13.11.

2023

Orbital Mechanics

Dr. Demet Cilden-Guler

Lecture 7: Orbits in Three Dimensions (continue)

Department of Astronautical Engineering

Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Istanbul Technical University

Some Technical Terms in Turkish

6 klasik yörünge elemanı
• Yarı büyük eksen uzunluğu (semimajor axis), a
• Dışmerkezlilik (eccentricity), e
• Yatıklık/eğiklik açısı (inclination), i
• Yükselme düğümü açısı (right ascension of the ascending node) (RAAN), Ω – yalnızca düğüm
olarak da adlandırılabilir
• Yerberi argümanı (argument of perigee), 𝜔
• Gerçek anomali (true anomaly), 𝜃
Diğer
• Yarı parametre, p, (yarı özkiriş uzunluğu (semilatus rectum) veya basitçe parametre)
• Enöte uzaklığı, ra ve enberi uzaklığı, rp
• Güneş: günberi ve günöte
• Dünya: yerberi ve yeröte
• Ay: ayberi (perilune/periselene) ve ayöte
• Genel: enberi ve enöte

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 2

1
 13.11.2023

Coordinate Transformation
! # %
⏞ 𝑥"𝑦"𝑧" →
𝑥𝑦𝑧 → ⏞ 𝑥$𝑦$𝑧$ →⏞ 𝑥 &𝑦 &𝑧 &
The first rotation angle is 𝛼, the second one is 𝛽
and the final one is 𝛾.
Each one of the three transformations has the
direction cosine matrix 𝐑 ' (𝜙) , where 𝑖 = 1,2,3 and
𝜙 = 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾.
Sequence of three such elementary rotations
relating two different Cartesian frames of
reference is called an Euler angle sequence.
12 possible Euler angle sequences.
Six symmetric Euler sequences begin and end with
rotation about the same axis.
𝐑" 𝛾 𝐑 $ 𝛽 𝐑" 𝛼 𝐑" 𝛾 𝐑 ( 𝛽 𝐑" 𝛼
𝐑 $ 𝛾 𝐑" 𝛽 𝐑 $ 𝛼 𝐑$ 𝛾 𝐑( 𝛽 𝐑$ 𝛼
𝐑 ( 𝛾 𝐑" 𝛽 𝐑 ( 𝛼 𝐑( 𝛾 𝐑$ 𝛽 𝐑( 𝛼
Classical Euler sequence of three rotations
transforming xyz into x′y′z′. The “eye”
viewing down an axis sees the illustrated
rotation about that axis.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 3

Coordinate Transformation
! # %
⏞ 𝑥"𝑦"𝑧" →
𝑥𝑦𝑧 → ⏞ 𝑥$𝑦$𝑧$ →⏞ 𝑥 &𝑦 &𝑧 &
The first rotation angle is 𝛼, the second one is 𝛽
and the final one is 𝛾.
Each one of the three transformations has the
direction cosine matrix 𝐑 ' (𝜙) , where 𝑖 = 1,2,3 and
𝜙 = 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾.
Sequence of three such elementary rotations
relating two different Cartesian frames of
reference is called an Euler angle sequence.
12 possible Euler angle sequences.
Asymmetric Euler sequences involve rotations
about all three axes.
𝐑" 𝛾 𝐑 $ 𝛽 𝐑 ( 𝛼 𝐑" 𝛾 𝐑 ( 𝛽 𝐑 𝟐 𝛼
𝐑$ 𝛾 𝐑( 𝛽 𝐑" 𝛼 𝐑$ 𝛾 𝐑" 𝛽 𝐑( 𝛼
𝐑( 𝛾 𝐑" 𝛽 𝐑$ 𝛼 𝐑( 𝛾 𝐑$ 𝛽 𝐑" 𝛼
Classical Euler sequence of three rotations
transforming xyz into x′y′z′. The “eye”
viewing down an axis sees the illustrated
rotation about that axis.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 4

2
 13.11.2023

Example
At a given instant the position 𝐫 and velocity 𝐯 of a satellite in the geocentric equatorial frame are
𝐫 = −13,000𝐊 ˆ km
𝐯 = 4ˆ𝐢 + 5ˆ𝐉 + 6𝐊ˆ km
s
Find the orbital elements.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 5

At a given instant the position 𝐫 and velocity 𝐯 of a satellite in the geocentric equatorial frame are

Solution
ˆ km
𝐫 = −13,000𝐊
km
𝐯 = 4𝐢ˆ + 5𝐉ˆ + 6𝐊
ˆ
s
Find the orbital elements.

