jputf;
 fe;jfk;
jfd$lj;jpDs; jputf; fe;jfKk; tspkz;ly tspAk; gk;gg;gLk;. jputf; fe;jfk; kpfr;

rpwpa Jspfshfj; jfd$lj;jpDs; gk;gg;gLk;. mr;rpW Jspfs; kpf vspjpy; jfdkilAk;.
fe;jfj; jfdk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. jfdk; %yk; fpilf;Fk; tspf;fyitapd;
SO2 msit 8 - 9% fl;likg;gpy; NgZjy; Ntz;Lk;.
fe;jf ciyapd; Rw;Wg;Gw ntg;gepiy Vwj;jho 830 0C MFk;. ,e;j ciyapDs; cs;s
SO2 > O2 > N2 thAf;fyitapy; gy;NtW jpz;kj; Jzpf;iffs; (rhk;gu;) fhzg;glyhk;.
29
mtw;iw ePf;FtJ kpf Kf;fpakhdJ. J}R my;yJ rhk;gu; epiyapy; gy;NtW Jzpf;
iffs; fhzg;gLkhapd; mit V2O5 Cf;fp Nkw;gug;gpy; gbe;J Cf;fpr; nrad;Kiw
f;Fj; jlq;fyhf miktjhy;> SO2 mlq;fpa thAf;fyit Kjypy; Rj;jpfupf;fg;gLk;.
fe;jf%nthl;irl;L cw;gj;jpahFk; nrad;Kiw xU Gwntg;g kPSe;jhf;fkhFk;. xl;rp
rDf;Fk; fe;jftPnuhl;irl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd fdtsT tpfpjk; 1 : 1 (%y; tpfpjk; 1
: 1) Mf itj;jpUf;fg;gLk;.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + ntg;gk;
tpidj;jpwDld; jhf;fj;ij epfo;j;Jtjw;fhf rpwg;ghd xU epge;jidahf 400 - 500 0C

ntg;gepiy Ngzg;gLk;. jhf;fj;jpdJ ntg;gk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wikahy; xNuabahf>
xl;Lnkhj;j msT SO2 ck; O2 cld; jhf;fKWk; tifapy; cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw
jpl;lkplg;gLkhapd;> mjpf msT ntg;gk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gl;L> kPz;Lk; gpd;Kfj;jhf;fk;
ce;jg;gl;L tpisT Fiwtilaf; fhuzkhFk;. vdNt xl;Lnkhj;j msT SO2 MdJ
ehd;F gbKiwfspd; topNa SO3 Mf khw;wg;gLk;. xt;nthU gbKiwapd;NghJk; Cf;fp
Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ thAf;fyit mDg;gg;gLk;.
,e;j kPSe;jhf;fj;ijg; ngupJk; tyJ gf;fkhf Kidg;GWj;jp SO3 tpisit mjpfupg;g

jw;fhf tspkz;ly tspia toq;Ftjd; %yk; xl;rprd; nrwpit mjpfupj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
tspkz;ly tsp kpf kypthd xU %yg;nghUshifahy; tspkz;ly tspia toq;fp
xl;rprd; nrwpit mjpfupj;jyhdJ cw;gj;jpr; nryT mjpfupg;gjw;Ff; fhuzkhfkhl;
lhJ. gPrkhdj;jpd;gb> SO2 : O2 tpfpjk; 2 : 1 MFk;. mjw;fika xU %y; SO2 ,w;Fk;
Njitahd O2 ,d; msT 0.5 %y; MFk;. vdpDk;> cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ %y; tpfpjk;
1:1 Mjyhy; xU %y; SO2 ,w;fhd O2 %y; msthdJ 0.5 %y; mjpfkhf cs;sJ.
tspkz;ly tsp kypthdjhapDk;> Njitahd xl;rprd; nrwpit tpQ;rp cau; xl;rprd;
nrwpitg; NgZjyhdJ cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd; tpidj;jpwd; Fiwtilaf; fhuz
khFk;. rpwg;ghd msit tpQ;rp xl;rprd; nrwpit mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ> Cf;fp Nkw;gug;G
kPJ mjpf msT xl;rprd; Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLtjd; tpisthf SO2 thA Cf;fp Nkw;gug;G
kPJ Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLtjw;fhd tha;g;Gf; FiwtiltjhdJ jhf;fk; epfOk; epfo;jfT
Fiwtiltjw;Ff; fhuzkhf mikAk;.
,j;jhf;fk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhjyhy;> Fspu;jJ

; k;NghJ tpisr;ry; mjpfupf;Fk; vd;gJ
,yr;rw;wypNaapd; Nfhl;ghL %yk; vjpu;T $wg;gLfpwJ. vdpDk; ntg;gepiyiaf;
Fiwf;Fk;NghJ jhf;f tPjk; Fiwtiljyhd cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd; tpidj;jpwd;
Fiwtilaf; fhuzkhFk;. vdNt rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiy 400 - 500 0C vdj; jPu;khdpf;
fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mKf;fk; mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ thA mtj;ijapd; kPSk; jhf;fkhdJ %yf;$Wfspd;

vz;zpf;if Fiwthd jpirapy; epfOk; Nghf;F mjpfupf;Fk; vd ,nyr;rw;wypNaapd;
Nfhl;ghL vjpu;T $Wfpd;wJ.
30
,j;jhf;fj;Jf;fhf mKf;fj;ij mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ Kd;Kfj;jhf;fk; ce;jg;gl;L SO3

tpisT mjpfupf;Fk;. vdpDk; ,e;jj; jhf;fj;Jf;fhf xU tspkz;ly (1 atm)
mKf;fj;jpYk; $l tpisT 99% msT cau;thdJ. vdNt mjpf cau;thd
mKf;fk; gpuNahfpj;jy; mtrpakd;W.
gpd;tUk; tupg;glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthwhf xt;nthU gbKiwapYk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;

ntg;gj;ij ePf;Ftjw;fhf ntg;gg; gupkhw;w myfpd; %yk; ehd;F gbKiwfs; Ntwhf;
fg;gl;bUg;gJ fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
417 0C, SO2, O2,

N2 thAf;fs;
Kjyhk; Cf;fp miw

SO2 + 1 O2  SO3 + ntg;gk;
2
xl;rpNaw;wk; 890 K, -70% SO2
 thAitf;
Fspu;j;jy;

,uz;lhk; Cf;fp miw
SO2 + 1 O2  SO3 + ntg;gk;
2 xl;rpNaw;wk; 770 K, -95% SO2
thA
Fspu;j;jy;

%d;whk; Cf;fp miw
SO2 + 1 O2  SO3 + ntg;gk;
2
xl;rpNaw;wk; 720 K, -98% SO2 ,ilepiy
thAitf; tpisT
Fspu;j;jy; 
thAitf; H2SO4(l)
 
ehd;fhtJ Cf;fp miw ntg;gNkwy; vQ;rpa SO2 ck; SO3 ck;

SO2 + 1 O2  SO3 + ntg;gk;
2

H2S2O7(l)
ePu;

,Wjp
H2SO4(l)
cU: 1.10 H2SO4 cw;gj;jp njhlu;ghd gpujhd ntg;gg; gupkhw;wg; gbfs;
Kjyhk; miwapDs; GFk; tspapd; ntg;gepiy Vwj;jho 690 K (417 0C) MFk;. Cf;fp
fspd; kPJ nry;Yk;NghJ ntg;gepiy 890 K (617 0C) tiu mjpfupj;Js;sNjhL> SO2
,dJ Vwj;jho 70% xl;rpNaw;wkile;Js;sJ. ntg;gg; gupkhw;w myfpd; %yk; kPz;Lk;
Vwj;jho 700 K (527 0C) ntg;gepiy tiu Fspu;r;rpaile;j tsp> ,uz;lhk; miwapDs;
31
Cf;fpfspd; kPJ nrYj;jg;gLk;. ,r; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; cs;s SO2 msT rhu;gstpy; Fiw
thdjhFk;. ntg;gepiy 770 K (417 0C) tiu mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ thAf; fyitahdJ
,uz;lhk; ntg;gg; gupkhw;w myF %yk; Vwj;jho 770 K tiu Fspu;j;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,e;epiyapy; Muk;g SO2 ,dJ fzprkhd msT jhf;fkile;Js;sJ. %d;whk; miw
apy; Cf;fp kPJ nry;tjhy; Muk;g SO2 ,dJ 98% SO3 Mf khw;wg;gLk;.
%d;whk; gbKiwapd; %yk; fpilf;Fk; SO3 %yk; H2SO4 cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLt

NjhL> mq;Fk; $l SO3 msthdJ 100% H2SO4 Mf khWtJ fpilahJ. vQ;Rk;
SO3 kw;Wk; kPSk; jd;ik fhuzkhf kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; fhzg;gLk; SO2 nfhz;l
thAf; fyitia kPz;Lk; ntg;gNkw;wp ehd;fhk; miwapy; cs;s Cf;fp kPJ nrYj;jp>
kPjpahf cs;s SO2 MdJ SO3 Mf khw;wg;gLk;. mt;thW fpilf;Fk; SO3 ck; kPz;Lk;
H2SO4 Mf khw;wg;gLk;.
ePUf;Fk; SO3 ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fk; kpf Ntfkhd> mjpf Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;.

vdNt ePu; MtpahFk;. mj;NjhL ry;g+upf;fkpyk; GfhUk; Njhd;Wk;. ,j;jlq;fy;fisj;
jtpu;g;gjw;fhf NkNy tpgupf;fg;gl;l nrad;Kiwapd; topNa SO3 thAthdJ H2SO4
Mf khw;wg;gLk;. 70 0C ntg;gepiyapy; nrwpe;j H2SO4 ,dhy; SO3 mfj;JwpQ;ry; cr;r
msthdjhFk;. vdNt me;epge;jidapd; fPo; nrwpe;j H2SO4 ,dhy; SO3 ,id mfj;-
JwpQ;rr; nra;J ePu; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; H2S2O7 cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.
fe; j f%nthl; i rl; L nrwpe; j ry; g +upf; f kpyKk; kP s ; g ha; r ; r y; Nfhl; g hl; L f; F
mikthfNt jhf;fKwr; nra;ag;gLk;. mJ Gwj;JwpQ;ry; NfhGuj;jpNyNa epfOk;.
,f;NfhGuk; tidnghUs; nghwpapL nghUspdhy; (Ceramic packing material) epug;gg;
gl;Ls;sJ. vdNt nrwpe;j H2SO4 ke;j fjpap;y; NfhGuj;jpy; NkypUe;J fPo;Nehf;fpr;
nry;tNjhL> nghwpapL nghUs; fhuzkhf H2SO4 ,d; Nkw;gug;Gg; gug;gsT mjpfupj;
Js;sJ. fe;jf%nthl;irl;L Nky;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;. jput H2SO4 ,dJ Nkw;gug;Gg;
gug;gsT mjpfupj;jy; kw;Wk; ke;j fjpapy; gha;tjd; tpisthfTk; SO3 thA Nky;
Nehf;fpr; nry;tjhYk; nrwpe;j H2SO4 ,Ds; SO3 mfj;JwpQ;ry; tpidj;jpwdhf epfOk;.
,jd;NghJ SO3 MdJ H2SO4 cld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J Giff; fe;jftkpyk; (Olium - H2S2O7)
Njhd;Wk;. Giff;Fk; fe;jftkpyj;Jld; ftdkhf ePu; Nru;g;gjd; %yk; nrwpe;j H2SO4
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.
ry;g+upf; mkpyj;jpd; gz;Gfs;
1. nghRNgw;Wg; gris (tskhf;fp) cw;gj;jp

2. mNkhdpak; ry;Ngw;Wg; gris (tskhf;fp) cw;gj;jp
3. nuNahd; cl;gl nraw;if ehu; kw;Wk; gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jp
4. mw;ifapy; kw;Wk; mupy; ry;gNdw;W mlq;fpAs;s Jg;Guthf;fpfs; cw;gj;jp
5. rha tif nghUs;fs; ntbnghUs;fs; kw;Wk; xsljq;fs; cw;gj;jp
6. kpd;fytLf;F mkpyk; (Battery acid) cw;gj;jp
7. thA cyu;j;Jjy; c + k;: (Cl2)
32
1.9 c&j;ijy; (Rutile) %yk; ijj;Njdpak; <nuhl;irl;L

(Titanium dioxide) cw;gj;jp nra;jy;
ijj;Njdpak; mlq;fpAs;s gpujhdkhd fdpaq;fshf ,y;kidw;W> c&j;ijy; Mfpa
tw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. TiO2 tbtj;jpy; ijj;Njdpak; cNyhfk; ngUkstpy; mlq;fpAs;s
fdpak; c&j;ijy; MFk;. ,y;kidw;W vd;gJ TiO2> FeO Mfpa ,uz;L xl;irl;Lf;
fspdJk; fyit MFk;. ,y;kidw;wpy; Muk;gpj;J TiO2 rjtPjk; 70% ,Yk; Nkw;gl;l
re;ju;g;gk; tiuapy; Rj;jpfupj;jjd; gpd;du; my;yJ c&j;ijiag; gad;gLj;Jtjd;
%yk; J}a;ik kpf cau;thd TiO2 cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;. ,t;Tw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw
FNshiul;Lr; nrad;Kiw vdg;gLk;.
TiO2 ,d; gad;fs;

(1) TiO2 ,d; KwpTf;Fzfk; kpf cau;thdjhifahy; mJ ntz;zpwkhdjhFk;.
vdNt g+r;R> gpshj;jpf;Fg; ghtidg; nghUs;fs;> fhfpjk; Nghd;wtw;wpy; gpufhrkhd
ntz;ikia Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhf TiO2 gad;gLfpwJ.
(2) ,urhad uPjpapy; rlj;Jtj; jd;ik nfhz;ljhifahy; kUe;J tiffs;> gw;gir
Nghd;wtw;wpd; ntz;ika+l;Lk; epwg;nghUshfg; gad;gLfpwJ.
(3) #upaf; fjpu;fspy; fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs; fhuzkhf Njhypy; vupT Vw;gLtijj; jtpu;
g;gjw;fhfg; g+Rk; g+RnghUs;fis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhf TiO2 gad;gLfpd;wJ.
TiO2 ,dhy; fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs; jLf;fg;gLk;.
(4) rpy tif Qhapw;Wf; fyq;fs; (Solar Cells) cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;F TiO2 gad;gLfpd;wJ.
c&j;ijypUe;J TiO2 cw;gj;jpapd; ,urhadr; nrad;Kiw: (FNshiul;Lr;

nrad;Kiw)
c&j;ijy; mlq;fpAs;s gy;NtW mNrjd khRf;fis ePf;fp> caupa J}a;ik

nfhz;l TiO2 cw;gj;jp nra;tNj ,k;Kiwapd; Nehf;fkhFk;. mJ ,uz;L gbKiwfisf;
nfhz;lJ.
(1) FNshuPNdw;wk;
(2) xl;rpNaw;wk;
FNshuPNdw;wk;
c&j;ijy;> fw;fup (Nfhf;) Mfpatw;wpy; cs;s <uypg;ig ePf;Ftjw;fhf cyu;j;JtJ

mj;jpahtrpakhdJ. vdNt 200 0C - 300 0C tiuapyhd ntg;gepiyf;F ntg;gNkw;wp
ed;F cyu;j;jg;gLk;.
FNshuPNdw;wr;; nrad;Kiwf;fhf c&j;ijy; kw;Wk; fw;fup mlq;fpa fyitia Vwj;-

jho 950 0C ntg;gepiyf;F ntg;gNkw;wg;gLk;. mjd; kPJ Cl2 thAj; jhiu mDg;gg;gLk;.
mg;NghJ fw;fup ,dJ Kd;dpiyapy; TiO2 cld; Cl2 jhf;fk; Guptjd; tpisthf thA
TiCl4 fpilf;Fk;. mj;jhf;fk; xU Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;. mjw;fhf gpujhd fhuzk; fw;fup
xl;rpNaw;wkile;J CO2 Mf khWjy; MFk;. mj;jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
33
TiO2(s) + C(s)  Ti(s) + CO2(g)

Ti(s) + 2Cl2(g)  TiCl4(g)
,e;j xl;Lnkhj;jj; jhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;:

0
TiO2(s) + C(s) + 2Cl2(g) 950 C  TiCl4(g) + CO2(g)
TiCl4 ,dJ nfhjpepiy 134 0C MFk;. vdNt jhf;f miwapypUe;J ntspg;gLk; thAf;
fyitapy; gpujhdkhf TiCl4 ck; Cl2 ck; mlq;fpAs;sd. mj;NjhL rpy ,ilj;jhf;fq;
fspd; tpisthf HCl, CO Mfpa thAf;fSk; J}Rj; Jzpf;iffSk; fhzg;glyhk;.
vdNt ,q;F TiO2 ,ypUe;j mNrjd khRf;fs; Ntwhf;fg;gLk;. J}Rj; Jzpf;iffis
ePf;fpa gpd;du; mt;thAf; fyitiaf; Fspu;j;Jtjd; %yk; jput TiCl4 Ntwhf;fg;gLk;.
mt;thW Ntwhf;fpa jput TiCl4 MdJ NkYk; J}a;ikahf;fg;gl;l gpd;du; xl;rpNaw;
wg;gLk;.
xl;rpNaw;wk;
,q;F> KjyhtJ gbKiwapd; tpisthfpa TiCl4 cld; O2 jhf;fKwr; nra;J kPz;Lk;
TiO2 gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;. vdNt c&j;ijypy; cs;s mNjrjd khRf;fsw;w J}a TiO2
cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;F ,r;nrad;Kiw Kf;fpakhdJ. ,q;F tpisthff; fpilf;Fk; Cl2
thAthdJ kPz;Lk; FNshuPNdw;wj;Jf;fhfg; gad;gLk;. vdNt ,q;F FNshuPd; thA
Row;rpg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
TiCl4(g) + O2(g)  TiO2(s) + 2Cl2(g)
TiO2(s) + C(s) +2Cl2(g) TiCl4(g) + CO2(g)

kPsR
; ow;rpg;gLj;jy; O2(g) 1000 0C

Cl2(g) + TiO2(s)
,r;nrad;Kiw %yk; fw;fup xl;rpNaw;wkile;J> tsp kz;lyj;jpy; CO2 tpLtpf;fg;
gLk;. ,f;FNshiul;Lr; nrad;KiwAk; g+Nfhsk; ntg;gkiltij mjpfupg;gjpy;
ahNjDk; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;. 2006 ,y; ,f;ifj;njhopy; fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;jpy;
tpLtpf;fg;gl;l xl;Lnkhj;j CO2 ,d; msT 3.6 kpy;ypad; nkw;wpf; njhd; MFk;. ,jd;
miug;ghjp ntg;gj;ijg; gpwg;gpg;gjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l vupnghUs; jfdk; fhuzkh-
fTk; kPjpahd miug;gFjp cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiw fhuzkhfTk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
1.10 ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;G
,Uk;G cw;gj;jp njhlu;ghf vkJ tuyhW gioikahdJ. ,e;ehl;by; tho;e;j vkJ

%jhijau; ,w;iwf;F rpy Mapuk; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;dNu ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;G gw;wp
mwpe;J itj;jpUe;jik njhy;nghUs; Ma;Tfs; %yk; mwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. mtu;fs;
fhw;wpd; rf;jpiaAk; (wind power)> tpwif vupj;Jg; ngw;w fupiaAk; gad;gLj;jp
,Uk;igg; gpupj;njLj;Js;shu;. ,q;fpyhe;J ehl;L> vf;];lu; gy;fiyf;fofj; njhy;ngh
Uspayhsuhfpa fpy; [_nyt; (Gill Juleff) vDk; tpQ;Qhdpg; ngz;kzp> gyhq;nfhil
34
fztha;g; gFjpapy; gz;ila ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;G ciynahd;wpidg; Gduikj;J

,e;ehl;bd; ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;Gj; njhopDl;gj;ij cWjpg;gLj;jpAs;shu;. mt;TWjpg;gLj;
jyhdJ>“An ancient wind - powered iron smelt in technoligy” vDk; jiyg;gpy; “Nature”
(Ner;ru;) rQ;rpifapy; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,Uk;G cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd mj;jpahtrpakhd %yg;nghUs;fs;

• ,Uk;Gj;jhJ
• Rz;zf;fy;
• fw;fup (coke)
• tsp
,g;nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;jp ,Uk;G cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Fg; gad;gLk; ciy> ~~CJiy||
(Blast furnace) vdg;gLk;. cau; ntg;gepiyiar; jhq;ff;$ba xU tifr; nrq;fw;
fshy; CJiyapd; cl;Gwk; glyplg;gl;Ls;sJ (mluplg;gl;Ls;sJ). CJiyapd; Nkw;gF
jpapy; cs;s thapypd; Clhf ,Uk;Gj;jhJ> Rz;zf;fy;> fw;fup vd;gtw;wpd; fyit
cs;Ns ,lg;gLk;. CJiyapd; fPo;g; gFjpapd; Clhf tsp toq;fg;gLk;. CJiyapd;
kPjpf; fPo;g;gFjpapd; topNa jput ,Uk;G ntspNaWk;. Nkw;gFjpapd; Clhff; fopT
thA tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. jput ,Uk;G ntspNaWk; cau kl;lj;Jf;F rw;W Nkw;gl;l cau-
j;jpy; 'epyf;" (Slag - cUfpa fopTg;nghUs;) ntspNaWk;. CJiyapDs; GtpaPu;g;gpd;
fPo;> NkypUe;J fPo;Nehf;fp jpzpTg; gha;r;ry; epfOk;. mNjNeuj;jpy; fPopUe;J Nky;Neh
f;fp neUf;fg;gl;l tsp nrYj;jg;gLk;. xd;Wf;nfhd;W vjpu;j;jpirfspy; (fPopUe;J
NkyhfTk; NkypUe;J fPohfTk;) nghUs;fs; gupkhwg;gLtjhy; jpz;k mtj;ijf;Fk;
thA mtj;ijf;Fk; ,ilNa jhf;fk; epfOtjw;Fupa jpwd; mjpfupf;fpd;wJ. ntg;gepiy
guk;gypd; gbj;jpwidg; Ngzp tUtjw;F ,J fhuzkhfpAs;sJ.
,Uk;G cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd;NghJ ftdQ; nrYj;j Ntz;ba rpy tplaq;fs;

tUkhW:
(1) ,Uk;Gj;jhJ> fw;fup kw;Wk; Rz;zf;fy; Mfpatw;wpd; fyitapy; cs;s xt;nthU
$Wf;Fk; ,ilapyhd tpfpjk;
(2) fyitapy; cs;stw;wpd; Jzpf;ifg; gUkd;
(3) mf;fyitia CJiyapd; Nkw;gFjpapd; Clhfr; Nru;f;fg;gLk; tPjk;.
(4) fPopUe;J thA tF fdkhd tPjKk; mKf;fKk;
fw;fupapd; njhopw;ghl;ilf; fUJifapy;>

(1) vupnghUshfj; njhopw;gLk;.

C(s) + O (g) CO2(g) + ntg;gk; ∆ H = -393.5 kJ mol-1
2
(2) cau; ntg;gepiyapy; Neu; jho;j;jpahfj; njhopw;gLk;.


FeO(s) + C(s) Fe(l) + CO(g)
(3) gpujhd jho;j;jpahfpa CO(g) Ig; gpwg;gpf;Fk;.


CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) + CO2(g) ∆ H = 172.5 kJ
35
,Uk;Gj;jhjpy; mlq;fpAs;s rpypf;Nfw;W kw;Wk; mYkpNdw;Wg; nghUs;fSk; khRf;fshf

,Uk;gpy; gbtijj; jtpu;j;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mjw;fhf CaCO3 ntg;gg;gpupif %yk; fpil-
f;Fk; CaO gad;gLk;.
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)  CaSiO3(s)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s)  Ca(AlO2)2(s)
,Uk;Gj;jhJ + fw;fup + Rz;zf;fy; $k;G tbtj; jho;
fopT thA
jPf;fspkz;zpy; nra;j
nrq;fw;fshd Rtu;
ntg;gNkwpa neUf;fpa thA
jput (slag) fspk;G
(cUfpa fopTg;nghUs;) (slag) fspkG
;
ntspNaWk; jput ,Uk;G
jput ,Uk;G
cU: 1.11 CJiy

,jd;NghJ Njhd;Wk; CaSiO3> Ca(AlO2)2 Mfpad (slag) fspk;G vdg;gLk;. jput
,Uk;gpd; mlu;;j;jpia tpl epj;jpd; mlu;j;jp FiwthdJ. vdNt jput ,Uk;gpd; kPJ
(slag) kpjf;Fk;. slag cNyhf Nkw;gug;G kiwf;fg;gLtjhy; ,Uk;Gld; O2 jhf;fk; Gupt-
jw;fhf tha;g;G FiwthdJ.
CJiyapd; fPo;g;gFjpapd; topNa ntg;gkhd neUf;fpa tsp CJiyapDs; nrYj;-

jg;gLk;. mg;NghJ fw;fup jfdkiltJld;> mj;jfdr; nrad;Kiw Jupjkhf epfOk;.
ntg;g tspapd; ntg;gepiy> mKf;fk;> fw;fupj; Jzpf;iffspd; gUkd; Mfpatw;wpd;
kPJ jfdr; nrad;Kiwapd; Ntfk; jq;fpapUf;Fk;.
jfdr; nrad;Kiw NtfkhdjhifahYk;> fw;fup jfdkiljyhdJ mjpf Gw ntg;gj;

jhf;fkhifapdhYk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; mjpf msT ntg;gk; ntsptplg;gLk;. vdNt
fw;fup jfdkilAk; CJiyapd; mbg;gFjpapy; ntg;gepiy cldbahf 1700 0C tiu
caUk;. ,e;j mbg;gFjp ntg;gepiyia khwhJ itj;jpUg;gjw;fhf> jfdj; jhf;fj;jpd;
tPjKk; jfdkilAk; fw;fupapd; msTk; kpf Kf;fpakhd fhuzpfshFk;. ,jw;fhf
tsp fPopUe;J Nky;Nehf;fpg; ghAk; tPjj;ijAk; fw;fup mlq;fpAs;s fyit fPo;Nehf;fpg;
ghAk; tPjj;ijAk; rpwg;G kl;lj;jpy; NgZtJ mtrpakhFk;.
jfdj;jpdN
; ghJ Njhd;Wk; ntg;g CO2 thA ,Uk;Gj; jhjpd; Clhf Nky;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;.
cau; ntg;gepiyapy; fw;fup (C)Ald; CO2 MdJ kPSe;jhf;fk; %yk; CO Ij; jUk;.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

• thAepiy %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk;.
/ ve;jpug;gp mjpfupf;Fk;.
36
,j;jhf;fj;Jf;fhd ∆S MdJ Neu;g;ngWkhdk; MFk; (176.5 J). ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk;

NghJ T∆S ,dJ vz;rhu;e;j ngWkhdj;jpd; gUkd; mjpfupf;Fk;. vdNt fw;fup (C)
cs;sNghJ cau; ntg;gepiyapy; CO2 thA CO Mfj; jho;j;jg;gLk; Nghf;F cz;L.
cau; ntg;gepiy epge;jidfspd; fPo; CO thA ntg;g ,af;f uPjpapy; rhu;gstpy; cWjp
ahdJ vdf; $wyhk;. Vwj;jho 1000 0C ntg;gepiyapy; CO2 MdJ 100% kl;by; CO
Mf khWk;. fPNo cU 1.12 ,y; ,k; khwy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,uz;L jhf;fq;fSk; Gwntg;gj; jhf;fq;fshifahy; ∆H ,dJ ngWkhdk; kiw MFk;.

ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk;NghJ T ∆ S ngWkhdj;jpy; njs;sj;njspthd khw;wk; 2 Mk;
jhf;fj;jpNyNa fhzg;gLk;. ntg;gepiyAld; ∆G ,dJ kiwj;jd;ikapd; njs;sj;
njspthd mjpfupg;G 2 Mk; jhf;fj;jpw;fhf vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ntg;gepiy Fiw
tilAk;NghJ CO ,dJ ntg;gtpaf;f cWjpepiy FiwtilAk;. CO2 ,dJ ntg;g
,af;f cWjpepiy mjpfupf;Fk;.
∆G = ∆H - T ∆ S
ntg;gepiy / 0C
cU: 1.12 ntg;gepiyAld; CO(g) mstpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;
CJiyapd; mbg;gFjpapy; ntg;gepiy 1700 0C tiu cau;thdjhifahy; Njhd;Wk;

CO2 thA MdJ> fw;fup - ,Uk;Gj;jhJf; fyitapd; nrQ;#lhd (Red hot) fw;fupj;
Jzpf;iffSld; NkhJtjhy; ntg;gk; gpwg;gpj;jthW CO2,CO Mfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;.
O2(g) + C(s)  CO2(g) + ntg;gk; ................(1)
thA %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if khwhJ.
fzprkhd ve;jpug;gp NtWghL cz;L. 
O2(g) + 2C(s)  2CO(g) + ntg;gk; (-221 kJ) ................(2)

thA %yf;$Wfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;Fk;.

ve;jpug;gp mjpfupf;Fk;. Gwntg;gj;jhf;fkhFk;.
Nkw;gb> (1) IAk; (2) IAk; xg;gpLk;NghJ cau; ntg;gepiyapy; CO2 cld; xg;gpLk;NghJ
CO cw;gj;jpahjyhdJ ntg;g ,af;f uPjpapy; ngupJk; jhdhf epfOk; xU nrad;Kiw
ahFk;. ,e;epge;jidfspd; fPo; CO2 ,id tpl CO thA cWjpahdjhFk;.
37
CJiyapy; cau; ntg;gepiyapy; cs;s fPo;g;gFjpapy; Njhd;wpa CO thA> ,Uk;Gj;jh-

Jf; fyitapd; Clhf NkNy nry;Yk;NghJ ntg;gepiy Fiwtiltjhy; CO ,dJ
cWjpepiy FiwtilAk;. vdNt CO thA CO2 Mf khWk; Nghf;F mjpfupf;Fk;.
CJiyapDs; fw;fup jfdkilAk; gpuNjrj;Jf;F NkNy cs;s gpuNjrj;jpy; O2 thA
,y;iyahjyhy; Fe2O3 Ij; jho;j;jpathW CO thA CO2 thAthf xl;rpNaw;wkilAk;.
mjd; tpisthf Fe2O3 gbg;gbahfj; jho;j;jg;gLk;.
NfhGuj;jpd; topNa NkNy nry;Yk;NghJ ntg;gepiy FiwtilAk;NghJ CO ,dhy;

,Uk;Gj;J}spy; cs;s Fe2O3 jho;j;jg;gLk;. vdNt 1000 0C ,Yk; Fiwthd ntg;g
epiyapy; gbKiw gbKiwahf xl;rpNaw;wkiltijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.
3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g)  2Fe3O4(g) + CO2(g)
Fe3O4 vd;gJ FeO ,dJk; Fe2O3 ,dJk; fyit (nguNrhngupf;F) MFk;. Fe2O3 ,dJ
+3 xl;rpNaw;w epiyapy; ,Ue;j msT ,Uk;gpd; Vwj;jho 33% rjtPjk; +2 tiu xl;rp
Naw;wkile;Js;sJ.
2Fe3O4(s) + 2CO(g)  6FeO(g) + 2CO2(g)
my;yJ
Fe3O4(s) + CO(g)  3FeO(g) + CO2(g)
FeO(s) + CO(g)  Fe(s) + CO2(g)
Fe2O3 gFjpastpy; jho;jj

; g;gl;l Fe3O4 Mf khWtNjhL> njhlu;eJ
; k; CJiyapy; ,Ue;j
fyit fPo;Nehf;fp tUk;. mg;NghJ njhlu;e;Jk; CO2 thATld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J mq;F
+3 epiyapy; ,Ue;j ,Uk;G mZf;fs; +2 epiy tiu jho;j;jg;gLk;. mz;zsthf
FeO njhlu;e;Jk; CO thATld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J RahjPd ,Uk;G tiuapy; jho;j;jg;gLk;.
mj;NjhL CaCO3 gpupifailjyhdJ 1000 0C ,Yk; Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; (898 0C)

epfOk;. mjd; %yk; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk; CO2 thATf;Fk; $lf; fw;fupAld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J
CO iag; gpwg;gpf;Fk; Mw;wy; cz;L.
1000 0C Ij; jhz;baJk; my;yJ CJiyapd; rw;Wf; fPohd gFjpapy; gpd;tUk;

jhf;fk; epfOk;.
2FeO(g) + C(s)  2Fe(s) + CO2(g)
CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g)
2CO(g) + O2(g)  2CO2(g) ∆H = -566 kJ
CJiyapDs; nkhj;j msTf; fw;fupapd; xU gFjp jfdj; jhf;fj;jpy; gq;FngWt-

jpy;iy. kw;WnkhU gFjp CO2 cld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J CO Ig; gpwg;gpg;gjpy; gq;Fgw;Wk;.
NkYnkhU gFjp FeO Ij; jho;jJ; tjpy; gq;Fgw;Wk;. tspahdJ xl;rpNaw;wpahfj; njhopw;
gl;L jfdr; nraw;ghL %yk; ntg;gk; gpwg;gpg;gjpYk; CO2 gpwg;gpg;gjpYk; gq;Fgw;Wk;.
mjpf msT tsp toq;fg;gLkhapd; CJiyapDs; CO thAthdJ Fe2O3 cld; jhf;fk;
Guptjw;F Nkyjpfkhf O2 clDk; jhf;fk; Gupe;J CO2 Mf khWtjw;F ntg;g ,af;f
uPjpapy; tha;g;G cs;sJ. mJ xU gpujp$ykhFk;. vdNt ,Uk;G gpupj;njLg;gpd;NghJ
tspapd; fdkhdg; gha;T tPjkhdJ (Volumatric flow rate) NkNyapUe;J ,Uk;Gj;jhJ
38
mlq;fpa jpz;kf; fyit gputhrpj;J tUk; tPjj;ijr; rpwg;ghd kl;lj;jpy; NgZtjw;F

kpf Kf;fpakhdJ. CJiyapd; fPo;g;gFjpapy; jfdk; fhuzkhf O2 ,d; msthdJ
xNuabahff; FiwtNjhL me;j msTf;Fk; nghUj;jkhd msT CO2 gpwg;gpf;fg;gL
fpd;wikahy; xNuabahfr; CO2 nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;. NkYk; mjpf ntg;gKk; gpwg;gpf;fg;
gLk;. cau; ntg;gepiy cs;s gpuNjrj;jpy; ,Ue;j CO2 thAthdJ fPo;Nehf;fp tUk;
jpz;kf; fyitapd; Clhf Nky;Nehf;fpr; nry;y KidAk;. mjd; tpisthf jpz;kf;
fyitapy; fw;fupAld; CO2 jhf;fk; GupjyhdJ> CJiyapy; cau; ntg;gepiyapy;
fhzg;gLk; fPo;g;gFjpapy; epfOk;. vdNt CO2 nrwpT gbg;gbahff; FiwtilAk;NghJ
CO nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;. fPo;g;gFjpapy; gpwg;gpf;fg;gl;l CO thATk; $lf; fPo;Nehf;fp
tUk; jpz;kf; fyitapd; Clhf Nky;Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;. ,g;NghJ NkNy nry;Yk;
NghJ ntg;gepiy Fiwtilfpd;wikahy; CO thAtpd; ntg;gtpaf;f cWjpepiy Fiw
tiltNjhL> CO2 Mf khWk; Nghf;F mjpfupf;Fk;. O2 thA ,y;iyahjyhy; Fe2O3
,ypUe;J xl;rpridg; ngw;W thAthdJ CO2 Mf xl;rpNaw;wkilAk;. vdNt CJiy
apy; NkNy nry;Yk;NghJ CO nrwpT Fiwtile;J kPz;Lk; CO2 nrwpT mjpfupf;Fk;.
CJiyapy; fw;fup gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wikahy; mjpypUe;J tpLtpf;fg;gLk; CO2 thA

