IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies

Shreya Mozumdar

IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
1.1. Environmental Value Systems
• An environmental value system (EVS) is a worldview or paradigm that shapes the way
an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced
by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political contexts.
• It can be considered a system because it has inputs and outputs
• Inputs of EVSs:
o Family
o Peers
o Media
o Religion
o Education
o Politics
o Science
• Outputs of EVSs:
o Course of action
o Perspectives
o Decisions
Cornucopians
Deep Ecologist

The EVS Spectrum

ECOCENTRIC ANTHROPOCENTRIC TECHNOCENTRIC

(nature-centred) (human-centric) (technology-centric)
Minimum disturbance Self- Environmental
People are the managers of the Technology can solve
to nature reliance/Soft Earth Managers environmental problems
Ecologist

• ECOCENTRISM
o An ecocentric viewpoint integrates social, spiritual, and environmental dimensions
into a holistic ideal.
o It puts ecology and nature as central to humanity and emphasizes a less materialistic
approach to life with greater self-sufficiency of societies.
o Beliefs:
§ Environmental conservation is central to decision-making.
§ Humans are part of nature.
§ Individual responsibility and accountability
§ All life has inherent value
§ Against causing extinction of other species
§ Protection of habitats and ecosystems
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Humans are not more important than other species.

• ANTHROPOCENTRISM
o An anthropocentric viewpoint argues that humans must sustainably manage the
global system.
o This could be done through taxes, environmental regulation and legislation.
o Debate is encouraged to reach a consensual, pragmatic approach to solving
environmental problems.
o Beliefs:
§ The environment is a resource for humans to use as needed.
§ Human health and well-being as central to decision-making.
§ People are environmental managers.
§ Government regulation towards environment: taxes, legislation
§ Population control is as important as resource use.
§ Humans are the most important species.
• TECHNOCENTRISM
o A technocentric viewpoint argues that technological developments can provide
solutions to environmental problems.
o This is a result of the optimistic view of the role humans can play in improving
humanity.
o Scientific research is encouraged in order to form policies and understand how
systems can be controlled, manipulated and exchanged to solve resource
depletion/other problems.
o Beliefs:
§ Nature is a model, but can be replaced by technology when needed.
§ Human health and well-being are central to decision-making.
§ Technology can keep pace with an provide solutions to environmental
problems.
§ We must understand natural processes to manage and control resources.
§ We can solve any problem we cause.
§ Economic growth is good and necessary.
• DEEP ECOLOGISTS – extreme ecocentric
o Believe that nature is of more value than humanity.
o Believe that humans are not more important than other living things.
o Not all natural resources are for human use, humans should consume less.
o Seek a more holistic view of the world we live in.
o Believe everyone should be involved in making decisions about the environment.
• SELF-RELIANCE/SOFT ECOLOGIST
o Small-scale, local community action
o Individuals can make a difference
o Self-sufficiency in resource management
o Against large-scale profits, prefer small-scale local markets
• ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGERS
o The Earth needs tending or stewardship
o Governments legislate and protect the environment
o No radical political agenda, promote working to create change within existing social
and political structures.
o Current economic growth can be sustained if environmental issues are managed by
legal means or political agreement.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

o Believe that the environment can be used if managed properly.

• CORNUCOPIANS – extreme technocentric
o The world has infinite resources.
o They do not see environmental issues as problems because humans have always
found a way out of difficulties in the past.
o New resources and technologies will solve any environmental problems as they are
encountered.
o There is no need for a radical agenda, socio-economic or political reform.
o Growth and capitalism are the best ways to manage the free-market economy.