(1) 𝑟 =∥ 𝐫 ∥= 13,000 km, (2) 𝑣 =∥ v ∥= 8.775 km/s

𝐫⋅𝐯
(3) 𝑣* = = −6 km/s(< 0)
*
(4) 𝐡 = 𝐫×𝐯 = 65,000𝐈ˆ − 52,000𝐉ˆ km$/s , (5) ℎ =∥ 𝐡 ∥= 83,241 km$/s
/ 0
(6) 𝑖 = cos ." 3 = cos ." = 90∘
/ 1(,$3"
ˆ
(7) 𝐍 = 𝐊×𝐡 = 52,000𝐈ˆ + 65,000𝐉ˆ km$/s 𝑁5 > 0 , (8) 𝑁 =∥ 𝐍 ∥= 83,241 km$/s
." 64 7$,000
(9) Ω = cos = cos ." = 51.34∘
6 1(,$3"
"
(10) 𝐞 = W 8.775$ ˆ − (−13,000)(−6)(4𝐈ˆ + 5𝐉ˆ + 6𝐊)]
− 398,600/13,000 (−13,000𝐊) ˆ
(81,900

= 0.78274𝐈ˆ + 0.97852𝐉ˆ − 0.33718𝐊

ˆ 𝑒: < 0
(11) 𝑒 =∥ 𝐞 ∥= 1.2976
𝐍⋅𝐞
(12) 𝜔 = 360∘ − cos ." = 360∘ − 15.061∘ = 344.94∘
6=
𝐞⋅𝐫
(13) 𝜃 = 360∘ − cos ." = 360∘ − 74.939∘ = 285.06∘
=*

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 6

3
 13.11.2023

Example
With respect to the geocentric equatorial frame, the position vector of a spacecraft is
𝐫 = −6000𝐈ˆ − 1000𝐉ˆ − 5000𝐊(km)
ˆ
and the eccentricity vector is
𝐞 = −0.4𝐈ˆ − 0.5𝐉ˆ − 0.6𝐊
ˆ
Calculate the true anomaly 𝜃 if the satellite is approaching perigee.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 7

With respect to the geocentric equatorial frame, the position vector of a spacecraft is 𝐫 = −6000 𝐈ˆ − 1000 𝐉ˆ − 5000 𝐊(km)
ˆ

Solution and the eccentricity vector is 𝐞 = −0.4 𝐈ˆ − 0.5 𝐉ˆ − 0.6 𝐊ˆ

Calculate the true anomaly 𝜃 if the satellite is approaching perigee.

𝑟 =∥ r ∥= 7874.01 km
𝑒 =∥ e ∥= 0.877496
𝐞⋅𝐫
𝜃 = 360∘ − cos ." ( since it is approaching perigee )
𝑒𝑟
(−0.4𝐈ˆ − 0.5𝐉ˆ − 0.6𝐊)
ˆ ⋅ (−6000𝐈ˆ − 1000𝐉ˆ − 5000𝐊)
ˆ
𝜃 = 360∘ − cos ."
0.877496 ⋅ 7874.01
5900
𝜃 = 360∘ − cos ."
6909.41
𝜃 = 360∘ − cos ."[0.853907]
𝜃 = 360∘ − 31.3608∘ = 328.639∘

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 8

4
 13.11.2023

Coordinate Transformation

“Classical” Euler angle sequence:

𝐐 = 𝐑 ( 𝛾 𝐑" 𝛽 𝐑 ( 𝛼
0 ≤ 𝛼 < 360∘ 0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 180∘ 0 ≤ 𝛾 < 360∘
{𝐛}5 6 {𝐛}5 7 {𝐛}5 8
[𝐐]{𝐛}> = 𝐑 ((𝛾) 𝐑"(𝛽) 𝐑 ((𝛼)]{𝐛}> = 𝐑 ((𝛾) 𝐑"(𝛽)]{𝐛}>6 = 𝐑 ((𝛾) {𝐛}>7
−sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽sin 𝛾
[𝐐] = −sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽cos 𝛾
sin 𝛼sin 𝛽 −cos 𝛼sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
Given the direction cosine matrix, find the
rotation angles (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾).
B96 B69
tan 𝛼 = , cos 𝛽 = 𝑄((, tan 𝛾 = (Classical Euler angle sequence)
.B97 B79 Classical Euler sequence of three rotations
transforming xyz into x′y′z′. The “eye”
𝛼= tan." −𝑄("/𝑄($ 0≤𝛼< 360∘ viewing down an axis sees the illustrated
rotation about that axis.
𝛽 = cos ." 𝑄(( 0 ≤ 𝛽 ≤ 180∘
𝛾 = tan." 𝑄"(/𝑄$( 0 ≤ 𝛾 < 360∘
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 9

Orbital Elements Argument of latitude: 𝑢 = 𝜔 + 𝜈

If there is no perturbation, orbital elements would be constant except the true anomaly.
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 10