Gtp ntg;gkilaf; fhuzkhfpd;wJ. vdNt fw;fupf;Fg; gjpyhf kPsg; gpwg;gpf;ff; $ba
khw;W topfisj; NjbawptJ #oy; uPjpapy; Kf;fpakhdJ. NkYk; mehtrpakhf
,Uk;igg; gad;gLj;Jtijj; jtpu;g;gJk; Kf;fpakhFk;.
1.11 gy;gFjpaq;fs; (Polymers)

xU gFjpaq;fs; vdg;gLk; rhu;gstpy; rpwpa ,urhad %yf;$Wfs; ngUe;njhifapy;
xd;Wlndhd;W ,urhad uPjpapy; ,iztjhy; gy;gFjpaq;fs; cUthFk;.
vjpyPd; nghypvjpyPd; (PE)
Cl
itdapy; FNshiul;L nghypitdapy; FNshiul;L (PVC)
,j;ijupd; nghypj;ijupd; (PS)

(Styrene)
ehw;GNshNuh vjpyPd; gy;ehw;GNshNuh vjpyPd;

(nul;uhGNshNuhvjPd; (nghypnul;uhGNshNuhvjPd;)
(PTFE) - nut;nyhd;)
39
xU gFjpa %yf;$Wfs; ngUe;njhifapy; ,t;thwhf ,iztjhy; xU gFjpaj;jpd;

fhgd; rl;lfkhdJ gy;gFjpa %yf;$w;wpy; kPz;LtUk; tpjj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ. xU
gFjpa fhgd; rl;lfj;ijf; nfhz;l gFjp kPz;L tUk; myF (Repeating unit) vdg;gL
fpd;wJ.
vjpyPd; nghypvjpyPd;
nghypvjpyPd; –CH2–CH2– ,dJ kPz;LtUk; myF MFk;. ,t;thwhd kPz;LtUk;

myFfs; ngUe;njhifahd (n) gy;gFjpahfp %yf;$wpy; mlq;fpapUg;gjhy; ‘n’ vDk;
Mq;fpy vOj;jpd; %yk; mk;%yf;$W Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. rpy cjhuzq;fs; fPNo
ml;ltizapy; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz: 1.2 xUgFjpaq;fshyhf;fg;gLk; gy;gFjpaq;fspd; kPzL

; tUk; myFfs;
xU gFjpak; kPz;LtUk; myFfshyhd gy;gFjpak;
xU gFjpaq;fs; %yk; gy;gFjpaq;fis cw;gj;jp nra;jNy gy;gFjpathf;fk;(Polymer-

ization) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,q;F epfOk; jhf;fj;jpd;gb $l;lw; gy;gFjpaq;fs; (Additive),
xLf;fg; gy;gFjpaq;fs; (Contensation) vd mtw;iw ,uz;L tiffshfg; gpupf;fyhk;.
$l;ly; jhf;fk; %yk; xU gFjpaq;fs; xd;Wlndhd;W gpize;J gy;gFjpaq;fs;

cUthF nkdpd>; mt;thwhd gy;gFjpaq;fs; $l;lw; gy;gFjpaq;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,jw;fhf
xU gFjpaj;jpd; epuk;ghg; gpizg;Gf;fs; Kf;fpakhdit. xU gFjpaj;jpd; %y; jpzpTk;
tpisthff; fpilf;Fk; gy;gFjpaj;jpd; kPz;LtUk; myfpd; %y; jpzpTk; rkkhdJ.
xU gFjpaj;jpdJk; kPz;LtUk; myfpdJk; Kg;gupkhz mikg;Gk; fhgd; mZtpd;
fyg;Gr; re;ju;g;gKk; NtWgLk;.
40
xLf;fg; gy;gFjpa cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ xLf;fj; jhf;fk; epfOfpd;wikahy; gy;gFjpaj;-

Jf;F Nkyjpfkhf jpzpT Fiwthd rpwpa %yf;$WfSk; cw;gj;jpahFk;. cjhuz-
khf> -COOH $l;lj;Jf;Fk; kJrhuj;Jf;Fkpilapyhd (-OH $l;lk;) jhf;fj;jpdhy; vRj;ju;
gpizg;nghd;W Njhd;Wk;NghJ H2O %yf;$nwhd;W Njhd;Wk;. vdNt nghypvRj;jy;
cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ ,e;j xLf;fw; jhf;fk; epfOk;. ePu; %yf;$Wfs; tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. Njh-
d;wpa vRj;ju; gpizg;Gf;fspd; vz;zpf;iff;Fr; rkkhd vz;zpf;if ePu;%yf;$Wfs;
tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. ntspNaWk; ePu;f; fdtsitr; rupahf msf;f KbAnkdpd; Njhd;wp
As;s vRj;ju; gpizg;Gf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia ePupd; mlu;j;jp kw;Wk; %y; jpzpT %yk;
fzpj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.
nug;jypf;F mkpyk; vjpyPd; fpisf;Nfhy;
vRj;ju; gpizg;G vRj;ju; gpizg;G vRj;ju; gpizg;G
kPz;LtUk; myF
nghypvjpyPd; njupj;jNyw;W (PET) ,dJ mikg;ig kPz;LtUk; myF %yk; NkNy

cs;sthW fhl;lyhk;.
41
ilf;fhnghl;rpypff
; kpynkhd;wpwF
; k; ilmikDf;Fk; ,ilNa gy;gFjpaj; jhf;fk; fhuz-
khf nghypVikl;Lf; fpilf;Fk;. ieNyhd; vd;gJ mt;thwhd xU nghyp Vikl;lhFk;.
ieNyhd; cw;gj;jpAk; xU xLf;fy; jhf;fkhFk;.
ieNyhd; 6> 6
ilmkPdpy; ,Ue;j fhgd; ilfhnghl;rpypf;fkpyj;jpy; ,Ue;j

mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;if
ieNyhd; 6> 6 ,dJ mikg;ig kPz;LtUk; myF %yk; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;.

,q;F Kjyhk; vz; ilmkPdpy; mlq;fpapUe;j fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifiaAk;
,uz;lhk; vz; ilfhnghl;rpypf;fkpyj;jpy; ,Ue;j fhgd; mZf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifi-
aAk; gpujpepjpj; Jtg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
,Jtiuapyhd tptupg;Gf;fSf;fhd cjhuzq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpa gy;gFjpa %yf;$W

fspd; mikg;ghdJ xU jdpr;rq;fpypahf cUthfpAs;sik njspthfpd;wJ. mjdhNy-
Na mt;thwhd gy;gFjpaq;fs; ~ePl;lw;gy;gFjpaq;fs;| (Linear polymers) vdg;gLfpd;wd.
rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Kg;gupkhz tiyNghd;W gy;gFjpaq;fs; cUthFk;. mjw;fhd

fhuzk; mg;gy;gFjpaq;fspy; jhf;fKWe;jd;ikAs;s ,uz;Lf;F Nkw;gl;l ,lq;fs;
,Uj;jyhFk;. cjhuzkhf> gPNdhy; ,idf; fUJk;NghJ mjd; ngd;rPd; fU rhu;ghfg;
gpujpaPl;Lj; jhf;fq;fs; epfof;$ba ,lq;fs; %d;W MFk;. gPNdhYf;Fk; Nghky;bi-
fl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; Kg;gupkhz tiyahfpa gy;gFjpaq;fs;
cUthf;fg;gLk;. mJ Ngf;Fiyw;W vdg;gLk;. mJTk; Xu; xLf;fy; jhf;fkhFk;.
42
Ngf;Fiyw;W
OH
cU: 1.13 gPNdhYf;Fk; Nghkypbifl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd

jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; Ngf;Fiyw;W cUthjy;.
,t;thwhd xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; jpl;ltl;lkhd kPz;LtUk; mynfhd;wpid Kd;itf;f

KbahJ.
gy;gFjpa %yf;$wpd; mikg;Gj; jd;ikf;Nfw;g> mjhtJ ePl;ly; my;yJ fpis

nfhz; l my; y J tiy Nghd; w vd tifg; g Lj; j yhk; . PS, PVC, PTFE, PET
Nghd;wtw;wpd; gy;gFjpa %yf;$Wfs; rq;fpyp Nghd;W ePl;lhf mike;Js;sd.
43
ePl;ly; gy;gFjpaq;fs; fpis nfhz;l gy;gFjpaq;fs; tis Nghd;w gy;gFjpaq;fs;
cU: 1.14 gy;gFjpa %yf;$Wfspd; mikg;Gj; jd;ik

ePl;ly; kw;Wk; fpisnfhz;l gy;gFjpa %yf;$Wfs; xd;wpypUe;njhd;W Ntwhfpa
%yf;$W fshf ntt;NtW tpjkhfg; nghjpe;Js;sd. rpyNghJ %yf;$Wfs; xd;Wf;
nfhd;W kpf neUf;fkhfTk; xOq;fhfTk; nghjpeJ ; s;s gpuNjrq;fSk; cz;L. mt;thwd
gpuNjrq;fs; gspq;FUg; gpuNjrq;fs; vdg;gLk;. rpy ,lq;fspd; %yf;$Wfs; xd;Wl-
ndhd;W xl;bg; gpd;dpg; gpize;J KWf;FjYld; fhzg;glyhk;. mt;thwhd gpuNj
rq;fs; gspq;FUtw;w gpuNjrq;fs; vdg;gLk;. rpy gy;gFjpag; nghUs;fs; Kw;WKO-
jhfg; gspq;FUtw;witahFk;. NkYk; rpy gy;gFjpaq;fspy; xusTf;Fg; gspq;FUg;
gpuNjrq;fs; fhzg;gLk;. mg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; Fiwg;gspq;FUTs;s (Semicrystalline)
gy;gFjpag; gjhu;j;jq;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,jw;fhd cjhuzkhf nghypvjpyPidf; Fwpg;gp
lyhk;. gspq;FUtw;w gy;gFjpa jhs;fSf;F (Sheet) Clhf xsp ed;F GFtjpy;iy.
gspq;FUg; gpuNjrq;fshy; xspf;fjpu;fs; rpjwg;gLk; (Scattering). vdNt xspa+LGftpLk;
jd;ik rw;Wf; FiwtilAk;.
gspq;FUtw;w
gpuNjrk;
gspq;FUg; gpuNjrk;
cU: 1.15 ePl;ly; kw;Wk; fpisnfhz;l gy;gFjpa %yf;$Wfs; nghjpe;Js;s tpjk;
nghypvjpyPd; njhFf;fg;gLk; tpjj;Jf;Nfw;g> fpis nfhz;l mikg;G fpilf;Fk; tif

apYk; cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;. ePl;ly; nghypvjpyPd; %yf;$Wfs; kpf ed;whf xd;Wl-
ndhd;W neUf;fkhfg; nghjpe;Js;sikahy; mlu;j;jp $ba gpuNjrq;fs; mjpfupf;Fk;.
mt;thwhd nghypvjpyPd; cau; mlu;j;jp nghypvjpyPd; (High Density Poly Ethylene -
HDPE) vd miof;fg;gLk;. fpis gpupeJ ; s;sNghJ mk;%yf;$Wfs; mt;tsT neUf;fkh-
fg; nghjptjpy;iy. vdNt mlu;j;jp FiwthdJ. mq;F gspq;FUtw;w gpuNjrq;fs;
mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk;. mt;thwhd nghypvjpyPd; jho; mlu;j;jpg; nghypvjpyPd; (Low
Density Poly Ethylene - LDPE) vdg;gLk;. gspq;FUg; gpuNjrq;fs; cs;s gpshj;jpf;fpd;
xspa+LGftpLk; ,ay;G FiwthdjhFk;.
1.11.1 ,wg;gUk; gpshj;jpf;Fk;

kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; kpf cau;thd kPspay;igf; fhl;Lk; gy;gFjpag; gjhu;j;jq;fs; ,wg;gu;
vdg;gLk;. ,wg;gu; nfhz;Ls;s kPspay;igf; fl;Lg;gLj;j KbAk;. xU gFjpaq;fspy;
Muk;gpj;J> ,wg;gu; vd miof;fg;gLk; gy;gFjpaq;fis cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;. mit
nraw;if ,wg;gu; vdg;gLk; (cjhuzk;: iej;jpiuy; ,wg;gu;). ,wg;gu; kug;ghypy; ,Ue;J
44
cau; kPs;jd;ikAs;s gy;gFjpak; (,wg;gu;) ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,J ,aw;if ,wg;gu;

(Natural Rubber / NR) vdg;gLk;.
tiuaiwg;gl;l kPspay;igf; nfhz;l gy;gFjpag; gjhu;j;jq;fisg; gpshj;jpf;F

vdyhk;. cjhuzkhf PVC, PET, PP, PE Nghd;w gy;gFjpag; gjhu;j;jq;fs; gpshj;jpf;F
vdg;gLfpwJ. mtw;wpd; tiuaiwg;gl;l kPspay;G vy;iyia tpQ;rpr; nry;YkhW mit
,Of;fg;gLkhapd;> kPshj;jd;ikAilajhf tbtj;jpy; NtWghL Vw;gLk;. gpshj;jpf;Fg;
nghUs;fis ntg;g kpWf;Fk; tif (thermosetting), ntg;gkpsf;Fk; (thermoplastics)
tif vd NkYk; tifg;gLj;jyhk;. ntg;gkpsf;Fk; gpshj;jpf;fpy; Vfgupkhz gy;gFjpa
%yf;$WfNsh fpis nfhz;l gy;gFjpa %yf;$WfNsh fhzg;gLk;. ntg;gkpWf;Fk;
gy;gFjpaq;fspy; tiyAU tpy; mikj;j %yf;$w;W mikg;G fhzg;gLk;. gpshj;jpf;Fg;
nghUs;fis ntg;gNkw;wp nkd;ikahf;fyhk;. vdNt ntg;gNkw;wp nkd;ikahf;fpj;
Njitahd tbtj;ijg; ngWtJ ,yFthdJ. gpd;du; Fspur; nra;J mt;tbtj;ij
cWjpahf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. ,jw;fhd cjhuzq;fshf PVC, PE, PS Nghd;wtw;iwf; Fwpg;
gplyhk;. ntg;gkpWf;Fk; gy;gFjpag; nghUs;fis mt;thW nkd;ikahf;f KbahJ.
cjhuzkhf gPNdhy; Nghkypbifl;il (Ngf;Fiyw;W) Fwpg;gplyhk;.
1.11.2 ,aw;if ,wg;gu;
,wg;gu; kuj;jpd; (Heve a Braziliensis) ghy; ciwtjhy; fpilf;Fk; mjpf kPspay;G

nfhz;l gjhu;j;jNk ,aw;if ,wg;gu; (Natural Rubber/NR) vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
,wg;gu; kuj;jpd; gl;iliar; rPuhfr; rPTtjd; %yk; ,wg;gu; ghy; Nrfupf;fg;gLk;. ghypy;
Vwj;jho 60% - 65% ePUk;> 30% - 35% tiu ,wg;gUk; mlq;fpAs;sd. ,wg;gu; ghypy;
kpfr; rpwpa Jzpf;iffshd ,wg;gu; Jzpf;iffs; guk;gpAs;sikahy; mJ $o;f; fiur
yhff; fhzg;gLk;. ,f;$o;f; fiurypy; vspa nty;yq;fSk; cg;G tiffSk; fiue;j
epiyapy; fhzg;gLk;. Gujk; / ,ypg;gpl;Lg; gil
,wg;gu;

cU: 1.16 ,wg;gu; Jzpf;if
,wg;gu;j; Jzpf;ifiar; #o ,ypg;gpl;Lk; GujKk; mlq;fpAs;s xU gil fhzg;gLk;.
mjd; cs;Ns ,wg;gu; %yf;$Wfs; cz;L. ,wg;gu; Jzpf;ifapd; ntspg;Gwg; gilapy;
-COO¯ $l;lq;fs; cz;lhjyhy; ntspNkw;gug;G kiwNaw;wKilajhFk;. mk;kiwNaw;wk;
nfhz;l Jzpf;iffSf;F ,ilNa epiykpd; js;Sif tpirfs; njhopw;gLfpd;wik
ahy; mj;Jzpf;iffs; fiury; KOtjpYk; guk;gpf; fhzg;gLk;.
cU: 1.17 ,wg;gu; Jzpf;ifapd; ntspg;Gwg;gilapy; kiwNaw;wq;fs; guk;gpf;

fhzg;gLk; tpjk;
45
kiwNaw;wk; nfhz;l Nkw;gug;Gf;fSf;F ,ilapyhd js;Sif tpir fhuzkhf mit

xd;Wlndhd;W ,iztjpy;iy. mkpyk; Nru;g;gjhy; H+ mad;fshy; -COO¯ $l;lq;fs;
eLepiyahf;fg;gLtjhy;> mj;Jzpf;iffs; kpd;eLepiy epiyikia milAk;. mj;
Jzpf;ifs; xd;Wlndhd;W ,ize;J xU jpzpthfg; gbAk;. ,J ,wg;gu; ghy; jpusy;
vdg;gLk;.
,wg;gu; ghy; jpusy;

(Coagulation)
jpuz;l ,wg;gu;
(Coagulant)
cU: 1.18 ,wg;gu; ghy; jpuSk; tpjk;
,wg;gu; ghypy; cs;s cg;Gf;fs;> nty;yk;> mkpNdh mkpyq;fs; Nghd;wit mlq;fp

As;sikahy; mJ Ez;zq;fpfspd; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fk; nghUj;jkhd Xu; ClfkhFk;.
Ez;zq;fpj; njhopw;ghL fhuzkhf tpLtpf;fg;gLk; mkpyq;fs; fhuzkhf ,wg;gu; ghy;
jpuSk;. vdNt ,wg;gu; ghiyr; Nrfupj;j gpd;du; cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwf;F cl;gLj;-
jg;gLk; tiuapy; Ez;zq;fpj; njhopw;ghl;il epWj;jp itj;jpUg;gjd; %yk; ghy; jpuS
tijj; jLf;fyhk;. mNkhdpah fiury; Nru;g;gjhy;> ghy; fiurypy; %yj;jd;ikia
Vw;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ghy; jpuStijj; jtpu;j;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. Clfk; mkpyj;jd;ik
ngWtij mNkhdpah jLg;gjhy; ,wg;gu; Jzpf;iffisr; #oTs;s kiw Vw;wq;fs;
cWjpngWk;. ,e;j %yj;jd;ikapd; fhuzkhf Ez;zq;fpfspd; njhopw;ghL jilg;gLk;.
,wg;gu; kuk;

,wg;gu; ghy;
,wg;gu; ghy;fiuriy ,wg;gu; ghy; jpuSjy;

mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l cw;gj;jpfs;

,wg;gu; jhs; (Sheet)

,wg;gu; ifAiw (Gloves)

jpz;kepiy ,wg;gu; tiffs;
(cjhuzk;:- Gifa+l;ba ,wg;gu; jhs; (SSR)

jpz;k ,wg;gu; rhu;e;j cw;gj;jpfs;

lau;> ,wg;gu; fhw;Jilg;gk;> nrUg;G
46
,aw;if ,wg;gu; %yf;$wpd; kPz;LtUk; myF rhu;e;jjhf ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;

fhgdpy; ,uz;L −CH2 $l;lq;fSk; xU −CH3 $l;lKk; cs;sd. mk; %yf;$wpy;
−CH2 $l;lj;jpd; mikg;Gf;Nfw;g mit rp];−1 (cis)> 4−nghypInrhg;gpupd; vdg;gLk;.
jpuhd;]; −1> 4− nghypInrhg;gpupd; vdg;gLk; ,aw;ifg; gy;gFjpak; kPspay;igf; fhl;Lt
jpy;iy. mjpy; cs;s mLj;jLj;j −CH2 $l;lq;fs; ,uz;Lf;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp
cr;r msthdJ.
Inrhg;gpupd; vdg;gLk; xU gFjpaj;ijg; gy;gFjpahf;fj;Jf;F cl;gLj;jp> nghypI

nrhg;gpupidj; njhFf;fyhk;. mt;thW ngwg;gLk; ,wg;gu; nraw;if ,wg;gu; tifiar;
Nru;e;jjhFk;. mr;nraw;if ,wg;guhdJ IR - ISoprine Rubber vdg;gLk;.
Inrhg;gpupd;
nraw;ifg; nghypInrhg;gpupdhdJ xUgFjpak; Inrhg;gpupdhFnkdpDk; ,aw;if

,wg;gupd; xU gFjpakhf mjidf; Fwpg;gpl KbahJ. ,wg;gu; jhtuj;jpy; kpfr;
rpf;fyhd capuprhadj; jhf;fq;fspd; %yk; ,wg;gu; %yf;$Wfs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gL
fpd;wikNa mjw;fhd fhuzkhFk;.
1.11.3 ,aw;if ,wg;giu tw;fidw;Wg;gLj;jy;
,aw;if ,wg;gupd; ,OgLk; ,ay;Gf;Ff; fhuzk; cis−nghypInrhg;gpupd; rq;fpypfs;

fhzg;gLtjhFk;. vdpDk; ,wg;gupd; kPspay;ig ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; khw;wpaikg;gjw;Fk;
typika+l;Ltjw;Fkhf epiwg;gb 1% - 3% tiuapy; fe;jfk; Nru;j;J ntg;gNkw;wg;gLk;.
mJNt ,wg;gu; tw;fidw;Wg;gLj;jy; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd;NghJ nghypInrhg;gpupd;
gpizg;Gf;fSf;F ,ilNa fe;jfj;jpdhy; FWf;Fg; gpizg;Gf;fs; mikf;fg;gLt-
jhy; mtw;wpd; kPspay;G FiwtiltNjhL> ,Oj;j gpd;du; kPz;Lk; Muk;g epiyia
milAk; jd;ik mjpfupf;Fk;. epiwg;gb 25% - 35% tiu fe;jfk; Nru;g;gjhy; vgidw;W
fpilf;fpd;wJ. vgidw;W kPspay;Gilajd;W. mjw;fhd fhuzk; ,wg;gu; %yf;$Wf-
spd; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fs; rhu;e;j njhopw;gLjd;ik fhuzkhf fe;jfj;Jld; ngUe;
njhifahd FWf;Fg; gpizg;Gf;fis mikj;jy; MFk;. rpwg;ghd msT fe;jfk;
Nru;eJ
; tw;fidw;Wg;gLj;jpa ,wg;gu; xl;Lj; jd;ikaw;wJ@ rpwe;j kPspay;igAk; caupa
nghwpKiw ,ay;GfisAk; nfhz;lJ. fe;jff; FWf;Fg; gpizg;Gf;fs; %yk; ,wg;gu;
%yf;$Wfs; gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;s tpjk; fPNo glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
47
cU: 1.19 fe;jff; FWf;Fg; gpizg;Gf;fs; %yk;

,wg;gu; %yf;$Wfs; gpizf;fg;gl;Ls;s tpjk;
1.11.4 gy;gFjpaq;fs; rhu;ej

; cw;gj;jpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Nru;khdq;fs;
(Additives)
gy;gFjpag; nghUs; cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fspd; ,ay;Gfis Nkk;gLj;J
tjw;fhfTk; cw;gj;jpr; nryitf; Fiwg;gjw;fhfTk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; nghUs;fNs
$l;lw; gjhu;j;jq;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. Fwpg;ghf epug;gpfs; (Fillers) Nru;g;gjd; %yk;
KbTg; nghUspd; cupa gUkd; (fdtsT) ngwg;gLk;. ,wg;giug; gad;gLj;jp lau;
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ epug;gpg; nghUshff; fhgd; gpyf; (Carbon black) gad;gLj;-
jg;gLk;. fhgd; gpyf; Nru;g;gjhy; ey;y ,ay;GfSk; mjpfupf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf cWjp
mjpfupj;jy;> rhu;gstpy; Fiwthfj; Nja;tiljy; Nghd;wtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. vdp-
Dk;> lau; Nja;tilAk;NghJ ,f;fhgd; gpyf; Jzpf;iffs; #oypy; Nru;tjhy; #oy;
rhu;e;j gpur;rpidfs; Vw;gLtjw;F mJ fhuzkhf mikAk;. tw;fidw;Wg;gLj;Jjypd;
tpidj;jpwid mjpfupg;g jw;fhf gy;NtW Nrjd Cf;fpfSk; ZnO Nghd;w Cf;fpj;
J}z;bg; gjhu;j;jq;fSk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd Nrjd Cf;fpfSs; ngUk;ghyh-
dit er;Rj;jd;ikAilait. gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpapYk; gy;NtW epug;gpg; nghUs;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. fy;rpak; fhgNdw;W mtw;Ws; xd;whFk;. gpshj;jpf;Fg; nghUs; cw;gj;
jpapd;NghJ nefpo;jd;ikia / tisAk; jd;ikia mjpfupg;gjw;fhf ,sf;fp (Plas-
ficizer) Nru;itfs; Nru;f;fg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf PVC Ig; gad;gLj;jpj; jahupf;fg;gLk;
ePu;f;Foha;fs; tpiwg;ghdit. mtw;wpd; nefpo;jd;ik/ tisAk; jd;ik FiwthdJ.
vdpDk; PVC ,idg; gad;gLj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; tPl;L kpd; tlq;fspd; Gwf;f-
trk; nefpo; / tisAk; jd;ikAilaJ. mjw;fhd fhuzk; mk;kpd; tlq;fspd; Gwf;
ftrj;ij PVC ,idf; nfhz;L cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ mjDld; ,sf;fpg; nghUs;
Nru;f;fg;gl;bUj;jyhFk;. ,sf;fpg; nghUs; Nru;g;gjhy; tisjd;ik fpilf;fpd;wJ.
mj;NjhL jPg;gw;wf;$ba jd;ikiaf; Fiwg;gjw;fhff; Nru;khdq;fs; Nru;f;fg;gLk;.
NkYk; fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; ghjpg;Gf;fisj; jLg;gjw;fhfTk; gy;NtW
$l;lw; nghUs;fs; Nru;f;fg;gLk;. ,jw;fhf Nru;khdq;fs; nrhw;g msTfspy; Nru;f;fg;
gLk;. gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpapy; gad;gLk; ,t;thwhd ngUk;ghyhd Nru;khdq;fs;
jNyw;Wr; Nru;itfshFk;. gpshj;jpf;Fg; nghUs; cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
ngUk;ghyhd Nru;khdq;fs; mfQ;Ruf;Fk; njhFjpapd; njhopw;ghl;ilg; ghjpf;Fk;
nghUs;fshf ,dq;fhzg;gl;Ls;sd. vdNt czTg; nghUl;fisf; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp
48
itg;gjw;fhd nghjpapL nghUs;fshfg; gpshj;jpf;Fg; nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;Jt-

jhapd; ,t;tplak; Fwpj;Jg; ngupJk; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;. Nru;khdq;fs;
ngUkstpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwahf PVC Ig; gad;gL-
j;jp gpshj;jpf;Fg; nghUs;fis cw;gj;jp nra;jiyf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. mjw;fhd fhuzk;
PVC %yf;$Wfspy; Cl mZf;fs; Jizf; fhgd; mZTld; ,ize;jpUg;gjhFk;.
mf;fhgd; C−Cl gpizg;Gf;fs; vspjpy; ciltijj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhf gy;NtW Nru;kh-
dq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cw;gj;jpr; nrad;Kiwapd; NghJ epytpa ntg;gepiyf;F
my;yJ mg;nghUs;fs; R fopa+jhf; fjpu; jhf;fj;jpw;F cs;shFk; NghJ PVC %yf;$W
fspypUe;J HCl ntspNaWk;.
1.12 jhtu %yq;fs; rhu;e;j ,urhad cw;gj;jpfs;
1.12.1 tpdhfpup (Vinegar) cw;gj;jp
tpdhfpupapd; njhopw;gL ,urhadg; nghUs; mrw;wpf;fkpyk; MFk;. fs;S cw;gj;jpapy;

fpilj;j tpisnghUis NkYk; Ez;zq;fpj; njhopw;ghl;Lf;F cl;gLj;Jtjhy; mJ
mrw;wpf;fkpykhf xl;rpNaw;wkilAk;. vdNt mkpy msT 48% tiuapy; mjpfupf;Fk;.
,t;thW cw;gj;jp nra;j tpdhfpup ,aw;if tpdhfpup vdg;gLk;. ngw;Nwhypa ifj;
njhopy; %yk; ngWk; %yg;nghUs;fisf; nfhz;L jahupj;j vjNdhiy xl;rpNa-
w;wpg; ngWk; mrw;wpf;fkpyj;ijg; nghUj;jkhdthW Ijhf;Ftjhy; nraw;if tpdhfpup
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;. ,aw;if tpdhfpupapy; cg;Gf;fs;> vspa nty;yq;fs;> vRj;ju;fs;>
mw;fNfhy; Nghd;wit nrhw;g msTfspy; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;.
1.12.2 vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp
thridj; jputpaq;fs;> thrida+l;bfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; fiug;ghdhf vjNdhy; gad;

gLfpwJ. ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fSf;fhd ClfkhfTk; mJ gad;gLfpdw ; J. #oy; Neakhd
kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba vupnghUshfTk; vjNdhypd; gad;ghL mjpfupj;J tUfpd;wJ.
capu;j; jpzpitg; gad;gLj;jp Ez;zq;fpj; njhopw;ghL %yk; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;
vjNdhy; capu; vjNdhy; (Bio ethanol) vdg;gLk;.
vjpyPd; ePNuw;wk; %yk; my;yJ kJtj;jpd; Kd;dpiyapy; nty;yk; my;yJ khg;nghUs;

nehjpg;gjd; %yk; my;yJ njhopy; Kiw uPjpapy; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;.
mw;fNfhy; ghdq;fspy; mlq;fpAs;s mw;fNfhyhdJ ntt;NtW jhtu %yq;fspyp
Ue;J ngwg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;:- jpuhl;ir (citd;)
thw;NfhJik (ghu;sp - gpau;)
njhopy;Kiw uPjpapy; nty;yg;ghF nkhyhr]; (molasses) kw;Wk; jhdpaq;fs; %yk;

mw;fNfhy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;. nrwpe;j vjNdhy; fiurypy; kJtq;fshy; capu;tho;
Kbahjjhifahy; vjNdhy; nrwpT Vwj;jho 12% Mfg; Ngzg;gLk;.
49
nehjpg;G %yk; ngw;w ePu;f;fiuriyf; fha;r;rptbj;jy; %yk; capupay; mw;fNfhy;

kl;lj;ijf; nfhz;l cw;gj;jpfs; ngwg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;:- gpwz;b (Vwj;jho 40%) - itd; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk;
rhuhak; (Vwj;jho 40%) - njd;dq;fs;S fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk;
ePu;ka vjNdhiyg; gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; %yk; ngwf;$ba cr;r vjNdhy; nrwpT
96.5% MFk;. ,J J}a;jhf;fpa kJrhuk; (Rectified spirit) vdg;gLk;.
,d;iwa cyfpy; kJg; gad;ghL Fwpj;J Nehf;Fkplj;J rhuhak; kpfg; gaq;fukhd

xU kJghdkhFk; vDk; itj;jpa epGzu;fspd; $w;iw ,q;F Fwpg;gplyhk;. re;ijapy;
fpilf;Fk; ~rhuhak;| vd;gJ ahJ vd ehk; ,g;NghJ Nehf;FNthk;. rhuhaj;jpy; mlq;fp
As;s gpujhdkhd $W vjNdhy; MFk;. jw;fhy cyfpy; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
Kiwfs; gy cs;sd. mtw;Ws; rpy Kiwfspd; %yk; ,yq;ifapy; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. rl;luPjpahd mDkjpAld; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kiwfshf
nehjpj;j njd;dq;fs;spypUe;Jk;> fUg;gQ;rPdp cw;gj;jpapd; gf;ftpisthff; fpilf;Fk;
nty;yg;ghfpy; (Molasses) ,Ue;Jk; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp nra;jiyf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
njd;id kuj;jpy; cs;s ,se; njd;dk; g+e;Jziur; rPtpg; ngWk; rhw;iw mjhtJ
gjdPiu nehjpf;fr; nra;tjd; %yNk njd;dq;fs;S cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
tspapy; kpje;j epiyapy; fhzg;gLk; kJtk; Nghd;w gq;fR tpj;jpfs; gjdPupd; kPJ
gjpe;J mjpy; cs;s nty;yj;ij Mjhug; gilahff; nfhz;L tsu;r;rpailjYk;> mk;
kJtf; fyq;fshy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nehjpaq;fshy; mt;nty;yk; gbg;gbahf
kJrhukhfTk; fhgdPnuhl;irl;lhfTk; khw;wkiljNy nehjpj;jy; nrad;Kiwapd;NghJ
epfOtjhFk;.