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT

• SILENT SPRING by Rachel Carson (Eco-centrism)
o There is general agreement that the modern environmental movement was catalysed
by Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, published in 1962.
o Carson warned of the effects of pesticides on insects, both pests and others, and
how this was being passed along the food chain to kill other animals, including birds
(hence a silent spring).
o What really gained people’s attention was her belief that pesticides such as DDT
were finding their way into people and accumulating in fatty tissues, causing higher
risks of cancer.
o Chemical industries tried to ban the book but many scientists shared her concerns
and when an investigation, ordered by US president John F. Kennedy, confirmed
her fears, DDT was banned.
o In the decades since the publication of Silent Spring, it has been criticized as
scaremongering without enough scientific evidence. The banning of DDT may have
caused more harm than good by allowing the mosquitoes that carry malaria to
survive and so spread the disease causing millions of deaths.
• AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH by Al Gore (Anthropocentrism) – 1.1
o Al Gore, former US vice-president, was heavily influenced by the book to become
involved in environmental issues, particularly with his documentary on climate
change – An Inconvenient Truth, 2006.
o This raised awareness on climate change, then called global warming, and clearly
stated that global climate change was a result of greenhouse gases released by
human activities and that we had to act as this is a moral issue.
o George Bush’s response to the documentary when he was president of the USA was
‘Doubt it’ and he later said that we should focus on technologies that enable us to
live better lives and protect the environment.
• THE MINAMATA DISASTER, JAPAN – 1.1, 1.5

o Mercury is a heavy metal and is poisonous to animals. It affects the nervous system
causing loss of vision, hearing and speech and lack of coordination in arms and
legs. Severe poisoning causes insanity or death.
o The Chisso Corporation built a chemicals factory in Minamata, Japan and was very
successful for years. But a by-product was methylmercury which bioaccumulated
in the bodies of humans, causing mercury poisoning.
o The villagers sued Chisso many times and asked for compensation, until the
government finally had Chisso pay them compensation and treat their illnesses.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

• THE BHOPAL DISASTER, INDIA

o In the early hours of the morning of 3 December 1984, in the centre of the city of
Bhopal, India, in the state of Madhya Pradesh, a Union Carbide pesticide plant
released 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, immediately killing nearly
3,000 people and ultimately causing at least 15,000-22,000 total deaths. This has
been called the Bhopal Disaster and is considered to be the world’s worst industrial
disaster. The world was in shock.
o The people are still suffering till today.

• THE CHERNOBYL DISASTER, UKRAINE – 1.1

o In 1986, at Chernobyl, the worst nuclear disaster ever occurred. This was a few
miles north of Kiev, the capital of Ukraine (then part of the USSR) where an
explosion and then fire resulted in a level 7 event (the highest).
o The reactor vessel containing the uranium radioactive material split so exposing the
graphite moderator to air which caused it to catch fire. The reactor went into
uncontrollable meltdown and a cloud of highly radioactive material from this
drifted over much of Russia and Europe as far west as Wales and Scotland.
o Fission products from the radioactive cloud, e.g. isotopes of caesium, strontium and
iodine, have a long half-life and were accumulated in food chains.
o There is much debate about how many people have been affected by the radiation
as long-term effects, such as cancers and deformities at birth, are difficult to link to
one event.
o 31 workers died of radiation sickness as they were exposed to high levels in trying
to shut down the reactor and some had a lethal dose of radiation within one minute
of exposure.
o Estimates of later deaths vary but some state about 1,000 extra cases of thyroid
cancer and 4,000 other cancers caused by the fallout cloud. Other estimates state
that 1 million people will have died as a result of the disaster.
o Even today, the reactor is still dangerous. It was encased in a concrete shell but the
other reactors continued to run until 2000. Now, a metal arch is being built as the
concrete shell only has a lifetime of 30 years but estimates of the date of completion
have been put back to 2016.

• FUKUSHIMA DAIICHI NUCLEAR DISASTER, JAPAN – 1.1

o In 2011, there was another nuclear accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant
in Japan. An earthquake set off a tsunami which caused damage resulting in
meltdown of 3 reactors in the plant. The water flooding these became radioactive
and will take many years to remove.
o Although the radiation leak was only about 30% that of Chernobyl and radiation
levels in the air low, one third of a million people were evacuated as the plant was
sited in a densely populated area.
o Later reports showed the accident was caused by human error – it was not built to
withstand a tsunami even though it was close to the sea in an earthquake zone. The
plant is still not secured.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

o After the disaster, there were anti-nuclear demonstrations in other countries and
Germany announced it was closing older reactors and phasing out nuclear power
generation. France, Belgium, Switzerland all had public votes to reduce or stop
nuclear power plants. In other countries, plans for nuclear plants were abandoned
or reduced.

