RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 1.
Ventilation
- acquire oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from
the blood
SEVEN STRUCTURES [Respiratory System]
1. EXTERNAL NOSE
> encloses the chamber for air inspiration
2. NASAL CAVITY
> cleaning, warming, humidifying chamber for
inspired air
3. PHARYNX [THROAT]
> serve as passageway for food and air
4. LARYNX [VOICE BOX]
> rigid structure help
> help keep the airway constantly open or patent
5. TRACHEA [WINDPIPE]
> air-cleaning tube to funnel inspired air to each
lung
6. BRONCHI
> tubes that direct air into the lungs
7. LUNGS
> each lung is a labyrinth of air tube and a
complex network of air sacs, called alveoli and
capillaries
FUNCTION OF RS
two (2) broad aspects of respiration
• VENTILATION - movement of air into and out
of the lungs
• RESPIRATION - diffusion of gases across the
cell membranes
> 2 major types
• External Respiration - movement of gases
between atmospheric air in the lungs and blood
• Internal Respiration - movement of gases
between the blood and the body's cells
TWO (2) MAJOR TYPES RESPIRATORY TRACT
• UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures
from the nose to the larynx
• LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - structures
from the trachea through alveoli in the lungs
CONDUCTING ZONE
> encompasses the structure from the nose to
the smallest air tubes within the lungs
RESPIRATORY ZONE
> solely within the lungs and includes some
specialized small air tubes
> gas exchange occurs
Four simultaneous processes:
2. External Respiration
3. Gas transport
4. Internal Respiration
*The term respiration, refers to cellular
metabolism or cellular respiration
STRUCTURES AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
RESPIRATORY TRACT
The upper Respiratory Tract
Nose and Nasal Cavity
NOSE - consist of the external nose and the
nasal cavity
EXTERNAL NOSE - visible structure that forms a
prominent feature of the face
NASAL CAVITY - open chamber inside the nose
where air first enters the respiratory system
> Nares - nasal cavity begins; anterior
external opening
> Choanae - posterior opening
HARD PALATE - floor of nasal cavity; separates
it from the oral cavity in the mouth
*two halves [Nasal Cavity]
NASAL SEPTUM - wall of tissue; separate the
two halves
> anterior part; composed of cartilage
> posterior part; composed of bone
CONCHAE - three lateral bony ridges
used to name the turbinate bones because they
act as "wind turbines" helping the air churn
through the nasal cavity
SINUSITIS - inflammation of the mucous
membrane of a sinus
*Nasal cavity is a critical component of the
respiratory system
five functions:
1. Serve as a passageway for air
2. Cleans the air
3. Humidifies and warms the air
4. Contains the olfactory epithelium
5. Helps determine voice sound
PHARYNX [THROAT]
> common opening of both digestive and
respiratory system
> receives air from the nasal cavity & receives:
air, food, and drink from the oral cavity.
*three (3) regions of the pharynx
• NASOPHARYNX - most superior portion of the
pharynx
> superior to the soft palate takes in air
Soft Palate - an incomplete partition composed
of muscle and connective tissue separates the
nasopharynx from the middle portion of the
pharynx, the oropharynx
Uvula - extension of the soft palate
> "little grape"
Pharyngeal tonsils [Adenoids]
> helps defend the body against infection
> posterior wall of the nasopharynx
•OROPHARYNX - continuation of the
nasopharynx
> middle portion of the pharynx
> two groups of tonsils
• Palatine tonsils
• Lingual tonsils
•LARYNGOPHARYNX - continuation of the
oropharynx
> spans the posterior length of the larynx: from
most superior larynx structure, the epiglottis, to
the esophagus.
LARYNX [VOICE BOX] - located in the anterior
part of the laryngopharynx and extends from the
base of the tongue to the trachea