C12H22O11 + H2O Rf;FNuR  C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Rf;FNuhR (FSf;NfhR) (Guw;NwhR)
(xU rf;fiul;L nty;yk;)

C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
vjNdhy;
gjdPuhdJ ,t;thwhf Vwj;jho ,uz;L (2) ehl;fSs; nehjpj;Jf; fs;shf khWk; mNj
Ntis nty;yr; nrwpT gbg;gbahff; FiwtilAk;.
nehjpj;j fs;isj; njhlu;eJ

; k; itj;jpUg;gjhy; gw;wuP pahf;fshy; fs;spy; cs;s kJrhuk;
xl;rpNaw;wkilaj; njhlq;Ftjhy;> mJ gbg;gbahf mrw;wpf;fkpykhf khw Muk;gpf;Fk;.
mjhtJ kJrhur; rjtPjk; FiwtiltNjhL mkpyr; rjtPjk; gbg;gbahf mjpfupf;Fk;.
50
E}w;WtPjk;
nty;yk;
C H 3C O O H
mkpyk;
y;
Ndh
vj
Neuk;
cU: 1.20 nehjpj;jypd;NghJ gjdPupd; mikg;gpy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fs;
gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy;
nfhjpepiy xd;Wf;nfhd;W NtWgl;l> xd;Wlndhd;W ed;F fyf;ff;$ba $Wfsh

yhd fiurnyhd;wpypUe;J mf;$Wfis Ntwhf;Ftjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fha;r;rp
tbj;jy; El;g (Technics) KiwNa gFjpglf; fha;r;rp tbj;jy; vdg;gLk;.
ml;ltiz: 1.3 rpy Nru;itfspd; nfhjpepiy
Nru;it nfhjpepiy / 0C
nkjNdhy; 64.6
vjNdhy; 78.5
Gnuhg;gd; - 1 - Xy; 97.1
Gnuhg;gd; - 2 - Xy; 82.4
gpAw;wdy; 74.7
gpAw;wNdhd; 79.5
vijapy; vjNdhNuw;W 77.2
njd;dq;fs;S jtpu;e;jtplj;J fhNghitjNuw;Wf;fs; mlq;fpAs;s jhtug; gFjpfisg;

gad;gLj;jpAk; vjNdhy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf gPw;Wf;fpoq;F>
cUisf; fpoq;F> goq;fs;> muprp Nghd;wtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,t;thwd jhtug;
gFjpfs; nehjpf;Fk;NghJ kJrhuj;Jf;F Nkyjpfkhf vRj;ju;fs;> my;bifl;Lf;fs;>
fPw;Nwhd;fs; Nghd;w Nru;itfSk; cw;gj;jpahFk;. mitAk; ePu; fyitAld; NrUk;.
,tw;wpd; nfhjpepiyAk; vjNdhypd; nfhjpepiy tPrR; f;Fs; mlq;Fkhapd; vjNdhYld;
$lNt Mtpahfp vjNdhy; mlq;fpAs;s tbjputj;Jld; NrUk;.
,r;nrad;Kiwapd; KjyhtJ fha;r;rp tbapy;; (distillete) gpujhdkhf mlq;fpapUg;gJ

nkjNdhy; MFk;. itd; kJrhuj;jpy; mlq;fpapUf;Fk; nkjNdhy; er;Rj;jdikAilaJ.
fha;r;rp tbj;jypd; ,uz;lhk; gFjpapy; gpujhdkhf mlq;fpapUg;gJ vjNdhy; MFk;.
kpf cau; ntg;gepiyapy; fpilf;Fk; %d;whtJ gFjpapy; $bastpy; kJrhuk; mlq;fp
apUf;Fk;. mJ gpAry; vz;nza; (Fusel oil) vdg;gLk;.
51
1.12.3 rhw;Wj;ijyq;fs;; (Essential Oils)
jhtug; gjhu;jj
; q;fspypUe;j gpupj;njLf;fg;gLk; ePupy; fiuahj Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s jputq;fs;
rhw;Wj;ijyq;fs; vdg;gLk;.
eWkz nea;fs; mjhtJ rhw;Wj;ijyq;fs; czTfSf;F eWkz%l;Ltjhy; mt;TzT
fspd; kPjhd tpUg;G mjpfupf;Fk;. NkYk;> clypy; thridj; jputpaq;fs; g+rpf;
nfhs;syhdJ ftu;r;rp mjpfupf;f VJthFk;. ,d;iwa cyfpy; tzpfj;Jiwapy; thr-
idj; jputpaq;fs; kw;Wk; Rita+l;bfSf;F ey;y Nfs;tp cs;sJ. gz;ila muru;fs;
$l thridj; jputpaq;fs; gad;gLj;jpajhf tuyhw;wpy; gjpthfpAs;sJ.
,t; t hwhd thridj; jputpaq; f s; jhtuq; f s; kw; W k; ; tpyq; F fspypUe; J k;

ngwg;gLk; vspjpyhtpahFk; jd;ikAs;s vz;nza;fisf; nfhz;L jahupf;fg;gL
fpd;wJ. ntt;NtW rhw;Wj; ijyq;fs; mtw;Wf;Nf cupj;jhd rpwg;ghd kzj;ijf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
fWth> fuhk;G> vz;nza;g;Gy;> Vyf;fha;> tpd;ufpuPd; Nghd;w jhtuq;fspd; gFjpfspyp
Ue;Jk; rpy tpyq;FfspypUe;Jk; rhnwz;nza; ngwg;gLfpd;wJ. jhtuq;fisg; Nghd;Nw
tpyq;FfspYk; mtw;wpd; tpNrl clw;gFjpfs; rhnwz;nza;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz:1.4 rhnwz;nza;; mlq;fpAs;s gFjpfSk;> mtw;Wf;fhd rpy cjhuzq;fSk;
eWkz nea; cjhuzk;

mlq;fpAs;s gFjp
Ntu; fWth> ntl;bNtu;

jz;L re;jdk;
gl;il fWth
,iy rpww
; ndy;yh> fWth> Af;fypgu; ];> Nrtpag;Gy; (Lemon grass), nfha;ah
g+tUk;G fuhk;G
g+ ky;ypif> Nuhrh
fha; Njhil> vYkpr;ir
tpj;J Vyk;> rhjpf;fha;
rhnwz;nza; gpupj;njLf;Fk; Kiwfs;
(1) nfhjpePuhtpf; fha;r;rp tbg;G (Steam distillation)

(2) fiug;ghd; gpupj;njLg;G (solvent extraction)
(3) mOj;Jjy; (Pressing)
nfhjpePuhtpf; fha;r;rp tbg;G
ngUk;ghyhd rhnwz;nza; tiffs; ntg;gk; fhuzkhfg; gpupifailaNth> gy; gFjpahf;

fj;Jf;F cl;glf;$bait. vdNt mtw;iw cau; ntg;gepiyfs; tiu ntg;g Nkw;WtJ
nghUj;jkhdjy;y. vdNt ,t;ntz;nza;fs; nfhjpePuhtpiaf; fha;r;rp tbj;jYf;F
cl;gLj;jp> jho; ntg;gepiyfspy; gpupj;njLf;fg;gLk;. ,j;Njhw;wg;ghl;il gFjpaKf;f
52
tpjpapd; %yk; tpsf;fyhk;. rhnwz;nza; mlq;fpAs;s jhtug; gFjpfisAk; ePiuAk;

nfhz;l njhFjpia ntg;gNkw;Wk;NghJ> mt;tpioaq;fs; Nrjkile;J vspjpyhtpahFk;
Nru;itfs; tpLtpf;fg; gLk;. mj;njhFjpapd; thA tyaj;jpy; ePuhtpAk; vspjpyhtpahFk;
Nru;itfSk; cz;L. njhFjp nfhjpf;Fk; ntg;gepiyapy; ePuhtpapdhYk; rhnwz;
nza; MtpapdhYk; Vw;gLj;jg; gLk; mKf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhif Gw tspkz;ly
mKf;fj;jwpFr; rkkhdJ. vdNt mt;ntg;gepiyapy;>
ePuhtpapd; gFjpaKf;fk; (epuk;gpa MtpaKf;fk;) = PH O
2
rhnwz;nza; Mtpapd; gFjpaKf;fk; (epuk;gpa Mtp mKf;fk;) = PA
xd;Wld; xd;W fyf;fhj njhFjpaps; nkhj;j mKf;fk; = P
jhw;wdpd; gFjpaKf;f tpjpg;gb> nkhj;j mKf;fk; P = PH O + PA
2

P(nkhj;j mKf;fk;) tspkz;ly mKf;fj;Jf;Fr; rkkhFk;NghJ fyit nfhjpf;Fkhapd;>
fyitapd; nfhjpepiyahdJ> J}a ePupdJk; rhnwz;nza;apdJk; nfhjpepiyia tplf;
FiwthdJ. vdNt 100 0C ,w;Fk; eWkz nea;apd; nfhjpepiy Mfpa ,uz;ilAk;
tplf; Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; eWkz nea;iaf; fha;r;rp tbj;Jg; ngwyhk;.
ghJfhg;Gf; Nfhy;
xLq;fpa ePuhtp
ePu; ntspNawy;
nfhjpeP u htp
ePu; cl;nry;yy;
gpwg;ghf;fp
ePu;

cU: 1.21 nfhjpePuhtpf; fha;r;rp tbg;G %yk; eWkz nea; gpupj;njLj;jy;
rhnwz;nza; mlq;fpAs;s jhtug;gFjpfs; cs;s ghj;jpuj;jpDs; Ntwhf my;yJ

nfhjpePuhtp gpwg;ghf;fp %yk; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; nfhjpePuhtp mDg;gg;gLk;. ,t;th-
whf Ntwhf my;yJ nfhjpePuhtp gpwg;ghf;fpapdhy; nfhjpePuhtpia mDg;Gtjhy; nfhjp
ePuhtpapd; fdkhdg; gha;r;riyf; fl;Lg;gLj;j KbtJ Xu; mD$ykhFk;. ,t;thwhf>
jhtug; gFjpfs; cs;s ghj;jpuj;jpDs; nfhjpePuhtp tUtjhy;> mf;nfhjpePuhtpapd; %yk;
fpilf;Fk; ntg;gk; fhuzkhfj; jhtuf; fyq;fs; mope;J vspjpyhtpahFk; Nru;itfs;
tpLtpf;fg;gLk;. Mtp xLq;Ftjhy; XusTf;F mq;F ePuhtp xd;W NrUk;. njhlu;e;Jk;
ePuhtp tUk;NghJ jput Nkw;gug;gpd; Nkw;gFjpapy; ePuhtp> rhnwz;nza; Mtp Mfpa
$Wfspd; MtpaKf;fq;fspd; $l;Lj;njhifapdJ nkhj;j mKf;fkhdJ tspkz;ly
mKf;fj;Jf;Fr; rkkhFk; NghJ njhFjp nfhjpf;fj; njhlq;Fk;. mg;NghJ jhtug;
gFjpfspy; cs;s rhnwz;nza;Ak; ePUld; Mtp tyaj;Jld; NrUk;. vt;thwhap-
Dk;> njhlu;r;rpahf ePuhtpj; jhiu gha;tjhy; ghj;jpuj;jpy; ,Ue;J ntspNaWk; thAj;
jhiuapy; ePuhtpAk; rhnwz;nza; MtpAk; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;. ,e;j Mtpia xLf;fpnah
d;wpd; Clhfr; nrYj;jpf; Fspur; nra;tjd; %yk; fha;r;rp tbj;j ePu;> rhnwz;nza;
Mfpa ,uz;L jputg; gilfs; fpilf;Fk;. mg;gilfis vspjhf Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
53
fWth vz;nza;apy; mlq;fpAs;s gpujhd $Wfs;
• ,iy vz;nza; - ,a+[pNdhy;

• gl;il vz;nza; - rpdky;bifl;L
• Ntu; vz;nza; - fw;g+uk;
rpj;jpundy;yh vz;nza;apy; mlq;fpAs;s gpujhd vz;nza;f;$W - n[udpNahy;
fiug;ghd; Kiwapy; rhnwz;nza; gpupj;njLj;jy;

rhnwz;nza; ed;F fiuAk; fiug;ghndhd;wpy; fiuj;j gpd; gpupj;njLg;gNj ,k;Kiw
apd; Nfhl;ghlhFk;. ePupy; ,r;rhnwz;nza;fspd; fiujpwd; kpff; FiwthdjhapDk;>
Nrjdf; fiug;ghd;fspy; (cjhuzk;:- ngw;Nwhypak; <ju;> FNshNuhNghk;> njhYtPd;>
vjNdhy;> ......) kpf ,yFthf mjpf mstpy; fiuAk; jd;ikAiladthFk;.
jhtug; gFjpfis ,t;thwhf xU fiug;ghdpy; ,l;Lf; FYf;Ftjhy;> mtw;wpy; mlq;fp

As;s rhnwz;nza; mf;fiug;ghdpy; fiuAk;. gpd;du;> fiug;ghid Mtpahf;fpNah
NtW KiwapNyh ntg;gNkw;wpa gpd; rhnwz;nza;ia Ntwhf;fpg; ngwyhk;.
mOj;Jjy; (Press)
jhtug; nghUspd; kP J nghUj; j khd msT mKf; f k; gpuNahfpg; g jd; %yk;
mtw;wpy; mlq;fpAs;s vspjpyhtpahFk; vz;nza;iag; gpupj;njLf;fyhk;. Gwj;Jwp
Q;rf;$ba xU nghUSld; Nru;j;J mOj;Jtjhy; rhnwz;nza;ahdJ mg;nghUsp
dhy; Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLk;. (cjhuzk;:- nkOF jltpa fz;zhbj; jl;Lf;fspuz;Lf;F
,ilNa jhtug; gFjpfis itj;J mOj;Jtjhy; mtw;wpy; mlq;fpAs;s eWkz nea;
nkOfpdhy; Gwj;JwpQ;rg;gLk;.) gpd;du; gpwpnjhU fiug;ghdpy; (<ju;) fiuar; nra;jgpd;
eWkz nea; gpupj;njLf;fg;gLk;. mOj;Jjy; Kiw mupjhfNt gad;ghl;by; cs;sJ.
mjw;fhd fhuzq;fs; tUkhW:
(1) fpilf;Fk; tpisT Fiwthdjhf ,Uj;jy;.
(2) rhnwz;nza;Ald; NtW Nrjdg; nghUs;fs; fye;jpUj;jy;.
Vyf;fha; tpj;Jf;fspypUe;J vz;nza; gpupj;njLg;gjw;fhf mOj;Jjy; KiwAk; gad;

gLj;jg;gLtJz;L.
njd; khfhzj;ijr; Nru;e;j mk;gyhq;nfhil `pf;fLit> gj;Njfik Nghd;w gpuNj

rq;fspNyNa gpujhdkhff; fWth ,iy vz;nza;g; gpupj;njLg;G Nkw;nfhs;sg;gL
fpwJ. ,jw;fhf Kjypy; fWth ,iyfs; epoyhd Xu; ,lj;jpy; 2 my;yJ 3 ehs;fs;
tiu ,sq;fhw;wpy; cyu tplg;gLk;. ,iyfis ,sq; fhw;wpy; cyu;j;jpg; gad;gLj;
Jtjw;fhd fhuzk;> mtw;wpypUe;J ,yFthf vz;nza; gpupj;njLf;f KbjyhFk;.
mjhtJ Gjpa ,iyfspy; ,Ue;J ngwtij tpl ,yFthf cyu;e;j ,iyfspypUe;J
vz;nza; gpupj;njLf;fyhk;.
cyu;e;j ,iyfspd; Gwj;Njhy; ciltjhy;> fha;r;rp tbj;jypd;NghJ ,yFthf

rhnwz;nza;ia Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. ,sk; ,iyfs; kw;Wk; Kjpu;r;rpaile;j
,iyfis tpl eLj;ju taJs;s fWth ,iyfNs vz;nza; gpupj;njLg;gjw;F kpfg;
nghUj;jkhdit.
54
rpy fhyq;fSf;F Kd;du; tiu fWth vz;nza; fha;r;rp tbj;jYf;fhfr; nrg;Gf;

nfhjpfyd;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. fWth vz;nza;apy; mlq;fpAs;s ,a+rpNdhyh-
dJ nrg;Gld; jhf;fk; Guptjhy; vz;nza; fUik epwkhf khWtJ xU gpujp$ykhf
mike;jJ. vdNt jw;fhyj;jpy; nrg;Gf; nfhjpfyDf;Fg; gjpyhf fiwapy; cUf;F
my;yJ mYkpdpaf; nfhjpfyd;fs; gad;ghl;by; cs;sd.
rpw;wndy;yh (vz;nza;g;Gy;) nghJthf mk;ghe;Njhl;il khtl;lj;jpNyNa gapuplg;

gLfpd;wJ. rpw;wndy;yh vz;nza;g;Gy; gpujhdkhf %d;W tifg;gLk;.
(1) rpw;nwz;nza;g;Gy;
(2) Nydgl;L vz;nza;g;Gy;
(3) Ngnuz;nza;g;Gy;
,tw;Ws; Kjypuz;L tiffSk; ,yq;iff;Nf cupa jhtuq;fshFk;. Ngnuz;nza;gG ; y;

gpypg;igd; ehl;bypUe;J mwpKfQ; nra;ag;gl;l xU tifahFk;. vz;nza;g;Gy;ypy;
n[udpNahy; vdg;gLk; Nru;itapy; mlq;fpAs;s msTfspNyNa mjd; ngWkjp jq;fp
As;sJ. n[udpNahy; vd;gJ epuk;ghj mypgw;wpf;F mw;fNfhy; MFk;. Ngnuz;nza;g;
Gy;ypd; n[udpNahy; mlf;fk; cau;thdjhifahy; mjw;fhd Nfs;tp cau;thff;
fhzg;gLfpwJ.
1.12.4 capu; Bry; (Bio Diesel)
ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUs;fis tpidj;jpwdhd vupnghUshfg; gad;gLj;jf;$ba vQ;rpd;

fs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l gpd;du; Nghf;Ftuj;Jj; Jiw Jupj Kd;Ndw;wk; fz;lJ.
etPd ehfupfj;jpd; gpujhd tY Kjy; ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUshFk;. ,yFthfTk;
ghJfhg;ghfTk; gad;gLj;jj;jf;fjhfTk; ,Uj;jy; ,t;tif vupnghUs;fspd; tpNrl
,ay;ghFk;. ,jd; tpisthfg; ngw;Nwhypag; gpupj;njLg;G Jupjkhf tpuptile;jJ.
ngw;Nwhypak; vupnghUs;fs; kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj xU rf;jp KjyhFk;. vdNt mz;kp

j;Js;s vjpu;fhyj;jpy; cyfpy; ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUs;fs; jPu;e;JNghff;$ba epiy
fhzg;gLfpwJ. NkYk; ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUs; jfdj;jpd;NghJ capu;r;RtLfshff;
fhzg;gl;l fhgdhdJ fhgdPnuhl;irl;lhf khw;wkilAk;. mjd; tpisthf tspkz;ly
CO2 ,d; msT cau;tNjhL> g+Nfhsk; ntg;gkiljy; Nghd;w #oYk; mr;RWj;jyhf
mikAk; #oy; gpur;rpidfSk; cUthfpAs;sd. vdNt jw;NghJ kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba
tsq;fisg; gad;gLj;jpr; rf;jp cw;gj;jp nra;jy; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ; nrYj;jg;gl;L
tUfpd;wJ. capu;; Bry; vd;gJ mt;thwhd kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba Xu; vupnghUshFk;.
vspjpyhtpahfhj jhtu vz;nza;fisg; gad;gLj;jpNa capupay; Bry; cw;gj;jp

nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. jhtu vz;nza;fs; kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ,aw;if tsq;fshFk;.
vdNt mjid vupj;jyhdJ tspkz;ly CO2 ,d; msT mjpfupf; ff; fhuzkhf
khl;lhJ.
55
tspkz;ly CO2
fpsprNuhy;
#upa xsp n ntg;gr; rf;jp
n
capu;; Bry;
jhtuq;fs;
k
nkjNdhy;
jhtu vz;nza;

cU: 1.22 capupay; Bry; cw;gj;jp
capu;; Bry; cw;gj;jpf;F nkjNdhy; mtrpakhdJ. ngw;Nwhypaf; ifj;njhopyp

ypUe;J ngWk; Nru;itfspypUe;Nj nkjNdhy; ngwg;gLfpwJ. vdNt nkjNdhy;
gad;gLj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; capu; BryhdJ 100% kPsg;GJg;gpff
; f;$ba tsq;fisg;
gad;gLj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; capu;; Bry; md;W. vdNt Ez;zq;fpfisg;
gad;gLj;jp fhNghitjNuw;iw my;yJ NtW capu;j;jpzpTfisf; nfhz;L nkjNdhy;
cw;gj;jp nra;tJ Fwpj;Jf; ftdQ; nrYj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;thwhf cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk;
nkjNdhy; capupay; nkjNdhy; vdg;gLk;. capupay; nkjNdhiyg; gad;gLj;jp
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; capu;; BryhdJ 100% kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba %yg;nghUs;fisf;
nfhz;L cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;l capu;; Bry; MFk;.
jhtu vz;nza;fspy; mlq;fpAs;s %fpspriul;Lf;fs; %yNk capu;; Bry; cw;gj;jp

nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. mk;%fpspriul;by; mlq;fpAs;s nfhOg;gkpyg; gFjpia nkjpy;
vRj;ju; FAME - Fattay Acid Methyl Ester Mf khw;Wk; nrad;Kiw jpuhd;R vRj;j
uhf;fj; jhf;fk; vdg;gLk;. xU vRj;ju; kw;nwhU vRj;juhf khw;wg;gLtNj ,q;F
epfOtjhFk;. Cf;fpahf NaOH gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Njhd;Wk; capu;; BrYk;> fpsprNuhYk;
xd;Wlndhd;W fyg;g jpy;iyahjyhy;> ,uz;L mtj;ijfshf Ntwhfpf; fhzg;gLk;.
,e;j cw;gj;jpr; nrad; Kiwapd; gpujhd gf;f tpisT fpsprNuhy; MFk;. mjw;fika
capu;; Bry; vd;gJ nfhOg;gkpyq;fspd; nkjapy; vRj;ju;fs; rpytw;wpd; fyitahFk;.
mlu;j;jp Fiwthd capupay; BryhdJ fpsprNuhy; gil kPJ kpjf;Fk;. jhtu vz;
nza;apy; RCOOH tbt RahjPd nfhOg;gkpyq;fs; mlq;fpAs;sdthapd; NaOH cld;
jhf;fk; Gupe;J rtu;f;fhu khf (RCOONa) khw ,lKz;L. mt;thW rtu;f;fhuk; cw;gj;
jpahFnkdpy; Eiu Njhd;W tNjhL> Cf;fpapd; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fk; jlq;fy; Vw;gLk;.
vdNt ,jw;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; jhtu vz;nza;fspy; RahjPd nfhOg;gkpy mlf;fk;
2% (w/w) ,Yk; Fiwthdjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mkpyg; ngWkhdk; (acid volume)
0.1 mg (KOH)g-1Mf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
56
capu;; Bry; cw;gj;jpapd; mbg;gilahf rpy gbKiwfs; cs;sd.

gbKiw: 1 %yg;nghUshfg; gad;gLj;Jk; jhtu vz;nza;iag; gupfupj;jy;.
gbKiw: 2 Cf;fpf; fyit jahupj;jy;.
gbKiw: 3 %fpspriul;Lf;Fk; nkjNdhYf;Fk; ,ilNaahd jhf;fk; epfor; nra;jy;.
gbKiw: 4 tpisTfis Ntwhf;fy;.
gbKiw: 5 khRf;fslq;fpa capupa Briy NkYk; Rj;jpfupj;jy;.
gbKiw : 1
jhtu vz; n za; a py; mlq; f pAs; s RahjP d nfhOg; g kpyq; f Sk; rtu; f ; f hukhf;
fYf;F cs;shFk; Nru;itfSk; ePf;fg;gLk;. ,jd; %yk; jpuhd;];vRj;juhf;fj; jhf;fk;
%yk; cau; tpisTfs; ngwKbtNjhL> fpilf;Fk; capupay; Brypy; cau;jukpf;f
J}a;ikiaAk; Ngzyhk;.
gbKiw : 2
nkjNdhypy; NaOH Cf;fp fiuf;fg;gLtNj ,g;gbKiwapd;NghJ nra;ag;gLtjhFk;.

gpd;du; ,f;fyit jpiufpspriul;Lld; (jhtu vz;nza;Ald;) Nru;f;fg;gLk;. ePu;fythj
nkjNdhy; Mf ,Uj;jy; kpf Kf;fpakhdJ. gad;gLj;Jk; nkjNdhypd; msTk; kpf
Kf;fpakhdJ. nkjNdhy; : %fpspriul;L tpfpjk; 1 : 3 MapDk; ,q;F nkjNdhy;
nrhw;g msT $Ljyhfr; Nru;f;fg;gLk; jhf;fk; kPSe;jhf;fkhf ,Uj;jYk; tpis-
it mjpfupg;gjpy; mJ gq;fspg;Gr; nra;jYNk mjw;fhd fhuzq;fshFk;. vdpDk;
nkjNdhy; kpifahfr; Nru;ff; g;gLtjpy;iy. nkjNdhy; kpifahf ,lg;gLkhapd;> capu;;
Brypy; ,Ue;J nkjNdhiy Ntwhf;FtJ rw;Wf; fbdkhjhFk;. rhjhuz %fpspriul;
Lf;fhf nghJthf MW gFjp nkjNdhy; Nru;f;fg;gLk;. fdtsTg;gb xU fdtsT
nkjNdh Yld; 4 fdtsT %fpspriul;L Nru;ff; g;gLk;. NaOH ,w;F Nkyjpfkhf KOH, Nrhbak;
nknjhl;irl;L (NaOCH3) Nghd;w Nru;itfs; Vftpd Cf;fpfshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
NkYk; MgO, ZnO Nghd;w Nru;itfs; gy;ypd Cf;fpfshfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
gbKiw : 3
kJrhuKk; jhtu vz;nza;Ak; xd;Wlndhd;W fyg;gjpy;iyahjyhy;> njhlu;r;rpahff;

fyf;fpathW ntg;gepiyia 50 - 60 0C tPrr
; py; itj;jpUf;fg;gLk;. mg;NghJ jpuhd;RvRj;j
uhf;fj; jhf;fk; fhuzkhf capupay; BrYk; fpsprNuhYk; tpisTfshff; fpilf;Fk;.
gbKiw : 4
gpujhd tpisTfs; xd;Wlndhd;W fyg;gjpy;iyahjyhy;> ,uz;L mtj;ijfSk;

Ntwhff; fhzg;gLk;. Nkw;gilapy; capu;; BrYk;> jhf;fKwhj %fpspriul;L> ,U
fpspriul;L kw;Wk; nrhw;g msTfspy; fpsprNuhy;> nkjNdhy; Mfpad mlq;fpap-
Uf;Fk;. fPog
; g
; ilapy; fpsprNuhYld; Nkyjpf nkjNdhYk; Cf;fpfSk; mlq;fpapUf;Fk;.
mtj;ij Ntwhf;fj;jpd; gpd; ,g;gilfs; Ntwhf;fpg; ngwg;gLk;.
57
gbKiw : 5
capu; Bry; mtj; i jia eP u py; fOTtjd; %yk; mt; t tj; i japy; fiue; j
epiyapy; cs;s fpsprNuhy;> nkjNdhy; Cf;fpfs; Mfpatw;iw ePf;fyhk;. ,Wjpahf
mjpy; mlq;fpAs;s ePu; ntspNaw;wg;gLk;.
cw;gj;jpahFk; capu; Bry;> fpsprNuhy; Mfpa ,uz;L gilfspYk; khRf;fshf

kPjpahfTs;s CH3OH mlq;fpapUf;f ,lKz;L. ,g;gilia Ntwhf;fpg; ngw;W
ntg; g Nkw; W tjd; %yk; mjpy; mlq; f pAs; s nkjNdhiy eP f ; f yhk; . ,e; j
nkjNdhiy kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;jyhk;;. capu; Brypy; khRf;fshf cs;s NaOH,
fpsprNuhy; Mfpatw;iw ePf;fpa gpd;du; mjD}lhf ePiuf; Fkpopf;fr; nra;J Rj;jpfupf;
fg;gLk;. gpd;du; capu; Brypy; Njq;fpAs;s ePu; (<uypg;G) ePf;fg;gLk;.
capupay; Bry;
fpsprNuhy;
capu; Bry; khjpupnahd;wpidj; jahupg;gjw;fhf Voj;jho 0.75 g NaOH ,id 25 g nkj

Ndhypy; fiuj;Jg; ngw;w fiuriyAk; 250 g Nrhah vz;nza;iaAk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
ngw;Nwhypak; vupnghUs;fs; kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj (Nonrenewable) xU rf;jp KjyhFk;.

tiuaiwf;Fgl;l xU rf;jp tskhfpa ngw;Nwhypak;> Gtpapay; uPjpapy; cynfq;Fk;
rPuhfg; guk;gpf; fhzg;gltpy;iy. vdNt gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;ahdJ ru;tNjr njhlu;G
fspYk; ru;tNjr murpaypYk; typikkpf;f jPu;f;fkhd xU fhuzpahff; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
mz;ikf;fhy tuyhw;wpy; <uhd;> <uhf;> rpupah Nghd;w ehLfis ikakhff; nfhz;L
Aj;jq;fs;> Nkhjy;fs; Vw;gl;likf;fhd %y fhuzk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; MFk;.
gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;ahdJ ngw;Nwhypak; vupnghUs;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Fk; gf;f
tpisTfshff; fpilf;Fk; Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; kUe;J cw;gj;jp> gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jp
Mfpad nra;ag;gLtJk;> nraw;if ,wg;gu; cw;gj;jpf;Fj; Njitahd xUgFjpaq;fs;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLtjw;Fk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wikahy; ngw;Nwhypaf; ifj;njhopyh-
dJ etPd kdpj ehfupfj;jpd; ,af;fr; rf;jpahf cUntLj;Js;sJ. fhgdPnuhl;irl;bd;
msT mjpfupj;Jr; nry;tjhy; g+Nfhsk; ntg;gkiljyhdJ etPd kdpj ehfupfk; vjpu;
nfhz;Ls;s gpujhdkhd xU rthyhFk;.
58
Nkyjpf mwpTf;fhf ...
kPsg;GJg;gpf;f Kbahj (Nonrenewable) xU tskhfpa ,e;j ngw;Nwhypa tsj;ij

kdpjd; EfUk; Nfhyj;Jf;fika mJ Nja;tile;J nry;Yk; tpjk; njhlu;ghf
fyhepjp vk;. Nf. ù;gl; vDk; ngsjpftpay; Jiw tpQ;Qhdp tptupj;Js;shu;. mtu;
Kd;itj;Js;s nfhs;ifapd;gb (Hurbert Peak Theory) ftdj;jpw; nfhs;sg;gLk;
ahNjDk; Gtpapaw; gpuNjrj;jpy; ngw;Nwhypa vz;nza; cw;gj;jp tPjkhdJ fhyj;Jld;
khWjyhdJ kzp tbtf; Nfhyj;jpNyNa (bell shaped) epfOk;. rdj;njhif mjpfup-
j;jy;> vupnghUs; Efu;T mjpfupj;jy; Mfpatw;Wld; $lNt ngw;Nwhypak; vupnghU
Sf;fhd Nfs;tp mjpfupg;gjhy; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; cw;gj;jpia (xU tUlj;jpy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; gPg;gha;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia) mjpfup-
f;f NeupLk;. cw;gj;jp tPjj;ij mjpfupj;jYld; $lNt vz;nza;f; fpzWfs; rhu;e;j
gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;apd; msT tiuaiwg;gLtjd; tpisthf> cw;gj;jp tPjj;ij
NkYk; mjpfupf;f Kbahj kl;lj;ij / epiyia milAk;. vdNt> xU tUlj;jpy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;g; gPg;gha;fspd; vz;zpf;if cr;rj;ij
vl;Lk; Nfs;tp fhzg;gl;l NghjpYk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; tsk; tiuaiwf;Fl;gl;l-
jhifahy; cw;gj;jp tPjj;ij khwhj cr;r kl;lj;jpy; Ngzp tu Kbahj epiy Vw;gLk;.
vdNt xU tUlj;jpy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;g; gPg;gha;fspd;
vz;zpf;if gbg;gbahff; Fiwtile;J cw;gj;jp tPjj;jpy; tPo;r;rp (,wf;fk;) Vw;gLk;.
mnkupf;f If;fpaf; FbauR cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;g; gPg;gha;fspd;
vz;zpf;if 1965 - 1970 fspy; cr;rj;ij milAk; vd 1965 Nù;gl; vLj;Jf; fhl;b-
dhu;. 1970 fopAk;NghJ ,e;j vjpu;T$wy; cWjpahfpaJ. g+Nfhs uPjpapy;> gz;gLj;jh
vz;nza; cw;gj;jp 2000 Mk; Mz;by; cr;rj;ij vl;Lk; vd ,f;nfhs;if $wpAs;sJ.
mjd; gpd;du;> Mz;nlhd;Wf;F cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;apd; msT
Fiwtile;J nry;Yk;. vt;thwhapDk; 1995 ,d; gpd;du; gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; cw;g-
j;jp tPjkhdJ ,e;j khjpupia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L> njuptpj;j tpjj;jpYk; rw;W
NtWgl;l NghjpYk; mbg;gilapy; Nja;tile;J nry;Yk; tyaj;ijNa ehk; ,d;W
fle;J nrd;w tz;zKs;Nshk;. Fwpg;ghff; Nfhska murpay; fhuzpfs;> khw;W
tYrf;jp> vupnghUs; tpidj;jpwd; kpf;f vQ;rpd;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;lik Nghd;w
tplaq;fs;> Nkw;gb Nja;tilAk; tPjk; rw;W NtWgl;likf;Ff; fhuzkhfpAs;sJ.
fPNo cU 1.23 (a) ,y; gz;gLj;jh nea; cw;gj;jp njhlu;ghf Kd;itf;fg;gl;l Nù;gl;
cr;r nea; tisap fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
59
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;s vz;nza;g;gbTfs;
vjpu;fhyj;jpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLgit
gPg;gha; kpy;ypad; / Mz;Lf;F

jpuz;l cw;gj;jp
cU: 1.23 (a)
nkhj;jr; rf;jp cw;gj;jp

gz;gLj;jh nea; / nkhj;j cw;gj;jp
,Ju gPl g+kp 2008 kl;by;
,U
z;l
ngUq;FopT
gpuN
jr
k;
ifj;njhopy; ehfupfk;
Mz;L
cU: 1.23 (b)
Mz;L tYrf;jp cw;gj;jpr; nraw;wpl;lk; njhlu;ghf xy;Lit nfhs;ifapd; (Olduvai

theory) gb Kd;itf;fg;gl;l xU tiuG cU: 1.23 (b) apy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ngUk;ghYk;
1930 ,d; cw;gj;jpAk; 100 Mz;LfSf;Fg; gpd;du; mjhtJ 2030 ,d; cw;gj;jpAk; 100
Mz;LfSf;Fg; gpd;du; mjhtJ 2030 ,y; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; vd vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk;
tYrf;jp cw;gj;jpAk; ngUksTfSk; rkkhf ,lKz;L vdf; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd;
fhuzkhfNt kPsg;GJg;gpf;fj;jf;f %yg;nghUs;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tYrf;jp neUf;fb-
f;Fj; jPu;T fhz;gjw;Fk; kPsg;GJg;gpf;ff;$ba %yg;nghUs;fis mbg;gilahff;
nfhz;L gy;NtW Nrjdr; Nru;itfis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kiwapay;fs; njhlu;ghfTk;
cyfshtpa mstpy; ftdk; <u;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
60
1.13 ifj;njhopy;fshy; ntspNaw;wg;gLgit fhuzkhf epfOk;

tspkhriljypd; ,urhadtpay;
1.13.1 mkpy kio
kio vd;gJ ePu; tl;lj;jpd; (rf;fuj;jpd;) xU $whFk;. Gtp Nkw;gug;gpy; cs;s ntt;NtW
ePu; Kjy;fspypUe;J Mtpahjy; fhuzkhf ePuhdJ tspkz;lyj;ij milAk;. mt;thA
epiy ePuhdJ tspkz;lyj;jpy; ntt;NtW fhuzpfs; fhuzkhf xLq;fp kPz;Lk; Gtp
Nkw;gug;ig miljy; gbT tPo;r;rp (precipitation) vdg;gLk;. gbT tPo;r;rp gy tbtq;f-
spy; epfOk;. ePu; jputkhf GtpNkw;gug;ig miljy; kiotPo;r;rp vdg;gLk;. mJ jpz;k
epiyapy; Gtpia miljy; kiog;gdp (snow) kw;Wk; gdpkio (hails) vdg;gLk;. ,it
jtpu nkd;%Lgdp> nts;Siwgdp Mf rpW Jzpf;iffshf (aerosol) xLq;FtjhYk;
ePu; Gtp Nkw;gug;ig milAk;. Nkw;gb ve;j topapy; Gtpia mile;jNghjpYk;> tsp-
kz;lyj; jpypUe;J Gtpf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; ePNu ePut
; l;lj;jpy; kpfr; Rj;jkhd ePu; MFk;. tsp-
kz;lyj;jpy; cs;s jpz;kj; Jzpf;iffSk; fiue;j epiyapy; cs;s rpy thAf;fshd
O2, N2, CO2 MfpadTk; jtpu;e;j NtW ve;jg; gjhu;j;jKk; tspkz;ly ePupy; mlq;fp
apUg;gjpy;iy. ,t;thwhf fiue;j epiyapy; cs;s thAf;fSs; fhgdPnuhl;irl;Nl
ngupJk; ftdj;jpw;F cs;shfpAs;sJ. tspkz;ly fhgdPnuhl;irl;L ePupy; fiue;J>
ePUld; Nru;e;J nkd;dkpy nkhd;whfpa fhgdpf;fkpyj;ijj; Njhw;Wtpg;gNj mjw;fhd
fhuzk; MFk;.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
; kpyk; rw;Wf; (eypthff;) $l;lw;gpupifaile;J ePUld; H+ mad;fisr; Nru;fF

fhgdpff ; k;.
H2CO3(aq) H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
,jd; tpisthf kioePupd; pH ngWkhdkhdJ> eLepiyahf ePupd; pH ngWkhdj;-
jpYk; rw;Wf; Fiwthff; fhzg;gLk;.
jw;NghJ tspapy; mlq;fpAs;s fhgdPnuhl;irl;Lf; fl;likg;ghfpa 400 mg dm-3my;yJ

pH (0.004%) If; fUJk;NghJ kioePupd; ,opTg; pH ngWkhdk; 5.6 MFk;. mjhtJ NtW
ve;jr; nry;thf;Fk; ,y;yhjNghjpYk; kioePu; rw;W mkpyj;jd;ikAilajhFk;. ,e;j
nrhw;g mkpyj;jd;ik ePu; tho; mq;fpfSf;Nfh> kdpjDf;Nfh> Vida ePu; njhlu;ghd
nrad;KiwfSf;Nfh ghjfkhf miktjpy;iy. ,J xU rhjhuz epiyik MFk;.
vdpDk;> gy;NtW ,aw;ifahd kw;Wk; kdpjj; njhopw;ghLfs; fhuzkhf mkpyj;

jd;ik cau;thd thAf;fs; tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;. iejurdpd; mkpy xl;irl;L
(NOX) thAf;fSk; ry;gupd; (fe;jfj;jpd;) mkpy xl;irl;L thAf;fSNk (SOX) mitah-
Fk;. iejurdpd; mkpy xl;irl;L thAf;fshf> iej;jpupf;nfhl;irl;L (NO), iejurdP
nuhl;irl;L (NO2) Mfpatw;iwf; fUjyhk;. ry;gupd; (fe;jfj;jpd;) mkpyj;jd;ikAs;s
thAepiy xl;irl;Lf;fshf fe;jftPnuhl;irl;L (SO2), fe;jf%nthl;irl;L (SO3)
Mfpatw;iwf; fUjyhk;.
61
iejurdpd; mkpy thAf;fs; tspkz;lyj;jpd; ,aw;ifr; nrad;Kiwld;