1.2. Systems and Models

• A system is an organised collection of interdependent parts that perform a function and
which are connected through the transfer of energy and/or matter.
• All parts are linked together and affect each other.
• A systems approach is a way of visualising a complex set of interaction which may be
ecological or societal.
• A system is composed of storages and flows.
• Flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter.
• Flowers are processes which may be transfers or transformations.
• In system diagram, storages are represented as rectangular boxes and flows as arrows
with the arrow indicating the direction of the flow.
• A model is a simplified version of reality and can be used to understand how a system
works and predict how it will respond to change.
• TYPES OF SYSTEMS
o Open system – exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings (e.g.
ecosystem)
o Closed system – exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings. They
do not occur naturally on Earth. (e.g. nutrient cycles, Biosphere II – read about
it)
o Isolated system – exchanges neither matter nor energy with its surroundings.
No such systems exist. (e.g. the known universe can be considered one.)
• TYPES OF FLOWS
o Transfers occur when matter and energy move through a system without
changing form or state. They usually involve a change of location.
§ Movement of materials through a food chain – one animal eats
another
§ Movement of materials in a non-living process – water is carried to
the ocean through a river
§ Movement of energy – ocean currents carrying heat
o Transformations occur when matter or energy change form when travelling
through a system. It leads to an interaction within the system and forms a new
end product or change of state.
§ Energy to matter – solar energy to glucose in photosynthesis
§ Matter to energy – combustion of fossil fuels
§ Matter to matter – evaporation of water
§ Energy to energy – light energy to electrical energy
• STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF MODELS

STRENGTHS OF MODELS WEAKNESSES OF MODELS

Models simplify complex systems and allow Models may not be accurate and can be too
predictions to be made. simple.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

Inputs can be changed to see the effects and
outputs, without having to wait for real
events to occur.
Model results can be shown to other
scientists and the public. They are easier to
understand than detailed information about
the whole system.
Models rely on the level of expertise of the
people making them.
Different people can interpret the
information in models in different ways.
Models depend on the quality of the data that
go into the inputs.
Models can be manipulated for political or
financial gain.
Different models can show different results
even when given the same inputs.

1.3. Energy and Equilibria

• Energy in all systems is subject to the laws of thermodynamics.
• According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is neither created nor destroyed.
Thus, the total energy in any system is constant. This law is called the principle of
conservation of energy.
• The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy in an isolated system that
is not in equilibrium increases over time.
o Entropy is the measure of disorder in a system. It refers to the dispersal of
energy.
o The greater the entropy, the less order there is in a system.
o An increasing amount of entropy from energy transformations reduces the
energy available to do work in the system. This is because some energy is
always lost as heat.
• Equilibrium is the tendency of a system to return to its original state following a
disturbance. At equilibrium, a state of balance exists among the components of the
system. It avoids sudden changes in a system. If change exists, it usually occurs within
limits.
• TYPES OF EQUILIBRIA
o Steady-state: have continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter, but the
system remains in a largely constant state. It is a characteristic of open systems.
o Static: there is no change over time. When disrupted, if ever, it will adopt a new
equilibrium.
o Stable: the system returns to the same equilibrium after a disturbance.
o Unstable: the system attains a new equilibrium after a disturbance. Unlike static
equilibria, disruptions are more likely in unstable equilibria.
• A feedback loop is when information that starts a reaction tends to input more
information that starts another reaction.
o Positive feedback – amplifies changes and drives a system to a tipping point
where a new equilibrium is adopted. It is a destabilising mechanism.
o Negative feedback – tries to damp down or counteract any deviation from the
equilibrium and results in the self-regulation of a system. It stabilises steady-
state equilibria.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