10

5
 13.11.2023

Transforming ECI to Orbital Frame by 3 Rotations

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 11

11

Transforming ECI to Orbital Frame by 3 Rotations

• Rotating ECI frame (𝑋l , 𝑌l , 𝑍l ) around 𝑍l by Ω

• Rotating reoriented frame (𝑥 m , 𝑦 m , 𝑧 m ) around 𝑥 m by 𝑖
• Rotating reoriented frame (𝑥 mm , 𝑦 mm , 𝑧 mm ) around 𝑧 mm by 𝑢

• Hill’s frame (𝑥n , 𝑦n , 𝑧n ) becomes 𝑥 mmm , 𝑦 mmm , 𝑧 mmm

• Orbital frame (𝑥o , 𝑦o , 𝑧o ) becomes 𝑦 mmm , −𝑧 mmm , −𝑥 mmm

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 12

12

6
 13.11.2023

Coordinate Transformation
Asymmetric "yaw, pitch, and roll“ – “Euler 321” sequence,
𝐐 = 𝐑" 𝛾 𝐑 $ 𝛽 𝐑 ( 𝛼
0 ≤ 𝛼 < 360∘, −90∘ < 𝛽 < 90∘, 0 ≤ 𝛾 < 360∘
cos 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 −sin 𝛽
[𝐐] = cos 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛽sin 𝛾
cos 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 + sin 𝛼sin 𝛾 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 − cos 𝛼sin 𝛾 cos 𝛽cos 𝛾
Given the direction cosine matrix, find the
rotation angles (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾).
𝑄"$ 𝑄$(
tan 𝛼 = sin 𝛽 = −𝑄"( tan 𝛾 =
𝑄"" 𝑄((
(Yaw, pitch and roll sequence)
𝛼 = tan." 𝑄"$/𝑄"" 0 ≤ 𝛼 < 360∘
𝛽 = sin." −𝑄"( −90∘ < 𝛽 < 90∘
𝛾 = tan." 𝑄$(/𝑄(( 0 ≤ 𝛾 < 360∘

Yaw, pitch, and roll sequence transforming xyz into x′y′z′.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 13

13

Which statement is correct?

For the same direction cosine matrix with different sequences,
1. The original vector at the beginning and the rotated vector states are
directed to the same direction.
2. The original vector at the beginning and the rotated vector states are
directed to different directions.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 14

14

7
 13.11.2023

Which statement is correct?

For the same direction cosine matrix with different sequences,
1. The original vector at the beginning and the rotated vector states are
directed to the same direction.
2. The original vector at the beginning and the rotated vector states are
directed to different directions.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 15

15

Which statement is correct?

For the same direction cosine matrix,
1. The rotation angles with various sequences will be the same.
2. The rotation angles with various sequences will be different.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 16

16

8
 13.11.2023

Which statement is correct?

For the same direction cosine matrix,
1. The rotation angles with various sequences will be the same.
2. The rotation angles with various sequences will be different.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 17

17

Example
If the direction cosine matrix for the transformation from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to 𝑥 &𝑦 &𝑧 & is,
0.64050 0.75309 −0.15038
[𝑄] = 0.76737 −0.63530 0.086823
−0.30152 −0.17101 −0.98481
(a) find the angles 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 of the classical Euler sequence.
(b) find the angles 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 of the yaw, pitch, and roll sequence.

−sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽sin 𝛾
[𝐐]("(= −sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽cos 𝛾
sin 𝛼sin 𝛽 −cos 𝛼sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
cos 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 −sin 𝛽
[𝐐]($"= cos 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛽sin 𝛾
cos 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 + sin 𝛼sin 𝛾 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 − cos 𝛼sin 𝛾 cos 𝛽cos 𝛾

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 18

18

9
 13.11.2023

If the direction cosine m atrix for the transform ation from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to 𝑥 ! 𝑦 ! 𝑧 ! is,

Solution
0.64050 0.75309 −0.15038
[𝑄 ] = 0.76737 −0.63530 0.086823
−0.30152 −0.17101 −0.98481
(a) find the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , and 𝛾 of the classical Euler sequence.
(b) find the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , and 𝛾 of the yaw, pitch, and roll sequence.

−sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 + sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽sin 𝛾
[𝐐]("(= −sin 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛼cos 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛾 sin 𝛽cos 𝛾
sin 𝛼sin 𝛽 −cos 𝛼sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
." 𝑄(" ." −0.030152
𝛼 = tan = tan
−𝑄($ − −0.17101
."
−0.030152
tan = tan (−0.17632) = −10∘ ⇒ 𝛼 = 350∘
."
−[−0.17101]
𝛽 = cos ." 𝑄(( = cos ."(−0.98481) = 170.0∘
𝑄"( −0.15038
𝛾 = tan." = tan."
𝑄$( 0.086823
."
−0.15038
tan = tan (−0.17320) = −60∘ ⇒ 𝛾 = 300∘
."
0.086824

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 19

19

If the direction cosine m atrix for the transform ation from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 to 𝑥 ! 𝑦 ! 𝑧 ! is,

Solution
0.64050 0.75309 −0.15038
[𝑄 ] = 0.76737 −0.63530 0.086823
−0.30152 −0.17101 −0.98481
(a) find the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , and 𝛾 of the classical Euler sequence.
(b) find the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , and 𝛾 of the yaw, pitch, and roll sequence.

cos 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 −sin 𝛽

[𝐐]($"= cos 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 − sin 𝛼cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽sin 𝛾 + cos 𝛼cos 𝛾 cos 𝛽sin 𝛾
cos 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 + sin 𝛼sin 𝛾 sin 𝛼sin 𝛽cos 𝛾 − cos 𝛼sin 𝛾 cos 𝛽cos 𝛾
𝑄"$ 0.75309
𝛼 = tan." = tan."
𝑄"" 0.64050
."
0.75309
tan = tan 1.1758 = 49.62∘
."
0.64050
𝛽 = sin." −𝑄"( = sin."[−(−0.15038)] = sin."(0.15038) = 8.649∘
𝑄$( 0.086823
𝛾 = tan." = tan."
𝑄(( −0.98481
0.086823
tan." = tan."(−0.088162) = −5.0383∘ ⇒ 𝛾 = 174.96∘
−0.98481

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 20

20

10
 13.11.2023

What To Learn

• Transform between geocentric equatorial and perifocal frames

• Two of the major perturbations of earth orbits due to the earth’s
nonspherical shape for
• Sun-synchronous orbits
• Molniya/Tundra orbits
• Ground tracks
Credit: NASA/SDO:
October 26, 2022

G3 (STRONG) GEOMAGNETIC STORM LEVELS REACHED AT 05

NOV/1740 UTC
Published: Sunday, November 05, 2023 17:56 UTC
Credit: NOAA
https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/news/g3-strong-geomagnetic-storm-levels-
reached-05-nov1740-utc
D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 21

21

Transformation Between Geocentric Equatorial and

Perifocal Frames
Orbit lies in 𝑥𝑦 plane, components of body’s state
vector in perifocal reference,
ℎ$ 1
𝐫 = 𝑥 𝐩ˆ + 𝑦𝐪ˆ = (cos 𝜃𝐩ˆ + sin 𝜃𝐪)
ˆ
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
𝜇
𝐯 = 𝑥˙ 𝐩ˆ + 𝑦˙ 𝐪ˆ = [−sin 𝜃𝐩ˆ + (𝑒 + cos 𝜃)𝐪]ˆ
ℎ
ℎ$ 1 cos 𝜃
{𝐫}> = sin 𝜃
𝜇 1 + 𝑒cos 𝜃
0
𝜇 −sin 𝜃
{𝐯}> = 𝑒 + cos 𝜃
ℎ
0
Subscript 𝑥 is shorthand for " 𝑥𝑦𝑧 system" (perifocal)
DCM from 𝑋𝑌𝑍 to 𝑥𝑦𝑧:
[𝐐]C> = 𝐑 ((𝜔) 𝐑"(𝑖) 𝐑 ((Ω)

Perifocal and geocentric equatorial (XYZ) frames.

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 22

22

11
 13.11.2023

Transformation Between Geocentric Equatorial and

Perifocal Frames
DCM from 𝑋𝑌𝑍 to 𝑥𝑦𝑧:
[𝐐]C> = 𝐑 ((𝜔) 𝐑"(𝑖) 𝐑 ((Ω)
−sin Ωcos 𝑖sin 𝜔 + cos Ωcos 𝜔 cos Ωcos 𝑖sin 𝜔 + sin Ωcos 𝜔 sin 𝑖sin 𝜔
[𝐐]C> = −sin Ωcos 𝑖cos 𝜔 − cos Ωsin 𝜔 cos Ωcos 𝑖cos 𝜔 − sin Ωsin 𝜔 sin 𝑖cos 𝜔
sin Ωsin 𝑖 −cos Ωsin 𝑖 cos 𝑖
𝑋 𝑣C
{𝐫}C = 𝑌 , {𝐯}C = 𝑣5
𝑍 𝑣:
𝑥 𝑥˙
{𝐫}> = 𝑦 = [𝐐]C> {𝐫}C, {𝐯}> = ˙ = [𝐐]C> {𝐯}C
𝑦
0 0
Transformation from perifocal to geocentric equatorial components ([𝐐]>C = [𝐐]C> D ),
{𝐫}C = [𝐐]>C{𝐫}> , {𝐯}C = [𝐐]>C{𝐯}>

D. Cilden-Guler Orbital Mechanics 23

23

12