NrUk; topfs;
,aw;ifr; nrad;Kiwfs;
kpd;dypd;NghJ tspapy; cs;s iejurd; cau; ntg;gepiy epge;jidfspd; fPo; tsp-

kz;ly xl;rprDld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J NO, NO2 Mfpa thAf;fisg; gpwg;gpf;Fk;.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)

2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)
NkYk; vupkiy ntbg;G> #oypy; thOk; iejurdpwf;f gw;wPupahf;fs; %yKk; NO,

NO2 cw;gj;jpahf;fg;gLk;.
NkYk; fhw;wpd;wpa epge;jidfspd; fPo; iejurd; mlq;fpAs;s Nru;itfis Nru;itfs;

Ez;zq;fpg; gpupiff;F cs;shtjhy; cw;gj;jpahFk; mNkhdpah thA (NH3) tsp
kz;lyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wkiltjhy; mkpyj;jd;ikahd thAepiy iejurd; Nru;it-
fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
,e;j rfy ,aw;ifr; nrad;Kiwfs; fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;Jf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; mkpyj;

jd;ikahd thAepiyr; Nru;itfspd; msT kpfr; nrhw;gkhdJ. mjd; fhuzkhf tsp-
kz;lyj;jpy; ,t;thwhd ,aw;ifahf cw;gj;jpahfpa iejurdpd; mkpyj;jd;ikAs;s
thAf;fspd; fl;likg;G kpfr; rpwpa ngWkhdkhtNjhL> mJ kioePu; mkpyj;jd;ik
ailtjpy; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f msTf;Fr; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jtjpy;iy.
kdpjr; nraw;ghLfs;
iejurd; mlq;fpAs;s thAepiy mkpyr; Nru;itfis tspkz;lyj;jpy; tpLtpf;Fk;

gpujhdkhd kdpjr; nraw;ghL thfdq;fisr; nrYj;Jtjw;fhf vupnghUisj; jfdQ;
nra;jyhFk;. cl;jfd vQ;rpdpy; (thfd vQ;rpdpy;) kpf cau;thd mKf;fj;jpy; tspAk;
jput vupnghUSk; cau; ntg;gepiyapd; fPo; jfdkilar; nra;ag;gl;L rf;jpfs; ngwg;
gLk;. nghJthd epge;jidfspd; fPo;> jhf;fKwhj xU thAthfpa N2 thA ,t;th-
whd cau; ntg;g mKf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo; xl;rprDld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J gpujhdkhf
iej;jpupf;F xl;irl;ilj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. me;iej;jpupf;F xl;irl;L tspkz;lyj;jpy;
NkYk; xl;rpNaw;w kile;J iejurdPnuhl;irl;ilj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)

2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)
kdpjr; nraw;ghLfs; fhuzkhfj; Njhd;Wk; mkpy NOX thAf;fs;> kioePu; mkpyj;-

jd;ik ngwf; fhuzkhFk;.
62
fe;jfj;jpd; xl;irl;Lf;fs; tspkz;lyj;jpy; NrUk; topfs;
,aw;ifahd topfs;
vupkiy ntbg;gpd;NghJ rhk;gUk; fe;jftPnuhl;irl;Lk; mlq;fpa thAf;fs; ngUks

tpy; tspkz;lyj;jpy; ntspaplg;gLk;. ,t;thAf;fs; Neubahf tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;.
NkYk; fhw;wpd;wpa epge;jidfspd; fPo; rKj;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; ePu;epiyfspd; mbj;-

jsj;jpy; milaypy; epfOk;. Ez;zq;fpj; njhopw;ghL fhuzkhf Ijurd; ry;igl;L
thAit cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;. ,t;tsT tspkz;lyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wkiltjhy; fe;jftP
; tplj;J H2S thA
nuhl;irl;ilj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. vt;thwhapDk; vupkiy ntbg;G jtpu;ej
tspkz;lyj;jpy; xl;rpNaw;wkiltjd; tpisthf> cw;gj;jpahFk; SO2 thA tspkz;ly-
j;jpy; xU Fwpj;j re;ju;g;gj;jpy; SO2 nrwpT kpff; Fiwe;j ngWkhdj;ijNa ngWk;.
,jd;NghJ ,aw;ifahf tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk; fe;jftPnuhl;irl;L kioePu; mkpyj;
jd;ik ngWtjpy; nra;Ak; gq;fspg;G kpfkpff; FiwthdjhFk;. (vupkiy ntbg;gpd;
gpd;du;> mJrhu;e;j rpy gpuNjrq;fspy; mkpykio nghope;jjhfTk; gjpthfpAs;sJ.)
kdpjr; nraw;ghLfshy;
gz;gLj;jh vz;nza;iar; Rj;jpfupg;gjhy; fpilf;Fk; vspjpyhtpahFk; jd;ik Fiw

thd vupnghUs; tiffshd> Bry;> vup vz;nza; Nghd;wtw;wpy; khRf;fshf fe;jfk;
mlq;fpa Nru;itfs; fhzg;gLk;. fe;jfk; mlq;fpAs;s Nru;itfspd; jfdk; fhuzkhf
,r;Nru;itfs; fe;jftPnuhl;irl;lhf khwp tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;.
NkYk; epyf;fupAld; khRf;fshff; fhzg;gLk; %yfepiyf; fe;jfKk;> fe;jfr; Nru;itf-

Sk; (FeS) epyf;fup jfdkilAk;NghJ xl;rpNaw;wkile;J SO2 Mf tspkz;lyj;jpy;
NrUk;. ,e;j kdpjr; nraw;ghLfs; fhuzkhf cw;gj;jpahFk; SO2 MdJ ahNjDk;
Fwpj;j ,lj;jpy; kpf mjpf mstpy; tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;. ,jd; tpisthf>
Fwpj;j ,lj;ijr; (cjhuzk;: epyf;fup kpd;Dw;gj;jp epiyak;) #oTs;s tspkz;lyj;jpd;
fl;likg;gpy; mjpf mstpy; SO2 fhzg;glyhk;. ,J kdpjr; nraw;ghLfs; fhuzkhfj;
Njhd;Wk; mkpy SOX MdJ kioePu; mkpyj;jd;ik ngwf; fhuzkhFk;.
mkpyr; Nru;itfs; kioePupd; pH ngWkhdj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; topfs;
vQ;rpdpy; epfOk; jfdj;jpd;NghJ NO thA cw;gj;jpahFk;.

N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
thfdg; GifAld; ntspNaWk; NO MdJ tspkz;lyj;jpy; NkYk; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J

NO2 Ij; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)
63
fhw;W}l;lKs;sNghJ ,e;j NO2 thA ePUld; Nru;eJ

; jhf;fKw;W td;dkpykhfpa HNO3I
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
4 NO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + O2(g) 4 HNO3(aq)
mj;NjhL tspAld; NrUk; SO2 thAthdJ NkYk; xl;rpNaw;wkile;J SO3 thAit

cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g)
,t;thW Njhd;Wk; SO3 ePUld; Nru;e;J jhf;fk; Gupe;J H2SO4 Ij; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. NkYk;>
fhw;Nwhl;lKs;sNghJ SO2 thA ePuhtpAld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J H2SO4 Mf khWk;.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4 (aq)
NkNy fpilj;j HNO3 , H2SO4 Mfpa Nru;itfs; td;dkpyq;fshFk;. mr;Nru;itfs;

ePupd; g+uzkhf madhf;fkile;J ePUld; mjpf mstpy; H3O+ mad;fisr; Nru;f;Fk;.
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3-(aq)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O(l) 2 H3O+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
,t;thwhf td;dkpyq;fs; %yk; ePUld; NrUk; H3O+ mad;fs; fhuzkhf ePupd; pH

ngWkhdkhdJ CO2 fiujy; fhuzkhfj; Njhd;Wk; fhgdpf; mkpyk; %yk; Fiw-
tile;j pH ngWkhdj;jpYk; Fiwthd ngWkhdj;ij milAk;.
,t;thwhf kioePUld; td;dkpyq;fs; Nru;tjhy; pH ngWkhdk; 5.6 ,Yk; Fiwe;j

ngWkhdj;ij miljyhdJ tsp mkpyj;jd;ikailjy; mjhtJ mkpykio Vw;gly;
vdg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd ePu; mjpf mstpy; mkpyj;jd;ik ngWtjhy; gy gpur;rpidfs;
Njhd;wpAs;sd.
ePu; mkpyj;jd;ikailtjd; ghjpg;Gf;fs;

ePut; ho; mq;fpfs; ePupd; pH ngWkhd khwY-
f;F mjpf czu;jpwidf; fhl;Lk;. vdNt
ePupd; pH ngWkhdk; rpwpa mstp NyDk;
Fiwjy; ePu;tho; mq;fpfSf;Fg; ghjfkhd-
jhFk;. ,jd; tpisthf kPd;fSk; Vida
ePut
; ho; mq;fpfspdJk; elj;ijf; Nfhyq;fs;
khw;wkiljy;> cWg;Gf;fspd; tsu;rr ; p jilg;
gLjy;> Kl;ilfSk; Kjpu;r;rp ailahj
mq;fpfSk; mopjy; Nghd;wit epfOk;.
mjhtJ capu;g; gy;tifik ghjpf;fg;gLk;. cU 1.24 - ePu;tho; mq;fpfs; mopjy;
NkYk; KUiff; fw;ghiwfis cUthf;Ftjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; KUifg; nghypg;

Gfs; Nghd;w tpyq;Ffs; ,wg;gjd; tpisthf> KUiff; fw;ghiwfs; Njhd;WtJ
jilg;gLtJld; ntspwYf;Fk; MshFk;.
64
NkYk;> fhl;Lg; gpuNjrq;fspy; njhlu;e;Jk; mkpykio nghoptjd; tpisthf jhtu

,iyfspy; cs;s FNshnuhgpy; moptjhy; mj;jhtuq;fs; gbg;gbahf ,wf;Fk;. fhLf-
spy; jhtuq;fs; NkypUe;J fPohfg; gbg;gbahf ,wj;jyhdJ mkpykio fhuzkhf
jhtuq;fs; moptijf; Fwpj;J epw;Fk; Xu; ,ay;ghFk;.
NkYk; > mkpykio fhuzkhf kz;

mkpyj; jd;ikailtjhy; kz;zpy; fiu
ahj> kz; mikg;Gld; ,Wf;fkhfg; gpize;-
Js;s er;Rj; jd;ikahd cNyhf mad;f-
Sk; (Al3+, Cd2+, Cr2+, Hg2+) kw;Wk; NtW er;Rj;
jd; i kahd mad; tiffSk; mkpyj;
jd;ik fhuzkhff; fiue;J ePUld; NrUk;.
,jd; tpisthf eP u py; mt; t ad; f spd;
nrwpT mjpfupg;gjhy; me;ePuhdJ mq;fpfs-
Jk; kdpjdJk; Efu; Tf;Fg; nghUj;jkw;w cU 1.25 - fhL mopjy;
mjhtJ ghjfkhd epiyia milAk;.
cjhuzk;:-
• ePupy; Al3+, Fe3+ kw;Wk; ghu cNyhfq;fspd; nrwpT mjpfupj;jy;. ,t;thwhd
Al3+, Fe3+ cau; nrwpT ePu;tho; mq;fpfSf;F ngupJk; gag;gdthFk;.
• NkYk; kz;zpy; mlq;fpAs;s Ez;Nghriz %yfq;fshd Fe3+, Zn2+, Cu2+ Nghd;w
cNyhf mad;fs; kioePupd; cau; mkpyj;jd;ikapd; Kd;dpiyapy; tpiuthff;
fiue;J kz;zpypUe;J ntspNaWtjhy; kz;zpd; tsk; FiwtilAk;.
• NkYk; cau; mkpyj;jd;ik fhuzkhf kz;zpy; cs;s fy;rpak;> kfdPrpak;
kw;Wk; mYkpdpak; mlq;fpAs;s ghiwfSk; fdpaq;fSk; fiue;J mjpfkjpfkhf
ePUld; Nru;tjhy; ePupd; td;ik mjpfupf;Fk;.
• mt;thNw> mkpyj;jd;ik fhuzkhf cNyhfj;jhyhd epu;khzpg;Gfspd; mupg;G
Jupjkiltjhy; mtw;wpd; nghwpKiwr; rf;jp eyptiltNjhL MAl;fhyKk;
FiwtilAk;.
• NkYk;> ryitf;fy; (khgps;) Nghd;w fy;rpak; fhgNdw;Wg; ghiwfspy; ,Ue;J
cUthf;fg;gl;l rpiyfs; / rpw;gq;fs; kw;Wk; Vida epu;khzpg;Gf;fs; Jupjkhf
mupg;Gf;F cs;shtjhFk;. mtw;wpy; cs;s EZf;fkhd nrJf;fy; Ntiyg;
ghLfs; J}u;e;J Nght NjhL mtw;wpd; tuyhw;Wg; ngWkhdKk; Fd;Wk;.
• NkYk; Rz;zf;fy; Nru;e;j rhe;ijAk; rPke;ijAk; gad;gLj;jp epu;khzpf;fg;
gl;l tPLfs; Nghd;w fl;llq;fs; kw;Wk; epu;khzpg;Gf;fspd; typik / cWjpj;
jd;ik FiwtilAk;. rhe;J> rPke;J Nghd;wtw;wpy; cs;s fiujpwd; Fiwthd
fhgNdw;Wr; Nru;itfs; mkpykio kw;Wk; mkpy thAf;fs; fhuzkhf ed;F fiu
Ae; jd;ikAs;s ry;Ngw;W kw;Wk; iej;jpNuw;Wr; Nru;itfshf khw;wkilfpd;wd.
2CaCO3 + 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O 2CaSO4.2H2O + 2CO2
65
mkpy kioia ,opthf;Ftjw;F elj;jf;$ba nraw;ghLfs;
(1) epyf; f up - Bry; tYrf; j p cw; g j; j p epiyaq; f spy; fe; j f mlf; f k;

Fiwthd epyf;fup kw;Wk; Bry; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
(2) tYrf;jp cw;gj;jp epiyaq;fspypUe;J ntspNaWk; SO2 Nghd;w mkpy thAf;fis

ntspNaw;Wtjw;fhfg; nghUj;jkhd Kiwfisf; ifahsy;.
(i) SO2 cld; jhf;fk; Gupaf;$ba gjhu;j;jq;fisr; Nru;j;J epyf;fupiaj;
jfdpj;jy;.
(CaCO3 Fliclized bed combustion)
CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)
(ii) kpd;Dw;gj;jp epiya ntspg;gL

thAtpy; mlq;fpAs;s SO2 ,idj;
jpz;k epiyf;F khw;Wjy;. (Ca(OH)2 cld; jhf;fKwr; nra;jy; %yk;
Lime slurry process)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)
(3) epyf;fup> Bry; Mfpatw;Wf;Fg; gjpyhf #oy; Neakhd vupnghUs;fis my;yJ

khw;W tYrf;jp %yq;fshd Qhapw;Wr;rf;jp> fhw;Wr;rf;jp> flyiyr;rf;jp> Gtpntg;gr;
rf;jp> fUr;rf;jp Nghd;wtw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jjy;.
1.13.2 g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;jy;
,d;W Gtpapy; epfOk; rfy ,aw;ifahd nrad;Kiwfs; kw;Wk; kdpjdhy; nra;ag;gLk;

rfy ,af;ftpay; nraw;ghLfSf;Fkhd rf;jpia toq;Fk; gpujhd rf;jp Kjy; #upad;
MFk;. #upaDf;Fk; Gtp cl;gl rfy Nfhs;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa ntWikahd ntspNa
fhzg; gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf> #upa rf;jpahdJ fjpu;g;G tbtj;jpNyNa Gtpia
milfpd;wJ. ,f;fjpu;gg ; hdJ gpujhdkhf> fl;GydhFk; fjpu;gG
; > nrq;fPof
; f
; jpu;gG
; kw;Wk;
fopa+jhf; fjpu;g;ghfNt Gtpia milfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhff; fpilf;Fk; fjpu;g;Gr; rf;jp
ahdJ Gtpapy; gy;NtW rf;jpepiy khw;wq;fSf;F cs;shfp> kPz;Lk; GtpapypUe;J
ntspNawpr; nry;Yk;. mjhtJ Gtpapy; rf;jpr; rkdpiy fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.
,t;thwhfg; Gtpf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; fjpu;g;Gr; rf;jpahdJ Gtpapy; gy;NtW khw;wq;fSf;F

cs;shtjd; tpisthf Gtpapy; ntg;gk; cUthFtNjhL mt;ntg;gk; fhuzkhf Gtp
ntg;gkile;J ahNjDk; ntg;gepiyia milAk;. #upadpypUe;J fpilf;Fk; rf;jpahdJ
,t;thW khw;wq;fSf;F cs;shfp> kPz;Lk; ntspNawpr; nrd;W rkdpiyia milt-
jd; tpisthf> Gtp ntg;gNkWk; msT khwhJ fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf>
xl;L nkhj;jkhff; fUJifapy; Gtpapd; ruhrup ntg;gepiy khwhg; ngWkhdj;ijg;
ngWfpd;wJ. mg;ngWkhdk; mz;zsthf 15 nry;rpa]; ghif (15 0C) MFk;. vt;th-
whapDk;> Gtp jdJ mr;Rld; fhl;Lk; 23.5 ghifr; rha;T kw;Wk; mfyhq;fpy; mjd;
mikT fhuzkhf Gtpapd; ntt;NtW gpuNjrq;fSf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; #upa rf;jpapd;
66
nrwpT NtWghL> gUtfhy NtWghL Nghd;w gy;NtW fhuzq;fshy; Gtpapd; ntt;NtW

gpuNjrq;fSf;F ntt;NtW fhytPr;Rf;fspy; ntg;gepiy ntt;NtW ngWkhdq;fisg;
ngWk;.
cjhuzk;:- kj;jpa Nfhl;il mz;kpj;j gpuNjrq;fspy; cau;thd ntg;g epiy

fhzg; g LtNjhL> mJ Mz; L KOtjpYk; xU rP u hfff; fhzg; g Lk; . kj; j pa
Nfhl;bypUe;J mjpf kjpfkhf JUtg; gpuNjrq;fis Nehf;fpr; nry;Yk;NghJ gUtfhy
khw;wk; ngupJk; jPtpu kiltNjhL Mz;by; ntg;gepiy mjpf mstpy; jsk;gYf;F
cs;shFk;. (Nfhil fhyj;jpy; NkYk; JUtq;fis mz;kpa gpuNjrq;fspy; Mz;L
KOtjpYk; mjpf Fspu; epyTk;.)
Gtpapd; ruhrup ntg;gepiyahfpa 15 nry;rpa]; ghif (15 0C) vd;gJ capupd; ,Ug;Gf;Fr;
rhjfkhd epiyikahFk;. Gtpapy; ,e;jr; rhjfkhd ntg;gepiy fhzg;gLfpd;wik-
f;Fg; gpujhd fhuzk; Gtpapy; epfOk; gr;irtPl;L tpisT MFk;. Gtpapy; gr;irtPl;L
tpistpd; typikahdJ> mq;F capupd; epyTiff;Fr; rhjfkhd rpwg;ghd ntg;ge-
piyiag; Ngzp tUtjw;Fj; Jizahf mikAk;.
gr;irtPl;L tpisT
gr;irtPl;L tpisT gw;wpf; fw;f Kd;du; ~gr;irtPL| vd;gJ ahJ vd tpsq;fpf;

nfhs;Nthk;. ehk; midtUk; mwpe;J itj;Js;sjw;fpzq;f> tptrhag; gapu;fisr;
nra;if gz;Z tjw;fhf> Fwpj;j gapupd; tho;f;iff; fhyk; KOtjpYk; ahNjDk;
rpwg; g hd ntg; g epiy fhzg; g LtJ mtrpakhFk; . ehk; Gtpapd; kj; j pa
Nfhl;by; ,Ue;J kj;jpa mfyhq;Fg; gpuNjrq;fSf;Fr; nry;Yk;NghJ Mz;by; ,e;jr;
rpwg;ghd ntg;g epiy fhzg;gLk; fhyg; gFjp gbg;gbahff; Fiwe;J nry;Yk;.
JUtq;fis mz;kpj;j gpuNjrq;fis neUq;Fk; NghJ jhtu tsu;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd
rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiyiaf; nfhz;l fhyg;gFjp kpff; FWfpajhifahy; mg;gpuNjrq;
fspy; nghJthfj; jhtuq;fs; tsu;t-
jpy;iy. tsUk; jhtuq;fs; $l kpff;
FWfpa MAl;fhyj;ijf; nfhz;lit
ahFk;. (cjhuzk;:- Je;jpuh (Tundra)
gpuNjrq; f spy; tsUk; jhtuq; f spd;
MAl;fhyk; 2 - 3 thuq;fs; khj;jpuNkah-
Fk;). NkYk; kiyehl;Lg; gpuNjrq;fspy;
Mz;L KOtjpYk; Fiwe;j ntg;gepiy-
Na fhzg; gLk;. (cjhuzk;:- Etnuypah>
gz;lhutis Nghd;w gpuNjrq;fs;).
- gr;irtPnlhd;W
cU 1.26
mjw;fika ahNjDk; gpuNjrj;jpy; ahNjDk; gapUf;Fj; Njitahd rpwg;ghd ntg;g
epiy fhzg;gLk; fhytPr;R mg;gapupd; MAl;fhyj;ij tplf; Fiwthdjhapd;> Fwpj;j
67
mg;gapiu mg;gpuNjrj;jpy; nra;if gz;ZtJ fbdkhdJ. vdpDk;> mt;thwhd gpuN-

jrq;fspy; ghJfhf;fg;gl;l kidnahd;wpDs; Nkw;gb rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiy fhzg;gLk;
fhy tPr;irg; Gwj;NjapUe;J ntg;gk; toq;fhj epiyapy; ePbj;Jf; nfhs;tNj gr;ir
tPl;bd; %yk; nra;ag;gLtjhFk;. gr;irtPl;bDs;Ns epyTk; ntg;gepiyahdJ> mjw;F
ntspNa fhzg;gLk; ntg;gepiyia tpl 2 - 6 nry;rpa]; ghif cau;thdjhFk;. ,jd;
tpisthf> Gw ntg;gepiy rpwg;G ntg;gepiyapYk; FiwthdjhapDk;> gr;irtPl;bDs;
Fwpj;j rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiyiag; Ngzptuyhk;. ,jd; tpisthf> gr;ir tPl;bDs;
Fwpj;j rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiy fhzg;gLk; fhytPr;irg; nghJthd #oiy tpl 2 - 3
thu fhyk; ePbj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. ,J vt;thW epfo;fpd;wJ vd Nehf;FNthk;.
gr;irtPl;bd; njhopw;ghL
gr;irtPL vd;gJ Vwj;jho Kw;WKOjhfg; ghJfhf;fg;gl;l xU tPlhf miktJld;> mjd;

$iuAk; Rtu;fSk;> #upa xsp CLGftplf;$bathwhf xspa+LGftpLk; jd;ikAs;s
nghUnshd;wpdhy; Mf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j xspa+LGftpLk; jd;ikAs;s nghUspd;
Clhf #upadpypUe;J tUk; fl;GydhFk; kw;Wk; fopa+jhf; fjpuf ; s; gr;irtPlb
; Ds; GFk;.
gr;irtPl;bDs; cs;s kz;zpdhYk; NtW nghUs;fshYk; ,f;fjpu;g;G cwpQ;rg;gLk;.
,t;thW cwpQ;rg;gLk; fjpu;g;G> rf;jp Fiwthd fopa+jh my;yJ fl;GydhF fjpu;g;ghf
kPsf; fjpu;f;fg;gLk;. ,t;thW kPsf; fjpu;f;Fk;NghJ cwpQ;rpa fjpu;g;Gr; rf;jpapd; xU
gFjp nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;g;ghf kPsf; fjpu;f;fg;gLk;. gr;irtPl;bd; $iu kw;Wk; Rtu;fS-
f;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; kiwg;Gg; glyk;> fl;GydhF kw;Wk; fopa+jhf; fjpu;g;Gf;fs;
CLGff;$ba thwhfTk;> nrq;fPof ; ; fjpu;fisj; njwpf;fr; nra;Ak; tifapNyNa njupT
nra;ag;gLk;. ,t;thwhf nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;g;Gfs; mjpf Neuk; gr;irtPl;bDs; njwpg;Gf;F
cs;shFk;NghJ gr;irtPl;bDs; cs;s CO2 kw;Wk; ePuhtp %yk; mf;fjpu;fs; mfj;J
wpQ;rg;gl;L ntg;gkhf khw;wpg; gr;irtPl;bDs; ntg;gepiyia mjpfupf;fr; nra;Ak;. ,J
gr;irtPl;bDs; epfOk; nrad;KiwahFk;. vkJ Gtpapy; cs;s tspkz;lyKk; Xus-
Tf;Fg; gr;irtPl;bd; njhopw;ghl;il xj;j nrad;Kiwiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. ,J Gtpapd;
gr;irtPl;L tpisT vdg;gLk;.
Gtpapd; gr;irtPl;L tpisT
#upadpy; ,Ue;J Gtpf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; #upaf; fjpu;g;G gpujhdkhff; fopa+jh kw;Wk;

fl;GydhFk; fjpu;g;G tyaj;jpDs; mlq;Fk;. ,tw;Ws; fopa+jh tyaj;jpy; mlq;Fk;
fjpu;g;Gf;fspd; ngUk;gFjp> cau; tspkz;lyj;jpy; cwpQ;rg;gl;L tpLfpd;wikahy;
kpfr; rpwpjsT fjpu;g;Ng Gtpia milAk;. rf;jp kpff; Fiwthd fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs;
khj;jpuNk mt;thwhfg; Gtpia milAk;. ,t;thwhfg; Gtpia milAk; fl;GydhF
fjpu;fSk;> Fiwthf rf;jp nfhz;l fopa+jhf; fjpu;fSk; gr;irtPl;bw; Nghd;W Gtp
Nkw;gug;gpdhy; (kz;zpdhy;) cwpQ;rg;gl;Lf; Fiwthd rf;jp nfhz;l fjpu;g;Gf;fshf
ntsptplg;gLk;. ,t;thW ntspNaWk; fl;GydhF fjpu;fs; fzprkhd khw;wq;fSf;F
cs;shfhJ> GtpapypUe;J thd;ntspiar; nrd;wilAk;. vdpDk; ntspNawpa nrq;fPo;f;
68
fjpu;g;Gfs; tspapy; cs;s rpy thAf;fshy; cwpQ;;rg;gl ,lKz;L. mjp\;ltrkhf

Gtpapy; cs;s gpujhd thAf;fshd N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (1%) Mfpa thAf;fshy; ,e;j
nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbahJ. mt;thwhf Gtp tspkz;lyj;jpd; 99% ,w;Fk;
Nkyhf cs;s ,g;gpujhd thAf;fs; nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;rpf; nfhs;Skhdhy;>
vkJ ,g;Gtpapd; ntg;gepiy kpf cau;thd ngWkhdj;ijg; ngw;wpUf;Fk;.
gr;irtPl;L thAf;fs;
tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s nrq;fo

P f
; ; fjpu;fis cwpQ;rf;$badTk;> ePzl
; fhyk; tspkz;l-
j;jpy; cWjpahff; fhzg;gLtdTkhd thAf;fNs gr;irtPlL ; thAf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
ve;jnthU %d;W mZf;fis my;yJ mjpYk; Nkw;gl;l mZf;fisf; nfhz;l thA

tpdhYk; nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbAk;. NkYk; gy;ypd <uZ nfhz;l thAf;f-
shYk; (CO) nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbAk;. rk <uZ (N2, O2) kw;Wk; XuZ
(Ar) thAf; fSf;Fk; nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbahJ. mjw;fika XuZ my;yh
kw;Wk; rk <uZ my;yhj ve;jnthU thAtpdhYk; nrq;fo P f
; ; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbAk;.
vdpDk; GtpapdJ tspkz;lyj;jpy; gr;ir thAthfr; nraw;gLtjw;nfdpd;> mt;thA
gpd;tUk; ,ay;Gfisf; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.
(1) nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;Rk; jd;ikiaf; nfhz;bUj;jy;.
(2) tspkz;lyj;jpy; ePz;lfhyk; cWjpahf ,Uf;ff;$ba
jd;ikiaf; nfhz;bUj;jy;.
tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbAkhapDk;> epiyNgww;w

mjhtJ cWjpaw;w my;yJ FWfpa fhyk; khj;jpuNk fhzg;glf;$ba thAf;fs;
gr;irtPlL
; thAf;fshff; fUjg;gLtjpy;iy. Nkw;gb tplaq;fspd;gb Gtpapy; fhzg;gLk;
gpujhd gr;irtPl;L thAf;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
(1) ePuhtp (H2O)
(2) fhgdPnuhl;irl;L (CO2)
(3) nkNjd; (CH4)
(4) iej;jpunrhl;irl;L (N2O)
(5) Mtpahfj;jf;f myrd; Nru;e;j IjNuhf;fhgd; (CFC, HFC, HCFC)
tspkz;lyj;jpy; XusTf;Ff; fhzg;gl;lNghjpYk; SO2, NO2, NO, CO Nghd;w thAf;fs;

tspkz;lyj;jpy; epyTk; fhyk; (MAl;fhyk;) kpfr; rpwpajhifahy; mtw;wpdhy;
nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis cwpQ;r KbAkhapDk; $l mit gr;irtPl;L thAf;fshff; fU-
jg;gLtjpy;iy. Nkw;gb rfy thAf;fSs; myrd;Nru; IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; jtpu;ej
; Vida
vy;yh thAf;fSk; ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; thAf;fs; MFk;.
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l gr;irtPl;L thAf;fs;> Gtpapdhy; kPsf; fjpuhf;fg;gLk; nrq;fPo;f;

fjpu;fis cwpQ;rp Gtpapy; mjpf Neuk; gw;wp itj;jpUg;gjd; fhuzkhf Gtp ntg;gk-
ilAk;. ,t;thwhf ntg;gNkWjy; rkdpiyg;gLj;jg;gLtjd; tpisNt> Gtpapd; ruhrup
69
ntg;gepiy 15 nry;rpa]; ghifahf (15 0C) Ngzg;gl;L tUfpd;wikahFk;. mjhtJ