• Resilience is the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance. The
more resilient a system is, the more disturbance it can deal with.
• FACTORS AFFECTING ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE
o The more diverse and complex a system is, the more resilient it is because there
are more interactions between different species.
o The greater the biodiversity of an ecosystem, the more resilient it is because it
is likely that a species that dies out can be replaced by another one with a similar
role in the ecosystem, maintaining the equilibrium.
o The more genetic diversity there is within species, the more resilient it is
because it is more difficult to wipe out a species.
o The larger the ecosystem, the more resilient it is because there are more animals
and species and it is more difficult for them to be wiped out by a disturbance.
o The faster the rate of reproduction of the species, the more resilient the
ecosystem because species can recover form disturbances faster and recolonise,
preventing them from dying out.
• A tipping point is a threshold that is reached when an ecosystem experiences a shift to
a new state, driving it into a new state. Its characteristics are:
o Involve positive feedback, which makes the change self-perpetuating and drives
the system further from equilibrium.
o Beyond the tipping point, a fast change of state occurs.
o The tipping point cannot be precisely predicted.
o The changes are long-lasting and difficult to reverse.
o There is a large time lag between the pressures driving the change and the
evidence of the impacts, making management of the change difficult.

1.4. Sustainability
• Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full natural
replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by
their extraction and use.
• Natural capital is a term that refers to natural resources that can produce a sustainable
natural income of goods and/or services.
• TYPES OF NATURAL CAPITAL
o Renewable – living things that can be generated and/or replaced as fast as they
are used by natural productivity. (e.g. food crops)
o Replenishable – non-living resources which are continuously replaced by
natural processes. Depend on abiotic processes for replenishment. (e.g. water)
o Non-renewable – resources that are irreplaceable or only replaced over a long
time scale, slower than the rate at which they are being used. (e.g. fossil fuels)
• Natural income is the yield obtained from natural resources.
• VALUE OF NATURAL CAPITAL
o Intrinsic value – values that are not determined by their use to humans, value
is given and can vary by culture, religion, etc.
o Economic value – value determined from the market price of the goods and
services produced by a resource.
o Ecological value – value that has no market price, but is essential to life
nonetheless.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

o Aesthetic value – value of anything that looks good or is pleasing to the eye.
Has no market price.
• Organisms or ecosystems that have aesthetic or intrinsic value may not provide
commodities in the form of goods or services, and may remain undervalued
economically.
• Organisms or ecosystems that have intrinsic value are valued regardless of their
potential use to humans.
• The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA/MEA) gave a scientific appraisal of
the condition and trends of the world’s ecosystems and the services they provide using
environmental indicators and scientific basis for action to conserve and use them
sustainably.
• A synergy is a non-linear relationship between two or more elements whereby they
generate a combined outcome that is more or less than the sum of their parts taken
separately, due to their capacity to work together or against each other.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS (EIAs)

• An environmental impact assessment (EIA) assesses the environmental, social and

economic impacts of a project, predicting and evaluating them and suggesting
mitigation strategies for the project.
• PURPOSE OF EIAs:
o Help the decision-making process by providing information about a project’s
consequences to the environment.
o Promotes sustainable development by identifying environmentally sound
practices and mitigation measures for development.
o Provides a documented method of examining environmental impacts that can
be used as evidence in the decision-making process.
• PROCESS OF EIAs:
o Screening: the process undertaken to determine if an EIA is required and if so,
what level of detail is required.
o Scoping: the process undertaken to determine the issues of the project, the
current state of the environment and who the stakeholders are.
o Identification of alternatives to the project
o Impact analysis: looks at what the social and other related impacts of the
project are.
o Mitigation and impact management: determines how impacts can be reduced,
mitigated or managed.
o Evaluation of significance: determines if the impacts are acceptable or must
be dealt with.
o Preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): this report
involves the documentation of the impacts, impact mitigation options, concerns
and a proposal of how to go about the project.
o Review of the EIS: the EIS is left open for public comment for a sufficient time
period.
o Decision-making: public comments are considered and a decision is made
whether to accept, modify or reject the proposal.
o Monitoring and review: an implementation plan is developed and monitoring
and review of the project begins.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

• CRITICISMS OF EIAs:
o No standard practice or training for EIA practitioners
o No clear definition of system boundaries – till where the impacts should be
measured
o Indirect impacts may not be considered
o Public consultation practices are poorly implemented
o Reports not well-written or explained
o EIA practices can be expensive, inefficient or time-consuming
o Reports are manipulated where some information is understated or omitted.
o No monitoring or review to ensure the implementation of the EIS properly.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT (EF)