*Its rigidity is due to an outer casing of nine
cartilages connected to one another by muscle
and ligaments
*Six of the nine cartilages are paired, and three
are unpaired
*Composing the larynx:
1. THYROID CARTILAGE [ Adam's apple]
> is the largest of the cartilage
> single shield-shaped piece of cartilage
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE
> forms the base of the larynx
> single piece of cartilage upon which the other
cartilages rest
3. EPIGLOTTIS
> attached to the thyroid cartilage & projects
superiorly
> unique; freely movable flap
> helps divert food away from the trachea
opening during swallowing
4. ARYTENOID CARTILAGES
> paired; articulate with the superior border on
the posterior of the cricoid cartilage
5. CORNICULATE CARTILAGES
> paired; attached to the superior tips of the
arytenoid cartilages
6. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGES
> paired; contained in a mucous membrane
anterior to the corniculate cartilages
*The larynx (voice box) because it houses the
ligaments used for speech as well as for
swallowing and other functions
*Ligaments include:
• Vestibular folds [false vocal cords] -
superior pair of ligaments
• Vocal folds [true vocal cords] - inferior
ligaments
LARYNGITIS - vocal folds become inflamed;
> occurs; person "loses" his/her voice
Function of the Vestibular and Vocal Folds
VOCAL FOLDS/ CORDS
> primary souce of sound/voice production
Skeletal muscle - control the movement of the
cartilages in the larynx
*The closure of the Vestibular and vocal folds can
also prevent the passage of air
The Lower Respiratory Tract
TRACHEA [WINDPIPE]
> allows air to flow into the lungs
> membranous tube attached to the larynx &
consists of dense regular connective tissue &
smooth muscle
> reinforced with 15-20 C-shaped pieces of
hyaline cartilage called tracheal rings
> inside diameter; 12mm & length of 10-12cm
contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epithelia
Tracheal rings - support the trachea & prevent
it from collapsing
> incomplete circles with thickest portion of
cartilage at the anterior wall of the trachea
*Mucous membrane lines the trachea
Membrane goblet cells
> produce mucus
> traps inspired dust, bacteria, & other foreign
matter
BRONCHI
> trachea divides to form two smaller tubes
called MAIN BRONCHI [PRIMARY BRONCHI]
Carina - location where the trachea divides into
two main bronchi
> important landmark for reading x-rays
Tracheobronchial Tree
TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE
> consists of the trachea and the network of air
tubes in the lungs
*Approximately 16 levels of branching occur from
the trachea to the smallest air tubes.
*Four passageways, (Largest-Smallest)
1. LOBAR BRONCHI [SECONDARY
BRONCHI]
> arise directly from the main bronchi
> C-shaped cartilage rings are replaced with
cartilage plates
> lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
> left lung; two lobar bronchi, right lung; three
lobar bronchi.
Lobes - each lobar bronchus supplies its own
section of each lung
2. SEGMENTAL BRONCHI [TERTIARY
BRONCHI]
> supply subdivisions within each lung lobe;
called bronchopulmonary segments
> bronchi become smaller, cartilage become
sparse & smooth muscle becomes more abundant
3. BRONCHIOLES
> results from continued branching of the
segmental bronchi
4. TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
> arise from several subdivisions of bronchioles
>have no cartilage in their walls, but the smooth
muscle layer is prominent
>lined with ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium
Changes in Air Passageway Diameter
* Bronchi & bronchioles are capable of changing
their diameter
BRONCHODILATION - occurs when the smooth
muscle relaxes; bronchiole diameter larger
BRONCHOCONSTRICTION - occurs when the
smooth muscle contracts; bronchiole diameter
smaller
*This works in the same way as vasoconstriction