Gtpapy; fhzg;gLk; gr;irtPl;L tpisthdJ> capupd; ,Ug;Gf;Fj; Njitahd xU
rhjfkhd fhuzp MFk;.
vkJ Qhapw;Wj; njhFjpapy; cs;s ntg;gk; kpff; $ba Nfhs; #upaDf;F fpl;ba
Nfhshfpa Gjd; md;W. khwhf> #upadpy; ,Ue;J ,uz;lhtjhf mike;Js;s
nts;sp ntg;gk; $ba NfhshFk;. GjDf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; #upa rf;jpapd; Vwj;jho
25% msT #upa rf;jpNa nts;spf;Ff; fpilf;fpd;wJ. vdpDk; nts;sp ntg;gk; $ba
Nfhshff; fhzg;gLtjw;fhd fhuzk; mjpy; epfOk; typikkpff
; gr;irtPlL
; tpisthFk;.
nts;spapdJ tspkz;lyj;jpd; Vwj;jho 95% khd gFjp CO2 thAtpdhyhdJ. ,jd;
tpisthf nts;sp Nfhspd; tspkz;lyk; kpfkpf mjpfkhfr; nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fis
cwpQ;rpf; nfhs;tjhy; mq;F typikahd gr;irtPl;L tpisT fhzg;gLk;. ,jd;
tpisthf nts;sp Nfhs;> #upadpy; ,Ue;J ,uz;lhtjhf mike;Js;sNghjpYk;
Qhapw;Wj; njhFjpapd; kpf ntg;gkhd Nfhs; vDk; rpwg;igg; ngw;Ws;sJ.
vkJ Gtpapy; cs;s gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd; rjtPj msTfs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz - 1.5: Gtpapy; cs;s gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd; rjtPjq;fs;
gr;irtPl;L thA rjtPjk;

ePuhtp (%) 0.001 - 0.5
fhgdPnuhl;irl;L (ppm) 415
nkNjd; (ppb) 1745
iej;jpunrhl;irl;L (ppb) 315
Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s myrd;Nru; IjNuhf;fhgd;
(CFC, HFC, HCFC) (ppt) 53.3

vkJ Gtpapy; gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd; rjtPjk; caUkhapd; ahJ epfOk;? ,t;thwhf

gr;irtPlL; thAf;fspd; rjtPjk; caUkhapd>; mg;gr;irtPlL
; thAf;fshy; mjpfkjpfkhf
nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fs; cwpQ;rg;gLfpd;wikahy; Gtpapy; Nkyjpf ntg;gk; cw;gj;jpahf;f-
g;gl;L mt;ntg;gk; mjpf fhytPr;rpDs; Gtpapy; Rw;Nwhl;lkhfr; nry;Yk;. mjpf Neuk;
Rw;Nwhl;l khfr; nry;Yk; ,t;ntg;gk; fhuzkhf Gtpapd; ntg;gepiy caUtNj ,jd;
,Wjp tpisthf mikAk;.
ifj;njhopy; tpUj;jpAld; $lNt kdpjd; nra;Ak; gy;NtW ifj;njhopw; nraw;ghLfs;

fhuzkhfg; gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd; fl;likg;G gbg;gbahf mjpfupj;Jr; nry;fpd;wJ.
,J ifj;njhopw; Gul;rpAld; Muk;gpj;J ,uz;lhk; cyf Aj;jj;jpd; gpd;du; Vw;gl;l
ifj;njhopy; kWkyu;r;rpAld; $lNt Jupjkhf mjpfupj;jJ.
70
ifj;njhopw;Gul;rpf;F Kd;dUk; jw;fhyj;jpYk; gr;irtPlL
ml;ltiz - 1.6: ; thAf;f-
spd; fl;likg;G NtWghLfs;
thA 1750 ,y; fhzg;gl;l jw;Nghija ngWkhdk;
ngWkhdk; (fdtsT rjtPjk;)
(fdtsT rjtPjk;)
CO2 0.028 0.041

CH4 0.00007 0.00018
N2O 0.000027 0.0000318
Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s mad;Nru; IjNuhf;fhgd; 0 0.00000000533
Nkw; g b ml; l tizapd; g b> rfy gpujhd gr; i rtP l ; L thAf; f sJk; rj
tP j k; kpfkpf mjpfupj; J s; s ikiaf; fhz Kbfpd; w J. Gtpapd; tspkz; l y-
j; j py; cs; s eP u htp apd; msT FWfpa fhyuP j papYk; Gtpapaw; fhuzp
fSf; F Vw; g Tk; > NtW thdpiyf; fhuzpfSf; F mikthfTk; NtWgl; l
NghjpYk; ePz;lfhy uPjpapy; fUJk; NghJ
Gtpapd; xl; L nkhj; j eP u htpapd; msT
khwhJ fhzg;gLk;. vdNt ePuhtpahdJ
gr;ir tPl;L thAthf ,Ue;jNghjpYk;> mJ
Nfhska ntg;gepiy caUtjpy; gq;fspg;Gr;
nra;tjpy;iy. Gtpapd; gr;irtPl;L thAf;fs;
mjpfupg;gjd; tpisthf Gtpapd; ntg;gepiy
1750 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J 0.95 nry;rpa];
ghifapdhy; cau;e;Js;sJ. ,e;j mjpfupg;G cU 1.27- Gtp ntg;gkiljypd; tpisnthd;W
1950 Mk; Mz;bd; gpd;du; ,g;ngWkhdk;
0.65 ghif nry;rpa]; Mf cs;sJ. ,jw;fika g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;tiljyhdJ>
fle;j mz;kpa rpy jrhg;jq;fspy; Jupjkhf cau;e;Js;sJ vd;g ijf; fhz Kbfp-
d;wJ.
gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd; nrwpT mjpfupj;jikf;Ff; fhuzkhfpAs;s kdpjr;

nraw;ghLfs;
fhgdPnuhl;irl;L (CO2)
rf;jpj; Njitfis <Lnra;tjw;fhf mjpfkjpfkhf capu;r;Rtl;L vupnghUs;fisj;

jfdpj;jy;> mjpfkjpfkhf epyf;fup kw;Wk; ngw;Nwhy; vupnghUs;fisj; jfdpj;jy;
Nghd;wit fhuzkhf gy kpy;ypad; Mz;Lfshf> Gtpapd; cs;Ns capu;g;gpd;wpf;
fple;j ,e;j fhgd; Njf;fq;fs; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; jfdQ; nra;ag;gl;L tspkz;lyj;-
jpy; CO2 Nru;f;fg;gl;lJ. ,t;thwhf tspkz;lyj;Jld; CO2 Nru;ff
; g;gLk; Ntfj;ijtpl>
tspkz;lyj;jpypUe;J CO2 ntspNaw;wg;gLk; Ntfk; Fiwthf ,Ug;gjd; tpisthf
tspkz;lyj;jpy; CO2 thA xd;W NrUk; epiyik Vw;gLk;.
71
NkYk;> mjpfkjpfkhf ,lk;ngWk; fhlopg;Gf; fhuzkhfj; jwpj;J tPo;j;jg;gLk; kuq;f-

spy; gy E}W Mz;L fhyk; gjpe;jpUe;j fhgd; Njf;fq;fs;> Ez;zq;fpj; jhf;fq;fs;
fhuzkhfg; gpupifaile;J> rpy Mz;L fhyj;Js; tspkz;lyj;Jld; Nru;jYk; tsp-
kz;lyj;jpy; CO2 thAr; rjtPjk; mjpfkhff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
nkNjd; (CH4)
#oypy; xOq;fpd;wp cf;Fk; Nrjdg; nghUs;fs; xd;W Nru;tjhy;> mr;Nrjdg;

nghUs;fs; fhw;wpd;wpa gw;wPupahf;fs; %yk; gpupf;fg;gLtjdhy; nkNjd; thA cw;gj;-
jpahFk;. efuf; fopTfisg; ghupa Ftpay;fshff; Ftpj;J itj;jYk; mjpfkhf nkNjd;
cw;gj;jpahff; fhuzkhFk;. NkYk; rJg;G epyq;fs; kw;Wk; ePu; rhu;e;j tptrhak; (new;
nra;if) fhuzkhfTk; Nrjdg; nghUs;fs; fhw;wpd;wpa epiyapy; gpupifailtjhYk;
nkNjd; cw;gj;jpahFk;.
NkYk;> khL> ML> nrk;kwp ML Nghd;w ,iukPlF ; k; tpyq;Ffspd; Fly;fspDs; jhtug;

nghUs;fs; fhw;wpd;wpa epge;jidfspd; fPo; gw;wPupahf;fspdhy; gpupf;fg;gLtjhYk; nkN-
jd; cw;gj;jpahfpd;wJ. mjw;fika> ,t;thwhd tpyq;Ffis tzpf Nehf;fj;Jf;fhf
mjpfkjpfkhf tsu;g;gJk; tspkz;lyj;Jld; mjpfkjpfkhf nkNjd; thA Nru;tjw;Ff;
fhuzkhfpd;wJ. NkYk;> gz;gLj;jh vz;nza; mfo;tpd;NghJ> mg;gz;gLj;jh vz;n-
za;g; gbTfis mz;kpf; fhzg;gLk;. ,aw;if thAthff; fhzg;gLk; nkNjd; thA
tspkz;lyj; Jld; Nru;tjhYk; tspkz;lyj;jpy; nkNjd; thAtpd; msT mjpfupf;Fk;.
iejunrhl;irl;L (N2O)
iejurd; mlq;fpAs;s Nru;itfs; kPJ gw;wPupahf;fspd; njhopw;ghL fhuzkhfNt gpu-

jhdkhf tspkz;lyj;Jld; iejunrhl;irl;L Nru;fpd;wJ. tptrhaj;jpd;NghJ gris
ahf kz;Zld; Nru;f;fg;gLk; iejurd; Nru;itfs; kPJ gw;wPupahf;fspd; njhopw;ghL
fhuzkhf N2O thA cw;gj;jpahFk;.
thAepiy myrd;Nru;e;j IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; (CFC, HFC, HCFC)
myrd;Nru;e;j IjNuhf;fhgd;fs;> typikkpf;f gr;irtPl;L thAf;fshFk;. ,tw;wpd;

typik fhgdPnuhl;irl;bYk; (CO2) gj;jhapuk; (10 000) klq;F cau;thdJ. ,jdhy;
myrd; Nru;e;j IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; tspkz;lyj;jpy; kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; fhzg;gl;l-
NghjpYk;> mtw;wpd; cau;thd typik fhuzkhf g+Nfhsk; ntg;gNkWtjpy; mit
fzprkhd gq;fspg;igr; nra;fpd;wd.
myrd;Nru;e;j IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; ,aw;ifapy; kpfkpff; FiwthfNt cs;sd. g+Nfhs

ntg;gk; cau;tjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; myrd;Nru; Nru;itfs; tUkhW:
(1) FNshNuhGNshNuh fhgd; (CFC)
(2) IjNuhFNshNuhGNshNuh fhgd; (HCFC)
(3) IjNuhGNshNuh fhgd; (HFC)
72
HCFC 22 HCFC 123 HFC 32 HFC 134 a

cU 1.28 - myrd;rhu; IjNuhfhgd; %yf;$Wfs; rpy
,e;j %d;W Nru;it tiffSk; kdpjdhy; njhFf;fg;gLk; Nru;itfshFk;. ,it> tspg;

gjdhf;fpfspYk; FspNuw;wpfspYk; Fspu;j;Jk; thAf;fshfg; gad;gLfpd;wd. Ez;Lis
nfhz;l gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpapd;NghJ nghq;fr; nra;Ak; thAthfTk;> gPilnfhy;yp
kw;Wk; rptpWk; tif thridj; jputpar; rhbfspy; rptpwp thAf;fshfTk; gad;gLfpd;wd.
Nkw;gb cgfuzq;fisg; gOJghu;f;Fk; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; fopj;njhJf;Fk; re;ju;g;gq;f-
spYk; ,t;thAf;fs; topkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;. tspkz;lyj;jpy; ,tw;wpd; MAl;fhyk;
gy E}W Mz;LfshFk;.
g+Nfhs ntg;gk; mjpfupg;gjhy; Vw;gLk; ghjfkhd tpisTfs;
• g+Nfhs ntg; g k; cau; t jhy; > JUtq; fis mz; k pj; j gpuNjrq; f spy;
cs;s gdpf;fl;Lg; gilfSk; cau khd kiyg; gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s gdpf;fl;b
kiyfSk; (mjhtJ fpNsrpau;fSk;) (glaciers) cUFtJ fhuzkhfTk; cau; ntg;g
epiy fhuzkhf rKj;jpu ePu; tpuptiltjd; tpisthf Tk; fiuNahuj; jho;epyg;
gpuNjrq;fs; (gq;fshNj\; ehl;by; fq;if ejp - gpuk;Gj;jpuh ejpfspd; fopKfKk;> tpal;
ehk; ehl;L kPf;nfhd; f o p K f K k ; ) .
rKj;jpu ePupy; %o;f ,lKz;L. ,jd;
tpisthf> FbNaw;wg; gFjpfs; mw;Wg;
Nghjy;> fiuNahur; #ow;nwhFjpfs; mop-
jy;> fly; ePu; cz;zhl;bDs; gputhfpj;jy;
fhuzkhf kz; tsk; Fd;Wjy; kw;Wk;
gapu;fs; mopTWjy; Nghd;wit epfOk;.
NkYk; khiy jPTfSk; gRgpf; rKj;jpu-
j;jpy; fhzg;gLk; rpWrpW jPT ehLfSk;
cU 1.29 - JUtq;fis mz;kpa
Vwj;jho Kw;WKOjhf ePupy; %o;Ftjhy;
gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s
cyfj; Njrg;glj;jpypUe;J mit ePqf ; ptpl gdpff; l;bg; gilfs; cUFjy;.
,lKz;L.
• g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;tjhy; nfhs;is Neha;fs; (nlq;F> vNghyh (Ebola)
Nghd;wit) mjpfkjpfkhfTk; JupjkhfTk; guTk;.
73
• Xu; Mz;by; cau; ntg;gepiy cs;s ehl;fspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupj;jy;>

Fspu;r;rpahd ehl;fspd; vz;zpf;if Fiwtiljy;> typikahd ntg;g miyfs;
(FWfpa fhyj;Js; ahNjDk; gpuNjrj;jpy; ntg;gepiy Jupjkhf mjpfupj;jy;)
mjpfkjpfkhfTk; njhlu;r;rpahfTk; Vw;gly;.
• #whtsp> NjhdhNlh (Tornadoes) Nghd;w epiyikfs; mbf;fb Vw;gLjYk;> mit
kpf typikahf cUntLj;jYk;.
• g+Nfhsk; ntg;gk; cau;tjd; fhuzkhf Mf;fpukpg;Gj; jhtuq;fSk; tpyq;FfSk;
mtw;wpd; mlu;j;jpAk; Kd;du; mit fhzg;glhj gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; ,lk;ngau;jy;.
(ghk;Gfs;> efUapu;fs; Nghd;w #oy; ntg;gf; FUjp epiyAs;s (cold blooded)
tpyq;Ffs; ngupJk; Fspu;r;rpahd gpuNjrq;fSf;F ,lk;ngau;jy;)
• cyfpd; rpy gpuNjrq;fspy; mjpf mstpy; cyu;jYk; (njw;F Mrpah> kj;jpa
Mgpupf;fh) rpy gpuNjrq;fSf;F mjpf kiotPo;r;rp fpilg;gjhy; mbf;fb jpBu;
nts;sg;ngUf;Ffs; Vw;gLjYk;.
• ePz;lfhy twl;rp Vw;glYk; FWfpa fhyj;jpy; mjpf kio fpilg;gjhy; jpBu;
nts;sg;ngUf;Ffs; mbf;fb Vw;glYk;.
cyff; fhyepiyf; Nfhyq;fs; khw;wkiljy;
cyfpd; ngUk;ghyhd kdpjr; nraw;ghLfs; Fwpj;j gpuNjrj;jpd; fhyepiyAld; njhlu;G

gl;litahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf tptrhak;> tpyq;F tsu;g;G / fhy;eil
tsu;gG
; > Rw;Wg;gazf; ifj;njhopy;> fsp / tidjw; ifj;njhopy; Nghd;wit fhyepiyf;
Nfhyq;fSld; neUq;fpa njhlu;igf; nfhz;Ls;sd. cyfpd; gy;NtW gpuNjrq;fSf;Ff;
fpilf;Fk; #upa rf;jpapd; msT NtWgLfpd;ikapdhNyNa ,f;fhyepiyf; Nfhyq;fs;
Njhd;Wfpd;wd. g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;tjd; tpisthf mr;rf;jp Rw;Nwhl;lkhf NtW
,lq;fisr; nrd;wtiltjhy; fhyepiyf; Nfhyq;fs; khw;wq;fSf;F cs;shFk;.
cupa Nghf fhyj;jpy; kio fpilf;fhik> Nghf fhyk; my;yhj fhyq;fspy; kio
fpilj;jy;> twl;rpahd fhyg;gFjpfs; Vw;gly;> Kd;du; #whtspNah NjhdhNlhNth
fhzg;glhj gpuNjrq;fspy; mit Vw;gly; Nghd;witAk; epfoyhk;.
NkYk;> ePz;lfhy twl;rp fhzg;gLtjhy; rpy gpuNjrq;fs; ghiytdkhfpg; Nghjy;>

mq;F thOk; kf;fs; NtW gpuNjrq;fis ehl NeupLjy; Nghd;w epiyikfSk;
Vw;glyhk;.
NkYk;> fhyepiyf; Nfhyq;fs; khw;wkiltjhy; kiwKfkhf ehLfSf;F ,ilNa

murpay; neUf;fbfSk; Aj;jq;fSk; Vw;glyhk;. cjhuzkhf ahNjDk; ehl;by; kf;fs;
,lk;ngau;tjd; fhuzkhf mtu;fs; mUNf mike;Js;s ehLfSf;F Gyk; ngau
Neuplyhk;. mtu;fSf;F murpay; uPjpapy; ghJfhg;G toq;Fjy;> ehLfs; rpytw;Wf;Fg;
nghJthd ejpfspd; ePupd; msT Fiwtiltjhy;> me;ePiug; gfpu;e;J nfhs;sy;
Nghd;wit njhlu;ghf murpay; neUf;fbfSk;> Aj;jq;fSk; Vw;gl ,lKz;L.
cjhuzkhf ahNjDk; ehl;L kf;fs; jhk; thOk; ,lq;fis tpl;L may; ehLfSf;Fg;
74
Gyk;ngau;tJz;L. mt;thwhNdhUf;F murpay; uPjpapy; Gfyplk; toq;Fjy; kw;Wk; rpy

ehLfSf;Fg; nghJthf ejpfspy; (iey;> gpukGj;jpuh> kPf;nfhq;) ePupd; msT Fiw-
tiltjhy; me;ePiug; gfpu;e;J nfhs;tJ njhlu;ghd murpay; neUf;fbfs; kl;Lkd;wp
Aj;jq;fs; $l epfo ,lKz;L.
g+Nfhs ntg;gk; cau;tijf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jjy; vd;gJ Xu; cyfg; nghJthd gpur;rpid

ahFk;. g+Nfhsk; ntg;gkiltjpy; Fiwthd msT gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;w> mgptpUj;jp
aile;J tUk; kw;Wk; FiwtpUj;jpaile;Js;s ehLfNs g+Nfhs ntg;gkiljypd; gpu-
jhdkhf ghjpg;Gf;F cs;shfpd;wd. ,jd; tpisthf ntg;gk; cau;tijf; fl;Lg;gLj;
Jtjw;fhf cyfpd; rfy ehLfSk; mjw;Ff; fhuzkhFk;. gr;irtPl;L thAf;fspd;
ntspNaw;wj;ij ,opthf;fj; Njitahd eltbf;iffis Nkw;nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;.
,jw;fhf>
• capu;r;Rtl;L vupnghUs; jfdpg;ig tiuaiwg;gLj;jp khw;W vupnghUs;fs; Fwp
j;Jf; ftdQ; nrYj;JtJ ,jw;fhd xU khw;Wj; jPu;T topahFk;. kpfr; rpwe;j
khw;W top #upa rf;jpiag; gad;gLj;JjyhFk;. mj;NjhL> fhw;Wr;rf;jp> fUr;
rf;jp Nghd;w tw;iwAk; gad;gLj;jyhk;. NkYk; jw;NghJ fhzg;gLk; ,ae;jpNuhg-
fuzq;fs; nghwpfis ,w;iwg;gLj;jp (update) mtw;wpd; vupnghUs; tpidj;jpwid
mjpfupf;fyhk;.
• NkYk;> vupnghUs;fshf> capu;r;Rtl;L vupnghUs;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf kPsg; gpwg;
gpf;ff; $ba tY rf;jp %yq;fshfpa vjNdhy;> capupa Bry; Nghd;wtw;iwg;
gad;gLj;JtJ nghUj;jkhdJ. ,t;thwhd capupa Briyg; gad;gLj;Jtjhy;
tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk; J}a fhgdpd; msT g+r;rpakhFk;.
• vspikahd tho;f;iff; Nfhyj;ijg; gof;fg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjd; %yk; Mlk;gu
RfNghf tho;fi
; ff;Fj; Njitg;gLk; mjp cau;thd tYrf;jpf; Nfs;tpia ,opthf;
fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
• fhlopj;jiy ,opthf;fy;> jhtuq;fs; el;L tsu;j;jy;> kuj;jsghlq;fs;> tpwF>
fhfpjk; Nghd;wtw;Wf;fhd %yg;nghUs; ngWtjw;fhf fhLfis mopg;gjw;Fg;
gjpyhf Jupj tsu;r;rpAs;s> el;L tsu;j;j kuq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
• fopTg;nghUs;fis Kiwaw;w topfspy; ntspNaw;Wtjw;Fg; gjpyhf mtw;iw
ed;F Kfhik nra;J ntspNaw;Wtjhy; tspkz;lyj;jpy; nkNjd; thA Nru;tij
,opthf;fyhk;.
• Cd; cz;Ztij ,ad;w msTf;Ff; Fiwj;J Cdw;w czTfis cz;zg;
gof;fpf; nfhs;tjhy; ,iwr;rpf;fhf khL> ML> nrk;kwp ML Nghd;w gz;iz
tpyq;Ffs; tsu;g;gij ,opthf;fyhk;.
• ,urhadg; grisfSf;Fg; gjpyhf $l;nlUitg; gad;gLj;jpg; gapu;r;nra;if
nra;tjhy; tspkz;lyj;jpy; N2O tpLtpf;fg;gLtij ,opthf;fyhk;.
• tsp gjdhf;fpfisAk; FspNuw;wpfisAk; ,ad;wsT Fiwthfg; gad;gLj;JjYk;>
FspNuw;Wk; thAf;fshff; FspNuw;wpfspy; gad;gLfpd;w typikahd gr;irtPl;L
thAf;fshd CFC, HCFC Nghd;w thAf;fSf;Fg; gjpyhf typik Fiwthd HFO
(Hydrofluoroolefines) kw;Wk; INrhgpAl;Nld;(R600a), mNkhdpah Nghd;w FspNuw;wp
thAf;fisg; gad;gLj;JtJ nghUj;jkhdJ.
75
1.13.3 XNrhd; gil Nja;tiljy;
vkJ Gtpapy; epfOk; vy;yhr; nrad;KiwfSf;Fk; Njitahd rf;jpiar; #upaNd

toq;Ffpd;wJ. rf;jp Xuplj;jpypUe;J kw;WNkhuplj;Jf;Fr; nry;Yk; %d;W Kiwfs;
cs;sd. flj;jy;> Nkw;fhTif> fjpu;g;G MfpadNt mitahFk;. ,tw;Ws; flj;jy;>
Nkw;fhTif Mfpa Kiwfs; %yk; rf;jp CLflj;jg;gLtjw;F Clfnkhd;W ,Ug;gJ
mtrpakhFk;. vdpDk; fjpu;g;G Kiwapy; rf;jp CLflj;jg;gLtjw;F Clfnkhd;W
Njitg;gLtjpy;iy. vkJ Qhapw;Wj;njhFjpapy; #upaDf;Fk; Nfhs;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa
ntWk; ntspNa (ntw;wplNk) fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf> #upadpy; ,Ue;J
Gtpf;Ff; flj;jy; Nkw;fhTif Mfpa topfspy; rf;jp CLflj;jg;gLtjw;fhd vt;tpj
rhj;jpaKk; fpilahJ. vdNt #upa rf;jpahdJ> mJ CLflj;jg;gLtjw;F Clfnk-
JTk; Njitg;glhj fjpu;g;G KiwapNyNa Gtpia milAk;. #upadpy; ,Ue;J vkJ
Gtpf;Fr; rf;jpiaf; nfhz;L tUk; fjpu;g;Gfs; kpd;fhe;j miyfs; vdg;gLk;.
kpd;fhe;j miyfs; mtw;wpy; mlq;fpAs;s rf;jpf;Nfw;g tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. mjw;

fika X fjpu;fs;> fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs;> fl;GydhF fjpu;fs;> nrq;fo
P f
; ; fjpu;fs;> Ez;zi-
yf; fjpu;fs;> thndhyp miyf; fjpu;fs; vd;wthW mit tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd.
ntt;NtW kpdf ; he;j miy tiffspd; ,ay;Gfs; fPNo ml;ltizapy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz - 1.7: kpd;fhe;j miyfspd; ,ay;Gfs;
kpd;fhe;j miy ,ilmiy ePsk; ,il kPbwd; / ,ilr;rf;jp /

s-1 kJ mol-1
thndhyp miy 1 cm 3 × 1010 1.2 × 10-2

Ez;ziy 1 mm 3 × 1011 1.2 × 10-1
nrq;fPo; miy 10 µm 3 × 1013 12
fl;GydhF miy 500 nm 6 × 1014 240
fopa+jh miy 250 nm 1.2 × 1015 479
X fjpu; 1nm 6 × 1017 1.2 × 105
,tw;Ws; X fjpu;fs;> fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs; Mfpatw;wpd; rf;jp kpf cau;thdjhifahy;>

mf;fjpu;fSf;F Mshtjhy; vkJ clypy; cs;s capu; %yf;$Wfspy; ,urhad
khw;wq;fs; epfOk;. vdNt vkJ clypy; cs;s njhopw;gLk; caupa %yf;$Wfshfpa
DNA, RNA kw;Wk; Guj (nehjpa) %yf;$Wfspy; mikg;G rhu;e;j khw;wq;fis Vw;gL-
j;Jtjd; %yk; mtw;wpd; njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fj; jlq;fy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jd; tpisthf
vkJ clypy; gy;NtW tifahd rpf;fyhd NfhshWfs; Vw;gLk;. mt;thwhd rpf;fyhd
NfhshWfs; njhlu;ghfg; gpd;du; tpupthf Nehf;fTs;Nshk;.
#upadpypUe;J vkJ Gtpf;F gpujhdkhf fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs;> fl;GydhF fjpu;fs; kw;Wk;

nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fshfNt rf;jp fpilf;fpd;wJ. ,f;fjpu;fSs; fl;GydhF fjpu;fSk;
nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fSk; rf;jp Fiwthditahjyhy; mf;fjpu;fSf;F Mshtjhy; vk-
f;Fk; ghjpg;Gf;fs; Vw;glkhl;lhJ. kpd;fhe;jj; jpUrpaj;jpy; vkJ fz;fshy; GyDzu;r;rp
76
ngwf; $ba xt;nthU tiff; fjpu;> fl;GydhF fjpu;fshtNjhL mit vkf;F fz;-
ghu;it fpilf;fj; JizahFk;. NkYk; ntJntJg;ig czu;tjd; %yNk ehk;
nrq;fPo;f; fjpu;fSf;F czu; jpwidf; fhl;Lfpd;Nwhk;.
Gtpia milAk; #upaf; fjpu;fspd; jd;ikAk; nrwpTk; fPNo glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.

mt;tifg;glj;jpd;gb Gtpapd; tspkz;lyj;jpd; Nky; vy;iyia milAk; #upa
rf;jpapd; fzprkhd gFjp Gtp Nkw;gug;ig mila Kd;du; ePq;fpAs;sJ vd;gijf;
fhz Kbfpd;wJ.
NkYk;> Gtpapd; tspkz;lyj;ij milAk; fopa+jh (UV) fjpu;fspd; ngUk;gFjp Gtp

Nkw;gug;ig mila Kd;du; ePq;fpr; nrd;Ws;sikiaAk; glj;ij mtjhdpf;Fk;NghJ
fhzKbfpd;wJ.
,J vt;thW epfOfpd;wJ. #upaf; fjpu;fs; Gtpapd; tspkz;lyj;Jf;F Clhf Gtp

Nkw;gug;ig Nehf;fp tUk;NghJ tspkz;lyj;jpd; Nkw;gFjpg; gilfspy; cs;s thA
%yf;$Wfshy; mf;fjpu;fs; cwpQ;rg;gLjtjd; tpisthfNt ,J epfOfpd;wJ.
#upaf; fjpu;g;G Gtpia miljy;
,ilr;rf;jp UV
jho; rf;jp UV kw;Wk;
mjprf;jp UV
fl;GydhF fjpu;fs;
,il kz;lyk;
gil kz;lyk;
khwd;
kz;lyk;
fly; kl;lk;
Gtp
cU 1.30 - tspkz;lyj;jpd; gilaikg;Gk;

mg;gilfspd; Clhfr; #upaf; fjpu;g;G nry;yYk;
tspkz;lyj;jpd; gilaikg;G
Gtpapd; tspkz;lyf; fw;ifia ,yFgLj;Jtjw;fhf> mJ rpy gilfshf tFj;J

Nehf; f g; g Lfpd; w J. mg; g puNjrq; f spy; ntg; g epiy khwYf; N fw; g thAf; f spd;
mlu;j;jpiaf; ftdj;jpw; nfhz;Nl ,g;gilfs; gpupj;Jf; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.
77
khwd; kz;lyk;:- GtpNkw;gug;gpypUe;J Nky; Nehf;fp Vwj;jho 15 fpNyhkPw;wu; tiu

apyhd gpuNjrj;jpy; guk;gpAs;sJ. GtpapdJ tspkz;ly thAf;f-
spd; ngUk;gFjp (Vwj;jho 99%) ,g;gpuNjrj;jpNyNa cs;sJ.
GtpNkw; gug;gpypUe;J NkNy nry;yr; nry;y ntg;gepiy Fiw-
tilAk;.
gil kz;lyk;:- GtpNkw;gug;gpypUe;J 15 km ,w;Fk; 50 km ,w;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l gpuN-

jrNk gil kz;lyk; MFk;. ,g;gilapy; thAr; rjtPjk; kpff;
FiwthdJ. ,q;F NkNy nry;yr; nry;y ntg;gepiy mjpfup-
f;Fk;.
,il kz;lyk;:- ,il kz;lyk; (kPNrh kz;lyk;) GtpapypUe;J 50 km ,Yk;

Nkw;gl;l gpuNjrkhFk;. ,jd; thA mlf;fk; kpfkpff; FiwthdJ.
ntg;gepiy cau;thdJ.
XNrhd; gil:- gil kz;lyj;jpy; mike;Js;s Xu; cg tyaNk XNrhd; tpjhdk;/

XNrhd; gil vdg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j tpjhdk; GtpNkw;gug;gpypUe;J
20 km njhlf;fk; 35 km tiuapyhd gpuNjrj;jpy; guk;gpAs;sJ.
Gtpapy; ,aw;ifahff; fhzg;gLk; XNrhd; thAtpd; ngUk;gFjp
(Vwj;jho 95%) ,g;gpuNjrj;jpy; fhzg;gLfpd;wikapdhNyNa ,J
XNrhd; gil vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
35
30
gil kz;ly
25 XNrhd; gil XNrhd;
20
15
10 tsp khriljyhy; khwd; kz;ly

XNrhd; Njhd;Wjy; XNrhd;
5
0
XNrhd; nrwpT
cU 1.31 - XNrhd; tpjhdKk; tspkz;ly gilaikg;Gk;
,g;gil kz;lyj;jpy; XNrhd; gil tyaj;jpy; XNrhd; thAtpd; ,Ug;Gf;fhf #upadpy;
,Ue;J fpilf;Fk; fopa+jhf; fjpu;fspd; ngUk;gFjp nrythfpd;wJ. ,jd; tpisthf
#upadpypUe;J ntspg;gLk; ghjfkhd fopa+jhf; fjpu;fspd; ngUk;gFjp Gtp Nkw;gug;ig
miltJ jtpu;ff ; g;gLfpwJ. kw;WnkhU tpjkhff; $Wtjhapd; XNrhd; gilahdJ ,e;j
mjpf rf;jp nfhz;l fopa+jhf; fjpu;fis tbfl;Lk; xU tbfl;b Nghd;W njhopw;gl;L
mf;fjpu;fSf;F ehk; MshfhJ ghJfhg;G toq;Ffpd;wJ. Gtpapy; capupd; ,Ug;Gf;F
mj;jpahtrpakhd ePu; fhzg;gLjy;> rpwg;ghd ntg;gepiy fhzg;gLjy; Mfpa tplaq;fs;
78
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWtJ Nghd;Nw ,e;jj; Njhw;wg;ghLk; capupd; ,Ug;Gf;Fj; Jizah-

Fk; xU nrad;KiwahFk;.
XNrhd; gilapd; njhopw;ghL
#upadpypUe;J fpilf;Fk; mjpf rf;jp nfhz;l fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs; gil kz;lyj;ij

milAk;NghJ mit xl;rprd; thAitg; gpupifailar; nra;J RahjPd xl;rprid
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
hv
O2(g) O(g) + O(g) ∆ H > 0 ------------ (1)
,t;thW cw;gj;jpahFk; mZepiy xl;rprd; jhf;fj;jpwd; $baitahjyhy;> kw;WNkhu;

xl;rprd; %yf;$Wld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J XNrhid cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.