• An ecological footprint (EF) is the area of land and water required to sustainably
provide all resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given
population.
• If EF is greater than the area available to the population, it indicates unsustainability.
• ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT VS. CARRYING CAPACITY
o Carrying capacity: the POPULATION that can be sustainably supported by a
GIVEN AREA
o Ecological footprint: the AREA that can be sustainably supported by a GIVEN
POPULATION
• EF is increased by:
o Reliance on fossil fuels
o Increased use of technology and energy
o High amounts of imported resources
o High per capita production of carbon waste/emissions
o High per capita consumption of food
o Meat-rich diets
• EF is reduced by:
o Reducing use of resource
o Recycling resources
o Using renewable energy sources
o Reducing reliance on fossil fuels
o Increasing efficiency of resource use
o Investing in new and efficient technologies
o Using biological controls for weeds and pests instead of synthetic pesticide
o Using high-yielding varieties of seeds
o Less dependence on meat in diet
o Less dependence on chemical fertiliser

1.5. Humans and Pollution

• Pollution is the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human
activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the
environment, and which has a negative effect on the organisms within it.
• Pollutants are released by human activity. They may be
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

o Matter – organic (contains carbon atoms) or inorganic (does not contain carbon
atoms)
o Energy – sound, light, heat
o Living organisms – invasive species, biological agents
• TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
o Primary pollutants – active on emission (e.g. carbon monoxide)
o Secondary pollutants – formed when primary pollutants undergo physical or
chemical changes (e.g. sulphur trioxide + water à sulphuric acid)
• TYPES OF POLLUTION
o Point-source pollution – release of a pollutant from a single, clearly
identifiable source.
§ Easy to determine exactly who or what is causing the pollution
§ Easier to manage as the source is easily identified
§ E.g. waste disposal pipe of a sewage works into a river
o Non-point source pollution – release of pollutants from various widely
dispersed sources.
§ May have many different sources and may be impossible to detect where
exactly it is coming from.
§ E.g. air pollution blown many kilometres away by wind cannot be traced
back to its original source.
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are resistant to breaking down and remain active
in the environment for a long time.
o They can bioaccumulate in animal and human tissues and biomagnify in food
chains.
o Properties:
§ High molecular weight
§ Not soluble in water
§ Highly soluble in lipids – can pass through cell membranes
o They cause cancers and disrupt hormone functions
• Biodegradable pollutants do not persist in the environment and break down quickly.
o They are broken down by decomposers or physical processes like light and heat.
o E.g. degradable plastic bags made of starch
• TYPES OF POLLUTION
o Acute pollution – large amounts of a pollutant are released at once, causing
significant harm. (e.g. Bhopal Disaster in India, see 1.1.)
o Chronic pollution – long-term release of a pollutant in small amounts. (e.g.
Beijing air pollution)
§ May go undetected for a long time
§ Difficult to manage
§ Spreads widely.
• DETECTION AND MONITORING OF POLLUTION
o Direct measurements record the amount of a pollutant in water, air or soil. (e.g.
acidity of rainwater, amount of a gas in the atmosphere)
o Indirect measurements record changes in abiotic or biotic factors that are
affected by the pollutants. (e.g. oxygen content of water, present of species that
indicate pollution or cleanliness known as indicator species)
• POLLUTION MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL
Topic 1: Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Shreya Mozumdar

Strategy Examples of actions

Altering human activity – the most • Campaigns
fundamental level of pollution management is • Education
changing the human activity that produces • Community groups
pollution by promoting alternative technologies • Government legislation
and lifestyles. • Economic incentives (subsidies,
grants)/disincentives (fines, taxes)

Regulating release of the pollutant into the • Legislation and regulation of

environment – where human activity is not standards of emission
stopped, strategies can be applied to prevent the • Developing and implementing
release of the pollutants. technology to extract the pollutant
from emissions

Clean-up and restoration of damaged systems • Extracting and removing pollutant

– where both above levels of management fail, from ecosystem
strategies to recover damaged ecosystems can be • Replenishing lost or depleted species
implemented.