& vasodilation
ex. asthma attach
there is severe bronchoconstriction > decrease
the diameter of the airways
Albuterol
medications; help counteract the effects of an
asthma attack
ALVEOLI
ALVEOLI - sites of external respiration
> small, air-filled chambers where the air and
blood come into close contact with each other
> surrounding; elastic fibers
*Multiple levels (Largest-Smallest)
1. Respiratory bronchioles
> have a few attached alveoli
> divide to form smaller respiratory bronchioles,
the number of attached alveoli increases
2. Alveolar ducts
> arise from the respiratory bronchioles
> like long branching hallways with many open
"doorway"
3. Alveolar sacs
> chambers connected to two or more alveoli at
the end of an alveolar duct.
Alveolar structure
> 300 million; in the two lungs
2 types of cells form the alveolar wall
• squamous epithelial cells - 90% of alveolar
surface
• surfactant-secreting cells - are round or
cube-shaped secretory cells; produce surfactant
> makes easier for the alveoli to expand during
inspiration
The Respiratory Membrane
> location of external respiration
> where 02 enters the blood and CO2 exit the
blood
> extremely thin
Thoracic Wall and Muscles of Respiration
THORACIC WALL - consists of the;
(1) thoracic vertebrae
(2) ribs
(3) costal cartilages
(4) sternum
(5) associated muscle
THORACIC CAVITY - space enclosed by the
thoracic wall and the diaphragm
LUNGS
> primary organs of respiration
> volume; they are among the largest organs of
the body
> conical in shape
Base - portion of the lungs in contact with the
diaphragm
Apex - portion of the lungs that extends above
the clavicle
*The right lung (620g) is larger than the left
(560g)
HILUM - indentation on the medial surface of the
lung
> structures; main bronchus, blood vessels,
nerves, lymphatic vessels enter or exit the lung
> all structures passing through the hilum are
reffered to as the root of the lung
RIGHT LUNG - has three large sections called
lobes
> has 10 bronchopulmonary segments
LEFT LUNG - has two lobes
> has also medial indentation called cardiac notch
> has 9 bronchopulmonary segments
FISSURES - separate the lungs
*Each lung lobe is supplied by a lobar bronchus
Bronchopulmonary segments
> separated from each other by connective tissue
partitions
> not visible
> subdivided into lobules
Blood Supply to the lungs
OXYGENATED BLOOD
> blood passed through the lungs and picked up
O2
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
> blood passed through the tissues and release
some of its O2
Two blood flow routes to the lungs
(1) blood flow to the alveoli
(2) blood flow to the tissues of the bronchial tree
*To get to the alveoli, the deoxygenated blood
flows through pulmonary arteries to
pulmonary capillaries
Lymphatic Supply to the Lungs
two (2) lymphatic Supplies:
(1) Superficial lymphatic vessels
> deep to the connective tissue that surrounds
each lungs, called visceral pleura
> drain lymph from the superficial lungs tissue &
the visceral pleura
(2) Deep lymphatic vessels
> follow the bronchi
> drain lymph from the bronchi & associated
connective tissues
LYMPHATIC VESSELS - primarily serve as a
way to remove harmful substances from the lung
tissue
PLEURA
two (2) pleural cavities within the thoracic cavity
> each; houses one lung
PLEURAL CAVITIES - lined with a serous
membrane
SEROUS MEMBRANE - covers the inner Pressure and Volume
thoracic wall *relationship between pressure and volume is an
inverse one.
PARIETAL PLEURA - superior surface of the > both; increases
diaphragm, & the mediastinum
Pressure Gradients and Airflow
Behavior of Gases and Ventilation > During inspiration, air flows into the lungs
two (2) primary aspects to ventilation down its pressure gradient
(1) actions of the muscles of respiration > During expiration, air flows out of the lungs
(2) air pressure gradients down its pressure gradient