O2(g) + O(g) O3(g) ∆ H < 0 ------------ (2)
XNrhd; thA Xu; cWjpaw;w thA Mjyhy; mJ UV fjpu;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; gpupif

aile;J O2 Mf khWk;. hv
O3(g) O2(g) + O(g) ∆ H > 0 ------------ (3)

O3(g) + O(g) 2O2(g) ∆ H < 0 ------------ (4)
(1) + (2) × 2, 3O2(g) 2O3(g) ; O3 cUthjy;.
(3) + (4), 2O3(g) 3O2(g) ; O3 ciljy;.
XNrhd; tpjhdj;jpy; ,t;thwhf XNrhd; cilAk; kw;Wk; cUthFk; Ntfq;fs; rkkhFk;

NghJ (,af;fr; rkdpiyia mile;J) khwhj msT O3 ,g;gpuNjrj;jpy; itj;jpUf;f-
g;gLk;. mjhtJ XNrhd; tpjhdj;jpy; gpd;tUk; rkdpiyj;jhf;fk; epfOk;.
2O3(g) 3O2(g)
,r;rkdpiyiag; NgZtjw;fhf #upadpy; ,Ue;J fpilf;Fk; fjpu;fs; Njitg;gL

fpd;wikahy;> ghjfkhf mf;fjpu;fs; Gtp Nkw;gug;ig te;jiltJ jtpu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
XNrhd; gil Nja;tiljy; / nghyptopjy;
XNrhd; gilapy; fhzg;gLk; XNrhd; kl;lj;ij msf;Fk; gzpfs; 1950 Mk; Mz;L
kl;bypUe;J thdpiy mtjhd gY}d;fspd; JizAld; njhlu;r;rpahf Kd;ndLf;f-
g;gl;ld. mt;thW msf;Fk; gzpfs; eilngw;Wf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; 1970
fspd; eLg;gFjp njhlf;fk; XNrhd; tpjhdj;jpy; XNrhd; kl;lk; Mz;L NjhWk; Fiw-
tile;J nry;fpd;wik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ.
79
nghJthf XNrhd; gilapd; XNrhd; kl;lk; ehs;NjhWk; khwhJ fhzg;gLtjpy;iy.

#oy; ntg;gepiy khw;wq;fs;> gUtfhy khw;wq;fs; Gtpapay; fhuzpfs; Nghd;wit
fhuzkhf mJ XusTf;F NtWgLk;. vdpDk; mJ Mz;LNjhWk; gbg;gbahff; Fiw
tjpy;iy. ,t;thwhf XNrhd; kl;lk; njhlu;r;rpahff; FiwtiljyhdJ XNrhd; gil
Nja;tiljy; (Ozone layer depletion) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhf XNrhd; gil Nja;til-
jyhdJ kpfg; ghuJ}ukhd xU #ow; gpur;rpidahFk;.
XNrhd; gilapd; ,Ug;ghdJ ghjfkhd fopa+jhf; fjpuf

; s; GtpNkw;gug;ig te;jiltijj;
jLf;fpd;wJ. mjhtJ Nkw;gpuNjrj;jpy; XNrhdpd; msT Fiwtiltjd; tpisthfg;
ghjfkhd UV fjpu;fs; mjpfkjpfkhfg; GtpNkw;gug;ig te;jilAk;. mjd; tpisthf
Gtpapay; tho;Nthu; ghjfkhd ,e;j UV fjpu;fSf;F Mshtjhy; gy;NtW rpf;fyhd
NfhshWfSf;F Mshf NeupLk;.
XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tilaf; fhuzkhFk; tplaq;fs;
XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltjpy; ,aw;iff; fhuzq;fs; kl;Lkd;wp kdpjdpd; nraw;gh-

Lfs; rhu;e;j fhuzq;fSk; gq;fspf;fpd;wd. mtw;Ws; ,aw;ifahd fhuzq;fs; jw;f-
hypfkhdit ahtNjhL> ,t;thW FWfpa fhyj;Js; epfOk; Nja;T kPz;L ,ay;G
epiyia milAk;. typikahd vupkiy ntbg;Gfs; fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;jpy;
NrUk; ry;gu; mlq;fpa Nru;itfs; XNrhd; giliag; ghjpf;Fk;. ,J XNrhd; tpjhdk;
Nja;tiltjpy; nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; Xu; ,aw;ifr; nraw;ghlhFk;.
XNrhd; gil tpjhdj;jpy; ghuJ}ukhd kw;Wk; kPshj ghjpg;G kdpjdhNyNa Vw;gLj;-

jg;gLfpd;wJ. kdpjdhy; tspkz;lyj;jpy; Nru;f;fg;gLk; vspjpyhtpahFk; Nru;itfs;
,jw;fhd fhuzkhFk;. mjw;fhd rpy cjhuzq;fs; tUkhW:
(1) FNshNuhGNshNuhfhgd; (chtorofluorocarbon)
,J jtpu GNuhkPd; m lq;fpAs;s vspjpyhtpahFk; N ru;itfSk;

(bromofluorocarbon) kiwKfkhf mjhtJ Neubahfty;yhJ XNrhd; tpjhdj;
Nja;Tf;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
(2) cauj;Nj tspkz;lyj;Jf;F mz;ikapy; gazpf;Fk; tpkhdq;fshy; ntsp
aplg;gLk; iej;jpupf; xl;irl;L (NO) thAk; XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltjpy;
nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk;.
XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; gpujhd Nru;itf; $l;lk;
FNshNuh GNshNuh fhgd; MFk;. FNshNuh GNshNuh fhgd; vd;gJ fhgd; mZ
xd;iw my;yJ ,uz;ilf; nfhz;l IjNuhf;fhgd;fspd; ngWjpfshFk;. ,e;j IjNuhf;
fhgd;fspy; cs;s rfy H mZf;fSk; FNshuPd; kw;Wk; GNshuPd; mZf;fshy;
gpujpaPL nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd.
80
Freon 12 Freon 11 Freon 113 Freon 115
cU 1.32 - rpy CFC %yf;$WfSk; mtw;wpd; ifj;njhopw;ngau;fSk;
,e;j CFC Nru;itfs; Kw;W KOjhfj; njhFf;fg;gl;l Nru;itfshFk;. mjhtJ mit

,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLtjpy;iy. CFC gpujhdkhff; ifj;njhopy; Jiwapy; gpd;tUtd
tw;Wf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
(1) tsp gjdhf;fpfspYk; FspNuw;wpfspYk; Fspu;e;Jk; thAthfg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
(2) thridj; jputpaf; ifj;njhopypy; cau; mKf;fj;Jf;F cl;gLj;Jk; rptpwg;gLk;
(spray) thridj;jputpak; Nghj;jy;fspy; rptpwg; gjhu;j;jkhfg; (rptpwp fhtpahfg;)
gad;gLfpd;wJ.
(3) gpshj;jpfF
; f; ifj;njhopypy; Fwpjj
; cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fspy; Ez;Lisj; jd;ikia
Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhfg; nghq;F fUtpahfg; (blowing agent) gad;gLfpdw; J. (cjhuzk;:-
nu[pNghk;> jOtiz - cussion, nkj;ij)
(4) NkYk; GNuhkPd; mlq;fpAs;s Nru;itfs; J}kkhf;fypYk; (bromofluorocarbon)
jPaizf;fUtpfspYk; gad;gLk;.
CFC ck; Vida Nru;itfSk; XNrhd; tpjhdj;ij Nja;Twr; nra;Ak; tpjk;

Nkw;gb ve;jr; Nru;itahapDk; XNrhDld; Neubahfj; jhf;fk; Gupakhl;lhJ vd;gij
ehk; kdjpypUj;jpf; nfhs;sy; Ntz;Lk;. Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l CFC Nru;itfs; kpf cWjpahd
Nru;itfshtNjhL mit ntg;gg; gpupiff;Fk; capupa gpupe;jopiff;Fk; vjpu;g;Gj;
jd;ikAilaitahifahy; Mtpahf khwp tspkz;lyj;jpd; Nkw;gFjpf;F mjhtJ XN-
rhd; tpjhdk; fhzg;gLk; gil kz;lyj;ij mila KbAk;. ,t;thwhf ,r;Nru; itfs;
XNrhd; tpjhdg; gpuNjrj;ij milj;j gpd;du; fPo; tspkz;lyj;jpy; fhzf; fpilf;fhj
vdpDk; Nky; tspkz;lyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; mjpf rf;jpAs;s fopa+jhf; fjpu;fspd; jhf;f
j;jpw;F MshFk;. ,t;thwhf cau; rf;jp nfhz;l fopa+jhf; fjpu;fspd; jhf;fj;jpw;F
Mshtjhy; mr;Nru;it fspd; C - Cl gpizg;G $l;lw; gpupifaile;J RahjPd
%ypfq;fisj; ($l;lq;fisj;) Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. ,e;j RahjPd %ypfq;fs; XNrhDld;
jhf;fk; GupAk;. ,e;jRahjPd %ypfq;fs; XNrhd; cilTj; jhf;fj;ij Cf;Ftjd;
%yk; XNrhd; ciltijj; Jupjg;gLj;Jk;. mjd; tpisthf XNrhd; cilAk; ,aw;
ifr; nrad;Kiwf;F Nkyjpfkhf NkYnkhU cilTr; nrad;Kiw Nru;tjhy; XNrhd;
Njhd;Wk; nrad;KiwapYk; ghu;f;f XNrhd; cilAk; nrad;Kiwapd; Ntfk; mjpfupg;
gjdhy; XNrhd; tpjhdj;jpy; cs;s XNrhd; Nja;tilAk;. ,jidg; gpd;tUkhW rpy
vspa rkd;ghLfs; %yk; fhl;lyhk;.
81
●
Cl RahjPd %ypfq;fs; O3 cld; jhf;fk; Gupjy;.
● ●
Cl(g) + O3(g) O2(g) + O Cl ---------- (1)
,t;thW Njhd;wpa RahjPd %ypfq;fs; %d;W mZf;fshyhd %yf;$nwh-

d;Wld; ,ize;J kPz;Lk; RahjPd %ypfq;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
●
O3(g) O2(g) + O(g)
---------- (2)
---------- (3)
(1) + (2) + (3),
2O3(g) 3O2(g)
RahjPd %ypfnkhd;wpdhy; O3 %yf;$nwhd;W gpupf;fg;gl;l gpd;du; RahjPd

%ypfk; mopahJ kPsj; Njhd;wpAs;sJ vd;gJ ,jpypUe;J njspthfpd;wJ.
mjhtJ ,e;j RahjPd %ypfk; kw;WnkhU jhf;fj;jpd; %yk; mope;J nry;Yk;

tiuapy; ngUe;njhifahd O3 %yf;$Wfis mJ mopf;Fk;. mjhtJ RahjPd
%ypfk; O3 ,id cilg;gjw;fhd Cf;fpahfj; njhopw;gl;Ls;sJ.
XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltjhy; Vw;gLk; ghjfkhd tpisTfs;
#upadpypUe;J tUk; ghjfkhd mjpf rf;jp nfhz;l fopa+jhf; fjpu;fs;> mjpf

nrwpTld; GtpNkw;gug;ig miljNy XNrhd; gil Nja;tiltjdhy; Vw;gLk; ghjfkhd
tpisthFk;. XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tila Kd;du; Gtp Nkw;gug;ig mile;j UV
fjpu;fis tpl mjpfkhd msTf;F cau; rf;jp nfhz;l UV fjpu;fs;> XNrhd; tpjhdk;
Nja;tile;j gpd;du; Gtpia te;jilAk;. mjd; tpisthf Gtpapy; thOk; mq;fpfs;
ghjfkhd cau; rf;jp nfhz;l UV fjpu;fspd; jhf;fj;jpw;F mjpf mstpy; Mshtjhy;>
me;j UV fjpu;fshy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; jhf;fq;fSf;F mjpf mstpy; Mshtu;.
mt;thwhf Vw;gLk; ghjfkhd tpisTfs; tUkhW:
(1) Njhypy; Gw;WNeha;fs; Vw;gLk;.
UV fjpu;fspd; kpf caupa rf;jp fhuzkhf mtw;Wf;F Mshtjhy; Njhiy
mz;kpa fyq;fspy; cs;s DNA Nghd;w %yf;$Wfspy; mikg;G uPjpahd
khw;wq;fs; epfOk;. UV fjpu;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; ,e;j ngupa %yf;$Wfspy;
cs;s Ijurd; gpizg;Gfs; cile;J kPz;Lk; NtW tpjkhf xOq;fiktjhy;
,J epfOk;. ,t;thwhf ,e;j %yf;$Wfspy; epfOk; tpfhuq;fs; fhuzkhf>
Gw;WNeha;f; fyq;fs; Njhd;wp mit Njhypd; kPJ Jupjkhfg; ngUfpg; guTtjhy;
Gw;WNeha; epiyik Vw;gLk;.
(2) fz;zpy; ntz;glyk; (Giu / fl;fhrk;) Njhd;Wjy;.
DNA kl;Lkd;wp GujKk; Ijurd; gpizg;Gfs; %yk; jkJ mikg;igg; Ngzp
tUk;. UV fjpu;fs; fhuzkhf ,g;gpizg;Gfs; ciltjhy; mg;gpuNjrq;fspd;
mikg;G khw;wkilAk;. fz;zpy; ghu;itf;Fj; JizahFk; fz; tpy;iy xsp-
CL GftpLk; jd;ikAs;s jput epiyg; Gujj;jhyhdJ. UV fjpu;fs; fhuzkhf
fz;tpyi
; yfspy; cs;s Gujj;jpd; mikg;G khw;wj;Jf;F cs;shfp> mjd; xspCL
82
GftpLjd;ik gbg;gbahff; FiwtiltNj fz;zpy; nts;is glu;jy; vdg;gL

fpd;wJ. (cjhuzkhf: epwkw;w Kl;il ntz;fUit ntg;gNkw;Wk; NghJ mJ
nts;is epwkhf khWtjw;fhd fhuzk;> Kl;il ntz;fUtpy; cs;s my;Gkpd;
Gujj;jpd; mikg;G khw;wkiljyhFk;.) ,t;thwhf fz;zpy; nts;is glu;jyh
dJ kdpjupy; kl;Lkd;wp jpwe;j ntspapy; mjpf Neuk; rQ;rupf;Fk; khLfs;>
MLfs; Nghd;w tpyq;FfspYk; Vw;gLk;.
(3) NkYk;> Nkyjpf UV fjpu;fspd; jhf;fj;Jf;F cs;shtjhy;> jhtuq;fspy; guk;-
giu ayF tpfhuq;fisf; nfhz;l jhtuq;fs; Njhd;wyhk;. (Fws; jhtuq;fs;>
,iyfs; tpfhukile;j jhtuq;fs; Nghd;wit.)
(4) epwg;nghUs;fs; ntspWtjhy; cilfspd; / Jzpfspd; juk; Fiwtiljy;.

(5) ,wg;gu; %yf;$WfSld; XNrhd; jhf;fk; Gupe;J ,wg;gu;r; rq;fpypfs; ePsj;ijf;
Fiwtilar; nra;Ak;. ,t;thW ,wg;gu;r; rq;fpypfs; FWtjhy; ,wg;gu;g; ghtidg;
nghUs;fspd; MAl;fhyk; FiwtilAk;.
XNrhd; tpjhdj;ijg; ghJfhg;gjw;fhff; ifahsj;jf;f nraw;ghLfs;
jw;fhyj;jpy; epfo;e;J tUk; tPjj;jpNyNa XNrhd; gil / tpjhdk; Nja;tile;J nry;Y

khapd;> NkYk; xU rpy jrhg;j fhyk; fopAk;NghJ vkJ Gtp> capupd; ,Ug;Gf;Fg; nghU
j;jkw;w xU ,lkhf khwptpLk;. kw;WnkhU tpjkhff; $Wtjhapd;> fz;zpy; nts;is
glu;e;NjhUk; Njhy; Gw;WNeha;f;F MfpNahUk; ngUe;njhifahff; fhzg;gLtu;.
vdNt XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tilAk; tPjj;ijf; Fiwg;gjw;fhf tpiuthf eltb-

f;if vLg;gJ mtrpakhFk;. XNrhd; tpjhdj;ijj; jhf;fp Nja;Twr; nra;Ak; gpujhd-
khd fhuzp CFC Mifahy; mt;thAit cw;gj;jp nra;jiyAk; kw;Wk; gad;ghl;
ilAk; epWj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;fhf Vw;fdNt eltbf;iffs; vLf;fg;gl;Ls;sNjhL>
nkhd;l;upay; ,zf;fg;ghl;bd; (Montreal Convention) %yk; CFC cw;gj;jp 1996 ,y; epW-
j;jg;gl;lJ. CFC gad;gLj;jg;gl;l ifj;njhopy; eltbf;iffSf;fhfj; jw;NghJ NtW
khw;W thAf;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
CFC ,w;Fg; gjpyhf Kjypy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l khw;W thA HCFC ( Hydrochloro fluro
canbon - IjNuh FNshNuh GNshNuh fhgd;) MFk;.
HCFC %yf;$W ngUksTf;F CFC %yf;$iw xj;jjhf ,Ug;gNjhL> FNshuPd;> GN-

shuPd; mZf;fSld; Ijurd; mZnthd;Wk; fhzg;gLtJ mtw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd
NtWghlhFk;.
HCFC 22 HCFC 123 HFC 32 HFC 134 a

(a) (b) (c) (d)
cU 1.33 - (a), (b) HCFC %yf;$Wfs; rpy. (c), (d) HFC %yf;$Wfs; rpy.
83
,e;j %yf;$Wfspy; fhzg;gLk; C - H gpizg;G fPo; tspkz;lyj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;

rhu;gstpy; rf;jp Fiwthd #upaf; fjpu;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; gpupifailAk;. ,jd;
tpisthf ,r; Nru;itapd; fzprkhd gFjp XNrhd; tpjhdg; gpuNjrj;ij vl;l Kd;-
du; gpupifaile;J tpLk;. vdpDk; cau; vspjpyhtpahFk; jd;ik fhuzkhf ,t;thA
tpdhy; gil kz;lyj;ij mila KbtNjhL mt;thW XNrhd; tpjhdk; gpuNjrj;ij
milAkhapd; C - Cl gpizg;ghdJ cau; rf;jp UV fjpu;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; gpupi-
faile;J RahjPd %yfq;fis cw;gj;jp nra;J> XNrhd; tpjhdj;ijj; jhf;Fk;
Mw;wiyf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltijj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhd khw;W
thAthfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; thA HFC - IjNuh GNshNuh fhgd; MFk;. (cjhuzk;:-
HFC %yf;$Wfspy; rpy). HFC ,y; Cl mZf;fs; fpilahJ. mjpy; F, H khj;jpuNk
cz;L. H mZf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wikahy; mjd; cWjpepiy FiwtiltNjhL>
(HCFC ,w;Nghd;W) Cl mZ ,y;iyahjyhy; Nky; tspkz;lyj;jpy; Cl RahjPd %yp-
fq;fs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag; gLtjpy;iy. vdNt HFC apdhy; XNrhd; tpjhdj;Jf;F vt;
tpj ghjpg;Gk; Vw;gLtjpy;iy. ,jd; tpisthfj; jw;NghJ cyfpy; tspgjdhf;fpfspYk;
FspNuw;wpdspYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Fspu;j;jy; thA HFC (HFC 134a) MFk;.
Fwpg;G:- ,e;j HFC thA XNrhd; tpjhdj;jpd; kPJ vt;tpj ghjpg;igAk; Vw;gLj;jhj
NghjpYk; HFC, CFC, HCFC Mfpa vy;yh thAf;fSk; typikahd gr;irtPl;L thAf;
fshFk;. ,t;thAf;fspd; Gtp ntg;gkiljy; Mw;wy; (Global warming potential - GWP)
fhgdPnuhl;irl;L thAtpYk; Mapuk; klq;F cau;thdjhFk;.
ml;ltiz - 1.8: gr;irtPl;L thAf;fSk; mtw;wpd; typikAk; (CO2 thA rhu;ghf)
thA GWP ngWkhdk;
CO2 1
CH4 22
N2O 310
HFC 23 11 700
HFC 134 a 1 300
CFC 12 10 600
HCFC 22 1 700

,jd; fhuzkhf Nky; tspkz;lyj;jpy; ,t;thAf;fs; kpfr; rpW nrwpTfspy;(ppt) fhzg;
gl;lNghjpYk; mtw;wpdhy; g+Nfhs ntg;gkiljy; kPJ fzprkhd gq;fspg;igr; nra;a
KbAk;. vdNt HFC MdJ XNrhd; tpjhdk; Nja;tiltijj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhd xU
rpwe;j khw;W thAthf ,Ue;jNghjpYk; mJ kw;WNkhu; cyfg; gp;ur;rpidahfpa g+Nfhsk;
ntg;gkiljy; mjpfupg;gjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;wikahy; mjd; gad;ghL xU Nfs;tpf;
Fwpahf khwp As;sJ. ,jd; tpisthf XNrhd; tpjhdj;ijj; Nja;tilar; nra;ahj>
$lNt cyfk; ntg;gkiltjpy; kpff; Fiwe;j msT gq;fspg;Gr; nra;fpd;w Fspu;j;jp
thAf;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjpy; cyf kf;fs; ftdQ; nrYj;jj; njhlq;fpAs;sdu;.
84
,jw;fhf xU khw;W thAthf vspjpyhtpahFk; jd;ikAs;s IjNuhfhgd; - (R600a)

kw;Wk; tspkz;lyj;jpy; cWjpia kpff; Fiwthf epuk;ghj GNshNuh fhgd; Nru;it
(Hydrofluroolefind) HFO - 1234 a Mfpatw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jtjpy; Kidg;Gf; fhl;lg;gl;
Ls;sJ. vspjpyhtpahFk; IjNuhf;fhgDf;fhf INrhgpAl;Nld; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
,J INrhgpAl;Nld; (R600a) thA vd ifj;njhopy; Jiwapy; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
NkYk;> epuk;ghj GNshNuhf; fhgdhf IjNuh GNshNuh xyptPd; HFO gad;gLj;JtJ

rpghu;R nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. HFO MdJ mikg;G uPjpapy; HFC ,w;Fr; rkkhtNjhL> mjpy;
,ul;ilg; gpizg;nghd;W mlq;fpAs;sJ. ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf; nfhz;l Nru;itfs; mjpf
jhf;FjpwDs;sitahifahy; ,e;j HFC Nru;itfs; fPo; tspkz;lyj;jpy; tpiuthfg;
gpupifaile;J tspkz;lyj;jpypUe;J ntspNaWk;. vdNt mit g+Nfhsk; ntg;gk-
iltjpy; nrYj;Jk; nry;thf;F kpff; FiwthdJ.
(a) (b)
cU 1.34 - (a) INrhgpAw;Nwd; (R600a) (b) IjNuhGNshNuhxypgPd; (HFO-1234a)
1.13.4 xspapurhadg; Gfhu;
ePq;fs; thfd neupry;kpf;f xU efupy; tho;fpd;w xUtuh? mt;thwhapd; mt;thwhd

efuq;fspy; khiyNtisfspy; rw;W caukhd xU fl;llj;jpy; ,Ue;J cq;fsJ
efuj;ij Nehl;lkpLk;NghJ cq;fsJ fl;llq;fSf;F Nkyhf> CLfhl;Lk; jd;ik
Fiwthd fgpyepwkhd xU glyj;ijf; fhz;gPu;fs;. fz;b khefuk;> nfhOk;G khefu
Gwf;Nfhl;il> nghuy;iy> fLntiy Nghd;w gpuNjrq;fspy; fhw;W tPRtJ Fiwthd
ehs;fspy; ,j;Njhw;wg;ghl;ilf; fhzyhk;. ,yq;ifapy; ,e;j epiyik rw;W mupjhfNt
fhzg;gLfpd;wNghjpYk; ,e;jpahtpy; GJby;yp> Kk;gha;> fy;fj;jh> nrd;id Nghd;w
efuq;fspYk; rPdhtpy; rq;nfa;> gP[pq; Nghd;w efuq;fspYk; kNyrpahtpy; Nfhyhyk;g+u;
efupYk; ,e;j epiyikia mjpf mstpy; fhzyhk;.
,t;thwhfg; gpw;gfy; Ntisfspy; xsp CLGftpLk; jd;ik FiwthfTk; fU epw-

g;glyk; Njhd;Wtjw;fhd fhuzk; ahJ? ,g;glyk; Njhd;Wtjw;Ff; fhuzkhFk; rpf;-
fyhd xsp ,urhadr; nrad;Kiw> ~~xspapurhadg; Gfhu;|| vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
#upaf; fjpu;fspd; Kd;dpiyapy; #oy; khrhf;fpf; fUtpfs; rpy xd;Wlndhd;W jhf;fk;
Guptjhy; Njhd;Wk; ,urhadg; nghUs;fs;> Ez;zpa Jzpf;iffs; kw;Wk; ePu;r; rpWJzp
f;iffshy; #upaf; fjpu;fs; rpjwbf;fg;gLtjhy; (scattering) epfOk;. tspkz;lyj;jpd;
xspa+LGftpLk;jd;ik FiwtiljNy ~~xspapurhadg; Gfhu;|| vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
xspapurhadg; Gfhu; Njhd;wf; fhuzkhFk; ,urhad khrhf;fpfSk; mtw;wpd;

%yKjy;fSk;
xspapurhadg; Gfhu; Njhd;Wtjpy; ,uz;L tifahd ,urhad khrhf;fp tiffs;

gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;. iej;jpupf;nfhl;irl;L thA (NO)> vspjpyhtpahFk; IjNuhf;fhgd;
85
(jfdj;Jf;Fs;shfhj vupnghUs;) MfpadNt mitahFk;. ,tw;NwhL #upa xspAkhd

15 °C ntg;gepiy ,Ug;gJk; mtrpakhFk;.
xspapurhadg; Gfhu; Njhd;wf; fhuzkhFk; ,urhadg; nghUs;fs; NO, CH3(CH2)nCH3

(n = 1- 4) MfpadthFk;.
,e;j ,uz;L ,urhadg; nghUs;fSk; Vwj;jho Kw;WKOjhf thfdg; Nghf;Ftu-

j;Jf; fhuzkhfNt tspAld; Nru;fpd;wd. IjNuhf;fhgd; vd;gJ jput ngw;Nwhypa
vupnghUs;fspd; gpujhdkhd xU $whFk;. thfdg; Nghf;Ftuj;J Vwj;jho Kw;WKOjhf
jput ngw;Nwhypa vupnghUs;fspNyNa jq;fpAs;sJ. thfdq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
,e;j vupnghUs;fs; ntt;NtW topfspy; jfdkilahj vupnghUshfr; #oYld; NrUk;.
Fwpg;ghf ~fNrhypd;| vupnghUs;fspd; cau; Mtpg;gwg;Gf; fhuzkhf> thfdj;jpd; vup
nghUs; njhl;bapypUe;J Mtpahfp> tspkz;lyj;ijaile;J #oYld; vspjpyhtpahFk;
IjNuhf; fhgd;fisr; Nruf;Fk;.
NkYk; fhgd;Nru; fUtpapd; (carburettor) ClhfTk; fzprkhd msT IjNuhf;fhgd;

Mtpahfpr; nry;Yk;. vdpDk;> thfdj;jpd; ntspg;gLj;Jj; (exhaust) njhFjpapd; Clh
fNt #oYld; mjpf msT IjNuhf;fhgd; NrUk;. thfd vQ;rpdpd; cs;Ns vup
nghUs; cau; mKf;fj;jpYk; cau; ntg;gepiyapYk; jfdkile;j NghjpYk; vQ;rpdpd;
MLjz;bDs; (Kryj;jpDs;) GFk; vy;yh vupnghUs; %yf;$WfSk; Kw;WKOjhfj;
jfdj;Jf;F cs;shtjpy;iy. Fwpg;ghf Kry miwapd; ntspg;Gwr; RtUf;F mUNf
cs;s IjNuhf;fhgd; %yf;$Wfs; jfdkiltjpy;iy. ,t;thwhfj; jfdkilahj
IjNuhf;fhgd; %yf;$Wfs; ntspg;gL thATld; Nru;e;J ntspg;gLj;J njhFjpapd;
Clhf tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;.
vupnghUisAk; tspiaAk; rpwg;ghd tpfpjj;jpy; fye;J cau; mKf;fj;jpd; fPo; vupgw;wr;

nra;tjd; %yNk thfd vQ;rpdpy; vupnghUs; jfdKwr; nra;ag;gLk;. ,jd;NghJ jfdk;
fhuzkhf ntspNaWk; ntg;gk; fhuzkhf vQ;rpdpd; cs;Ns cau; ntg;gepiy kw;Wk;
cau; mKf;f epge;jid cUthFk;. nghJthd epge;jidfspd; fPo; njhopw;glhj xU
thAthff; fUjg;gLk; iejurd;> Nkw;gb cau; ntg;g - mKf;f epge;jidfspd; fPo;
xl;rprDld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J iej;jpupf;nfhl;irl;il cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;. ,t;thW cw;g-
j;jpahFk; iej;jpupf;nfhl;irl;L thA> thfdj;jpd; ntspg;gLj;J njhFjpapd; Clhf
tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk;. mjw;fika xspapurhadg; GfhUf;Ff; fhuzkhFk;. khrh-
f;F fUtpfs; ,uz;Lk; thfdg; Nghf;Ftuj;J fhuzkhfNt tspkz;lyj;jpy; efu;g;
gpuNjrq;fspy; xspapurhadg; Gfhiu mjpfstpy; fhzyhk;.
xspapurhadg; GfhupdJ ,urhadk;
xspapurhadg; Gfhu; cUthjyhdJ tspkz;lyj;jpy; #upa xspapd; Kd;dpiyapy;

epfOk; kpfr; rpf;fyhd Xu; ,urhadj; jhf;f tiyaikg;ghFk;. vdpDk;> fw;wha;it
,yFgLj;Jtjw;fhf> xspapurhadg; Gfhu; Njhd;Wtjpy; ,lk;ngWk; ,urhadj; jhf;fq;
fisg; gpd;tUkhW kpf vspikahd tifapy; fhl;lyhk;.
cl;lfd vQ;rpdpy; ,Ue;J ntspg;gLk; NO thA tspkz;lyj;jpy; NkYk; xl;rpNaw;wk-

ile;J NO2 thAitj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;. ,e;j NO2 thA #upa xspapd; Kd;dpiyapy;
gpupifaile;J mZ epiy xl;rprid cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
86
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
hv
NO2(g) NO(g) + O(g)
,e;j mZ epiy xl;rprdhdJ %yf;$w;W xl;rprd; O2 cld; Nru;e;J xspapurhadg;

Gfhupd; gpujhdkhd xU khrhf;fpahd XNrhid cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;.
+ O2(g) O3(g)
RahjPd %ypfk; Njhd;Wjy;: O(g) + H2O(g)
,tw;NwhL NkNy cw;gj;jpahfpa RahjPd %ypfq;fSk; mZepiy xl;rprd;

%yk; Njhd;Wk; XNrhDk; vspjpyhtpahFk; jd;ikAs;s IjNuhf;fhgd;fSld; jhf;fk;
Gupe;J mw;ify; kw;Wk; Ngnuhl;rp mw;ify; RahjPd %ypfq;fisj; Njhw;Wtpf;Fk;.
,e;j mw;ify; kw;Wk; Ngnuhl;rp mw;ify; RahjPd %ypfq;fs; NO2
kw;Wk; O2 cld; jhf;fk; Gupe;J vspjpyhtpahff; $ba FWfpa rq;fpyp my;bifl;L
Ngnuhl;rp mrw;iwy; iej;jpNuw;W(PAN), Ngnuhl;rp ngd;rapy; iej;jpNuw;W (PBN) Nghd;w
ghjfkhd tpisTfs; Njhd;Wk;. NkYk;> NkNy cw;gj;jpahfpa my;ifl;L gy;gFjpah-
f;fkile;J tspapy; njhq;fy; epiyr; rpW Jzpf;iffs; Njhd;Wk;. ,j;Jzpf;iffs;
kPJ J}R> ePuhtp Nghd;wit gbtjhy; mstpw; ngupa Jzpf;iffs; Njhd;wtNjhL
mj;Jzpf;iffs; %yk; #upa xsp rpjwbf;fg;gLtjhy; (scattering) fPo; tspkz;lyj;-
jpd; xsp CLGftpLk; jd;ik Fiwtiltjd; tpisthf jpiug;glynkhd;W Nghd;W
fhl;rpaspf;Fk;. xsp apurhadg; Gfhu; vd;gJ ntWq;fz;Zf;Fg; GydhFk; xNunahU
tsp khriljy; re;ju;g;gkhFk;.
xspapurhadg; Gfhupd; ghjfkhd tpisTfs;
• xspapurhadg; Gfhupd; gpujhdkhd xU tpisthf XNrhd; cw;gj;jpahf;fg;gL

fpd;wJ. XNrhd; xU er;R thA MFk;. XNrhid cl;Rthrpg;gjhy; Rthrf;
NfhshWfs;> Rthrg; ghijapy; rPjg;gil mopTWjy;> ,Uky; Nghd;w epiyikfs;
Vw;gLk;.
• NkYk;> XNrhd; MdJ> cWjpaw;w> caupa jhf;fj; jpwDs;s xU thAthifahy;
XNrhd; Kd;dpiyapy; jhtuq;fspy; Fwpg;ghf ,sk; ,iyfspy; gr;iraTUkzpfs;
moptjhy; ,iyfs; kPJ kQ;rs; epwg; nghl;Lf;fs; Njhd;Wk;. ,jd; tpisthf
jhtuq;fspy; czT cw;gj;jp ghjpf;fg;gLtjhy; tsu;r;rpf; FiwghLfs; Vw;gLt-
NjhL czT cw;gj;jpAk; FiwilAk;. tptrhag; gapu;fspy; tpisr;ry; Fiw-
tila ,J VJthFk;.
• NkYk;> XNrhd; MdJ ,wg;gu; %yf;$Wfspy; ,ul;ilg; gpizg;Gf;fis cilf;Fk;
(XNrhd; cilg;G). mjd; tpisthf ,wg;gu; %yf;$w;Wr; rq;fpypfs; ,WFtjhy;
,wg;guhy; nra;j ghtidg; nghUs;fspd; nghwpKiwr; rf;jp FiwtilAk;. mjd;
tpisthf ,wg;gupd; kPspay;G Fiwtiljy;> thfd lau;fspy; ntbg;G Vw;gly;
Nghd;wit epfOk;.
87
• PAN, PBN kw;Wk; FWQ;rq;fpyp my;ifl;Lf;fs; er;Rj;jd;ikAs;s Nru;itfsht-

NjhL mit Gw;WNeha;fisAk; guk;giuayF tpfhuq;fisAk; Vw;gLj;jty;y-
itAkhFk;.
• xspapurhadg; Gfhu; fhuzkhf Njhd;Wk; vspjpyhtpahff;$ba gy my;bi-
fl;Lf;fs; cs;sd. mtw;iw cl;Rthrpg;gjhy; Rthrf; Foaow;rp Nghd;w NfhshW
fisf; nfhz;Nlhupd; Neha; epiyik cf;fpukilAk;. NkYk; ,r;Nru;itfis
cl;Rthrpg;g jhy; xt;thik ,ay;GfSk; Njhd;Wk;.
• xspapurhadg; Gfhu; fhuzkhfj; Njhd;Wk; Ngnuhl;rp mrw;iwy; Nru;itfs; (PAN,
PBN) Gw;WNeha;f;fhshtNjhL> mit guk;giuayF tpfhuq;fisAk; Vw;gLj;j
ty;yit. NkYk; ,r;Nru;itfs; clypd; njhopw;gL Gujq;fs; kw;Wk; nehjpaq;f-
spy; ,urhad uPjpahd khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;Jtjd; tpisthf me;nehjpaq;fspd;
njhopw; ghl;ilAk; ghjpf;ff;$baitahFk;.
• XNrhd; fhuzkhf epwg;nghUs; ntspWk;. vdNt Jzpkzpfs;> Milfspd; juk;
Fd;Wk;.
1.14 ifj; n jhopy; f spypUe; J ntspNaw; w g; g Lgit fhuzkhf

epfOk; ePu; khriljypd; ,urhadk;.
ePu; vd;gJ Gtpapy; capupd; ,Ug;Gf;F mj;jpahtrpakhd xU fhuzpahFk;. mjw;

fhd fhuzk; mJ capupurhadj; jhf;fq;fspy; gq;Fnfhs;tJk;> mj;jhf;fq;fSf;Fj;
Njitahd fiug;ghdhfr; nraw;gLtJkhFk;. NkYk;> ,aw;ifr; #oypy; epfOk;
jhf;fq;fspYk; mJ fiug;ghdhfj; njhopw;gLfpwJ. ePu; %yf;$W nfhz;Ls;s tpaj;jF
,ay;Gfs; fhuzkhfNt mJ ,t;thwhf capupurhad kw;Wk; #oy; jhf;fq;fspy;
fiug;ghdhfj; njhopw;gLfpd;wJ. ePu; %yf;$wpd; Nfj;jpufzpj tbtj;ij Nehf;Fif
apy; mJ xU Nfhz tbtj;ijg; ngWfpd;wikia mwpa Kbfpd;wJ (cU: 1.34).
cU: 1.34 ePu; %yf;$wpd; Nfj;jpufzpj tbtk;
ePu; %yf;$wpd; HOH Nfhzj;jpd; ngWkhdk; 104.50 MFk;. ePu; %yf;$iw H, O

Mf;fpAs;s mZf;fspd; kpd;kiwj;jd;ik NtWghL fhuzkhf ePu; %yf;$wpd; O−H
gpizg;G KidTilaJ. ,e;j KidT O−H gpizg;Gr; NrhbahdJ ntspapy; Nfhz
tbtpy; mikfpd;wikahy;> ePu; %yf;$Wf;F tpisAs; KidTj;jd;ik fpilf;fpd;wJ.
,k;KidTj;jd;ik nlg]; (debye) myF 1.85 (1.85 D) tiuapyhdJ. mjd; fhuz-
khf> ePu; %yf;$whdJ typikahd KidTj;jd;ikAs;s %yf;$W MFk; vdf; fUj
yhk;. ePu; %yf;$wpd; ,e;j typikahd KidTj;jd;ik fhuzkhf %yf;$WfSf;F
,ilNa typikahd Ijurd; gpizg;Gf;fs; Njhd;Wfpd;wikahy;> ngUksT ePuhdJ
(Bulk Water) miwntg;gepiyapy; jputkhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ ePuhdJ typik
kpf;f KidTj;jd;ikAs;s xU jputkhFk;. ePupd; ,e;j typikahd KidTj;
88
jd;ik fhuzkhf ePupy; ngUk;ghyhd KidTr; Nru;itfs; fiuAk;. mjhtJ ePuhdJ

KidTr; Nru;itfSf;fhd ey;ynjhU fiug;ghd; MFk;. vkJ #oypy; cs;s ngUk;gh
yhd ,aw;ifr; Nru;itfs; KidTj; jd;ikAilaitahFk;. NkYk; capupurhadr;
nrad;Kiwapy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; ngUk;ghyhd Nru;itfSk; KidTj;jd;ik
nfhz;litahFk;. ,jd; fhuzkhf ePuhdJ capupurhad kw;Wk; #oy; nrad;
Kiwfspy; xU fiug;ghdhfj; njhopw;gLfpwJ. ,jd; fhuzkhf #oy; ,urhadtpaypy;
ePuhdJ #oypd; KidTj;jd;ikAs;s fiug;ghd; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
ePuhdJ ,t;thwhf KidTr; Nru;itfSf;fhd xU ey;y fiug;ghdhfj; njhopw;gLt-

jpy; gpujp$yq;fSk; cs;sd. mjhtJ gy;NtW ghjfkhd KidTr; Nru;itfs; ePupy;
ed;F fiutjhy; ePu; Jupjkhf khrilAk;. ,t;thwhfg; gy;NtW Nru;itfs; ePupy;
fiutjhy; me;ePuhdJ ahNjDk; Fwpj;j Ntiyf;Fg; nghUj;jkw;w epiyia mil-
jNy ePu; khriljy; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ePu; khriljyhdJ ePiug; gad;gLj;jp nra;ag;gLk;
Ntiyf;F mika NtWgLk;. cjhuzkhf> FbePuhfg; gad;gLj;j KbahjthW
khrile;Js;s ePuhdJ tptrhag; gapu;r;nra;ifapd; ePu;g;ghrdj;jpd; Njitf;fhf
khrilahj ePu; fUjf;$ba re;ju;gg
; q;fSk; cs;sd. NkYk; ifj;njhopy; uPjpapy; czT
jahupg;gjw;Fg; nghUj;jkw;wthW Ez;zq;fpfshy; khrile;Js;s ePuhdJ> nfhjpePuhtp
ngWtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdjhFk;.
ePuhdJ typikkpf;f xU KidTf; fiug;ghdhf ,Ue;jNghjpYk; KidTj;jd;ikaw;w

Nru;itfSk; ePupy; nrhw;g msTfspy; fiuAk;. ,t;thwhd rpy KidTj;jd;ikaw;w
Nru;itfs; mjpf er;Rj;jd;ikAilaitahtNjhL> kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; mjhtJ
Rtl;lstpy; fiue;Js;s epiyapYk; mjd; er;Rj;jd;ikahdJ ,opTg; ghjf kl;lj;-
jpYk; cau;thdjhff; fhzg;glyhk;. cjhuzkhf> typikkpf;f xU Gw;WNehahf;fpf;
fhuzpahfpa ngd;rPdpd; ePupy; fiuAk; jpwd; Vwj;jho kpy;ypaDf;F 1780 (1780 ppm)
gFjpfs; MFk;. vdpDk; FbePupd; gukhdg; ngWkhdq;fspd;gb> ePupy; ngd;rPd; mlq;fp
apUf;fj;jf;f cr;r msT gpy;ypaDf;F Ie;J (5 ppb) gFjpfs; MtNjhL> ngd;rPdpd;
ePupy; fiuAk; jpwdhdJ ,t;tpopTg; ngWkhdj;jpYk; 350 000 jlitfs; cau;thdjh-
Fk;. mjw;fika> KidTj;jd;ikAs;s Nru;itfisg; Nghd;Nw KidTj; jd;ikaw;w
Nru;itfSk; ePupy; fiutjhYk; ePu; khrilfpd;wJ vd ehk; KbG nra;ayhk;. NkYk;>
Kw;WKOjhf KidTj;jd;ikaw;w xU %yf;$whfpa xl;rprDk; nrhw;g mstpy; (8
ppm) ePupy; fiuAk;. ,t;thwhf kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprdhdJ
ePupy; thOk; rfy mq;fpfsJk; capu;j; njhopw;ghLfSf;F ,d;wpaikahj xU fhuzp
MFk;. mjhtJ ,t;thwhfr; nrhw;g mstpy; ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd; fhuzkhfNt
ePu;tho; mq;fpfspd; rfy capu;j; njhopw;ghLfSk; epfOfpd;wd.
89
1.14.1 ePu; tl;lKk; ePu; khriljYk;
#oypy; ePu; tl;lj;ijf; fhl;Lk; tpsf;fg;glnkhd;W cU: 1.35 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ePu;
tl;lj;jpy; ePuhdJ #oypy; ntt;NtW gFjpfSf;F ,ilNa gupkhw;wkilfpwJ. ePu;
tl;lj;jpd; rfy fl;lq;fspYk; ePu; khrilTf;F cs;shFk;. ePu; tl;lj;jpy; cs;s kpff;
Fiwe;j msT khrile;j ePu; tspkz;ly ePu; (Kfpy;> ePuhtp> nkd; %Lgdp> nts;Siw
gdp> kio ePu;) MFk;. Gtpapy; cs;s epy ePu; Mtpahjy; %yNk tspkz;lyj;Jf;F
ePu; fpilf;fpd;wJ. ePupy; fiue;Js;s ngUk;ghyhd KidTj;jd;ikAs;s Nru;itf-
spd; (cg;Gf;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd;) nfhjpepiyg; ngWkhdk; cau;thdjhifahy;> Mtpah
fpr; nry;Yk; ePUld; mr;Nru;itfs; tspkz;lyj;ij miltjpy;iy. ,jd; fhuzkhf
Mtpahjy; %yk; tspkz;lyj;Jld; NrUk; ePu>; kpfr; Rj;jkhd kw;Wk; ,opT khrilTf;F
cs;shd ePu; MFk;. vt;thwhapDk; Mtpg;gwg;Gs;s KidTr; Nru;itfs; (H2S, NH3,
NO2) ePupy; fiuAk;. NkYk; xspapuuhrar; nrad;Kiwfs; fhuzkhf tspkz;lyj;jpy;
cw;gj;jpahFk; gy;NtW ,urhadr; Nru;itfSk; (NO2, SO2, H2SO4, HNO3, NH4NO3 Ngh-
d;w) tspkz;ly ePupy; fiuAk;. NkYk; tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s kpfr; rpwpa njhq;fy;
epiyapy; cs;s (J}R> kfue;j kzpfs;> gw;wPupah Nghd;w) Jzpf;iffSk; tspkz;ly
ePUld; Nru;tjhy; me;ePu; khrilAk;.
cU: 1.35 ePu; tl;lk; (ePu;r;rf;fuk;)
,t;tspkz;ly ePuhdJ gbT tPo;r;rp (Precipitation) topNa kio> kiog;gdp> nts;Siw

gdp> nkd; %Lgdp kw;Wk; gdpf;fl;b kioahf (Hale) Gtp Nkw;gug;ig milAk;. ,t;th-
whfg; GtpNkw;gug;ig milAk; ePupd; xU gFjp GtpNkw;gug;gpd; topNa Xb toptjhy;
NkYk; khrilTf;F cs;shFk;. fdpAg;G nghUs;fs; gpupifailtjhy; Njhd;Wk;
cg;Gf;fs; (ghu cNyhf cg;Gf;fs;) kz;zpy; cs;s gy;NtW cg;G tiffs;> kdpj-
dhy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gl;Lr; #oYld; Nru;f;fg;gLk;. gy;NtW ,urhadg; nghUs;fs;
90
(gris> ifj;njhopy; ,urhadg; nghUs;fs;> tptrha ,urhadg; nghUs;fs;> ......)

Nghd;wit ePupy; fiutjhy; ePu; NkYk; khrilTf;F cs;shFk;. mt;thwhf Nkw;F-
wpg;gpl;l gbTtPo;r;rp %yk; Gtp Nkw;gug;ig mile;j ePupd; xU gFjp Gtpapd; ghiwg;
gilfSf;F Clhf Gtpapd; cl;gFjpia milAk; (Ground Water). ,t;thwhf ePuh-
dJ kz;zpd; fdpag; gilfSf;Fk; ghiwg; gilfSf;Fk; Clhfr; nry;Yk;NghJ
mg;gilfs; mupg;Gf;F cs;shtjhYk; gy;NtW fdpa cg;Gf;fs; kz;Zld; Nru;tjhy;
Gtpapd; cs;Ns cs;s ePUk; khrilAk;.
1.14.2 ePupd; jug;gukhdq;fs; (Water Quality Parameters)
ehk; Vw;fdNt Fwpg;gpl;lJ Nghd;W> KidTs;s kw;Wk; Kidtw;w ngUk;ghyhd

nghUs;fs; ePupy; ntt;NtW msTfspy; fiuAk;. rpy nghUs;fs; (NaCl) mjpf mstpy;
fiue;Js;sNghjpYk; jPq;fhditay;y. vdpDk;> NtW rpy nghUs;fs; (ghu cNyh-
fq;fs;) kpfr; nrhw;g mstpy; fiue;Js;s epiyapYk; mjpf er;Rj;jd;ikahdit.
,jw;fhd fhuzk;> gad;gLj;Jk; fUkj;Jf;F ePupd; nghUj;jg;ghl;il mse;jwptjw;
fhf ePupy; fiue;Js;s kw;Wk; fiuahj epiyapy; ePupy; cs;s nghUs;fSf;fhd cr;r
,opT kl;lk; my;yJ tPr;R jPu;khdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,it ePupd; jug;gukhdq;fshFk;.
cjhuzk;: FbePupd; ,urhadg; gukhdq;fs; kw;Wk; fopT ePiu ntspNaw;wYf;fhd
gukhdq;fs; vd ntt;NtW gukhdq;fs; gy;NtW ehLfshYk; ru;tNjr epWtdq;f-
shYk; ntspaplg; gl;Ls;sd. ,g;gukhdq;fs; Fwpj;j tPrR; f;fis mjhtJ vy;iyfis
tpQ;rpr; nry;tjhy; me;ePu; Fwpj;j Ntiyf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdjy;y vdf; fUjg;gLk;.
gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy; ,yq;iff; fl;lisfs; gzpafj;jpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sJ.

ml;ltiz - 1.9: ,yq;ifapy; tPLfspy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd ePupy;
mlq;fpapUf;fj;jf;ftw;wpd; cau;T / ,opT msT my;yJ tPrR
;
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
gukhdq;fs; myF cr;rg; ngWkhdk; / tPr;R
epwk; Hazen Units 15

fyq;fy; jd;ik NTU 2
pH ngWkhdk; 6.5 - 8.5
,urhad xl;rprd; Nfs;tp (COD) mg / l 10
nkhj;j fiue;j epiy jpz;kq;fs; mg / l 500
ePupd; td;ik (CaCO3 epiyapy;) mg / l 250
nkhj;j nghRNgw;W (PO43- epiyapy;) mg / l 2.0
3+
Mrdpf;F (As epiyapy;) mg / l 0.01
fl;kpak; (Cd2+ epiyapy;) mg / l 0.003
<ak; (Pb2+ epiyapy;) mg / l 0.01
,urk; (Hg0 kw;Wk; Hg2+ epiyapy;) mg / l 0.001
91
1.14.3 fopT ePupd; jug;gukhdq;fs; (Parameters)
,dp ehk; ePupd; jug;gukhdq;fs; rpytw;iwr; RUf;fkhf Nehf;FNthk;.
• pH ngWkhdk;
pH vDk; ,uz;L Mq;fpy vOj;Jf;fshy; Fwpf;fg;gLtJ Ijurd; mOj;jk; (Potential
of Hydrogen) vd;gjhFk;. pH mstpil (pH Scale) vd;gJ fiurypd; mkpyj;jd;ikia
my;yJ %yj;jd;ikia $Wtjw;Fg; gad;gLk; msTj;jpl;lkhFk;. fiurnyhd;wpd;
Ijurd; mad; nrwpit (mol dm-3) kiw klf;ifg; ngWkhdkhff; fhl;Lkplj;J ,J
pH ngWkhdk; vdg;gLk;.
fiurnyhd;wpd; pH ngWkhdj;ij mtjhdpg;gjw;Nfw;w rpy Kiwfs; cs;sd.

(1) epakpg;G %yk; my;yJ gpwpnjhU Kiw %yk;: fiurypd; H+ nrwpitj; Jzpe;J>
mjd; kiw klf;ifg; ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWtjd; %yk; kpfj; jpUj;jkhf pH
ngWkhdj;ijj; jPu;khdpf;fyhk;.
(2) pH fhl;biag; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;: mjhtJ fiurypd; H+ mad; nrwpTg;gb
epwk; khw;wkilAk; jhs;fisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;. ,jw;fhf cupa pH jhisf;
fiurypy; eidj;J> mj;jhs; ngWk; epwj;ij epakhd pH epw msTj;jpl;lj;Jld;
xg;gpLtjd; %yk; gUkl;lhd pH ngWkhdj;ijg; ngwyhk;.
(3) pH khdpiag; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;: ,jd;NghJ ePupd; H+mad; nrwpTld;
mOj;jk; NtWglf;$ba tpNrlkhd kpd;thnahd;wpd; mOj;jj;ij (fz;zhb
kpd;thapd;) epakkhd kpd;thnahd;wpd; (Ag / AgCl kpd;thnahd;wpd;) mOj;jj;
Jf;Fr; rhu;ghf mse;J mjd; %yKk; ntt;NtW ePu;f;fiury;fspd; pH
ngWkhdj;ijj; Jzpayhk;.
ehk; md;whlk; gad;gLj;Jk; rpy ePu;f;fiury;fspd; ngWkhdq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
,yq;ifapy; FbePupd; rpwg;ghf pH tPr;R 6.5 - 8.5 vdj; jPu;khdpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ghy; mg;gr;Nrhlh
,iug;igr; rhW ntspw;wp
Nfhg;gp
mg;gps; gor;rhW FUjp
J}a ePu;
kpd;fytLf;F mkpyk; mkpy jf;fhspr; rtu;ff

; huk; fopfhd;
kio rhW J}a kio Rj;jkhf;fp
,dpg;Gg; ghdk; Jg;Guthf;fp
cU 1.36 md;whl tho;tpy; gad;gLk; ePu;f;fiury;fs; rpytw;wpd; pH ngWkhdq;fs;
92
• flj;jhW (Conductivity)
ePu;f;fiurnyhd;wpd; flj;jhW vd;gJ me;ePu;ka Clfj;jpd; Clhf kpd;flj;jg;gLk;
Mw;wiyf; Fwpf;Fk; Xu; mstPlhFk;. ,jw;fhf ePupy; RahjPd mad;fs; fhzg;gLjy;
Ntz;Lk;. J}aePupd; flj;jhW kpff; FiwthdJ. ePuhdJ jhdhfg; gpupifailjy; %yk;
Njhd;wpa kpfr; nrhw;g msthd OH- kw;Wk; H+ mad;fNs J}aePupy; fhzg;gLk;. (1×10-7
mol dm-3). ePupd; flj;jYf;Fg; gpujhd fhuzkhf miktJ mjpy; fiue;Js;s cg;G-
f;fspd; msthFk;. cg;Gf;fs; ePupy; fiutjhy;> mt;Tg;Gf;fs; Fwpj;j fw;wad;fshfTk;
mdad;fshfTk; Ntwhfpa ePNuw;wkile;j mad;fshff; fhzg;gLk;. ,e;j mad;fshy;
ePupy; mq;Fkpq;Fkhfr; nry;y KbAkhjyhy; mOj;j tpj;jpahrk; gpuNahfpf;fg;gl;lTld;
mit kpd;tha;fis Nehf;fpr; nry;tjhy; flj;jhW Njhd;Wk;. ePupy; fiuAk; mNrjd
cg;Gf;fs;> ePupy; mad;fshff; $l;lg;gpupifailaf;$ba Nrjd cg;Gf;fSk; Nru;itf-
Sk; (Nrjd mkpyq;fs;> %yq;fs; Nghd;wit) ePupd; flj;jhW kPJ gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;.
ePupy; ed;F fiuaf;$ba> vdpDk; mad;fshff; $l;lg;gpupifailahj FSf;NfhR>
Rf;FNuhR Nghd;w Nrjdr; Nru;itfshy; ePupd; flj;jhW kPJ Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; nry;th-
f;F kpfr; nrhw;g msthdJ. flj;jhiw msg;gjw;fhff; flj;jhW khdp (Conductivity
Cell) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. flj;jhiw msf;Fk; myF nrd;upkPw;wUf;F rpkd;]; (S cm-1)
MFk;. vdpDk; ehk; mwpe;Js;s ngUk;ghyhd ePu;f;fiury;fspy; ,g;ngWkhdk; kpf
kpfr; rpwpa jhifahy; nrd;upkPw;wUf;F ikf;fpNuh rpkd;]; (µ S cm-1) ,NyNa flj;jhW
nghJthfg; gjpT nra;ag;gLk;.
ehk; mwpe;J itj;Js;s rpy ePu;f;fiury;fspd; flj;jhWg; ngWkhdq;fs; fPNo

ml;ltizapy; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz - 1.10: ehshe;j tho;tpy; gad;gLj;Jk; rpy ePu;f;fiury;fspd; flj;jhWg;
ngWkhdq;fs;
fiury;; flj;jhW / µ S cm-1
mad;fs; ePf;fg;gl;l ePu; 0.1 - 5
fha;r;rp tbj;j ePu; 1 - 10
FbePu; 50 - 1 000
ghy; 1 000
0.01 M KCl fiury; 1 410
flj;jhW epakf; fiury;
epyf;fPo; ePu; 100 - 8 000
fly; ePu; 2 000 - 60 000
Mg;gps; rhW 10 000
nrwpe;j mkpyq;fs; 60 000 - 900 000
• fyq;fy; jd;ik (Turbidity)

Rj;jkhd ePu; Kw;WKOjhf xspia CLGftplf;$bajhFk;. mjhtJ ePupd; Clhf>
vt;tpj jlq;fYkpd;wp xsp nry;Yk;. vdpDk; ePUld; gy;NtW nghUs;fs; Nru;tjhy;
mjd; xsp CLGftpLk; jd;ik FiwtilAk;. ePu; njsptw;w jd;ikiag; ngWk;.
93
,t;thwhf ePupd; xspia CLGftpLk; jd;ik Fiwtile;J fhzg;gLjNy me;ePupd;

fyq;fy; jd;ik vdg;gLfpwJ. ePupy; fiuahj njhq;fy; epiyj; Jzpf;iffs; mjhtJ
GtpaPu;g;G %yk; gbahj rpwpa Jzpf;iffs; fhzg;gLtjdhNyNa fyq;fy; jd;ik
Vw;gLfpwJ. ,r;rpwpa Jzpf;iffs; fhzg;gLtjhy; ePupd; Clhfr; nry;Yk; xsp rpjWk;
(Scattering). mjd; tpisthf me;ePu; khjpup Kfpy; Nghd;W my;yJ jpiu Nghd;W fhl;rp
aspf;Fk;. ,t;thwhf njhq;fy; epiyj; Jzpf;iffs; fhzg;gLjyhdJ ePu; khril-
jypd; fl;Gydhfj;jf;f xU re;ju;g;gkhFk;.
NkYk;> ePupy; kpfr; rpwpa $o;j; Jzpf;iffs; fhzg;gLjYk;> mjd; fyq;fy; jd;ikf;Ff;
fhuzkhFk;. ePupd; fyq;fy; jd;ikf;F VJthFk; njhq;fy; epiyj; Jzpf;iffshf>
Ez;zpa fspj; Jzpf;iffs;> kpfr; rpwpa Nrjd kw;Wk; mNrjdj; Jzpf;iffs;>
Ez;zpa jdpf;fy mq;fpfspd; rKjhaq;fs;> kpfr; rpwpa gy;gFjpaj; Jzpf;iffs;
Nghd;wtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
ePupd; fyq;fy; jd;ikia msg;gjw;fhf xspf;fw;iwnahd;W ePupd; Clhf ve;j msT

rpjWfpd;wJ (scatter) my;yJ CL nry;fpd;wJ (transmittance) vd;gJ msf;fg;gLk;.
,jd;NghJ fiurypy; xsp rpjWk; msT mwpag;gl;l fyq;fy; jd;ik nfhz;l xU
fiurYld; Fwpj;j ePu;khjpupapd; xsp rpjWk; msT xg;gplg;gl;L> mjd; fyq;fy; jd;ik
msf;fg;gLk;. fyq;fy; jd;ikia msf;Fk; myF NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit)
MFk;. epakkhd fyq;fy; jd;ikAs;s rpy fiury;fspd; ngWkhdq;fs; fPNo jug;gl;
Ls;sd.
cU: 1.37 epakkhd fyq;fy; jd;ikAs;s

fiury; njhlnuhd;wpd; NTU ngWkhdq;fs;
Fwpj;j gy; tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad;fSld; ,iztjhy; Njhd;Wk; nfhOg;g

kpyj;jpd; gy; tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad; cg;gpdJ ePupy; fiuAe; jpwd; Fiwth-
djhifahy; tPo;gbTf;F cs;shFk;. ,e;j tPo;gbtpd; mlu;j;jp ePupd; mlu;j;jpapYk;
Fiwthdjhifahy;> rtu;f;fhu Eiu (Soap Scum) Mf ePupy; kpjf;Fk;. ,e;j vy;yh
gy; tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad;fSk; ePq;fpr; nry;Yk; tiu rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; Jg;Guth-
f;Fk; jpwd; mjw;Ff; fpilf;fkhl;lhJ. NkYk; gy; tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad;fs;
jiykapupd; Nkw;gug;gpy; ,ay;ghfNt fhzg;gLk; kiw (−) Vw;wq;fSld; ,ize;J
mt;Ntw;wq;fis eLepiyahf;Fk;. mg;NghJ Kd;du; Nkw;gug;Gf; fw;wad;fs; fhuzkhf
js;sg;gl;l jiykapu;fs; Vw;wq;fs; ,y;yhikahy; kPz;Lk; xd;Wlndhd;W Nru;e;J
xl;Lk; jd;ikia Vw;gLj;Jk;.
94
• ePupd; td;ik
ePq;fs; ,yq;ifapd; cyu; tyaj;jpy; thOk; xUtuh? my;yJ cyu; tyaf; fpzw;W
ePiu my;yJ NtW ,aw;if %yq;fspypUe;J ngw;w ePiug; gUfpAs;sPu;fsh? ePq;fs;
mt;thW gUfpa ePupd; Rit gw;wp vz;zpg; ghUq;fs;. me;ePu; xUtpj rtu;f;fhuj;
jd;ikiaf; nfhz;bUe;jik cq;fSf;F epidtpUf;ff;$Lk;. NkYk;> me;ePupy; ePuh-
ba gpd;du; cq;fsJ jiyKb xl;Lk; jd;ikiaAk; ful;Lj; jd;ikiaAk; ePq;fs;
mtjhdpf; ff;$Lk;. ,e;j epiyikfs; Vw;glf; fhuzk; vd;d? rtu;f;fhuj; jd;ikahd
Ritf;Fk; jiykapu;fspy; xl;Lk; jd;ikf;Fk; fhuzkhf miktJ ePupd; td;ikahFk;.
~ePupd; rtu;f;fhuj;ij tPo;gbthf;Fk; nfhs;ssT| vd;gNj ePupd; td;ikf;fhd tiutp

yf;fzkhFk;. ePupd; td;ikf;Ff; fhuzkhFk; ,urhadr; Nru;it ePupy; fiue;j epiy
apy; cs;s gy; tYtsT nfhz;l cNyhff; fw;wad;fshFk;. mjhtJ Ca2+, Mg2+,
Fe2+, Mn2+, Al3+ my;yJ NtW ahNjDk; gy;tYtsTs;s cNyhff; fw;wad;fspd;
xl;Lnkhj;jr; nrwpT MFk;. ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; ePupy; gutyhf mlq;fpapUf;Fk; gy;
tYtsTs;s cNyhff; fw;wad;fs; Ca2+ ck; Mg2+ ck; MFk;. vdNt ,aw;ifahd
ePupd; td;ik kPJ Vwj;jho Kw;WKOjhfg; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;git Ca2+, Mg2+ Mfpa
cNyhff; fw;wad;fs; MFk;. vdpDk; kpf mupjhf Mn2+, Fe2+, Al3+ Nghd;w mad;f-
Sk; ePupd; td;ikapy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; re;ju;g;gq;fs; cs;sd. rtu;f;fhuk; vd;gJ
nfhOg;gkpyq;fspd; Nrhbak; my;yJ nghw;whrpak; cg;Gf;fshFk;. ,e;j cg;Gf;fspd;
fhnghl;rpypf;Ff; $l;lk; cupa gy;tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad;fSld; ,iztjhy;
Njhd;Wk; nfhOg; gkpyj;jpd; gy;tYtsT cNyhff; fw;wad; cg;gpd; ePupd; fiuAk;
jpwd; Fiwthd jhifahy; mJ tPo;gbAk;. ,t;tPo;tbtpd; mlu;j;jp ePupd; mlu;j;-
jpia tplf; Fiwthd jhifahy; mJ rtu;f;fhu khR Eiuahf (soap scum) ePupy;
kpjf;Fk;. vdNt rtu;f;fhuj;jpd; fOty; nrythdJ ,e;j rfy gy;tYtsT cNyhff;
fw;wad;fSk; ePq;Fk; tiuapy; epfOtjpy;iy. NkYk; ,e;j gy;tYtsT cNyhff;
fw;wad;fs; jiykapu; Nkw;gug;gpy; ,ay;ghfNt fhzg;gLk; Vw;wq;fSld; ,izj;J
mt;Ntw;wq;fis eLepiyg;gLj;Jk;. mg;NghJ Kd;du; Nkw;gug;G Vw;wq;fs; fhuz-
khfj; js;sg;gl;l jiykapu;fs;> Vw;wq;fs; mw;Wg; Nghtjhy; kPz;Lk; xd;Wlndhd;W
Nru;j;J xl;Lj;jd;ikia Vw;gLj;Jk;.
ePupy; mlq;fpAs;s NtW mdad;fSf;Fk; (Cl-, SO42-) ePupd; epiyAs;s td;ikf;Fk;

vt;tpj njhlu;Gk; fpilahJ. ePupd; td;ikiaf; Fwpg;gpLk; myF kpy;ypaDf;F fy;rpak;
fhgNdw;Wg; gFjpfs; (ppm CaCO3)MFk;. ePupd; td;ik gpd;tUkhW tifg;gLj;jg;gl;
Ls;sJ (gUkl;lhd ghFghL).
ml;ltiz - 1.11: ePupd; fbdj;jd;ik kl;lk;
fy;rpak; fhgNdw;W / mg L-1 ePupd; td;ik
0 - 50 nkd;dPu;
50 - 100 eLj;ju nkd;dPu;
100 - 200 kpjkhd td;dPu;
200 - 300 eLj;ju td;dPu;
300 - 400 td;dPu;
450+ mjpf td;dPu;
95
• jw;fhypf td;ik (epiyapy; td;ik) (Temporary Hardness)

ePupy; Nkw;gb gy;tYtsTs;s cNyhff; fw;wad;fSld; mk; nkhj;jr; nrwptpYk;
$Ljyhd nrwptpy; ,UfhgNdw;W mad;fSk; fhgNdw;W mad;fSk; fhzg;gLk;
epiyNa jw;fhypf td;ik vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ePiuf; nfhjpf;f itg;gjhy; mt;td;ikia
ePf;f KbtjdhNyNa ,J jw;fhypf td;ik vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ePiuf; nfhjpf;f itf;Fk;
NghJ cNyhff; fw;wad;fs; mtw;wpd; fhgNdw;whf tPo;gbAk;.
Ca2+ + 2(HCO ) ∆ CaCO + CO + H O
3 2  3 2 2
Mg2+ + 2(HCO3)2 ∆ MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O


• epiyAs;s td;ik (epiyahd td;ik) (Permanent Hardness)

Fwpj;j gy; tYtsTs;s cNyhff; fw;wad;fspd; nkhj;jr; nrwptpYk; kpff; Fi-
wthff; fhgNdw;W my;yJ ,UfhgNdw;W mad;fs; fhzg;gLk; epiyNa epiyAs;s
td;ik vdg;gLfpwJ.
,q;F fhgNdw;W−,UfhgNdw;W mad;fspd; rktYr; nrwpTf;F(Equivalent Concentration)
Nkyjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk; cNyhf mad; nrwpit> ntg;gNkw;Wtjd; %yk; tPo;gbar;
nra;a Kbahjhifahy; ,J epiyAs;s td;ik vdg;gLfpwJ. Gwj;NjapUe;J ePupy;
fiuAk; jd;ikAs;s fhgNdw;Wr; Nru;itfs; (Na2CO3) Nru;g;gjhy; ,t;td;ikia ePf;-
fyhk;. Ca2+ + 2Cl- + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2Na+ + 2Cl-
• ePupd; ,urhad xl;rprd; Nfs;tp (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

ePupd; ,urhad xl;rprd; Nfs;tp vd;gJ ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rpNaw;wf;$ba gjhu;j;-
jq;fis xl;rpNaw;Wtjw;Fj; Njitahd xl;rprdpd; msT MFk;. ePupy; gutyhff;
fhzg;gLk; xl;rpNaw;wf;$ba Nru;itfshd Nrjdr; Nru;itfshFk;. ,it ntt;NtW
xl;rpNaw;w epiyfspy; fhzg;gLtNjhL> ,Wjpapy; mtw;iwf; fhgdPnuhl;irl;lhf
(my;yJ fhgNdw;whf) xl;rpNaw;wyhk;. FSf;NfhR> Guw;NwhR Nghd;w nty;y tiffs;>
nfhOg; gkpyq;fs;> mkpNdh mkpyq;fs;> khg;nghUs;> Gujq;fs; Nghd;wit ,jpy;
mlq;Fk;.
NkYk; mNrjdr; Nru;itfshf Fe2+, Mn2+

Nghd;w mad;fSk; ePupd; ,urhad xl;rprd;
Nfs;tpapy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak;. ePupd; ,urhad
xl;rprd; Nfs;tp epakpg;G %yk; Jzpag;gLk;.
typikkpf;f xl;rpNaw;wpahfpa mkpy nghw;wh
rpa kpUFNuhNkw;Wf; fiurypd; mwpag;gl;l
Xu; msTld;> fha;r;rp tbj;J kPjpahf cs;s
,UFNuhNkw;W mad;fspd; msit epakkhd
Fe+mad; fiurnyhd;wpd; %yk; epakpg;Gr;
nra;J ePupd; COD ngWkhdk; Jzpag;gLk;.
cU: 1.38 epakpg;G %yk; ePupd;