Muscles of Respiration Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

> function; change the volume of the thoracic SPIROMETRY - process of measuring volumes
cavity, allows for air to flow into and out of the of air that move into and out of the RS
lungs
SPIROMETER - device used to measure these
MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION pulmonary volumes
> act to increase the volume of the thoracic
cavity > four (4) different pulmonary volumes measured
include; in spirometry
(1) diaphragm
(2) external intercostals 1. Tidal volume - normal volume of air inspired
(3) pectoralis minor and expired with each breath; 500 mL
(4) scalene muscles
2. Expiratory reserve volume - amount of air
MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION that can be forcefully expired after a normal
> muscles that decrease thoracic volume by expiration; 1100 mL at rest
depressing the ribs and sternum
(1) internal intercostals - most active during 3. Residual volume - volume of air still
expiration; together with transverse thoracics remaining in the R passages and lungs after the
(2) external intercostals - most active most forceful expiration
during inspiration
4. Inspiration reserve volume - amount of air
Muscle of Inspiration that can be inspired forcefully after a normal
> thoracic cavity volume increases inspiration

Central Tendon - top of the dome; flat sheet of PULMONARY CAPACITIES - sum of two or
connective tissue more pulmonary volumes
> normal; move downward example;

Muscles of Expiration 1. Inspiration Capacity - tidal volume +

> thoracic cavity volume decreases inspiratory reserve volume

During INSPIRATION 2. Vital capacity - sum of the inspiratory

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - high reserve volume, tidal volume & expiratory reserve
ALVEOLAR PRESSURE - low volume

During EXPIRATION 3. Functional residual capacity - expiratory

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - low reserve volume+ the residual volume
ALVEOLAR PRESSURE - high
4. Total lung capacity - sum of the inspiratory
Surfactant - produce by the alveoli & expiratory reserve volumes + tidal volume &
residual volume they are stretched
> lung recoil occurs for 2 reasons;
FORCED VITAL CAPACITY - functional a. Elastic recoil - occurs because elastic
measure of lung performance fibers within the lungs and thoracic wall return to
their original shape and size
Alveolar Ventilation b. Surface Tension
ALVEOLAR VENTILATION
> measure of the volume of air available for gas SURFACTANT
exchange per minute > mixture of lipoprotein molecules produce by the
surfactant secreting cells
VENTILATION - supplies atmospheric air to the
alveoli PLEURAL PRESSURE
> pressure within the pleural cavity between the
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION parietal pleura and the visceral pleura.
> diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the
blood in the pulmonary capillaries *If ma separate ang parietal & visceral
lungs will collapse
Dead Space - remaining areas where no has > increase pleural pressure (pneumothorax)
exchange occurs
> 2 types (within RS) PNEUMOTHORAX
(1) ANATOMICAL DEAD SPACE > 2 major possible causes;
> include all the structure of the upper R tract & (1) penetrating trauma - stab, gunshot,
structures of the lower R tract to the terminal breaking a rib
bronchioles (2) nonpenetrating trauma - blow to the
chest, medication procedure
(2) PHYSIOLOGICAL DEAD SPACE
> combination of the anatomical dead space and TENSION PNEUMOTHORAX
the volume of any alveoli with lower than normal > pressure within the pleural cavity is always
gas exchange higher than barometric air pressure
Pulmonary Edema
Partial Pressure > most common cause of increased R membrane
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - due to a mixture thickness is an accumulation of fluid in the alveoli
of gases
HEMOGLOBIN
term "pressure" - used to express the amount > complex protein synthesized by immature RBC
of each gas in a mixture > consists of four subunits, each contain one
iron-based heme group
PARTIAL PRESSURE
> individual pressure of each gas CARBON DIOXIDE
> formed as a by-product of the breakdown of
Diffusion of Gases into and out of liquids glucose when cell use O2 to produce ATP
> Gases move from higher partial pressure to a > principal regulator of R rate
lower partial pressure.
3 WAYS CO2 IS TRANSPORTED IN THE
Equilibrium - equal partial pressure BLOOD
(1) dissolve in the plasma
Factors Affecting Alveolar Ventilation (2) bound to hemoglobin
> two (2) factors (3) converted to bicarbonate ion
• lung recoil
• pleural pressure CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
> within RBC; an enzyme
LUNG RECOIL > catalyzes the production of carbonic acid from
> tendency for the lungs to decrease in size after CO2 to H2O
CHEMORECEPTORS
> are specialized neurons that detects changes in
the concentration of specific chemicals

REGULATION OF VENTILATION
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
> controls respiratory rate

MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER

> consists of two sets of neurons
• (1) the dorsal respiratory group
> forms a longitudinal column of cells in the
dorsal part
> collection of neurons; most active during
inspiration
• (2) the ventral respiratory group
> forms a longitudinal column of cells located
in the ventral part
> collection of neurons; active both inspiration
& expiration

Pre-Bötzinger complex - believed to establish

basic rhythm of respiration

Pontine Respiratory Group

> formerly known; Pneumotaxic center
> collection of nuerons in the pons that helps
regulate respiration rate

HYPOXIA
> decrease in O2 below its normal values

HYPERCAPNIA
> greather than normal amount of CO2 in the
blood

HYPOCAPNIA
> lower than normal amount of CO2 in the blood

Hering-Breuer reflex
> limit the depth of inspiration and prevents
overinflation of the lungs

Cerebral Cortex
> control both voluntary & involuntary; breathing

ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD
> highest level of exercise that can be performed
without causing a significant change in blood pH