COD kl;lj;ijj; Jzpjy;.
96
ngUk;ghYk; ifj;njhopy;fs; %yk; ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopTePupNyNa ePupd; COD

kl;lk; msf;fg;gLk;. mjw;fhd fhuzk; COD kl;lk; cau;thd fopT ePu; epiyfisr;
nrd;wiltjhy; me;ePu; khrilTf;F cs;shfpd;wikahFk;.
,yq;ifapy; kj;jpa Rw;whly; mjpfhu rigapdhy; Fwpj;Jiuf;fg;gLtJ ntt;NtW

#oy;fspy; tpLtpf;ff;$ba fopT ePupd; COD kl;lk; gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy;
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
ml;ltiz - 1.12: ,yq; i f kj; j pa Rw; w hly; mjpfhu rigapdhy;

ntspaplg;gl;Ls;s fopT ePupd; cr;r COD kl;lq;fs;.
ntspNaw;Wk; nghUs; cr;r COD ngWkhdk;/ mg
L
-1
Nkw;gug;G ePupy; ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopT ePu; 250
ePu;g;ghrd ePupy; ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopT ePu; 400
rKj;jpu ePupy; ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopT ePu; 250
,wg;gu; njhopw;rhiyfspypUe;J ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopT ePu; 400
Gilitj; njhopw;rhiyfspypUe;J ntspNaw;wg;gLk; fopT ePu; 250
• ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd; kl;lk; (Dissolved Oxygen)
ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd; kl;lk; (Dissolved Oxygen) MdJ ePupd; myFf; fdtstpy;
cs;s %yf;$W xl;rprd; (O2) msT MFk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. tspkz;ly-
j;jpy; 21 rjtPjksT fhzg;gLk; xl;rprd; thA Neubahf ePupy; fiujy;> ePupy; thOk;
xspj;njhFg;G elj;Jk; Mw;wYs;s ePuj ; j
; htuq;fs; kw;Wk; Vida mq;fpfshYk; (my;fh>
raNdh gw;wPupah) #upa xspapd; Kd;dpiyapy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLk; xl;rprd; ePupy;
fiujy; MfpadNt ePupy; fiue;j epiy xl;rprDf;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wd. ePu; %yf;$Wfs;
KidTj;jd;ikAilaitahifahYk; xl;rprd; %yf;$Wfs; KidTj;jd;ikaw;wit
ahifapdhYk; xl;rprdpd; ePupy; fiuAk; jpwd; kpfr; rpwpanjhU ngWkhdkhFk;.
cjhuzkhf fly; kl;lj;jpy; tspkz;lyj;jpd; xl;rprd; thAtpd; gFjpaKf;fj;ijf;
fUJifapy;> 21 0C ntg;gepiyapYk; 1 atm tspkz;ly mKf;fj;jpYk; ePupy; fiue;j
epiy xl;rprd; kl;lk; Vwj;jho 9 mg l-1 (9 ppm) MFk;. ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd;
kl;lkhdJ> ePupy; epfOk; gy;NtW ,urhad kw;Wk; capu;r; nrad;Kiwfs; fhuz-
khff; FiwtilAk;. cjhuzkhf> ePupy; fiue;Js;s xl;rprd; kl;lk; 5 ppm ,Yk;
FiwtilAk; NghJ> ePupy; thOk; mq;fpfs; mOj;jj;Jf;F(Stress) cs;shFk;. me;ePupy;
thOk; kPd;fs;> ,t;thwhd mOj;jj;Jf;F cs;shfpa re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ePu; Nkw;gug;Gf;F
te;J thia tspkz;lyj;jpy; jpwe;J itj;jpUj;jiy mtjhdpf;fyhk;. mg;ngWkh-
dk; 1 - 2 ppm tiu FiwtilAkhapd;> me;ePupy; thOk; kPd;fs; ,wf;fj; njhlq;Fk;.
rpy fhyg;gFjpfspy; ehl;bd; ntt;NtW gpuNjrq;fspy; ePu;epiyfspy; Vffhyj;jpy;
Mapuf;fzf;fhd kPd;fs; ,t;thwhf ,we;jik gw;wpa nra;jpfis mwpfpd;Nwhk;. ePupy;
fiue;j epiyapy; cs;s xl;rprd; kl;lk; kpfj; jho;thd ngWkhdj;ij miltNj
,e;epiyikf;Ff; fhuzkhFk;.
97
ePupy; fiue;j epiy xl;rprd; kl;lk; kpff; FiwtilAkhapd; (0 ppm) me;ePupy; fhw;wp
d;wpa epiy Njhd;Wk;. Mokhf ePu;epiyfspd; mbg;gFjpapy; ,t;thwhd fhw;wpd;wpa
epiy fhzg;gLk;.
ePupy; fiue;j epiyapy; cs;s xl;rprd; kl;lj;ijj; Jzptjw;Fg; gad;gLk; rpy Ki-
wfs; cs;sd.
(1) fiue;j epiy xl;rprDf;F czu;jd;ikiaf; fhl;Lk; fiue;j epiy xl;rprd;
khdpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp Neubahf mwpe;J nfhs;sy;. (pH khdp Nghd;w)
(2) epakpg;G %yk; (tpd;f;yu; Kiw - Winkler Method) ,k;Kiwapy; gpd; epakpg;G
(Back titration) %yk; fiue;j epiy xl;rprd; kl;lk; Jzpag;gLk;.
,jw;fhf Kjypy; fiue;j epiy xl;rprid kq;fdPR Ijnuhl;irl;Lld; (Mn(OH)2)

jhf;fKwr; nra;J tPo;gbar; nra;ag;gLk;.
ePupy;
2Mn(OH2)2 + O2  2MnO2 + H2O ------------------ (1)
1 mol 2 mol
,t;thW Njhd;Wk; kq;fdPRr; rpf;fyhdJ mkpy Clfj;jpy; maill;Lld; jhf;fKwr;
nra;ag;gLk;.
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2I− 2+
 Mn + I2 + 3 H2O ---------- (2)
1 mol 1 mol
,jd;NghJ ntspNaWk; I2 MdJ> epak jNahry;Ngw;Wf; fiurnyhd;Wld; epakpff
; g;gLk;.
I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62- --------------------------- (3)

1 mol 2 mol
,jd;NghJ Xu; %y; xl;rprDf;fhf ehd;F %y; jNahry;Ngw;W nrythFk;. Ma;T$l-
j;jpy; ntt;NtW ePu;khjpupfspd; fiue;j epiy xl;rprd; kl;lj;ij ,k;Kiwapd; %yk;
Jzpayhk;.
(1)> (2)> (3) Mfpatw;wpd;gb>
O2 ≡ MnO2 ≡ I2 ≡ S2O32-
1 mol : 2 mol : 2 mol : 4 mol
• ePupd; ew;Nghriz (Eutrophication)

Nghrizg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; ePUld; Nru;tjhy; me;ePupy; mjpf msT my;fh tsu;r;rp
ailjNy ew;Nghriz vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
,t;thwhf my;fhf;fs; mjpf mstpy; tsu;r;rpailtjhy;> ePu; Nkw;gug;gpy; jbj;j

rKjhag; gilahff; fhzg;gLk;. ,jd; fhuzkhf #upa xsp me;ePu; epiyapd; fPo;g;
gilfSf;Fr; nry;tjpy;iyahjyhy;> mt;thwhd fPo;g; gilfspy; xspj;njhFg;G ep-
fohikapdhYk;> xl;rprd; me;ePupy; fiuahikapdhYk; fPo;g;gilfspy; fiue;j epiy
xl;rprd; kl;lk; Fiwtiltjhy; ePupy; thOk; jhtuq;fSk; tpyq;FfSk; ,wf;Fk;.
,t;thW ,wf;Fk; jhtuq;fSk; tpyq;FfSk; fhw;Wtho; gw;wuP pahf;fshy; gpupifailAk;
NghJ fiue;j epiy xl;rprd; kl;lk; NkYk; Fiwtiltjhy; fhw;wpd;wpa epiyik
98
Njhd;Wk;. ,e;j fhw;wpd;wpa epge;jidfspd; fPo; H2S Nghd;w thAf;fs; cw;gj;jpahtjhy;

ePu;epiyia mz;ba gpuNjrq;fs; mjpf Ju;kzj;ijg; ngWk;. ,JTk; ew;Nghriz
xU tpisthFk;. my;fh tsu;r;rpf;Fg; gy;NtW Nghrizg; gjhu;j;jq;fs; Njitahap-
Dk;> ngUk;ghyhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; vy;iyg;gL Nghrizf; $W nghRNgw;W (PO43-)
mad;fs; MFk;. NkYk; iej;jpNuw;W mad;fSk; (NO3-) rpy Ntiyfspy; vy;i-
yg;gL Nghrizf; $whf mika ,lKz;L. ,e;j ,uz;L Nghrizf; $WfSk;
vy;iyg;gLtjhy; ePu; epiyfspy; my;fh tsu;r;rp ,aw;ifahfNt fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
vdpDk;> kdpjdpd; gy;NtW nraw;ghLfs; (tptrhak;> .....)> ifj;njhopw; fopTePu;> tPl;-
by; gad;gLk; Rj;j khf;fpfs; (Cleaning Products) Nghd;wit fhuzkhfg; gpujhdkhf
ePu;epiyfspy; PO43-mad;fs; NrUk;. mjd; tpisthff; Fwpj;j Nghrizfspd; vy;i-
yg;gLjd;ik ePq;Ftjhy; Jupjkhf my;fhf;fs; ngUf;fkilAk;. ,JNt ew;Nghriz
MFk;. cjhuzkhf> my;fh tsu;rr ; piaj; jLg;gjw;nfdpd; Fwpj;j ePupd; PO43- kl;lj;ij
0.05 ppm kl;lk; tiu Fiwthd kl;lj;jpy; Ngzp tuNtz;Lk;. vdpDk;> ngUk;ghyhd
efu;g;Gwf; fopTg; nghUs;fspy; nghRNgw;W kl;lk; 25 ppm msTf;F cau;thf ngWkh-
dj;jpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

cU: 1.39 ew;Nghriz fhuzkhf kPd;fs; ,wj;jy;
ePupy; ghu cNyhf mad;fs; mlq;fpapUj;jy;.
ghu cNyhf mad; vd;gijj; jPu;khdpg;gjw;F kpfr; rupahd xU tiutpyf;fzk;

,y;yhjNghjpYk;> mjw;fhfg; gpd;tUk; tiutpyf;fzq;fs; Gof;fj;jpy; cs;sd.
(1) cNyhftpaypy; ghu cNyhfk; vd;gJ 5 g cm-3 ,Yk; Nkw;gl;l mlu;j;jpAs;s
my;yJ 5 ,Yk; Nkw;gl;l njhlu;glu;j;jp (rhulu;j;jp) As;s cNyhfq;fs; MFk;.
(2) ngsjpftpaypy; mZntz; 20 ,Yk; Nkw; g l; l cNyhfq; f Ns ghu
cNyhfq;fshFk; vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpwJ.
(3) ,urhadtpaypy; ry;igl;L (S2-) kw;Wk; Ijnuhl;irl;L (OH-) mad;fSld;
fiuahj tPo;gbitj; jUk; fw;wad;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; cNyhfq;fSk;
vd tiuaWf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
,g;ghu cNyhf mad;fs; rpy re;ju;gg ; q;fspy; vkf;F ,d;wpaikahj Ez;Nghrizfsh-
2+ 2+
Fk;. (Zn , Fe ) $lNt ngUk;ghyhd re;ju;gg ; q;fspy; ghjfkhd> er;Rj;jd;ikAilait
ahFk;. (Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+) NkYk;> rpy re;ju;g;gq;fspy; Fiwe;j nrwptpy; mj;jpahtrpa-
99
khf xU %yfkhfTk;> cau; nrwptpy; ghjfkhd %yfkhfTk; (Cu2+) elj;ijiaf;

fhl;Lk;. mj;NjhL rpy ghu cNyhf mad;fs;> ve;j (V) capu;j; njhopw;ghl;bYk;
gq;fspg;Gr; nra;tjpy;iy. ghu cNyhfq;fs; ePupYk;> ePu;epiyfspd; mbapy; milayh
fTk; (Sediment) fhzg;gLk;.
GtpNahl;by; ghiwfshfTk; fdpaq;fshfTk; mtw;why; khRf;fshfTk; fhzg;gLk;. ghu

cNyhfq;fs; thdpiyahyoptjhy; ePUlDk; kz;ZlDk; NrUk;. ghu cNyhfq;fs;
,aw;ifahd ePupy; ePNuw;wkile;j mad;fshfTk; rpf;fy; Nru;itfshfTk; fhzg;gLk;.
ePupy; fhzg;gLk; er;Rj;jd;ikAs;s ghu cNyhfq;fs; rpytw;wpd; %yq;fSk; mtw;wpd;
nry;thf;FfSk; fPo; ml;ltizapy; jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz - 1.13: eP u py; mlq; f pAs; s er; R j; j d; i kahy; ghu cNyhfq; f s;

rpytw;wpd; %yq;fSk; mt;TNyhfq;fspd; nry;thf;FfSk;.
ghu cNyhfk; ePUld; NrUk; %yk; nry;thf;F

As • ifj;njhopy; fopT ePu;> nghRNgw;Wg; • Gw;WNehahf;fp
(As2O3) tbtj;jpy; grisfspy; khRf;fshf> epyf;fPo; ePu;> • Mrdpf;Nfhrpah
gq;fR nfhy;yp> ,yj;jpudpay; $Wfs;. Nehahf;fp.
Cd (Cd2+) • ifj;njhopy;fspy; ntspNaw;wg;gLgit> • nehjpaq;fspd;

Ruq;ff; fopTfs;> cNyhf Rj;jpfupg;Gf; njhopw;ghL jilg;gly;.
fopTfs;> kPs kpd;Ndw;wf;$ba kpd;fy • cau; FUjp mKf;fk;
tLf;Ffs;. • rpWePuff; NfhshWfs;
Pb (Pb2+) • ifj;njhopy; fopTfs;> Ruq;ff; fopTfs;> • rpWePufk;njhopypoj;jy;>

<ak; Nru;e;j fNrhypd; (ngw;Nwhy;)> <ak; ,dg;ngUf;ff; NfhshW>
Nru;e;j g+r;R tif> cNyhff; Foha;g; gps;isfspd; cs;sk;
gw;whR gpb gjhu;j;jq;fs;. nky;y tpUj;jpailjy;>
FUjpr;Nrhif>
<NkhFNshgpd; epNuhjpgG ;
Hg • ifj;njhopy; fopTfs;> ntt;NtW fdpaq; • %is ghjpf;fg;gly;.

2+
(Hg, Hg ) fspy; Rtl;lstpy; fhzg;gly;> epyf;fup • epj;jpiuapd;ik
jfdk;> ,urak; mlq;fpa rhjdq;fs;. • rpWePuff; NfhshWfs;
(CFL Fkpo;fs;> ntg;gkhdpfs;> ngw;wp • kpdkhl;lh Neha;
rhjdq;fs;) (Minamata)
(Arsenicosis) Mrdpf;Nfhrpah Neha; (Menameta) kpdkhl;lh Neha;

cU 1.40 er;Rj;jd;ikAs;s ghu cNyhfq;fspd; ghjpg;G
100
• fiue;j epiy Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; (Dissolved Organic Compounds)

er;Rj; jd;ikaw;w vdpDk; capupurhas xl;rprd; Nfs;tp (BOD) my;yJ ,urhad
xl;rprd; Nfs;tp (COD) kPJ gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Ak; Nrjdr; Nru;itfNs fiue;j epiyr;
Nrjdr; Nru;itfshFk;. ,t;tifapy; nty;y tiffs;> fhNghitjNuw;W> ,ypg;gpl;L>
nfhOg;Gf;fs;> nfhOg;gkpyq;fs;> mkpNdh mkpyq;fs;> Gujk;> fiue;j epiy IjNuhf;
fhgd;fs;> jhtu Kjdpiy kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; epiy mDNrgr; Nru;itfs;> mDNrg
fopTg; nghUs;fs; Nghd;wit mlq;Fk;. ePupy; ,r;Nru;itfs; cs;sNghJ gw;wPupah-
f;fspdhy; mit gpupf;fg;gl;L> ePupd; xl;rprd; Nfs;tp mjpfupg;gNjhL fiue;j epiy
xl;rprd; kl;lk; (DO) FiwtilAk;. vdNt ePu;epiyapy; capu;r; nrad;KiwfSf;Fj;
jlq;fy; Vw;gLk;.
• er;Rj;jd;ikAs;s / mghafukhd (Toxic or Hazardous) Nrjdr; Nru;itfs;

,r;Nrjdr; Nru;itfs; kpfr; nrhw;g mstpNyDk; ePupy; mlq;fpapUg;gpd;> me;euP ; gad;ghl;
Lf;Fg; nghUj;jkhdjy;y. ngUk;ghYk; cWjpahf ePz;lfhyk; ,Uf;ff;$ba Nrjdr;
Nru;itfNs (Persistent Organic Compounds) ,t;tifapy; mlq;Fk;. rpy tifg; gPil
nfhy;ypfs;> ifj;njhopyr ; hu;ej
; ,urhadg; nghUs;fs;> myrNdw;wg;gl;l Nrjdr; Nru;it
fs;> lnahl;rPd;fs;> gpAuhd;> nghypf;FNshupNdl;ll; iggPidy;fs; (polychlorinated
biphenyls - PCB), nghypmNuhkw;wpf;F IjNuhf;fhgd; (polyaromatic hydrocarbon - PAH),
ePu;j; njhw;WePf;fy; gf;f tpisTfs; (disinfection by products) Nghd;wit ,f;$l;lj;jpy;
mlq;Fk;.
ePupy; Rtl;lstpy; mlq;fpapUf;Fk; mjpf er;Rj;jd;ikAs;s / mghafukhd rpy Nrjdr;

Nru;itfs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
Benzo(a)pyrene(PAH) Furan DDT
2, 2’, 4, 5, 5’ - pentachlorobiphenyl Aldrin Tetra-n-bulylin
Carbofuran
101
ePu;j; njhw;WePf;fy;> gf;f tpisTfs; vd;gd ePiuj; njhw;WePf;Ftjw;fhfg; gad;gL-

j;jg;gLk; FNshuPd; (Cl2) my;yJ Ig;Nghf;FNshiul;L cg;Gf;fs; (NaOCl, Ca(OCl)2
fhuzkhf ePupy; Njhd;Wk; OCl- MdJ ePupy; fiue;j epiyapy; cs;s rpy Nrjdr;
Nru;itfSld; jhf;fk; Guptjhy; Njhd;Wk; FNshuPd; mlq;fpa Nru;itfshFk;. ,r;
Nru;itfs; er;Rj; jd;ikAilait. ePu;j; njhw;WePf;fypy; gf;ftpisTfshff; fpil-
f;Fk; rpy Nru;itfs; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
• gpshj;jpf;Ff; $l;lw; nghUs;fs; (Plastic Additives)

,d;iwa cyfpy; gpshj;jpf;Fld; njhlu;Gglhj ve;jnthU Efu;Tg; gz;lKk; fpilahJ
vdf; $wyhk;. czTg; nghUs;fs; $l gy gpshj;jpfF ; g; nghUs;fSld; njhlu;Ggl;lit
ahFk;. gpshj;jpf;F rhu;e;j Efu;Tg; gz;lq;fis cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;fhf rpy tifg;
gy;gFjpaq;fNs gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd;gij Vw;fdNt ePq;fs; mwpe;Js;sPu;fs;.
vdpDk;> ,e;j gy;gFjpaq;fisg; gad;gLj;jy; gpshj;jpf;F Efu;Tg; gz;lq;fs; cw;gj;jp
nra;Ak;NghJ mtw;Wld; gy;NtW $l;lw; nghUs;fs; Nru;f;fg;gLfpd;wd. cw;gj;jpia
,yFgLj;Jjy;> fpuaj;ij (nraiy)f; Fiwj;jy;> gy;NtW nghwpKiw ,ay;GfisAk;
gad;ghl;Lf;Fr; rhjfkhd ,ay;GfisAk; Vw;gLj;Jjy;> Efu;Nthiuf; ftu;e;jPu;j;jy;
Nghd;wtw;Wf;fhd ,f;$l;lw; nghUs;fs; Nru;f;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,f;$l;lw; nghUs;fs;
nghJthf ,urhadg; nghUs;fshtNjhL> jtwhd gad;ghL kw;Wk; gad;ghl;bd;
gpd;du; kz;zpy; my;yJ ePupy; ,Ljy; fhuzkhf> mf;$l;lw; nghUs;fs; ke;j
fjpapy; mg;gpshj;jpf;FfSk; Efu;Tg; nghUspypUe;J frpaf;$badthFk;. ,tw;Ws; rpy
$l;lw; nghUs;fs; Mgj;jhditahFk;. Gw;WNehahf;fpj; jd;ik nfhz;lit> XNkhd;
njhFjpiag; ghjpg;git> clypd; rpy Rug;gpfis (rpWePufk; Nghd;w)g; ghjpg;git vd
,f;$l;lw; nghUs;fs; Mgj;Jf;fisf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. NkYk; gy;gFjpaj; njhFg;gpd;
NghJ gad;gLj;jg; gLk; mghafukhd Cf;fpg; gjhu;j;jq;fs;> xUgFjpa khRf;fs;
Nghd;wit Rtl;lstpy; (Traces) ,Wjpg; gpshj;jpf;F Efu;Tg; gz;lj;jpy; mlq;fpapUg;g
NjhL mit ntspf;frpaTk; ,lKz;L. NkYk; gpshj;jpf;F Efu;Tg; gz;l cw;gj;jpapd;
NghJ nghwpKiw ,ay;Gfs; kw;Wk; gad;ghl;Lr; nrsfupaj;Jf;fhfTk; gy;NtW $l;lw;
nghUs;fs; Nru;ff
; g;gLk;. ,t;thwhd gjhu;jj
; q;fSk; vkJ clypy; Nru ,lKz;L. NkYk;
102
gpshj;jpf;F Efu;Tg; gz;lq;fspd; jtwhd gad;ghL fhuzkhfTk; mghafukhd $l;lw;

gjhu;j;jq;fs; clypy; NrUk;. FbePupg; Nghj;jy;fspy; milf;fg;gl;Ls;s ePiu Efu;j;j
gpd;du; mg;Nghj;jy;fis Njq;fhnaz;nza; Nghd;wtw;iw ,l;L itf;fg; gad;gLj;-
Jtjd; tpisthf ePupy; fiuahj; jd;ikAs;s rpy $l;lw; nghUs;fs; gpshj;jpf;Fg;
nghUspy; frpe;J Kidthf;f kw;w Njq;fhnaz;nza; Nghd;w jputq;fis mile;J>
gpd; vkJ cliy mila ,lKz;L.
gpshj;jpf;Ff; $l;lw; nghUs;fshfg; gutyhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rpy ,urhadg;

nghUs;fspd; gad;ghLfSk; mtw;wpd; mghafukhd jd;ikAk; fPNo ml;ltizapy;
jug;gl;Ls;sd.
ml;ltiz -1.14: gpshj;jpf;Ff; $l;lw; nghUs;fshfg; gutyhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
,urhadg; nghUs;fs; rpytw;wpd; gad;ghLk; mtw;wpd; Mghafuj; jd;ikAk;
$l;lw; nghUs;fs; gz;Gfs; ghjpg;Gf;fs;
• jNyw;W (pthalates) • nefpo; gpshj;jpf;F (ed;F • mfQ;Ruf;Fk; njhFjpapy;
• ilxf;iuy; jNyw;W tisAk; jd;ikAila) XNkhd;fs; Ruj;jiyf;
(Dioctyl pthalate) tif cw;gj;jpf;Fg; Fiwj;jy;.
• ilnkjapy; jNyw;W gad;gLj;jy;. • Gw;WNehahf;fp
(Dimethyl pthalate)
• ilvjapy;vl;iry; jNyw;W
(Di (2-ethylhexyl phthalate)
• nyl; epwg;nghUs;fs; • gpufhrkhd epwq;fisf; • ikaeuk;Gj; njhFjpiag;

• PbCrO4 (kQ;rs; - yellow) nfhz;l gpshj;jpf;F ghjpj;jy;.
• Pb3O4 (rptg;G - red) cw;gj;jpf;Fg; gad;gLj;jy;. • gps;isfspd; cs tsu;r;rp
• PbCO3 (nts;is - white) Fd;Wjy;.
• rpWePufq;fs; ghjpf;fg;gly;.
• Gw;WNehahf;fp
• tsu;r;rp jhkjkhjy;.
• mfQ;Ruf;Fk; njhFjpapy;
XNkhd;fs; Ruj;jiyf;
Fiwj;jy;.
• GNuhkPd; mlq;fpa jPaiz • gpshj;jpf;F ciwfs;> • ,ypg;gpl;L ehl;l capupio

Nru;itfs; • kpd; tlf; fhtyp> aq;fspy; xd;W Nru;tjhy;
• nlf;rhGNuhNkhilgPidy; <ju; • gpshj;jpf;F ftrq;fspy; euk;Gj; njhopw;ghl;ilg;

(Decabromodiphenyl ether) kw;Wk; epy tpupg;Gf;fspy; ghjpj;jy;.
nlf;uhGNuhNkhgpRgPNdhy; A jPaiz ,ay;ig • mfQ;Ruf;Fk; njhFjpapy;
(Tetrabromobisphenol A) Vw;gLj;Jtjhf XNkhd;fs; Ruj;jiyf;
Fiwj;jy;.
• gpRgPNdhy; A (Bisphenol A) • nghypfhgNdw;Wg; gpshj;jpf;Fg; • mfQ;Ruf;Fk; njhFjpapy;

nghUs;fs; XNkhd; kl;lj;ijf; Fiwj;jy;.
(ghlrhiyg; gps;isfspd; ePug ; ; • <j;jpud; XNkhd; Nghd;W
Nghj;jy;fs;> Foe;ijfspd; nraw;gl;L <j;jpudpd;
Gl;bfs; cw;gj;jpapy; xUgFjpa njhopw;ghl;Lf;Fj; jlq;fy;
khfg; gad;gLj;jy;) Vw;gLj;jy;.
• PVC cw;gj;jpapy; xl;rpNaw;w • rpWgps;isfspd; cWg;G
ntjpupahfg; gad;gly;. tpUj;jpapy; jlq;fy; Vw;gLj;jy;.
• cNyhfg; Ngzpfspy;
cl;Gwj;Nj mupg;G vjpu;g;Gg;
gilahfg; gad;gLj;jy;.
(cjhuzk;: kPd; Ngzp)
103
$l;lw; nghUs;fs; gz;Gfs; ghjpg;Gf;fs;
• gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpapy; • gy;gFjpa cw;gj;jpf;fhfg; • mjpf er;Rj;jd;ikAilaJ.
khRf;fshf kPjpahfpAs;s gad;gLk;. • Gw;WNehahf;fp.
xUgFjpa kw;Wk; Cf;fpr; • gy;gFjpa nurpd; cw;gj;jpia • guk;giuayF tpfhukhf;fp
Nru;itfs;. Cf;fy;. (xUgFjpa)
• xUgFjpakhf ,j;ijuPd; • Cf;fp khRf;fs; euk;Gfis
itidy; FNshiul;L mopj;jy;.
gpRgPNdhy; A. • Gw;WNehahf;fp
• Cf;fpahf Rtl;lstpy;
mlq;fpAs;s Cr, Pb, Cd
nfhz;l Nru;itfs;.
• Nrjd nts;sPar; • PVC apy; cWjpg;gLj;jpahf • Gw;WNehahf;fp

Nru;itfs; nghypAj;Njd; (Polyurethane) • guk;giuayF tpfhukhf;fp
- ilgpAw;iwy; cw;gj;jpf;fhd Cf;fpahf.
nts;sPar;
Nru;itfs;.
- jpiugpAw;iwy;
nts;sPar;
Nru;itfs;.
• gy;mNuhkw;wpf;F • gpshj;jpf;F epug;gpg; nghUshf • rpy Nru;itfs; typikkpf;f

IjNuhf;fhgd;fs; igupd; • gpshj;jpf;F cw;gj;jpr; nrad; Gw;WNehahf;fpfshFk;.
(Pyrene), ngd;Nrhigupd; Kiwia ,yFgLj;Jtjw;fhf
(benzopyrene) krFg;nghUshfg; gad;gLj;jy;.
104

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f.ngh.

myF 2: gpizg;Gk; fl;likg;Gk;

myF 3: ,urhadf; fzpg;Gf;fs;

© Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfj;jpdhy; fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; jukhd fy;tpapd; tpUj;jpf;fhf

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfj;jpd; fiyj;jpl;l tpUj;jpf; FOtpdu; Njrpa gy;fiyf;fofq;fspd;

,t;thwhd tsE}y;fs; cq;fs; iffSf;F fpilf;fr; nra;tjw;F cjtpa Njrpa

fyhepjp.(jpUkjp) up. V. Mu;. [. FzNrfuh

2017 Kjy; ,yq;ifapd; nghJf; fy;tpj; njhFjpapy; f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) ,y;

Kd;ida fiyj;jpll ; k; mKyhf;fg;gLifapy>; cau;ju tpQQ

,e;j tsE}y;fs; rpq;fsk;> jkpo;> Mq;fpyk; Mfpa nkhopfspy; fpilf;fg; ngWfpd;wJ.

,e;j tsE}y; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; ghlepGzj;Jtk; nfhz;ltu;fshYk; mDgtpf;f ghl

cs;sfg; gjpg;Gf; FO:

jpUkjp. G. G.P. S. tpff

ntspafg; gjpg;Gf; FO:

gzpg;ghsu; ehafj;jpd; nra;jp iii

1.0 mZf; fl;likg;G 1 - 44

1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if

1.2 kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; kw;Wk; rlj;jpd; miynahj;j ,ay;Gfs;

1.3 mZf;fspd; ,yj;jpud; rf;jp kl;lq;fs;

1.5 Mtu;j;jd ml;ltiziaf; fl;bnaOg;gy;

1.6 s kw;Wk; sp njhFg;G %yfq;fspd; Mtu;j;jd Nghf;Ffs;

2.1 gq;fPl;Lg; gpizg;Gfs;

2.2 <jw; gq;fPl;L tYg; gpizg;Gfs;

2.3 tYtsT Xl;L ,yj;jpud; Nrhbj; js;Siff; nfhs;if

2.4 mad; gpizg;G / mad; ,ilj;jhf;fk;

2.5 cNyhfg; gpizg;Gf;fs;

2.6 Jiz / top / ,uz;lhk; epiy ,ilj; jhf;fq;fs; / ftu;r;rpfs;

3.0 ,urhadf; fzpg;Gfs; 96 - 136

3.1 xl;rpNaw;w vz;

3.2 mNrjdr; Nru;itfspd; ngau;fs;

3.4 ,urhadr; #j;jpuq;fspd; tiffs;

3.5 fyitapy; $W xd;wpd; mikg;G

3.6 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fisr; rkg;gLj;jy;.

3.7 fiury;fisj; jahupj;jy;

3.8 ,urhadj; jhf;fq;fis mbg;gilahf cila fzpj;jy;fs;

1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if 1.4 ,yj;jpudpiyaikg;G

1.2 kpd;fhe;j fjpu;tPry; kw;Wk; rlj;jpd;

rlj;jpd; ,ay;Gfs;> elj;ij njhlu;ghd fw;ifNa ,urhadk; MFk;. gpugQ;rj;jpd;

1.1 rlj;jpd; mZf;nfhs;if

,Ue;jNghJk;> gpd;du;> gpNsl;NlhTk; mup];Nlhl;bYk; tFj;j Kw;wpYk; gpupf;f Kbahj

jhw;wdpd; mZf;nfhs;if ehd;F tplaq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.

jhw;wdpd; mZkhjpupahdJ ~~Nfhy;g; ge;J khjpup|| (Golf ball model) vd miof;fg;gLfpdw

cU 1.1(a) N[hd; jhw;wd; cU 1.1(b) Nfhy;g; ge;J khjpup

cU 1.2 xU fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;Foha;

cau; kpd;dOj;j KjYld; ,U kpd;tha;fs; ,izf;fg;gl;lNghJ fNjhl;L vd

vdTk; tpgupj;jhu;. ,tu; JisAs;s xU mNdhl;ilAila fNjhl;Lf; Foha; xd;iwg;

cU 1.3 njhk;rdpd; fNjhl;Lf;Foha;

1.1.1 fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)

• fNjhl;Lf;fjpu;fs; Neu;Nfhl;by; nry;fpd;wd. xU xspGftplhg; nghUs;> cNyhfr;

cU 1.4 fNjhl;Lf;fjpupd; ,ay;Gfs;

• jpzpTk; ,af;frf;jpAk; nfhz;l Jzpf;iffspd; fw;iwfNs fNjhl;Lf;fjpu;fshFk;.

• fNjhl;Lf;Fohapd; ghijapy; gpuNahfpff ; g;gLk; xU kpdG ; yj;jpy; Neu;Vw;wKs;s jfl;il

fNjhl;Lf; fjpu; kpdG

cU 1.5 Gwj;jpYs;s kpd;Gynkhd;Wld; fNjhl;Lf;fjpupd; ,ilj;jhf;fk;

• fNjhl;Lf; fjpu;fspd; ,ay;ghdJ kpdd ; pwf;ff;Fohapy; vLf;fg;gl;l thAtpNyh my;yJ

cU 1.6 J. J. njhk;rDk; mtupd; khjpupAk; (fhl;LU)

cU 1.7 nwhNgu;l; kpy;ypf;fd; kw;Wk; Xu; ,yj;jpudpd; jpzpTk;

,j;jpzpthdJ xU Ijurd; mZtpd; (kpfTk; ,Nyrhd jpzpTila mZ) Rkhu;

1.1.2 Xu; mZtpd; fU

cU 1.8 JthuKila fNjhl;il cila fNjhl;Lf;Foha;

1.1.3 Neu;f;fjpu;fspd; ,ay;Gfs; (gupNrhjid mtjhdq;fs;)

• ,it Neu;Nfhl;by; nry;tJld; jdJ ghijapy; itf;fg;gl;l nghUspd; epoiyAk;

• mNdhl;Lf; fjpuf ; spd; ,ay;Gfs; kpdd